Barbarian mercenaries or Roman citizens? Rausing, Gad Fornvännen 126-132 http://kulturarvsdata.se/raa/fornvannen/html/1987_126 Ingår i: samla.raa.se 126 Debatt

irrigen Meinung entgegentreten zu können, Sinne des neuen Gottesvolkes, populus Dei, das Sueones und Gothi seien in einigen Stellen bei das christlich gewordene Land bewohnt und Adam einander nebengeordnet und Sueones be­ dort den wahren Gott anstelle der Götzen anbe- zeichne deshalb eine neben den Gothi ("götar") tet. lebenden Völkergruppe. Durch eine Analyse Bemerkung: Die nach langen Verzögerungen erst neulich aller Belegstellen konnte naehgewiesen wer­ erschienene Arbeit des Verf.s; Die Kirche in Skandinavien. den, dass bei Adam IV, 24 die Gothi eindeutig Mitteieuropäischer und englischer Einfluss im 11. und 12. Jahrhundert. als eines der "sveonischen" Völker hingestellt Anfange der Domkapitel Berglum und Odense in Dänemark (Beiträge werden, während alle Stellen, die scheinbar zur Geschichte und Quellenkunde des Mittelalters 10), Sigmaringcn 1986, die im vorliegenden Aufsatz nicht be- eine Nebeneinanderreihung bieten, iiberzeu- riicksichtigl wurde, enthält im Kapitel I, Abschnitt 3, eine gender auf andere Weise erklärt werden kön­ Analyse der Terminologie Adams von Bremen, die im Jahre nen. 1979 die Grundlage fiir die Stellungnahme des Verf.s zu die­ Das eindeutige Ergebnis fiihrt mit sich, dass sem Thema wurde. In der Deutung der hier bchandelten Begriffspaare wurde jedoch der damals vertretene Stånd­ das Begriffspaar Sueonia/Sueones mit dem lateini­ punkt des Verf.s, nicht zuletzt dank der Zusammenarbeit sche Völkerbegriff^iw, auch im biblischen Sin­ im Herausgebergremium der neuen schwedischen Uber- ne der gentes, der (Heiden)völker, zu verbinden setzung Adams, wesentlich weiterentwickelt. ist, während das Begriffspaar Suedia/Suedi — Tore Nyberg das, wie schon von Nyberg 1984 hervorgeho­ ben, zu Adams Zeit etwas Neues darstellte — Historisk Inst. Odense Universitet mit der Ehrenbezeichnung populus in Verbin­ Da 530 Odense, Danmark dung zu bringen ist, und zwar besonders im

Barbarian Mercenaries or Roman Citizens?

Leadership, tactical ability and personal 1. The grass crown and the oakleaf crown, courage have always been highly valued by 2. The vexillum, the corona navalis, the fighting men and, even more so, by their corona muralis, the corona vallaris and the leaders. Also, man is vain. This is why, över and corona aurea. above pecuniary remunerations, soldiers have 3. The hasta pura, the torques, the armilla, always valued, and fougt to the utmost for, "a the patella, the phalera and the corniculum. piece of coloured riband", for visible signs of Awards of the first group were apparently their prowess being appreciated. Thus, in most granted to field officers only, for very excep- armies past and present, rewards or formål tional services. Awards of the second type went military decorations have been given to, or to field officers and to regimental officers, granted to, deserving soldiers. These have been originally for exceptional bravery only, låter as of many different kinds, from the enemy's skull regular service awards, and the same holds true by way of tattoos or feather headdresses to for the decorations of the third group, which bronze crosses and mere "coloured ribands". went to subalterns and to rankers. These In the Roman army of the late Republic and awards were of moderate (corona aurea, which of the early Empire the "dona militaria" were was mostly gold leaf) to insignificant (grass of three classes: crown and oakleaf crown) pecuniary value, but

Förmännen 82 (1987) Debatt V2.1 they were conspicious and they conferred cer­ of defeated enemies had been sacrificed. These tain privileges upon their holders. consist of heavy, east, circular bronze plates, Most of these decorations are fairly well once rivetted to a leather harness, and covered known from contemporary descriptions, from with thin, chased silver plates, partly quilt. The tombstones and from other monuments, but no two phalerae seem to have been of the same size, more than a few have survived to our days since with a diameter of 132 mm. The central medal­ Roman burial customs did not include the lions, which are identical, are surrounded by deposition of such items with the dead. No circles of nine medallions each, with Medusa corona of any kind is known to have survived, masks, inside an elaborately chased börder, nor any vexillum or hasta. Roman bracelets are 35.4 mm wide. As Werner (1941) has shown, known from many sites but since they have not these phalerae are Roman provincial work, been found in male graves we can not differen- probably from the Aachen area, and date from tiate between military bracelets, worn as deco­ the second half of the second century A.D. This rations, and civilian ones, worn as jewellery. find is particularly important since Thorsbjerg The torques depicted on funeral monuments is far outside the Limes, deep in Germanic ter­ appear generally to have been too small to be ritory. The ethnic background of the original worn round the neck, being instead usually owners of the phalerae from Newstead, Munn­ worn on a strap around the neck, in pairs, ingen and Lauersfort can never be ascertained, resting above the clavicles. No such torques although they must have been Roman citizens have been found. (vide infra) but the man whose decorations Phalerae, on the other hand, have been found were sacrificed at Thorsbjerg by his victorious at Lauersfort and at Kastell Munningen, in enemies was a German, although a Roman citi- Germany, and at Newstead, in England. zen. The set found at Lauersfort, near the Remain the patellae and the cornicula. legionary fortress of Vetera, not far from What, then, were the patellae? High-quality Xanten, is complete. It consists of nine piéces of service items, spectacularly ornamented, were silver-plated bronze, with heads of lions and of sometimes awarded for bravery, both in the mythological figures, in high relief. In addition French and in the British armies and navies. to these there is a crescent-shaped piece with a Thus, Napoleon gave "muskels of honour", double sphinx. It is somewhat uncertain whe­ service arms with engraved silver plates, to ther this belonged to the original set or whether deserving infantrymen and bodi Napoleon and it formed a separate decoration. (Matz 1932; king George gave swords of honour to deserving Maxfield 1981, P1.15). On the other hand, the officers. Kastell Munningen find consists of a single Is it conceivable that the patellae were exact­ phalera only, decorated with a bust of Virtus or ly what the name implies: high-quality cooking of Bellona in high relief and dating from the vessels? The idea of such being granted for time before the destruetion of the fort, in valour may appear ludicrous, but recent pa­ 259-60. rallels come to mind. Thus, both the Janissaries The Newstead phalerae comprise a set of of the Ottoman army and the warriors of the nine bronze plates, eight round and one kid- Zulu impies treasured their regimental cooking neyshaped, which have now löst their original vessels, one of the worst corporate punishments decorated silver facing. All of these are, or were, which could be meted out in either army being highly decorated piéces, much more elaborate depriving a regiment of one or more cooking than those shown on so many legionaries' pots. To the individual legionary, accustomed tombstones. These seem, generally, to have as he was to cooking in fragile clay vessels with been circular and fairly simple, with concentric low heat permeability, a brightly polished circles as their only decoration. bronze cooking vessel would not only be emi- However, another pair of highly decorated nently practical but also, carried strapped to the phalerae form part of the famous bog find from outside of the field pack, a highly visible decora­ Thorsbjerg, in Denmark, where the equipment tion.

Förmännen 82 (1987) 128 Debatt

Many different types of Roman bronze ves­ Seandinavia, and these have invariably been of sels have been found in Scandinavian tombs practical use. It should be noted that they all but two of them are quite predominant: the seem to date from the first two centuries of the "wine ladle wim sieve" and the bronze pan. Christian era, i.e. from that time when military Remarkably enough, neither such vessels nor dona were awarded. any others appear among the dona militaria so After about 200 A.D. dona were no longer often shown on Roman tombstones. Just pos­ given — and no more cooking pans or wine sibly, one of them might be shown on the Pictish ladles found their way to Seandinavia. Certain­ symbol stone of Dunnichen, in Scotland, which ly, several third-century graves contain such should probably be dated to late Imperial times vessels, but these were invariably old when (Johnson 1980 fig. 17). This carving has been deposited. They may have been in practical use taken to represent a mirror but it might, just for several generations before being buried with as well, show a Roman bronze pan, seen from their last owner. above. The corniculum is attested in but three The wine ladle with its sieve was used when literary passages (Livy, Suetonius) and in but serving the wine. In the Roman army, cheap one monumental inscription and is "probably wine, "posca", formed part of the daily ration. the most obscure ofall the military decorations. More often than not it was probably of such a The apparent failure of the corniculum to sur- quality as to require strålning. In Seandinavia, vive into the Imperial period has had one par­ such ladles with sieves were probably most ticularly unfortunate result: there is no way of useful when beer or mead was served. Although knowing for certain what it was. There is no not intended for the purpose, the ladle itself pictorial evidence for its appearance, and no- could also be used for cooking. where is it described." (Maxfield 1981 p. 98.) The bronze pan was clearly intended as a "Corniculum" is a diminutive of "cornus", cooking vessel, not as a scoop or a ladle, since horn. It seems unlikely to have been a wind in­ the bottom is invariably fairly thick, which af- strument, the diminutive proving it to have fords a more even heat distribution, and pro­ been very small. Maxfield (1981 p. 99) con­ vided with deep, concentric furrows, which in­ dudes that the "corniculum was, in all prob­ crease the bottom surface in contact with the ability, a helmet decoration". embers of the hearth. It is remarkable that no Another, and more literal interpretation sug­ lids have ever been found, but these were prob­ gests itself in analogy with the patella, which ably of wood. was undoubtedly a vessel of some kind: that the It has long been accepted that barbarian corniculum was a small drinking horn with chiefs and other mercenary officers in the metal fittings. The relief on the now-lost tomb- Roman service were rewarded with metal stone of L. Gellius Värus, who served in the vessels, the inventory of the famous grave at Legio XIII Gemina, in the Augustan—Tibe- Hoby, in Denmark, being taken to be a case in rian period, shows a legionary signum, topped point. Here, a local warrior of the first century by what appears to be a crown, although rather A.D. had been laid to rest with a magnificent different from the corona depicted elsewhere, table service of silver and bronze vessels, one and with three simple phalerae. Beneath these which had apparently once belonged to Gaius are shown what appear to be two short, curved Silius, legate of Germania Superior in the years horns, threaded on the shaft of the signum at 14-21 A.D. right angles. These are quite different from the However, these magnificent vessels were foot-rests to be seen on most pictures of signa. more probably diplomatic gifts or unique re- Very few drinking horns have been found in­ wards to a spectacularly successful mercenary side the Limes, the Romans apparently prefer- general than "ordinary" patellae. However, ring clay cups or glass vessels, brittle items many bronze vessels of a more "ordinary" eminently unsuitable for rough usage. On the quality have been found in Germanic tombs other hand, metal fittings for small drinking outside the limes, both on the Continent and in horns have been found in many Scandinavian

Formännen 82 (1987) Debatt 129 tombs of the period. Both Ekholm (1974) and The end mounts are either east in one piece Sophus Muller (1911) assumed them to have or composite ones, the latter consisting of a been of local manufacture, and point to a east, funnelshaped socket, the tip of which is ex­ number of early finds from Bohemia, which tended to form a shaft on which the discs and they believed to have been made in the Mar- balls which form the decoration of the mount comannic kingdom. have been threaded and rivetted. The mounts In the first few centuries A.D. Germanic art east in one piece, which are by far the most com­ was of an entirely different nature. The strictly mon, are either solid or tubular, in the latter geometric, abstract design of the horn mounts case faintly resembling the mouthpiece of a was entirely foreign to Germanic ideals, as was trumpet. Finally, one rare type consists of a that of certain belt buckles and strap end fit­ east, profiled end mount with a very short tings which had once formed part of Roman socket, to the inside of which are attached three military equipment. When a Scandinavian ar­ bronze strips which were also rivetted to the tist tried to copy one of these Roman end wall of the horn (Juellinge). mounts he botched the job hopelessly (Juellinge The sockels are usually of circular section, 2)- although such of square or polygonal section The rims and tips of these drinking horns are not rare. were usually protected by metal fittings, and The chains usually consist of a number of the horns also usually had carrying or hanging twisted bronze rods with flattened, perforated chains of bronze. The rim mount, with a U- ends, the links being joined by simple bronze shaped section, protected the fragile, thin edge rings bent together of bronze wire. In some of the horn, held in place by a number of small cases the bronze rods are profiled rather than rivets. These mounts were purely utilitarian, twisted and in some the "chain" consisted of never being decorated. In some cases, they also leather strips with small, decorative bronze overlapped a broad bronze strip around the plates rivetted to them and joined by bronze fit­ outside of the horn. It seems likely that these tings. were not original, but had been added in Sean­ "Ib be sure, bronze pans and wine ladles with dinavia. The mount from Skällhoms, Källunge strainers, as well as drinking horns, are "im­ parish, Gotland, lacks, or has löst, the rim ports" from the Empire, but they shall prob­ mount proper, retaining but the broad bronze ably not be taken to be evidence of "trade" in strip, to which leaf-shaped ornaments had been the common sense of the word. There certainly rivetted. Since this does not cover the edge of was an active trade between Germania and the the horn it affords but limited protection. The Empire, but these vessels, the phalerae, the diameter of the rim mountings is fairly small, Roman swords and the Roman chain-mail so indicating that the horns were those of domestie often found in Scandinavian tombs of the cattle rather than those of Uri, and that their Roman Iron Age were probably the properties volumetric capacity was limited. of mercenaries who had returned home after The carrying chain was usually Y-shaped, having completed their terms of service in the two branches being attached with rivets to the Roman army. horn near its mouth and one near its tip. The There, foreigners could enlist in one of the rivets at the end of the two short branches are many numeri, irregular mercenary units, always very short, indicating that they had been recruited and commanded by barbarian of­ driven through the thin part of the wall, near ficers for limited periods of time, much as, in the mouth of the horn, whereas the rivet at the the seventeenth century, individual colonels end of the longer branch of the chain is in­ contracted to recruit and maintain a regiment variably quite long, having been driven for a specified period of time. Alternatively, the through the solid part of the horn, near its tip. recruit might elect to join one of the regular ar­ The chains are always rather short, which goes my units recruited from non-citizens, the aux- to confirm that the horns were short, those of ilii. What he could not do, in republican and domestie animals. early Imperial times, was to join a legio.

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In the numeri, the foreign warriors retained Although the time-expired soldiers seem to their national arms and equipment, in the aux- have been expected to settle within the Limes ilii they wore Roman uniforms and chain-mail, and doubtlessly did so in most cases an ap- even when the legions had changed to the preciable numer did return home, as Roman cheaper lorica segmentata, as well as Roman citizens. Any marriage contracted after citizen­ weapons. Thus, the equipment in the tomb of a ship had been obtained became a legal one, and warrior who had served with a numerus was any children, born in wedlock, would then probably no different from that of any ordinary automatically become Roman citizens even farmer-warrior who had never crossed the when born i Seandinavia and mey would thus, Baltic, whereas those men who were laid to rest when in their turn serving in the Roman army, with Roman arms or armour or with Roman perhaps as legionaries, be qualified to receive military decorations had almost certainly military decorations. served in the regular units. In the Flavian period auxiliary soldiers But Maxfield (1981) states, explicitly, that would apparently occasionally receive citizen­ dona militaria were awarded to Roman citizens ship even before discharge, as suggested by the only, no more than one single case being known case of Titus Flavius Capito, a decurion of the where a peregrinus was the recipient, non- Ala Pannoniorum (Maxfield 1981 p. 123). Such citizen soldiers being rewarded by their whole "new citizens" were also eligible for decora­ units receiving citations. Maxfield referred to tions, should they merit them during remain­ one Antiochus, an evocatus triplicarius of the ing period of service. Ala Parthorum et Araborum, who lived in the It is remarkable how few Germanic or other early part of the first century A.D. He was barbarian names appear among those recorded decorated at least twice, in spite of apparently on the funeral monuments of auxiliary soldiers. being a peregrinus, serving with an auxiliary Those who aquired citizenship, normally at the unit. However, his name proves him not to have end of their period of service, adopted Roman- been a "barbarian", andhe was almost certain­ style names. But it is evident that many of those ly born in the Empire. Since auxiliary cen- commemorated died while still in the service. turions and decurions were often Roman Two possibilities suggest themselves: either that citizens, transferred from the legions, An­ the men adopted Roman-style names already tiochus may have been a citizen, in spite of his when joining, names by which they were known name. In the east, a Roman citizen might retain during their period of service, but which did not his original name or a name in his native become "legal" until their wearers aquired language, as did Saul of Tarsus, who became citizenship or that these men were Roman citizens Paul, and who, as a Roman citizen, appealed to already when joining the colours. In the Empire, to be the Emperor. a non-Roman meant being discriminated How, then, can we explain the phalerae from against. A citizen, and only a citizen, enjoyd the Thorsbjerg, and how can we be justified in full protection of the law, only he had full status. assuming the wine ladles, the bronze pans and This probably reflected upon the time-expired the drinking horns found in Seandinavia to be soldier, even when he had returned to his native dona militaria? The explanation is to be found land. in the organization and traditions of military In the Roman army, not only did every life, which appear to have changed little över the soldier in the legions and in the auxilii have to centuries. The men now serving with the be able to speak latin, he also had to be able to Gurkhali battalions of the Brittish army are, read it and, if an officer, to write it. He might almost without exception, the sons and grand­ enter the auxilia as a barbarian but he left it, a sons of servicemen. Two thousand years ago full Roman citizen, with twenty years expe- there were probably Germanic families with rience of literacy and numeracy in Latin and similar military traditions. with twenty years vocational training in a very A man who served his time with an auxiliary wide range of trades. unit obtained Roman citizenship upon discharge. Although, until the reign of Septimius

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Severus (193—211), serving soldiers were not woods of Seandinavia, were no ordinary Bar­ supposed to marry, many evidently did, barian mercenaries, nor were they merchants although these marriages were nor recognised or import agents, but Roman citizens, men who in Roman law. The children would follow their could speak and read, (and, in many cases, mothers' status — until the moment when the probably also write) latin, who had been time-expired soldiers received their citizenship. schooled for twenty years in the Roman army, This included the right to full legal marriage in a Roman world, men whose fathers and, with the wifes they had at the time of their perhaps grandfathers and greatgrandfathers discharge or whom they married låter. Prob­ had served Rome before them. Small wonder ably the wives themselves did not become that the Roman impact on Seandinavia was citizens, but their children did. Being strong enough to justify the first four centuries legitimate sons and daughters of Roman of our era being called the Roman Iron Age. fathers, they were Romans — no matter where born. Gad Rausing Germanic officers and soldiers served in the 78 Addison Road Roman army not only in late Imperial times but London W14 SED from the very beginning of the Empire. Ar- minius, the victor of the battle in the Teutoburger Forest, in 9 A.D., was not only a References Germanic chief— he had served his time in the Roman army, evidently rising to high rank, Bowman, A.K. & Thomas, J.D. 1974. The Vindolanda IVriting labiets. Newcastle upon Tyne. since he became not only a Roman citizen but a Eggcrs, H.J. 1951. Der römische Import im freien Germanien. Roman knight, a member of the "ordo Hamburg. equester". When the revolt broke out, his Ekholm, G. 1934. Romerska vinskopor och kärl av Hcm- younger brother still served in the Roman ar­ moortyp i skandinaviska fynd. Upplands fornminnesför­ enings tidskrift. my, where he remained true to his salt all — 1940. Provinsialromcrska vinskopor i skandinaviska through the war, in spite of Arminii attempts to fynd. Arbeger. make him desert. — 1974. Romersk import i Norden. Tor. Quite obviously, the cornua and patellae, like Holmqvist, W. 1951. Dryckeshornen från Söderby-Karl. Roman arms and armour may have become Fornvännen. — 1980 Guldhalskragarna. Stockholm. treasured heirlooms, inherited by men and Johnson, S. 1980. Låter Roman Britain. London. women who, themselves, had never left their Lindebcrg, I. 1973. Die Einfuhr römischer Bronzegefässe native soil. Pans, as well as ladles and horns are nach Gotland. Saalburg Jahrbuch 30. Berlin. sometimes found in womens' graves, which Matz, F. 1932. Die Lautersjorter Phalerae. 92. Berliner Winc- kelmannprogramm. goes to show that they were not only status sym­ Maxfield, W.A. 1981. The military decorations of the Roman Army. bols but that they also had a high use value, that London. they were treasured and that they could be in­ Muller, S. 1911. Juellingefundet og den Romerske Periode. herited. In the great majority of cases, however, Nordiske Fortidsminder 2:1. the dona militaria seem to have followed their Nylén, E. 1963. Early Gladius Swords found in Sean­ dinavia. Acta Archaeologica. original owners into the grave. These men, Werner, J. 1941. Die beiden Zierscheiben des Thorsberger Moor- buried with cornua or patellae in the back- fundes. Berlin.

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Sammanfattning

Rausing diskuterar i denna debattartikel före­ ras fäder och förfäder tjänat Rom före dem. Be­ teelser som militära hederssablar och andra ut­ visen på dessa förbindelser utgör, menar han, märkelsetecken i nutid och under det romerska de talrika "dona militaria", dvs. militära imperiets tid. Han tar också ur nutiden tradi­ utmärkelse- och hederstecken som man finner i tionerna hos de i den brittiska armén ingående det nordiska gravmaterialet från romersk järn­ gurkhaenheterna som referens till motsvaran­ ålder och bl. a. kan ha formen av ringbrynjor, de på det militära och sociala området, som kan hjälmprydnader, dryckeshorn, kokkärl samt förmodas ha existerat mellan germanska lego­ skopor och silar för vin. Hit hör också phalerae soldater och den romerska kulturen under de — en sorts dekorativa rustningsbeslag av me­ första århundradena av vår tideräkning. daljkaraktär som bl. a. hittats i Thorsbjergs of­ Tjänstgöringen inom de romerska arméerna fermosse. Höga utmärkelser av detta slag kun­ skapade, menar han, en klass av germanska sol­ de endast romerska medborgare få. Det som dater och militära befattningshavare som så man hittat i mossen måste ha tillhört germaner, emanciperats av den romerska kulturen att de germaner som samtidigt också likt Arminius, både kunde tala latin och efter fullgjord tjänst segraren i slaget i Teutoburgerskogen år 9 blivit romerska medborgare, ja som kanske un­ e. Kr, varit romerska medborgare. der generationer fötts som sådana eftersom de­ Jan Peder Lamm

En skeppsarkeologisk katastrof? — Ett genmäle

Det akademiske miljö har sine spesielle sam- rer Cederlund at jeg under disputasen "skötte vasrsformer. Etter å ha arbeidet med et materia­ försvaret väl". Jeg får forsoke å gjenta dette. le i 15 år ved siden av daglige plikter, får man Marinarkeologien er et ganske nytt felt innen endelig en publikasjon ferdig og leverer den til faget. Det har selvfolgelig vaert skrevet om disputas. En av bedommelseskomitéens 3 med- arkeologiske båtfunn siden Engelhardt grov ut lemmcr er ikke villig til å godkjenne boka som Nydamskipet for snart 125 år siden, men disip- doktoravhandling, og gjor en iherdig innsats linen marinarkeologi er knapt 30 år gammel. for å begrunne dette ståndpunkt under disputa- Kravene til spesialkunnskaper og dykkerfer- sen. Etter avsluttet disputas feirer man sam­ dighet har fort til at en liten gruppe spesialister men i fred og fordragelighet, og en tid etter har dominert feltet og fort en debatt for seg selv, kommer et drepende sammendrag av opposi- som den ovrige arkeologmiljo i liten grad har sjonen som saertrykk, med tittelen: "Boat finds deltatt i. Mye av debatten har dreiet seg om do­ from Bryggen — En skeppsarkeologisk kata­ kumentasjon av skipsrester, og om problemene strof, og dedikasjon "från tillg. vännen förf." med å få utgravningsteknikken under vann opp (Fornvännen 1986). I sin innledning konstate- på et tilfredsstillende nivå. Dette gjelder både

Formännen 82 (1987)