1985 YORK NEW
GROUP COMMUNICATIONS THEATRE
McBRIDE LEAL 8. MARIA-ODILIA A. CHARLES
BY TRANSLATED
OPPRESSED
THE OF
THEATRE
Boal Augusto
Ethos reasoning. the action, that of justification the is dianoia
while itself, action the is ethos that say we could purposes atory
explan for But inseparable. are They character. the by developed
the action constitute together two The dianoia. and ethos pects:
as two presents performance and his acts character The
Ethos.
productions. theatrical
the for paid patrons, wealthy certain through or directly State,
the that forgotten be not should It people. the of coercion of pose
pur political the for theater the utilize to begins State the when
appears hero tragic The
others. not in
but
characteristics
certain
order
to
clarify
the
coercive
system of in followed tragedy. be should
which example an as
presented always was
words
which
represent
the
elements we
tritagonist), and (deuteragonist are peers
going his with also to
but
the chorus
assemble
in
works.
But
first,
a
short
glossary
may with only not dialogue a serve on carry
to to begins later
who simplify hero,
tragic
certain
We
are
finally
ready
to
understand
The dialogue. how (commoners)
the
aristocrat-people the of tragic
reflection a
scheme
law;
it a is
social
fault,
a
political
deficiency. clearly was dialogue
protagonist-chorus
The
etc. feasts, parades,
achieving his
ends.
This
extraneous
element
manifestations, is mass of forms popular its contrary
in before existed to
the
traneous,
undesirable
element
which
which theater, prevents the
the “aristocratized” immediately he
tagonist, character from
Through
purificatiofl
catharsis,
pro
the through in vented
Thespis When
protagonist. purgation
true were the They
of the ex
the
art
of
tragedy
intervenes to
people.’° correct
the mass, the
chorus, that the was theater the failure.
beginning,
How?
through
the
maximum
virtue,
which the is in of Art, History
Social obedience his in
explains
to Hauser
the
Arnold As laws
—
tions
in
his
virtuous
— behavior
as
he
searches for
happiness
hero.
Tragic
We
can
conclude,
therefore,
that
when man
fails in
his ac
when
nature
fails,
art and
science intervene to correct
it.
We
have
also
seen that
nature
tends toward
certain
ends,
and
sion is the Constitution.”
whose
supreme
good is justice
and whose
maximum
expres
in
his
search for
happiness, which
consists
in
virtuous
behavior
the
actions of
man’s
rational
soul, his
passions turned
into
habits,
workings of
tragedy.
Our Words last Simple of definition
Glossary Short was: A
“Tragedy
imitates
If
we
go
back a
little, we will
be able
to
understand
better the
against the laws.
process is
destined to
destroy is
therefore
something
directed
that
is unjust
is
forseen
in
the laws,
the
impurity
which the
tragic
not
virtue,
that
is not
the
greatest virtue,
justice.
And
since all
equilibrium,
and
consequently that
of
society.
Something that
is
the
latter. It
must be
something that threatens the
individual’s
The
impurity to
be
purged
must
undoubtedly
be
found
among
serve to be destroyed.
to
numerous
vices,
errors,
and weaknesses
which do indeed de
32
THEATER OF THE OPPRESSED
screen,
the
hero and
the heroine
exchange
kisses.
It
is a case
of
television,
or
the
sentimental
looks
of
the
public
when, on
the
enough
to see
children
very
excited, watching
a
“Western”
on
Empathy
does
not
take
place only
with
tragic characters:
is it
the character loves and hates.
Without
acting,
we
feel
that we
are
acting.
We
love and hate
when
Aristotle
indicates),
we
live
vicariously
all
his stage
experiences.
of
action
to
the
character.
Since the
character
resembles
us (as
the spectator
assumes
a
passive attitude
and delegates
the
power
the spectator.
This relationship
has
well defined
characteristics:
established
between
the
character,
especially
the
protagonist,
and
From
the moment
the
performance
begins, a relationship
is
Empathy.
desirable.
only
trait that
is not
in harmony
with what
society
regards
as
tendencies,
of ethos,
the
causes
the conflict:
it is
the
may
conform
to the
ethos
of
the society.
In
this confrontation
of
and must
be
destroyed,
so that
the whole
of the
character’s
ethos
that
exists
in the
character.
Hamartia
is
the
only
thing
that
can
It
is also
knon V
as the
tragic
flaw. It is the only “impurity”
Ilamartia.
11
scheme. hamartia.
tragic
the functioning
of the
return to habit,
ready we
to are will Now be
against
the
law.
This
bad
characteristic
is
called
possess it).
we because also
(hence sovereign fear,
hamai-tja
art.
Only
one
trait
must
be
bad
only
one — passion,
trait,
one bad one destruction) and
character’s
that the
for pity (hence is,
according
to
political
criteria,
since
politics
is
traits good reveals the
which
ethos an
of basis the
constitutional evoked on are
criteria,
which
are
those
that
systematize
the
laws;
fear
and emotions
pity of empathic fundamental
with the one Clearly, exception.
According
to
which
criteria?
According
to
reason. stimulates
dianoja
the emotion;
stimulates
All
the passions,
all the
habits
of
the
character
must
be ethos
good, The ethos-emotion corresponds
to which Spectator’s),
Except
one.
(the reason character’s) — (the dianoja relationship pathic
em likewise an
there is But
ethos. his
is, that does character good. —
the what
to relation
especially
in
place takes
Empathy
In the
ethos
of the
tragic
protagonist
all
tendencies
must etc. be clubs), fan their stars and and habits.
movie
many
case of
the
(in desire tenderness,
love,
well:
as tions
We
can
define
ethos
as
the
whole
of
the
faculties,
passions, emo other include
can which
but fear, and pity
may basically of one
be, that
does
not
suppose
a
reason.
be can
suggests,
Aristotle
which,
as
relationship
and spectator. A
there
can
be
no
action,
no
matter
how
physical
and
character and
between
limited relationship
it emotional
Empathy an is
act.
But
one
should
bear
in
mind
that
the
reasoning
is also
action,
others. to
actually
happening
what is experiencing
would
be the
act
itself
and
dianoia
the
thought
that
determines
ourselves are
we the if as feel makes us Empathy empathy. pure
34
THEATER
OF
THE 35 OPPRESSED Tragedy of System Coercive Aristotle’s
C)
-
W C.) a)
0. \/
Cu
-
b.I
•
ED Co UV U
1,
.4-,
caci)
-
cciG)
0•;;-
ci)
ci)
c’.J
(nc
coercion. of form artistic perfect most the is theater And cal.
politi are theater
especially
arts, the — all course, of including,
U,
activities of man’s all — reality: of friends better be to U) have
We
so. is / not it
us tells Poetics own His else. something us tells reality
But
politics. with do to nothing have theater tragedy, poetry,
that , us tells He
of )(uc2. truth. friends better much are we but friends, I
his are we
Aristotle: with entirely we agree this In Aristotle. to
attributed are
truth!”) of ofafriend
more Jam but friend,
Plato’s
a)
am (“I
veritas”
amicus magis sed ci) Plato, Amicus words The
38
39
of Tragedy System
THEATER Coercive op Aristotle’s THE OPPRESSED _>octs
This is the
most
classical
case studied
by Aristotle. Consider
flaw, Social fault,
Ethos
one only and (classical virtues the all type). Aristotle, by taught was as
First
not Type: and
virtue, a
single only Hamartia and faults Versus the all he is, the has that form; Perfect
negative a in presented is character the modifications. of ethos the Here fore.
be
presented two
the
from duced different
by completely
is type
new This
societies.
Let us
analyze
some
of
these
utilized
down Ethos. Social to
Perfect our the own time,
with
various
modifications
intro
Versus
but
in Hamartia its Negative
Type:
essence, Third
the
system
survived
and
has
continued
to be
Greek
theater
the
system
functions
as
it
is
shown
in
our
diagram;
evil. of
purification
the
catharsis, This the
is fear, the through
produce, essence
of
the
coercive
system
of
tragedy.
In
the
to
order in
necessary is characteristic
the also case which this In he sees in himself.
error qualities.
other and
vicariously moderation,
committed
and
is
purified
of
the
antisocial
sense,
common of
with possessor Chorus, the
regard of
reasoning to
direct his
fate
(the
action
of
the
play),
recognizes
the
the
utilizes author tragic
the
nature: spectator, the
convince to
peripeteia enough
and
catharsis;
he
suffers
a
blow
not perhaps is
character the c) of
anagnorisis
that the when the Often,
spectator
experience
three
changes
of a
rigorous
character, to the
State. extreme
of
thinking
his
thoughts.
the of good
the of acting detriment
to the
Family the of love enjoys of
excess the
pleasures — and
suffers
the
misfortunes
of
the
or Family, the
of
through the
detriment to
State
his the of love of
excess experiences;
the
spectator_fee
as
if
he
himself
is
whether
takes
it direction consists
whatever in
— “excess,”
the of
himself allowing the
spectator
to
be
guided
by
the
character
purify must
spectator b) The
versa.
vice and the truth, the
possesses
establishment
of a
relationship
called
empathy,
which
Creon that think to led be right! can Antigone with only empathizes
who
spectator
A
and hamartias. two the
of him
purify ethos must
process of
tragic
the
society
in
which
he
lives;
something
is
not
the
since
one, only not a) characters, both
the with etnpathize
creation sarily
of a conflict
between
the
character’s
ethos
neces must
spectator As
we the cases, these have In
flaws. seen, respective
their
Aristotle’s
coercive
system
of
tragedy
requires:
of exception the with way every in persons fine very ro,both Creon,
Antigone-and of case typical the is This society. perfect ethically
an before other each destroy who flaw, his with one each heroes,
tragic two meet, who characters two presents tragedy The
Ethos. Social Perfect the Versus
Hamartia Versus Harnartia Type: Second
Ilamartia
and
Social
Ethos
out. torn eyes his and mother-wife
hanged
protagonist’s the
DilTerent
Types
of
Conflict:
of vision terrifying the with catastrophe, the with re-established is
balance The destroyed. is he it through and glory, his of peak the
to
climbs he it Through pride! his flaw: tragic a nevertheless has
sensitive and handsome, intelligent, — equal, without statesman
the father, model the husband, loving the son, obedient the man,
perfect the Oedipus own. his on — investigation the continues
it and accept not does latter the himself, Oedipus is criminal the
that declared has Teiresias after Even head-on. is collision The
speech.
long
his in Teiresias through or Chorus the through sented
pre
is ethos social
perfect The Oedipus. of example the again
41
of Tragedy Syste,n Coercive Aristotle’s
cause
their
fate to be
exactly
the
opposite
of what
one
would
pros- accepts
which society,
corrupted
a see
we Camille But
something In
very
strange
happens
to
this
pair which
will
them.
having immaculate for nothing suffer
spirit,
insipid,
empty,
the
image
of
perfection!
would acceptable, she and
perfectly
are incapable vices
her All character.
of committing
the
slightest,
most
forgivable
little
sin,
an
the
with
agreement entirely in
dramatic here
is
type)
(third art example
has
— ever
invented.
At
his
side
is Pablo,
the
pure
one,
preceding
the contrary to
society Devil the
of ethics) — himself
tendencies,
might
envy. He
has
the
most
perverted
ethos
that
(that
the ethos no is, social
defect, the
hand, other
On the crime, etc.
or
vice is alien
to
him.
Wickedness
that
the
errors,
sins, qualities, negative
found collection of impressive in a person: an he is a
drunkard,
murderer,
thief,
scoundrel
—
displays
preceding
case, protagonist,
the Tirso in
as
the de hamartja Molina. of The
The
hero,
Enrique,
has
all
the
worst
faults
to
be
example.
best camélias) its is Dame
Condemned aux (La Camille
and drama,”
for Faithlessness
(El
condenado
por
desconfiado)
by
“romantic
essence
of the
conflict the
sinning is ethical
of type
character This
ceases
to be
a sinner)
can
be
seen
clearly
in
The versa.
vice idea
and of
a
new
life (and
this
one
is the
forgiven
life,
since
black shows character. white up where is that all negative, photographic a in
instance,
As,
—without for quality.
he reference
moral decides any to model
to change
his
life
completely
and
become
a
“new”
positive
original the opposite
of
type
exact the
of is that model drama,
a to ring the
acts
of
the character
can
be
forgiven
provided
sense refer of In the
employed tragedy, here in “negative”
is
the word
The
acts of the character
are
irremediable;
but
in
this
companied
by
the
birth
of a
new character,
Ethos. Social Negative
and the
latter is
saved.
The
anagnorisis
(recognition
Hamartia Versus of
Negative his sins)
Type:
Fourth
is
practically
ac
greater glory
of
God.
catastrophe!
indeed
a
is his
only
virtue.
This faith
and
his
repentance
save there is him
For him, God. doubting
for flaw tragic
his exception the
— of
his
actions,
but
at
the same
time
trusts
in divine
the mercy. with virtue, Pablo was Everything
in This scheme.
Aristotelian faith
he has
committed,
admits
the
complete
absence
classical, conventional, of any a
Pablo, it is view of virtue
point of the in
from
goods,
the
pleasures,
etc.
Everyman
finally
recognizes Observed catastrophe.
the through all not the and
end
happy the sins through
Everyman
and
the
sins
committed
by
obtained him: effect
is exemplary the
The
virtue. material single
Possessing
a
and
Death
passes
a whole
series
of
characters
ethos,
thoroughly evil
who a case clearly of a Enrique, is it accuse
of view of
with
Death,
and
analyzes
all his
past
actions.
Before point Observed the
from Everyman
play. the outline,
is
rough
That,
in
when
it
comes
time
to die,
tries
to
save
himself,
has
a virtues.
dialogue his all with
hell goes
to
he
fore,
It
tells
the
story
of
the
character
named
Everyman, there salvation;
his doubted since he
God, believe who in truly not
did
Perhaps
the
best known
medieval
drama
is
Everyinan. hand,
other the on Pablo,
God; punishment glorified
belief his
in
sus
the
perfect
social
ethos,”
was
often
used
in firm the because his heaven,
Middle to goes
etc., treasons, drunkenness, Ages.
This
type
of
catharsis,
produced
by
“negative
robberies, crimes, the hamartia spite Enrique, all of
in follows: ver as verdict is
purgative
effect.
divine
some, the surprise of the to
and die,
them of two The
of
the
work
is
inevitably
changed
also,
in order
to
maintain
the pleasant life.
of
the ethos
of
the
character,
the
structural
mechanism more there a
begin possibly
can he of that
the so heaven, mediately end
to
fore,
in
changing
a characteristic
as
important
as the move im and die wishes composition
to ardently
He want.
sacrifice and
his
whole
system
is the true
essence
of
his political
of one been
Poetics; life has his that
realize truly will
wonders God
there if
happy
end,
but
we
should
note,
too,
that
the
coercive instant he every At pure. himself
character keep
wanting to
by Pablo sins of
It
is
important
to note
that
Aristotle
clearly
hand,
objected other justice. the On
and wisdom its
divine to the the accepts
he
avoided,
and
instead
a
happy
end
occurs.
And hell. corner
of darkest and deepest
the
flames of
the
in burn
small
and
solitary
virtue
the
character
is
saved,
condemn to the him will catastrophe justice
divine
that
doubts never and is sinner,
or
mistake
of
judgment.
Precisely
because
he a and evil be possesses himself to knows One, bad the Enrique, that expect.
42
43
Tragedy THEATER System of Coercive OF Aristotle’s THE OPPRESSED THEATER or THE OPPRESSED Aristotle s Coercive System of Tragedy 45 44
prostitute — indi to that of the society in which he lives, a society based on profit, Marguerite Gauthier is the best titutiofl, and society. Her on money; but he also possesses a flaw: he is an honest man! This defended and accepted by the vicious vidual vice is frequented by soci the society cannot tolerate. The powerful impact this work perfectly acceptable, her house profession is society whose usually has stems from the fact that Ibsen shows (whether inten men (considering that it is a ety’s most respected financiers) tionally or not) that societies based on profit find it impossible to money, her house is frequented by principal value is girl, all her foster an “elevated” morality. is full of happiness! But, poor Marguerite’s life falls in Capitalism is fundamentally immoral because the search for though not her only virtue. Marguerite faults are accepted, that. Society profit, which is its essence, is incompatible with its official truly loves someone. Ah, no, not love. Indeed, she punished. morality, which preaches superior human values, justice, etc. it; it is a tragic flaw and must be cannot permit of triangle is Dr. Stockman is destroyed (that is, he loses his position in the ethical point of view, a sort Here, from in which the society, as does his daughter, who becomes an outcast in a com to now we have analyzed conflicts established. Up as for the petitive society) precisely because of his basic virtue, which is the same for the characters “social ethics” was wishes to here considered vice, error, or tragic flaw. dichotomy is presented: the author spectators; now a on stage, accepted by the society portrayed show a social ethics pro Fifth Type: Anachronistic Individual does not share that ethics, and Ethos but he himself, the author, Versus Contemporary Social Ethos. of the work is one, and our universe, poses another. The universe is position during the spectacles This is the typical case of Don Quixote: his social ethos is or at least our momentary fils) says in effect: here you perfectly synchronized with the ethos of a society that no longer another. Alexander Dumas (Dumas bad, but we are not like that, exists. This past society, now nonexistent, enters what this society is like, and it is into a confron see Thus, Marguerite tation with the not like that in our innermost being. contemporary society and the resultant conflicts or we are virtues; a prostitute virtues that society believes to be are inevitable. The anachronistic ethos of Don Quixote, knight has all the dignity and effi her profession of prostitute with errant and lordly Spanish hidalgo, cannot live peacefully in a time must practice from prac prevents her when the bourgeoisie is developing — But Marguerite has a flaw which the bourgeoisie which ciency. How can a woman — falls in love. changes all values and for whom all things become money, as ticing her profession well she equal fidelity all men (all those money comes to equal all things. in love with one man serve with falling in love, for a prosti A variation of the “anachronistic ethos” is that of the who can pay)? Impossible. Therefore, “diachronic ethos”: the character lives in a moral world made up tute, is not a virtue but a vice. belong to the universe of of values which society honors in word but not in deed. In José, But we, the spectators, who do not society which allows and from Birth to Grave, the can say the exact opposite: a character, José da Silva, embodies all the the work, must be changed. Thus encourages prostitution is a society which values that the bourgeoisie claims as its own, and his misfortune for us is a virtue, but in the comes precisely because he believes in those values and rules his the triangle is established: to love, And Marguerite Gauthier is life by them: a”self-made man,” he works more than he has to, is universe of the work, it is a vice. vice (virtue). devoted to his employers, avoids causing labor troubles, destroyed precisely because of that etc. In the catastrophe is in short, a character who The Also in this kind of romantic drama, follows Laws of Success of Napoleon hopes that the spectator will be Hill, or How to Win Friends and Influence People of Dale Car evitable. And the romantic author but rather of the whole negie. That is tragedy! And what a tragedy! purified not of the tragic flaw of the hero, society. ethos of scheme is found in The same modification of the Aristotelian the People, by Ibsen. Here another romantic drama, An Enemy of embodies an ethos identical again, the character, Dr. Stockman,
On
the other
hand,
an
of understanding how
the
system func
a
Universe
of definite, accepted values.
poetics!
capitalist,
or
socialist
does
not
matter:
what
matters
is that
it have
another seek to
have
will
we case
that in action,
tionary ethos;
for
it to
function,
technically
whether
the
society
is
feudal,
revolu
in
engage to
society,
his transform to
spectator
the late utilized
by
any
society
as long
as
it
possesses
a
definite
social
to
stimu we want
contrary, the on if, other;
any than better
pose
certain
elements
which
produce
a
determined
effect,
can
be
pur the serves
system
Aristotelian
the we want,
what
is this If
applied.
That
is to say
that
the
system,
insofar
as
it
structures
pre-exists. what
to him adjust
to individual,
the
bridle to
designed values
are
being
formed
or
questioned,
the
system
cannot
be
is it change:
not does essence
its But media.
and shapes
varied
system to
function.
During
a
“cultural
revolution,”
in
which
all
many
and
in appears
It theaters.
the in
circus,
the in can
movies, offer a
scale of
values
which
would
make
it
possible
for the
the
in television, on
form disguised in appears
system His place.
In
fact,
only
more
or
less
stable
societies,
ethically
defined,
it takes before
revolution, the
including accepted,
commonly not
the
revolution
. but .
never
during .
it!
is
that all
eliminate to is
which
of objective the
system,
purgative
The
coercive
system
of
tragedy
can
be
used
before
or
after
powerful a very
formulated
Aristotle doubt: no be
there Let
a
clear social
ethos that it can
confront.
impetus.
transforming
used,
for the
simple
reason
that
the
character’s
ethos
will
not
find
revolutionary,
the
including all,
balance
the
break
can
that all
— the
social
ethos
is
not
clearly
defined,
the
tragic
scheme
cannot be eliminate
satisfy, placate,
to diminish,
functions system
This
olutionary
jthig
groups
revolutiOfl&Y
periods.
That
is,
while
tendencies.
aggressive
spectator’s
the all
of purging purpose lian
Precisely
for
that
reason,
the
system
cannot
be
utilized
by
rev
Aristote the serve
games,
children’s like
“Westerns,”
The one!
carry out
its
basic
task:
the
purgation
of
all
antisocial
elements.
good
the
with than guy bad the
with more
empathy) way,
certain
structure, but
the
system
will
nevertheless
be
there,
working a
to been (in
has
sympathy
our remember?
often
— How — ways,
making
it
difficult
at
times
to
find
all the
elements
of
its
dances. square
intimidation.
The
structure
of
the
system
may
vary
in a
thousand with celebrate
townspeople
while the him,
bury
and
gunshots
thanks
to
its
great
efficacy.
It
is, / in
effect,
a
powerful
system
off with him they finish
of short, in
regrets;
feeling without
die to
Aristotle’s
coercive
system
of
tragedy
survives
to
this allowed day, is the villain and anagnorisis, the is here out left is What
citizen. bad the (catastrophe) destroying after relationships,
business honest and morality, ethos), (social order establishes
re and shoot-outs endless through or fight fist the in advantage
gains hero the peripeteia: the of moment the stimulated, been
has hamartia own after our etc. Until, heroines, young rape ens,
chick and horses steal we
kill, evil same the do we — vicariously
Conclusion
and him with empathize we and can, possibly he evil the all does
He city. or neighborhood the of man feared most the or richest
the boss, uncontested the is flaw, tragic vice or his of cause
be precisely who, whatever) or murderer, thief, horse (bandit,
a villain of presentation the with begins story “Western” A
the villain. of but hero the of not point
view the from guy,” “good the of that from than rather man bad
the of perspective the from them regard to necessary is it them
analyze to But seen). have I ones the all least, (at Aristotelian
are movies “Western” of stories the example: For perspective.
false a
in himself places one because difficult becomes often tions
47
of Tragedy System Coercive Aristotle’s
catastrophe.
3)
character
with
a
virtue,
but
insufficient,
ending
in
since yes,
Aristotle, For life?
in
happiness
achieve
one Can
2)
character
with a
virtue,
coming
to a happy
end;
action.
internal the express to
serves
it which to 1)
measure
character
with
a
flaw,
ending
in
catastrophe;
the
in only but
included be
also can world external
The sonality.
Thus
we
have to
conclude
that
the
only
possibilities
are:
per
the reveals that or life, spiritual and
mental the all
activity,
evil
instead
of
good.
essential
and internal the up makes
that all
includes and ample
contrary
to
the
purposes
of
Greek
tragedy
and
would is
The concept action.” in
stimulate men
imitate arts
fine
“the that
insists
A
totally
bad
character
who ends
happily
would
be
entirely also
Aristotle
arises. pleasure
esthetic how
is That
flute. a
of
code,
which
is in
itself
a
tragic
flaw.
That
is
his by means but real
life, in as hamartia. joy not express to
example,
For sure.
is
totally
good,
but
that
he
adheres
to
an
plea the esthetic
produces anachronistic form a (foreign)
with matter moral of union
catastrophe
which
functions
“exemplarily.”
It can
it. be This to is foreign
said world real the in
which that form he a
with matter
ethics
of
Knighthood
is
totally
good
and
of
union the
by
nevertheless given is
pleasure esthetic
Aristotle, suffers a
For E.
This
is
the
case
of Don
Quixote,
who
from
the
point
of
view
reality. of existing the
embryonic,
model
either
and,
on the
contrary,
violates
the
sense a proper,
of but appearance an not is justice. thing,
concrete
individual,
A
totally
good
character
who
ends
in
catastrophe The state. a germinal in
is exists not already what a of development the
of empathy.
instead but
disappearance, and appearance
accidental not
meant
does
not
inspire
pity,
which
is
a
necessary become” “to him, For part being. not of
becoming, was the
Aristotle
mechanism
Likewise,
a
totally
bad
character of who
thought the to ends up Fundamental being”: not
in Bcmn and “Becoming
D.
catastrophe
absence
of
drama.
evil. do to him stimulates
and spectator the frees
This either.”
the
spectator
observes him me to
happen acting will
“nothing then out him, to
happened
nothing his and destiny,
but
there
is
an
inspires
neither
pity
nor
terror, did he harm the did nor character
the if spectator: does
the can stimulate he
create
a
dynamics:
denouement.
A totally
good
character end)
who (happy the
hamartia of
non-destruction the comes Likewise, to a happy
end
A.
The
distinctive
qualitieS
of the
character reverse! in work can are related to the
system the there and danger the is There on. moment that from
him abandon and will begins peripeteia the until the character
follow will empathically spectator that the happen also can It
power. destructive its increase will flaw
a is it that fact the to understand failure and stimulated, flaw own
his has initially spectator the that remember One must ciently.
or insuffi poorly it to do or
anagnorisis, produce to not risky General
Notes
is It exists. relationship empathic an whom with character by the
is made recognition the case, any in But spectator. to the ferred
trans is this recognition thus empathically and himself, acter
by the char made recognition the be can It the system. of
element important very and fundamental a is anagnorisis The C.
corruption! double
copies, of copies reality for mistake they which shadows — the
paint would cells their in who prisoners be like would they artists;
against argued Plato reason For this true reality. of shadows guish
to distin be able only would man the window: high a single,
with a cell in were imprisoned man a if as is reality Plato, For B.
49 Tragedy System Coercive of Aristotle’s
‘°Hauser, 1:86.
p. 9 Butcher, 254.
pp. 8 Butcher, 248-49.
7 Cited in Butcher, pp. 247-48.
pp. 6 Butcher, 252-54.
p. 5 Butcher, 245.
de
ces poètes.”
pp. Cited
in Butcher, 243-244
note.
fussent
aussi solides et
aussi
pleins
d’utiles
instructions que ceuX
pôeme
dramatique
. . fl a
serait
. souhaiter que
nos
ouvrageS
phiosophes.
Aussi
Aristote
a
bien
voulu
donner
des regles
due
vertu
n’était pas
moms
bien
enseignée
que dans
les
êcoles
des
avaient
en
vue sur
toute
chose.
Leur
théâtre était une 1L.I
école
la oil
difformité
et . . c’est
ce que .
les
premiers
poètes
tragiqueS
peint
partout
avec des
couleurs
qui
en font
connaitre
et hair
la
montrer
tout le
désordre
dont
elles sont cause; et
le
vice y
est
OF
CS
E11 P0
4 ”Les
passions
n’y sont
présentéeS aux
yeux
que
pour
4th ed.
(New
York:
Dover Publications, Inc.,
1951).
‘S.
H.
Butcher,
Aristotle’s
Theory of
Poetry and
Fine
Art,
Osmastorl,
4vols.
r (London:
G. Bell
and Sons, E i—i Ltd.,
D
1920),
A
141 4:257.
W. 2 G.
F.
Hegel,
The
PhilosophY of
Fine
Art,
trans. F. P. B.
84-85,
87.
Godman,
4 vols.
(New
York: Vintage Books, Inc.,
1957),
1:83,
I
I_ I_
E
A(
I
I—I AC
IV’ ‘Arnold
Hauser,
The
Social
History of Art, trans. Stanley
Notes for 1 Chapter
With that we are in agreement.
sition
but rather
is
based on
acts
which are
in fact
carried
out.
tive
2
conditions
is
necessary,
since
happiness is a not
mor
dispo-
Aristotle
adds
that in
order
to be
happy
a
minimum
of objec
tunate
but never an unhappy man.
to
be happy
is to
live
virtuouslY.
A
VirtuoUS man can be an unfor
50
THEATER
OF
THE OPPRESSED ______
society.
in and the theater in function protagonistic their reassume people
the which by ways the of some see we them In book. this of
circle the to close attempt I follow that essays two the With
System. “Joker” the actors:
individual by the characters the of property private the eliminate
to
necessary is it Secondly, etc. theater, image theater, forum ter,
thea invisible again: acting starts spectator the First, down. torn
be must walls The own. their the theater are making more, once
and, themselves liberated are people oppressed the Now
began!
indoctrination coercive The mass. the from protagonists the
separated they actors, the
among
Secondly,
over! is party the —
watch who people and act who people spectators: from actors ing
separat people, the divided they First, walls. dividing their built
and theater the of possession took classes ruling the Later,
feast. The The carnival. air. open the in singing
people free song: dithyrambic the was theater the beginning the In
Oppressed the of Poetics
concepts.
new
discover
also
can they
guage,
lan
new
this
using
by
that,
so
and
country.
themselves the in
express
province can
they
populated
that least so
the
oppressed,
the perhaps
of
is what service
is the
this at
And
placed
be
dialects! can
mere theater
the
not
guages,
how
lan
practice
in
Forty-five
show to
region.
tried
that We
in
talent.
languages
artistic
different
without
or 45
of
with
existence
the
person,
verified
any by
country,
utilized
the
being of
of
north
capable
the
in
language,
Loreto as
of
theater the
province
the
in
out
considering carried
in
made
we
Research
Aymara.
experiments
the
and
various the
Quechua
outline the
to
are and
which
sector Spanish,
besides
theatrical
the
in
languages,
participant
a
principal
as
two
the
experience of
dialects
personal 41
my
least
at of
relate
to
is
here
existence
do
the to
to
point propose
I
studies What
stages. Recent
early
people.
its
in
its still
by
is
it
spoken
dialects
since and
plan
languages
ALFIN
the of
of
results number
the
vast
the evaluate I
of to
early because too is
It
magnified
is
problem
the
Peru
In
problem.
Spanish.
no delicate
speaks
and
half
difficult
other a
poses
write
The and
read
to
language.
adult
an
indigenous own
teaching of
their
in task
the
fluency country
acquiring
any
In
after
Spanish
learned
who
citizens
bilingual
of
up
made
is
illiterate.
semi- half
or
percent,
illiterate 40
are
this
Of
million
four population.
the and of
three percent 40
between brace
people,
million 14
em
of
which
population language,
first
Peru’s
the
in not
is that
Spanish estimated
where is
It areas
4)
years.
four
of
span the
within
illiteracy
eradicating
of
areas; objective the mining
3) with
Integral
Alfabetización
Operación
called
campaign areas;
rural
literacy 2)
tional na a
began
Peru
of
.):
government
favela, .
. revolutionary (cantegril, the
slums 1973,
our
In
to
corresponding
villages,
new
or
(neighborhoods)
barrios
1)
Freire.
Paulo
from
derived
group:
social
course, each
of
of
was,
program characteristics
literacy
the
special in
the
to
ALFIN
by
according used
method
The stages
four in
Durand.
Ruiz
developed
Jesus was
and
taught,
be Vilcha, to
Ramón
was
Lecca,
literacy Garrido where
Luis
Liñares,
regions
Estela
same
of the
sectors, from
chosen various the
in
educators,
the
of participation,
the training with
The
and
zaburu
Lizar
Alfonso
by
directed
[ALFIN]), etc.
Integral
journalism,
films,
Alfaberizacion
ción
(Opera
puppetry, Operation
Literacy
photography,
Integral
the
of theater,
as
program
such
the
ones,
within
Saco, artistic
Alicia of
collaboration the
invaluable
especially
the
with
languages,
Chiclayo,
possible
and
all
in
Lima
of
literacy
teach cities
to the
2) in
1973, of
August in out
carried
were
experiments
These
latter;
the
of
favor
in
former
the of
abandonment
the
forcing
without
Spanish
in
and
language
first the
both
in literacy teach to 1)
aims:
principal
two
formulated
project
ALFIN
the true,
be to this Assuming
real.’
is
what
of
knowledge
complete
most
widest,
the
achieving in
other each
complement
languages All Peru
in
Theater irreplaceable.
People’s absolutely
is the
with language
Each
others.
Experiments
to on
knowledge
that
passing of
and
reality
knowing
of way new
a
acquires
person
a
language, new a
learning
By
spoken.
or
ten
writ
are that
those
besides
languages
many
are There
idiomatic.
not
are
that
languages
of
number
infinite an
is
there
but
guages,”
“lan are
idioms
All
Spanish.
is case this
in
which
language,
lar
particu a
in
themselves
express to
unable
people
simply are
they
themselves:
express to
unable
are
who
people
not
are
illiterate
the
that
ALFIN, of
organizers the of
part
the on
understanding
an
to
contributed
perhaps
has
languages of
variety great This
121
Oppressed he of Poetics r
Spanish: you speak must in “photography.’ We ask you things in
speak in And Spanish. answer you must us. But newcomers; can you on the threatened not by in speak the jobs their saw who those
We to are ask going you some questions. For this purpose we will were one the side On other. on lived interior the from those while
propose
to them
following: the Street, the side one Lima on of of lived natives the old barrio: her
members
of the
group,
study
teach would how them to use it, and picture answered in a street main of with the interior the lage in
what
was
done
in ALFIN. The educators give would camera a to vil a small emigrated recently from had who woman A 4)
necessary
to
over hand
to them,
this
in case, the camera. is This hunger. to served their satisfy pelicans which then tracted the
we going are the to
give
people
the
means
of production, is it at hunger, because it welcomed people the ironically where
structors,
leaders, group
or
coordinators.
On
the other hand, if place awareness of in living communicated a his man the photo,
and discuss them.
But
who
take would these
pictures? The in the this eat capture, and pelicans. Showing kill hungry, equally
streets,
people,
landscapes,
etc., stores, then show the pictures people, hunger; times the great garbage eat of in to come cans
acy
project?
Without
it doubt, would to be photograph things, part where peli photographed river the Another of man a 3)
What be would the
way
to old
utilize
photography a in liter river? be the in drowning his may child that
photography
of section
the
ALFIN
Plan.
knowing peace mind of can anguish: with work how he expressing
cite what done was by Estela Linares,
was
who
charge
in of the fundamentally is picture, question he that with answers the man
But this how
transference is
be
to
achieved? As an example I a When difficult. rescue make waters the and rising playing while
weapon, a
is it and
the
people
who
should wield it. children into to for river fall common very the also It is lives.
ter so that people the themselves
utilize may
them. The theater is human consequent a of loss away, swept with often are shacks
should to transfer people the
the
means
of
production
the
in thea since dangerous, extremely its on banks life makes year. This the
I believe that
the
all
truly
revolutionary
theatrical
groups times of certain at overflows Lima,
through passes
RImac, which
matters it is is action! that
The clarified river meaning. discussion its The river. of
a
bank
launches action. matter into No that the action is fictional;
what
picture of the a took man question, same answer a the To
2)
the revolution. The liberated spectator,
a
as
whole
person, it, people etc. in of absence presence or
theater is not revolutionary in itself, but
it
surely
is
a rehearsal
for picture angle taken, is the which from the the focused on, jects
in himself trains short, for real action. In this case,
perhaps
the
discussed the group: by ob the be must which special meaning,
dramatic tries action,
out solutions, discusses
plans
for
change
— a element Every live? has photo of each where you do
question,
contrary, he himself assumes the protagonic
role,
changes
the
answers fully a the of interior the shack showing photo parents. A
character (or either actor) to act think to or in
his
place;
on the
imitation as of an their simply old, years eleven or ten as young
cuses action on the itself: spectator the
delegates
power no
to the between brothers as sisters and acts sexual to leads commonly
of consciousness. critical But
the poetics
of
oppressed the
fo intercourse, sexual which engage parents in their watch children
the
case, first
“catharsis” a
occurs; in
second, the
an awakening promiscuity young great often very and live in families the
room;
right to think himself, for often opposition in
to
the
character.
In
as bed room, living kitchen, serves that room and one only
have
character who acts thus place in his but
spectator
the
reserves
the general roofs. and walls they In permanent more with
instead of
proposes a poetics in which the spectator delegates
power
to
the
are straw mats, of made shacks the reason for this
and rains
character so that the
may latter
and
think act
for Brecht him. rarely Lima
a of interior it the
In shack. showing
A
picture 1)
etics which spectator in the delegates power to the dramatic
photo-answers: of
types following
the sponded with
hope differences that the remain clear. Aristotle proposes
a
po
were live?, you where asked, people re they do
when example,
subjects, into
into actors, transformers the of dramatic
action.
I
by were group.
For the later discussed photos
the is,
— that
“spectators,”
passive
beings
theatrical in the phenomenon
—
answers very simple, and asked were the questions The
—
keep
in
its mind main objective:
to
change
people the — language. a also
In order
to
understand of poetics this the oppressed
one must photography, is which answer a You language. in us is which Spanish,
122
OF THEATER OPPRESSED THE
123 Oppressed of Poetics the
Then
expressive.
more it
making of
capable be to order in symbolize body, may crown royal A audience. that for meaningless
own
his
know
body, own
his
control all, of
first must, man are tion, that use symbols they because audience mass a with
municate
produc
theatrical of
means
the
control to Therefore, com to movement. are unable groups theatrical intentioned well that times
and
of sound
source main
the body,
human the is vocabulary many happens It group. social or community whole a for bols
theatrical
the of
word
first the
that
stating by begin can We sym valid discover to also help may photography of use The
manage. to ficult U.S.A.” “Made in Kodachrome, in was
photograph
dif
more
obviously
himself,
man of up
made are
theater ducing the enough, not were outrage and irony the if as blood. And,
with
pro of
means
but the
to handle, easy
relatively is which mixed tears those camera, eyes, of child’s that of pain the express
could
the
in
embodied
are
photograph a
producing for h means The language, other and no photography, only but Rimac; river the
theater? the of along barrios of the the children about novel a
write
could
I
case the in done be to is what But person. that
of hands the in are
happen.”
production
photographic
of
means the
alone this With press. to like this still things where a place live in answer. I is my it picture;
button
which it
and
focus to
how
him
tell before, picture a taken at the Look face. his on blood much so there’s why is
This nose.
never has who
someone
to
camera
give a
to
enough
easy is It of his part eaten and had was sleeping the child while come had
them. to
nothing the lived, I where rats me asked you when
ago, days few
A more.
means probably
however,
Nixon,
or
Sam,
Uncle
crown, a of sight it any have doesn’t he now But dog. his left with
was
he and
it; the of hatred
their
and
oppression of
reminded are children to to work go used parents
his the day
During him.
protected who
nail, those a at
Looking per nail.
and
night
per
soles
three
or two a dog had child This away. them taking and dogs of
lots
catching
them charges owner
whose
business,
of place
some of
wall the here around came dog-catcher city
the
epidemic and
mange
on
nail rent a
must So
they home.
and
work
between day every a was there But away. them scare rats and the attack
that
dogs
and forth
back
equipment
their
be carrying
cannot
boys yet these by are protected They RImac. river of the bank
whole the
infest
and necessity,
absolute
an
course
are
of
trade
the
of tools other by the rats threatened that lives their have, here, live who
others
and
shine-boxes
Their
work. find
to
order in Lima downtown to the all as child, This it. on blood is there face:
at his
“Look
go
must they reason, this for and,
shine to
shoes no are there live
a
child.
it’s
“But
. .
they where barrios the in
Obviously,
shoes.
shining
six is or five I live.” where is Here
answer. my is
“Here
of age the at in engage boys
work
simplest
The
why.
explained the river. town, the
house, the street,
the
picture;
The discussion exploitation.
to
relation
in
feelings
their
expressed live. Any you where us show and picture a
Take
live.
you where
picture the that agreement
complete
in were
children
other
the us is you that show we want
what
understand;
didn’t “You
all
but it, understood adults
Few
exploitation.
of
symbol
perfect
him:
to question
the
repeated
and
a
mistake
made had
the was that him For wall. a on a of
nail
picture the
with
answered
man that
the
thought everyone course face.
Of
a child’s of
picture
a child hand, other the On office.
government
some
others,
a took question, same
to the
answer in a
man,
One 5)
day
still landlord; the others grocer; the showed
photographs
Many reality.
own her
stand
exploitation? is
what
asked,
also were
people
the
Lima In to woman under the street of helped her picture the Studying
imperialism. kee” resentment. violent their
redirect
to need
the
showed
street
of “Yan rapacity the perfection to
expresses
It
exploitation.
of divided of the The picture enemies.
true
their were
who
showed
symbol the ultimate world,
the
throughout
groups social
many for
neighborhoods wealthier
the of
pictures
while
sides both
—
is, Sam Uncle of
figure
traditional The
exploitation?
is What on poverty condition: common their reveal to helped picture The
others.
for
meaningless be yet enemies. were
as they if
other
each
facing themselves
found who
and impact a strong produce may
crown
royal a
some
For
shared.
exploited, equally
brothers between
line
a dividing
was
street The
is meaning its if as such
functions
only
symbol
a
but
power,
work. of behind in search everything left had who poor the other,
125 the Oppressed of Poetics
OPPRESSED THE OF THEATER 124 126 THEATER OF THE OPPRESSED Poetics of the Oppressed 127 he will be able to practice theatrical forms in which by stages he quite likely never heard of theater and if they have heard of it, frees himself from his condition of spectator and takes on that of their conception of it will probably have been distorted by televi actor, in which he ceases to be an object and becomes a subject, sion, with its emphasis on sentimentality, or by some traveling is changed from witness into protagonist. circus group. It is also very common for those people to associate The plan for transforming the spectator into actor can be theater with leisure or frivolity. Thus caution is required even systematized in the following general outline of four stages: when the contact takes place through an educator who belongs to the same class as the illiterates First stage: Knowing the body: a series of exercises by which one or semi-illiterates, even if he lives among them in shack gets to know one’s body, its limitations and possibilities, its a and shares their comfortless life. The very fact that the educator social distortions and possibilities of rehabilitation. comes with the mission of eradicating illit eracy Second stage: Making the body expressive: a series of games by (which presupposes a coercive, forceful action) is in itself an alienating factor between the and which one begins to express one’s self through the body, agent the local people. For this reason the abandoning other, more common and habitual forms of ex theatrical experience should begin not with some thing alien to the pression. people (theatrical techniques that are taught or Third stage: The theater as language: one begins to practice thea imposed) but with the bodies of those who agree to participate in the experiment. ter as a language that is living and present, not as a finished There is a great number of product displaying images from the past: exercises designed with the objec tive of making each person aware of his First degree: Simultaneous dramaturgy: the spectators own body, of his bodily possibilities, and of deformations suffered because of the “write” simultaneously with the acting of the actors; type of work he performs. That is, it is necessary for each one feel the Second degree: Image theater: the spectators intervene di to “muscular alienation” imposed rectly, “speaking” through images made with the act on his body by work. A simple example ors’ bodies; will serve to clarify this point: compare the muscular structure of a typist with that of the night watchman Third degree: Forum theater: the spectators intervene di of a factory. The first performs his or her work seated in a chair: from rectly in the dramatic action and act. the waist down the body becomes, during working hours, a kind Fourth stage: The theater as discourse: simple forms in which the of pedestal, while arms and fingers spectator-actor creates “spectacles” according to his need are active. The watchman, on the other hand, must walk continually during to discuss certain themes or rehearse certain actions. his eight-hour shift and consequently will Examples: develop muscular structures that facilitate walking. The bodies 1) Newspaper theater of both become alienated in accordance with their respective 2) In visible theater types of work. The same is of 3) Photo-romance theater true any person whatever the work or social status. The combination 4) Breaking of repression of roles that a person must perform im poses on him a “mask” 5) Myth theater of behavior. This is why those who perform the same roles end up resembling 6) Trial theater each other: artists, soldiers, clergymen, teachers, workers, peasants, landlords, 7) Masks and Rituals de cadent noblemen, etc. Compare the angelical First Stage: Knowing the Body. placidity of a cardinal walking in heavenly bliss through the Vatican Gardens with, on the other The initial contact with a group of peasants, workers, or hand, an aggressive general giving orders to his inferiors. The villagers — if they are confronted with the proposal to put on a former walks softly, listening to celestial music, sensitive to col theatrical performance — can be extremely difficult. They have ors of the purest impressionistic delicacy: if by chance a small
it’s
exercises
proposing
In
manner. same
the in
used be
can each
that formed: are legs
four
of
“Monsters”
race. Monster
3)
exercises more
many
are
There
Theater. Through
Something
Say
mate! its by
motion in
put be must it
alone:
move
doesn’t
“leg”
to
Wants Who
Non-actor
the for
and
Actor the
for
Games and The
leg. his were
mate if his as
acts
person
each and
person
single
Exercises
200
book
my
in
included
are
exercises
these
All
a
were it if
as
acts pair
each race, the
In
versa).
vice
and
other,
the
fight.
free-for-all a
in engage
must
all
scene the
of end the
At etc.
of
right the
with one of
left (the
legs their
interwine
and other
each
bottles,
falling the
chair, the
to
react
participants
the
and rections,
embrace pairs,
form
participants
The
race.
Cross-legged
2)
di
all
in fly which of pieces
the
imaginary),
(also
bottles
of
intense.
is
position new
each in
ance
a
row against
thrown is
chair
itnaginary
an
example, For bal
action. one’s keep to needed effort the
for
run,
500-meter
ventional
or
gesture
every
to
react
must but
other,
each to touch
con
allowed a than tiring more be
can
run
10-meter
a
exercise,
this
not are
participants
the silence;
in performed
is
scene
whole
In The level. knee above rise must feet
their and can
they
step longest
etc.
doors,
saloon
the
kicking
in
come
who
villains
the
drunks, the take must they also still;
stand or
motion
the interrupt
never
the
dancers, the
cowboy,
young
swaggering
the
pianist, the
with must participants The
balance.
its
maintain will
which structure
movies,
western
bad
of
typical scene
a
improvise
participants
muscular new a again
find must so
and
moment
successive each
The
exercises.
preceding
the
of
variation
A
West.
Out 7)
at dislocated gravity of center its find will body the motion, slow
blow.
in Moving winner. the is one
last the
losing:
of
aim
the with race
each
received
had
he if as react
must
nevertheless
who
a partner, run to are invited participants
The
race.
1) motion
Slow
his
touching
without
but
fighting
really were he
if
as
fight
must exercises: of disjunctive examples
as
following
the
offer
I here.
one
each
circumstances;
any under
other each
touch cannot
they irrelevant are
or acrobats
athletes
of
characteristic
structures
but
box, to
invited are
participants
The
match.
Boxing
6)
muscular create to serve that
exercises
athletic and
Acrobatic
etc.
dance, even
pleases, he
what do can
latter
the disjoint. to designed
fact are in
series
this of
exercises
the
All
while
leader, the of
feet
and hands two
the to
relation
in
distance oneself. from different
characters
“interpret”
physically to
able
the
keeping
four
the other
and
leader as one
formed, are
be five will one is, that classes;
social and
professions other
of
teristic
of
groups
Afterward,
distance.
the
maintain to
try
must two
other charac structures assemble to able be
surely
will one
structures,
the while
etc., hands, his
separate
arms,
his
cross
anything muscular own one’s — to
disjoint
way,
this in
able,
is one
If
do
can
latter The leader.
the of
hand each at one follow, two
work. by his
governed is
other the and leads
one formed:
are
three
of
groups
Later,
body
his
point to what feels and sees, understands,
peasant each
structures.
worker,
each that So
consciousness. of
level the
to
them
raise
muscular
his
permanently
reforming
life, thus
daily
his
in takes to
but
them, destroy or
weaken to
Not
them.
analyze
and
study to
never he that
positions
bodily
assume
to
forced is he
movements
apart, take
them
to is, That
participants.
of
the
structure
muscular
these During
hand.
partner’s
his
and
nose
his
between
the
to “undo”
designed
are
stage
first
of this
exercises
The
distance
same the
maintain to order in body his moves other the
cardinals.
from als
while
faster,
or slowly
right, to
left
from down, and
up
rections,
gener
separate
differences
vast but
cardinals;
all
do as
just other,
di
all in
hand
his move
to
starts
one
first
the
distance:
this
each resemble
officers
military
all
Thus
admiral. an
or
a brigadier
keep
must
who
partner, his of
nose
the from
centimeters
few a
be he
whether
spurs,
use to
expected
is man
military
a Likewise,
his hand puts
one
and
other
each
face
pairs
The
Hypnosis. 5)
her. loves
he that wife his tell
to is
it
if
even
orders,
gives
who
wheels.
human of
race a
run
and
other,
of
the
ankles
someone as
talk must
general
A
birds.
to the
talks
who general
the
grabbing
one
each
wheels,
form
pairs
The
race. Wheel 4)
a
respect
would
soldier No
not.
to
or cares he
whether
birds,
little
race.
a
run
then
monsters
The legs.
four
with
with monster to
talk headless
general
the
befit
not
does it
contrast,
By
inspiration.
a
forming
other, the
of neck the
around fit
one
of
legs
the
that
of Christian
word
amiable
some
with it
addressing and
bird
the to
so
position;
reverse
in
but mate
of
his thorax
the
embraces person
talking him imagines
easily one path, cardinal’s the crosses bird
129
Oppressed
of the
Poetics
OPPRESSED THE OF THEATER 128 130 THEATER OF THE OPPRESSED Poetics of the Oppressed 131
always advisable to ask the participants to describe or invent making that sound. After ten minutes, when it was time for him to others: in this stage, the type that would serve to analyze the look for his mate, this man looked all around him and found no muscular structures of each participant. At every stage, however, one who seemed to be enough of a hummingbird to attract him. the maintenance of a creative atmosphere is extremely important. Finally he saw a tall, fat man who was making a pendular move ment with his hands and, setting aside his doubts, decided that Second Stage: Making the Body Expressive. there was his beloved mate; he went straight to “her,” making In the second stage the intention is to develop the expressive turns around “her” and throwing little kisses to the air while ability of the body. In our culture we are used to expressing singing joyfully. The fat man, upset, tried to escape, but the other everything through words, leaving the enormous expressive fellow went after him, more and more in love with his hum capabilities of the body in an underdeveloped state. A series of mingbird mate and singing with ever more amorous glee. Finally, “games” can help the participants to begin to use their bodily though convinced that the other man was not his mate, the fat one
— resources for self-expression. lam talking about parlor games and while the others roared with laughter — decided to follow his not necessarily those of a theatrical laboratory. The participants persistent suitor off stage simply to end the ordeal. Then (for only are invited to “play,” not to “interpret,” characters but they will then were they allowed to talk) the first man, full ofjoy, cried out: “play” better to the extent that they “interpret” better. “I am the male hummingbird, and you are the female? Isn’t For example: In one game pieces of paper containing names that right?” The of animals, male and female, are distributed, one to each partici fat one, very discouraged, looked at him and said: “No, pant. For ten minutes, each person tries to give a physical, bodily dummy, I’m the bull. . . impression of the animal named on his piece of paper. Talking or How the fat man could give an impression of a delicate hum making noises that would suggest the animal is forbidden. The mingbird while trying to portray a bull, we will never know. But, no communication must be effected entirely through the body. After matter: what does matter is that for 15 or 20 minutes all those the first ten minutes, each participant must find his mate among people tried to “speak” with their bodies. the others who are imitating the animals, since there will always This type of game can be varied ad inflnitum; the slips of be a male and a female for each one. When two participants are paper can bear, for example, the names of occupations or profes sions. convinced that they constitute a pair, they leave the stage, and If the participants depict an animal, it will perhaps have little to the game is over when all participants fmd their mates through a do with their ideology. But if a peasant is called upon to purely physical communication, without the utilization of words act as a landlord; a worker, the owner of a factory; or if a woman or recognizable sounds. must portray a policeman, all their ideology counts and finds What is important in games of this type is not to guess right physical expression through the game. The names of the partici but rather that all the participants try to express themselves pants themselves may be written on slips of paper, requiring them through their bodies, something they are not used to doing. With to convey impressions of each other and thus revealing, physi out realizing it they will in fact be giving a “dramatical cally, their opinions and mutual criticisms. performance.” In this stage, as in the first, regardless of how many games one I remember one of these games played in a slum area, when a proposes to the participants, the latter should always be en couraged to invent man drew the name hummingbird. Not knowing how to express it other games and not to be passive recipients of physically, he remembered nevertheless that this bird flies very an entertainment that comes from the outside. rapidly from one flower to another, stops and sucks on a flower while producing a peculiar sound. So with his hands the man Third Stage: The Theater as Language. imitated the frenetic wings of the hummingbird and, “flying” This stage is divided into three parts, each one representing a from participant to participant, halted before each one of them different degree of direct participation of the spectator in the
went
husband
the
since
solution,
this
like not
did she
that
mented
and
surprise
to the
which
documents,
the
read to
haste
made
com
actress
The left. he
And
you can.”
way
best
the by
get
kindly door next The lady
her. to
documents
the read to
neighbor
just
can you
and
mistress
my
with live
go and
money the
take
I’ll a
asked
she
read, to
inability
her
in
Frustrated
house.
small
so
today,
salary
my me
paid They
away.
go I’ll well,
“Very
their of the ownership with do to something had they
afraid was
commented:
husband the
times,
several
she since about, all
were
they
what out to find
decided
woman
insisting
After
refused.
steadfastly wife
the but
in, let
be to
begs
the
documents, the
remembering
and, another
or
reason one
repeatedly
husband
The
rehearsed.
also was
variation
This away.
for fight a
had they
day One
suspicion.
without away
them put
—
go
to
have would
husband the
that so
house the
lock To 3)
illiterate be to
happened
who
woman The
important.
— tremely
herself.
punisher,
the
against
turned
it
since
good not
was
itively
ex were to him,
according
which,
“documents”
some
keep
pos
punishment
This
live?
she
could
Where
now? go
she to
her
would told
had
before, years
some
husband, Her
theme. troversial
Where
herself.
up
punishing
ended she
husband her
punishing
In
a
con
proposed
woman
a
Lima, in
Hilariôn, San of
a barrio
In
next. do
should she
what about public
the
asked
she
house),
own
works.
dramaturgy
simultaneous how
of
example an
Here’s
her
is,
(that house
the leaving upon But
lesson. a learn
would he
well. as
expression
theatrical of
elements
that so
lonely,
very
alone,
left him
and a
bag,
in
them put
things,
other all
the
through effected be
should
rather
but
words, of
form
her
grabbed
behavior,
wicked
his for
husband
her
reproaching
the take
simply
not need
itself discussion
The
form.
theatrical in
after
and,
suggestion
this out
carried
actress The
punishment.
revealed are
opinions and
suggestions,
solutions,
the All
actors.
a
as
alone
husband her
leaving
house,
the abandon
To
2)
the of help the with stage on theatrically are discussed thoughts
solution.
spectator’s The
it
simultaneously.
perform
actors
the
work
this
accept
not did
audience The
etc. etc.,
wife,
his
only
loved he
the
“writes”
audience
the while
Thus, audience.
the
from
tions
that
mistress,
the forgotten
already had
he
that
her
assured band
instruc
these with
strictly
comply to
obligated are who
actors,
hus The
before. it
was
as
remained
everything
and
dinner; his
the
of
words or
the actions
correct to
intervene, to
right
the
has
serve
to
her asked he
over
was
crying
the
when
and
her, consoled
audience the and solutions, suggested
the all
immediately
provise
the husband lot,
a
cried she
suggestion:
this
out
carried
actress im They offer
solutions.
to
audience
the
ask
and
performance
The
behavior.
own his about bad
feel
might
husband
the
that
the stop
actors
the
Then
a solution.
needs and
a crisis
reaches lem
so a
lot
to cry
start woman
betrayed
the
that
suggested
woman
prob main the at which
point the it to
develop
actors the
scene,
young One
feel guilty. him
make to
order
in a
lot
To
cry 1)
the begun Having audience. the in present is
theme the
proposed
case:
particular
this
in
solutions
person who the if
theatricality
in gains
performance
the case,
suggested the
of some are
Here
tried.
were
possibilities
the
All
any In directly.
scene
the
compose also may they
as
beforehand,
audience.
the by
given instructions
to
according out
them
acted
prepared
a of aid script the
with
improvise
may actors
The barrio.
and
suggestions
different to the
listened
actors
The views.
of
the in lives
who one
resident, a
local by
proposed
minutes,
twenty
exchange
a lively into
entered
audience
the of
women
the
All
to of ten scene, short a performing of a question it is
Here
husband. her to
relation in
attitude
“stage.” the
on
presence
physical
be
her
should what
others the
asked
woman the
interpreting
was
his necessitating
without
intervene to
spectator the to
made
tation
who
participant
the and
interrupted
is
action the Here
get it?
to
invi
the
first is This
dramaturgy:
Simultaneous
degree:
First
she
is
how
revenge:
wants woman The letters. the
of
mystery the
to
action.
passivity from
transition
the
uncovered
has
wife
his
after at night, home
returns
husband the
furthers
and discussed be
to theme
the on
focuses
stage this Now
when
moment
the until
scenes
the
improvised
actors The
venge.
bodies. own with their
participants the
of
work the
around ing
re
wanted
woman illiterate
and
betrayed
this
Now husband.
center preparatory,
are stages
preceding
two The
subject. of role
woman’s
poor the of
mistress
the by
written
letters
love
rather
the fully
and assuming of object
condition
his
abandoning
action,
but at all,
documents not
were barrio,
whole
the of
amusement the
in to intervene is encouraged spectator The performance.
133
the Oppressed of
Poetics
OPPRESSED THE OF THEATER 132
and him
castrating be
to
pretended
another
while
ground the
on
creative.
more
much
time
same the
at and
difficult
more
much
participants the of one
placing
castration,
the of
image the
posed
is
which
group,
the
interpret
to
starts and
individual the com
pret Otuzco
from
woman
young
The
him.
castrated
everyone,
to inter
ceases
actor
The
women. and
men of
thought
of collective front in
and,
square,
main
the to
him
took
rebellion,
the
the
to
expression
give
must
he
whatever;
or
leagues,
peasant
of
leader the
imprisoned
Peru),
in exist
longer no
(that
landlords
unions,
schools,
neighbors, of
groups
barrio,”
the of
“friends of
the rebellion;
a peasant was
there
Government, 2
Revolutionary
societies
committees,
local
their in
assembled
audience,
mass the
present the before
Otuzco, In like.
was
town
home her
what
interpret
must he
contrary, the on
here text,
a finished
dictated
images, live of
grouping a
through to
explain, asked
was
Otuzco,
inspiration
divine
whom to
study,
his
in locked
author of
solitary village the
in
lived who
agent
literacy a
woman,
young A
the
interpreted
he
formerly If
interpretation. his
of
object the
matter. the clarify
best can
example
concrete a
again, Once
is
changes
What
interpreter. the
being on
goes he
function:
main
it.
changing of
ways
to propose
asked
his change
not does
actor
The
censorship.
without
version
is
one
each —
situation, real
a
of
representative
as all
by
cepted
his try to
right
the
has
a spectator,
being of
virtue by
spectator,
ac
“statues”
of
a
grouping
with starting
Thus,
use.
to
wishes
Any
drawbacks.
and
consequences
its of view
live a
give to
one term
whatever
or
revolution,
the
transformation,
the
change,
it
out, act
simply
must
they
action;
proposed
any
protest,
without
the
out carry to
how
words,
other
In other.
the to
reality
one from
accept, to
ready
be
always
must
actors
the
notice:
moment’s
pass to
possible be
would
it
how
to show image,
a transitional
a
at
and
changed, be
can
All
rectification. to
criticism,
to
show to ject
asked
is he
Finally
image. ideal the
second
the in
shown,
sub is
Everything
Man-the-character. of
creater
the
is
spectator is image
actual
the
grouping
first the
in is, be;
that
to theme
given
Man-the- Thus fate.
Man’s is Man
Fate.
as
inevitable,
something the like
would he way
the
show to
asked is
spectator-sculptor
as
manner,
a
deterministic
in
presented be to
ceases
action
The
the
then
all, to
acceptable
most the
is
at that
arrived is
image an
action.
in the
intervene
can
they that
feel
spectators The
neously.
finally
When detail.
some
in
or
totality
their in
statues
the modify
simulta
almost act
others and
“write”
Some
spectators. to
from right the has
spectator the
rehearsed:
be can
Modifications
actors separates
that
wall
the
demolish to
starts
and
ticipants
opinion.
“sculpted” his
with agree all
if
determine
to
order
par the
among
excitement great
creates
theater
of
form This
in
participants other the with
a discussion into
enter to allowed
companies.
American
of
is he nationalization statues
of
group
this
organizing
After do. to
statue-spectator
the
be
to
happened
which
government,
the
by
taken
measures the
wants he
what
expressions facial
own
his
with
show to
is
him
latest
the
discussed and
ate,
table,
the
at sat them of
two to
the permitted
is
that
most
The
circumstances. any
under
speak
to
the audience
of
amusement
the — to
blows of
a
barrage
— after
allowed
not is
He
expressions.
facial their
of
details
minute
most
and
the
husband,
playing
was
who
actor
the
of
resistence
the natural
to down
body
each
of
position
the
determine
must he
clay:
the
overcoming
after
version,
this
performed actress
The
of
made were
others the and sculptor a were he if
as
others the
him...” forgive and
affection,
of bodies
the
use to is
participant The
evident.
become feelings
with dinner
his
him
serve
away,
stick
the
put
repentant, feel
and
opinions his
that a way
such in
statues, of
group a
them
to
him
for
enough him
beat
you’ve After
beating.
a
good with
him give
“sculpting” and
participants
other the
of
bodies
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only
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your all
with
him hit
— and
stick,
big really a
get in,
come
using
speaking,
without
but
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asked is
ipant
him let
this:
like
it
“Do
said:
She
women.
and men
audience, partic
The barrios.
the
all in almost
occurrence
common
a
water,
entire the by
unanimously
accepted
solution the
was
it of lack woman; the as
such problem
local
a be
it can or
imperialism
— ple,
exuberant
a
by large,
presented
was
solution
last
The 4)
exam
for as,
abstract far-reaching, be — can theme The discuss.
husband. to
wish
participants
the
that
interest
common of
theme
certain
her
without
along get
cannot
and
herself
support to
a money
on
views his
express to
asked
is He
directly.
more
participate
enough
make
not does
woman poor The
now? live to
going
she to
has
spectator
the
Here
theater:
Image
degree:
Second
is How
wife? the
about what and woman, other the with live to
135
Oppressed of the Poetics
OPPRESSED THE OF THEATER 134
happens
This
visible. thought
making
for
capacity
extraordinary the different Undoubtedly variation. without results,
same
the
its of and because
to
practice
easy
it
so is
because
stimulating, produced and always times many repeated was
experiment
This
the most of one
doubt
without is
theater
image of
form This
herself. identified she which with image that precisely changing
it. see to able
before been
never
had she by start off would “liberated,” more being she, Lima, from
girl
and
things,
of scheme
the of view her
fit into not did people a The of was asked thing same the when hand, other the On woman.
truth. the It
was
in!.
fit
didn’t people
those
.“
that . is truth “The the kneeling of image the unmodified left they revolution, the
of
and
exclaimed:
surprise in
them at
looked
girl the
figures; tied protagonists possible as themselves perceive not could since they
of
the group
changing of
possibility
the
her to suggested
someone figure and, feminine that with themselves identified women
young
changes,
further
any
imagine to able
being
not
for
nervousness the Naturally change. revolutionary for force
potential a
woman
of
signs
showed
she When class.
middle
upper the to belonged that in not see did that she clearly signifying woman, kneeling
girl
This tied.
hands
their with
persons
five the only untouched the of image change the never would she of change,
image the
leaving
changes,
of
kinds
all made
woman
young Another 5) to form asked was interior the from woman young a When 1)
vanguard. by their
only
and not
whole a as
people
by the
made were observed: variations following
the case
particular
this
are changes
social
that
opinion her
expressing
clearly
ticipants, In continue. would the discussion and thought, his
visually,
cally,
par
other
the address
people
the
representing
figures the of one physi demonstrate go and would participant The us.” to
it show
also had
them
imprison and
torturers their
— attack themselves, and come what think; you say “Don’t interrupted:
immediately
free
who would
men
kneeling the of
work the be
— to
mations was he that
I
think this; like possible not “It’s . . exclaim, .,“
transfor
the
showing
besides
women, young
the of One 4) one When would words. without but arose, discussions Lively
oppressors. the ing imagery. his through opinion expressed one Each
image.
ideal
attack posture, a
fighting
assume them
making
men,
kneeling the
at of an arriving the purpose for forces of
a reorganization
through
alter
first
would change
social
of
form this
in
believe not did who be modified could organization, or the grouping, how
show to
those
contrast, By
regenerated.
become
would who center, in the and as to “sculptor” a act right the had participant Each
words.
figure
powerful
the well
as
as
volition
own their of as — changing but without an giving opinion, of a question was it
Here
effect
in them
viewing
castrators
the modifying by start — would the revolution? transformation, the change, the about bring
classes,
exploiting
the of
part
the
on
conscience” of “change to How ideal at image? the arrive image,
actual
the
with starting
a in or
solutions
magical
in
believed
people who
The
3) can one, how theater: of form this of part, important
most and
ones.
armed the
except
figures
alter all
would he ernment, third, came the ideal Then Otuzco. contented,
and
happy a
short,
gov his in faith
same
the
have
not
did participant
a
when
hand, in each other and loved peace in worked who
people
as
— them
other
the
On
themselves. castrators
the at or
center the in figure and of group regrouped the “statues” the
completely
modified
powerful the at
aim
then
would
they
so that
victim the at
guns She to like. be village her want
would she what show to
asked
their were aiming
who
men two
the
changed
they
background: was young woman the Then place. taken
actually
had
that
thing
the in
figures
armed
the
by
modifying start
would Government some a of true reflection also but image, defeatist pessimistic,
Revolutionary
the
in
believed
who participants the All 2) terrible, A village. person her had of that image was the This
prayer. in hands lift her to woman the the prisoner. at
allow than more
little
did
the interior
from Those etc. castrator, armed their men guns pointing two him, behind and, violence
and
the
against
to fight
woman the prompt would others man, trated power of obviously a suggestive position in participant another
cas
the
of
figure
the clasp woman the make would some image: placed being woman young the castrated, the man backs. Behind
the
modified
always Lima from women young The participants. their behind tied on hands with knees, their also women, and men
the
of
psychology
and the ideology of expression visual of cere, five a at the and group side other on knees, her praying,
woman
sin
the
but
occurrence
chance
not represent action of patterns a she at placed side one Then behind. him from held another still
137 r
of Oppressed the Poetics 136 THE OF OPPRESSED THEATER 138 THEATER OF THE OPPRESSED Poetics of the Oppressed 139 because use of the language idiom is avoided. Each word has a then be able to see if change occurs by the grace of God or if it is denotation that is the same for all, but it also has a connotation brought about by the opposing forces operating within the very that is unique for each individual. If I utter the word “revolu core of the group. tion,” obviously everyone will realize that I am talking about a 3) The sculptor-participant, once his work is finished, is radical change, but at the same time each person will think of his asked to try to place himself in the group he has created. This or her “own” revolution, a personal conception of revolution. sometimes helps the person to realize that his own vision of real But if I have to arrange a group of statues that will signify “my ity is a cosmic one, as if he were a part of that reality. revolution,” here there will be no denotation-connotation The game of images offers many other possibilities. The im dichotomy. The image synthesizes the individual connotation and portant thing is always to analyze the feasibility of the change. the collective denotation. In my arrangement signifying revolu Third degree: Forum theater: This is the last degree and here tion, what are the statues doing? Do they have weapons in their the participant has to intervene decisively in the dramatic action hands or do they have ballots? Are the figures of the people and change it. The procedure is as follows: First, the participants united in a fighting posture against the figures representing the are asked to tell a story containing a political or social problem of common enemies; or are the figures of the people dispersed, or difficult solution. Then a ten- or fifteen-minute skit portraying showing disagreement among themselves? My conception of that problem and the solution intended for discussion is im “revolution” will become clear if, instead of speaking, I show provised or rehearsed, and subsequently presented. When the with images what I think. skit is over, the participants are asked if they agree with the I remember that in a session of psychodrama a girl spoke solution presented. At least some will say no. At this point it is repeatedly of the problems she had with her boyfriend, and she explained that the scene will be performed once more, exactly as always started with more or less the same phrase: “He came in, it was the first time. But now any participant in the audience has embraced me, and then. ...“ Each time we heard this opening the right to replace any actor and lead the action in the direction phrase we understood that they did in fact embrace; that is, we that seems to him most appropriate. The displaced actor steps understood what the word embrace denotes. Then one day she aside, but remains ready to resume action the moment the partic showed by acting how their meetings were: he approached, she ipant considers his own intervention to be terminated. The other crossed her arms over her breasts as if protecting herself, he took actors have to face the newly created situation, responding in hold of her and hugged her tightly, while she continued to keep stantly to all the possibilities that it may present. her hands closed, defending herself. That was clearly a particular The participants who choose to intervene must continue the connotation for the word embrace. When we understood her physical actions of the replaced actors; they are not allowed to “embrace” we were finally able to understand her problems with come on the stage and talk, talk, talk: they must carry out the her boyfriend. same type of work or activities performed by the actors who were In image theater other techniques can be used: in their place. The theatrical activity must go on in the same way, 1) Each participant transformed into a statue is allowed one on the stage. Anyone may propose any solution, but it must be movement orgesture, and only one, each time asignal(likeaclap done on the stage, working, acting, doing things, and not from the of hands) is given. In this case the arrangement of images will comfort of his seat. Often a person is very revolutionary when in change according to the individual desire of each participant. a public forum he envisages and advocates revolutionary and 2) The participants are first asked to memorize the ideal im heroic acts; on the other hand, he often realizes that things are not age, then to return to the original, actual image, and finally to so easy when he himself has to practice what he suggests. make the movements necessary to arrive again at the ideal image An example: An eighteen-year-old man worked in the city of
— thus showing the group of images in motion and allowing the Chimbote, one of the world’s most important fishing ports. There analysis of the feasibility of the proposed transitions. One will are in that city a great number of factories of fish meal, a principal 140 THEATER OF THE OPPRESSED [ Poetics of the Oppressed 141 export product of Peru. Some factories are very large, while throw the bomb himself, but soon realized that he did not know others have only eight or nine employees. Our young man worked how to manufacture a bomb nor even how to throw it. Many for one of the latter. The boss was a ruthless exploiter and forced people who in theoretical discussions advocate throwing bombs his employees to work from eight o’clock in the morning to eight would not know what to do in reality, and would probably be the at night, or vice versa — twelve consecutive hours of work. Thus first to perish in the explosion. After trying his bomb-solution, the the problem was how to combat this inhuman exploitation. Each man returned to his place and the actor replaced him until a participant had a proposal: one of them was, for example, “oper second person came to try his solution, the strike. After much ation turtle,” which consists in working very slowly, especially argument with the others he managed to convince them to stop when the boss is not looking. Our young man had a brilliant idea: working and walk out, leaving the factory abandoned. In this to work faster and fill the machine with so much fish that it would case, the owner, the foreman, and the “stool pigeon,” who had break with the excessive weight, requiring two or three hours to remained in the factory, went to the town square (among the fix it. During this time the workers could rest. There was the audience) to look for other workers who would replace the strik problem, the employer’s exploitation; and there was one solution, ers (there is mass unemployment in Chimbote). This spectator- invented by native ingenuity. But would that be the best solution? participant tried his solution, the strike, and realized its imprac The scene was performed in the presence of all the partici ticability; with so much unemployment the bosses would always pants. Some actors represented the workers, another represented be able to find workers hungry enough and with little enough the boss, another the foreman, another a “stool pigeon.” The political consciousness to replace the strikers. stage was converted into a fish meal factory: one worker unload The third attempt was to form a small union for the purpose ing the fish, another weighing the bags of fish, another carrying of negotiating the workers’ demands, politicizing the employed the bags to the machines, another tending the machine, while still workers, as well as the unemployed, setting up mutual funds, etc. others performed other pertinent tasks. While they worked, they In this particular session of forum theater, this was the solution kept up a dialogue, proposing solutions and discussing them until judged to be the best by the participants. In the forum theater no they came to accept the solution proposed by the young man and idea is imposed: the audience, the people, have the opportunity to broke the machine; the boss came and the workers rested while try out all their ideas, to rehearse all the possibilities, and to the engineer repaired the machine. When the repair was done, verify them in practice, that is, in theatrical practice. If the audi they went back to work. ence had come to the conclusion that it was necessary to dyna The scene was staged for the first time and the question was mite all the fish meal factories in Chimbote, this would also be raised: Were all in agreement? No, definitely not. On the con right from their point of view. It is not the place of the theater to trary, they disagreed. Each one had a different proposal: to start a show the correct path, but only to offer the means by which all strike, throw a bomb at the machine, start a union, etc. possible paths may be examined. Then the technique of forum theater was applied: the scene Maybe the theater in itself is not revolutionary, but these would be staged exactly as it had been the first time, but now each theatrical forms are without a doubt a rehearsal of revolution. spectator-participant would have the right to intervene and The truth of the matter is that the spectator-actor practices a real change the action, trying out his proposal. The first to intervene act even though he does it in a fictional manner. While he re was the one who suggested the use of a bomb. He got up, re hearses throwing a bomb on stage, he is concretely rehearsing the placed the actor who was portraying the young man, and made his way a bomb is thrown; acting out his attempt to organize a strike, bomb-throwing proposal. Of course all the other actors argued he is concretely organizing a strike. Within its fictitious limits, the against it since that would mean the destruction of the factory, experience is a concrete one. and therefore the source of work. What would become of so many Here the cathartical effect is entirely avoided. We are used to workers if the factory closed up? Disagreeing, the man decided to plays in which the characters make the revolution on stage and 142 THEATER OF THE OPPRESSED Poetics of the Oppressed 143 the spectators in their seats feel themselves to be triumphant 1) Newspaper theater. It was initially developed by the Nu revolutionaries. Why make a revolution in reality if we have al cleus Group of the Arena Theater of Sao Paulo, of which I was ready made it in the theater? But that does not happen here: the the artistic director until forced to leave Brazil.3 It consists of rehearsal stimulates the practice of the act in reality. Forum thea several simple techniques for transforming daily news items, or ter, as well as these other forms of a people’s theater, instead of any other non-dramatic material, into theatrical performances. taking something away from the spectator, evoke in him a desire a) Simple reading: the news item is read detaching it from to practice in reality the act he has rehearsed in the theater. The the context of the newspaper, from the format which makes it practice of these theatrical forms creates a sort of uneasy sense of false or tendentious. incompleteness that seeks fulfillment through real action. b) Crossed reading: two news items are read in crossed (al ternating) form, one throwing light on the other, explaining it, Fourth Stage: The Theater as Discourse. giving it a new dimension. George Ikishawa used to say that the bourgeois theater is the c) Complementary reading: data and information generally finished theater. The bourgeoisie already knows what the world is omitted by the newspapers of the ruling classes are added to the like, their world, and is able to present images of this complete, news. finished world. The bourgeoisie presents the spectacle. On the d) Rhythmical reading: as a musical commentary, the news other hand, the proletariat and the oppressed classes do not know is read to the rhythm of the samba, tango, Gregorian chant, etc., yet what their world will be like; consequently their theater will so that the rhythm functions as a critical “filter” of the news, be the rehearsal, not the finished spectacle. This is quite true, revealing its true content, which is obscured in the newspaper. though it is equally true that the theater can present images of e) Parallel action: the actors mime parallel actions while the transition. news is read, showing the context in which the reported event I have been able to observe the truth of this view during all really occurred; one hears the news and sees something else that my activities in the people’s theater of so many and such different complements it visually. countries of Latin America. Popular audiences are interested in Improvisation: the news is improvised on stage to exploit experimenting, in rehearsing, and they abhor the “closed” all its variants and possibilities. spectacles. In those cases they try to enter into a dialogue with g) Historical: data or scenes showing the same event in other the actors, to interrupt the action, to ask for explanations without historical moments, in other countries, or in other social systems, waiting politely for the end of the play. Contrary to the bourgeois are added to the news. code of manners, the people’s code allows and encourages the h) Reinforcement: the news is read or sung with the aid or spectator to ask questions, to dialogue, to participate. accompaniment of slides, jingles, songs, or publicity materials. All the methods that I have discussed are forms of a i) Concretion of the abstract: that which the news often rehearsal-theater, and not a spectacle-theater. One knows how hides in its purely abstract information is made concrete on the these experiments will begin but not how they will end, because stage: torture, hunger, unemployment, etc., are shown con the spectator is freed from his chains, finally acts, and becomes a cretely, using graphic images, real or symbolic. protagonist. Because they respond to the real needs of a popular j) Text out of context: the news is presented out of the con audience they are practiced with success and joy. text in which it was published; for example, an actor gives the But nothing in this prohibits a popular audience from practic speech about austerity previously delivered by the Minister of ing also more “finished” forms of theater. In Peru many forms Economics while he devours an enormous dinner: the real truth
previously developed in other countries, especially Brazil and behind the minister’s words becomes demystified — he wants Argentina, were also utilized and with great success. Some of austerity for the people but not for himself. these forms were: 2) Invisible theater: It consists of the presentation of a scene 144 THEATER OF THE OPPRESSED Poetics of the Oppressed 145
in an environment other than the theater, before people who are now, how are you going to pay for it?” not spectators. The place can be a restaurant, a sidewalk, a mar The diners nearby are, of course, closely following the
ket, a train, a line of people, etc. The people who witness the dialogue — much more attentively than they would if they were scene are those who are there by chance. During the spectacle, witnessing the scene on a stage. The actor continues: these people must not have the slightest idea that it is a “Don’t worry, because Jam going to pay you. But since I’m “spectacle,” for this would make them “spectators.” broke I will pay you with labor-power.” The invisible theater calls for the detailed preparation of a “With what?,” asks the waiter, astonished. “What kind of skit with a complete text or a simple script; but it is necessary to power?” rehearse the scene sufficiently so that the actors are able to incor “With labor-power, just as I said. I am broke but I can rent porate into their acting and their actions the intervention of the you my labor-power. So I’ll work doing something for as long as spectators. During the rehearsal it is also necessary to include it’s necessary to pay for my ‘barbecue a la pauper,’ which, to tell
every imaginable intervention from the spectators; these pos the truth, was really delicious — much better than the food you
sibilities will form a kind of optional text. serve to those poor souls. . . .“ The invisible theater erupts in a location chosen as a place By this time some of the customers intervene and make re where the public congregates. All the people who are near be marks among themselves at their tables, about the price of food, come involved in the eruption and the effects of it last long after the quality of the service in the hotel, etc. The waiter calls the the skit is ended. headwaiter to decide the matter. The actor explains again to the A small example shows how the invisible theater works. In latter the business of renting his labor-power and adds: the enormous restaurant of a hotel in Chiclayo, where the literacy “And besides, there is another problem: I’ll rent my labor- agents of ALFIN were staying, together with 400 other people, power but the truth is that I don’t know how to do anything, or the “actors” sit at separate tables. The waiters start to serve. The very little. You will have to give me a very simple job to do. For “protagonist” in a more or less loud voice (to attract the attention example, I can take out the hotel’s garbage. What’s the salary of of other diners, but not in a too obvious way) informs the waiter the garbage man who works for you?” that he cannot go on eating the food served in that hotel, because The headwaiter does not want to give any information about in his opinion it is too bad. The waiter does not like the remark salaries, but a second actor at another table is already prepared but tells the customer that he can choose something a la carte, and explains that he and the garbage man have gotten to be which he may like better. The actor chooses a dish called friends and that the latter has told him his salary: seven soles per “Barbecue a la pauper.” The waiter points out that it will cost hour. The two actors make some calculations and the “pro him 70 soles, to which the actor answers, always in a reasonably tagonist” exclaims: loud voice, that there is no problem. Minutes later the waiter “How is this possible! If I work as a garbage man I’ll have to brings him the barbecue, the protagonist eats it rapidly and gets work ten hours to pay for this barbecue that it took me ten min ready to get up and leave the restaurant, when the waiter brings utes to eat? It can’t be! Either you increase the salary of the
the bill. The actor shows a worried expression and tells the people garbage man or reduce the price of the barbecue!. . . But I can do at the next table that his barbecue was much better than the food something more specialized; for example, I can take care of the they are eating, but the pity is that one has to pay for it. hotel gardens, which are so beautiful, so well cared for. One can “I’m going to pay for it; don’t have any doubts. I ate the see that a very talented person is in charge of the gardens. How ‘barbecue a Ia pauper’ and I’m going to pay for it. But there is a much does the gardener of this hotel make? I’ll work as a gar problem: I’m broke.” dener! How many hours work in the garden are necessary to pay “And how are you going to pay?,” asks the indignant wait for the ‘barbecue a la pauper’?” er.” “You knew the price before ordering the barbecue. And A third actor, at another table, explains his friendship with 146 THEATER OF THE OPPRESSED Poetics of the Oppressed 147 the gardener, who is an immigrant from the same village as he; for nature of this form of theater. And it is precisely this invisible this reason he knows that the gardener makes ten soles per hour. quality that will make the spectator act freely and fully, as if he Again the “protagonist” becomes indignant: were living a real situation — and, after all, it is a real situation! “How is this possible? So the man who takes care of these It is necessary to emphasize that the invisible theater is not beautiful gardens, who spends his days out there exposed to the the same thing as a “happening” or the so-called “guerrilla thea wind, the rain, and the sun, has to work seven long hours to be ter.” In the latter we are clearly talking about “theater,” and able to eat the barbecue in ten minutes? How can this be, Mr. therefore the wall that separates actors from spectators im Headwaiter? Explain it to me!” mediately arises, reducing the spectator to impotence: a spectator The headwaiter is already in despair; he dashes back and is always less than a man! In the invisible theater the theatrical forth, gives orders to the waiters in a loud voice to divert the rituals are abolished; only the theater exists, without its old, attention of the other customers, alternately laughs and becomes worn-out patterns. The theatrical energy is completely liberated, serious, while the restaurant is transformed into a public forum. and the impact produced by this free theater is much more power “The “protagonist” asks the waiter how much he is paid to serve ful and longer lasting. the barbecue and offers to replace him for the necessary number Several presentations of invisible theater were made in dif of hours. Another actor, originally from a small village in the ferent locations in Peru. Particularly interesting is what happened interior, gets up and declares that nobody in his village makes 70 at the Carmen Market, in the barrio of Comas, some 14 kilomet soles per day; therefore nobody in his village can eat the ers away from downtown Lima. Two actresses were protagonists “barbecue a Ia pauper.” (The sincerity of this actor, who was, in a scene enacted at a vegetable stand. One of them, who was besides, telling the truth, moved those who were near his table.) pretending to be illiterate, insisted that the vendor was cheating Finally, to conclude the scene, another actor intervenes with her, taking advantage of the fact that she did not know how to the following proposition: read; the other actress checked the figures, finding them to be “Friends, it looks as if we are against the waiter and the correct, and advised the “illiterate” one to register in one of headwaiter and this does not make sense. They are our brothers. ALFIN’s literacy courses. After some discussion about the best They work like us, and they are not to blame for the prices age to start one’s studies, about what to study and with whom, charged here. I suggest we take up a collection. We at this table the first actress kept on insisting that she was too old for those are going to ask you to contribute whatever you can, one so!, two things. It was then that a little old woman, leaning on her cane, soles, five soles, whatever you can afford. And with that money very indignantly shouted: we are going to pay for the barbecue. And be generous, because “My dears, that’s not true? For learning and making love one what is left over will go as a tip for the waiter, who is our brother is never too old!” and a working man.” Everyone witnessing the scene broke into laughter at the old Immediately those who are with him at the table start collect woman’s amorous outburst, and the actresses were unable to ing money to pay the bill. Some customers willingly give one or continue the scene. two soles. Others furiously comment: 3) Photo-romance: In many Latin-American countries there “He says that the food we’re eating is junk, and no he is a genuine epidemic of photo-romances, sub-literature on the wants us to pay for his barbecue! ... And am I going to eat this lowest imaginable level, which furthermore always serves as a junk? Hell no? I wouldn’t give him a peanut, so he’ll learn a vehicle for the ruling classes’ ideology. The technique here con lesson! Let him wash dishes. . . .“ sists in reading to the participants the general lines in the plot of a The collection reached 100 soles and the discussion went on photo-romance without telling them the source of this plot. The through the night. It is always very important that the actors do participants are asked to act out the story. Finally, the acted-out not reveal themselves to be actors! On this rests the invisible story is compared to the story as it is told in the photo-romance,
(individuals).
women
against
direct
viduals)
acted and
dialogues
the without
told
when
story, the
course Of
(indi
men that
oppression
concrete
the
is exists
what
general:
core.
the to
rotten ending
happy a
with
crowned
is story
love
This
in
sex
feminine of the general
in
sex
masculine
the
by
pression
ideology!
an
What
her. with
in love fall
finally he will
trick,
this
op
an is
not
There
psychology.
becomes
Sociology
proletarians.
of result
a
as
so that, and side, at her
remain
to have
will
he that
all
on
exerted is
that
domination
the
through
exploited
is
letariat
so be ill to
pretends outdone, be to
not
wife,
young
the
And
pro
The person.
dominated the of figure the in concrete comes
forgiven. be
be
ideology
The
repression.
omnipresent
and daily,
constant,
to are
up way
the on
betrayals few a
even that
noble so
something
most the suffers group
age
or sex,
race,
class,
dominated The
as presented is owner factory a be to desire The
everything.
decreed.
is
property
private
that
possess — to eagerness
capitalistic that degree
highest the in
had
he
is that
and door
factory at
the
policeman
armed
an
places
simply because
lover her
forgave
mistress
former
the
say,
to is That
he
another;
to
labor the and
to one belong
should
capital the
indeed!” far very go
can he
you
with
hand,
that
agrees
he if
man
working the ask
not
does
capitalist The
On other the high. very
climb not
could
me he with
that well
very
women. or
inferior,
consider
they
races
the
young,
knew he
and
ambitious, very
been always
has he
all, after
cause,
the classes,
oppressed
the
upon
violence,
unilateral
by
force, be him
forgive I But me.
deceived me,
betrayed he
“Yes,
by
them
impose and
values of
sets
their
have sex,
masculine
exclaimed:
mistress the all,
it
top To woman.
well-dressed
the
the
or
races,
“superior” the
the
old,
classes,
ruling
The No.
is, that daughter, owner’s
factory the
marry to
wanted
he
cause
autocriticism. and
criticism through
ideas, of
interchange
honest
be
her left
had husband the
that stated
mistress the
husband;
an
through
understanding, cordial a
through
Never
repression.
her of
mistress a
former be to
her discovered
and
her, visit to
through others certain
subjugate races
certain
repression;
through
went woman, an unknown
from
a letter received
woman
dressed
young
the
crush
old
the repression;
through
ones
dominated
well- The insight.
ideological of
example
magnificent as served
the
crush classes
dominant The
of
repression:
Breaking
4)
it time same the at but sheer trash, was story particular This
people.
vein. in
this
continuing
and
salaries
,“
.
. .
the
against
directed
poison of
source
endless an
programs,
sion
in increase
an
wanted
through, living we all are
crisis
the
standing
televi
analyze to
technique
same that
using
were
barrios
several
under “not
they, because
workers the with
argument an
had
of
residents
the
that
informed was
I
Lima,
in
back
educators,
he where
factory, in his
work day’s a after
home
comes
husband
the
with
experiments
the
after
months
when,
overjoyed was
I
the palace; a marble is house The else. nothing and ma’am”;
domination.
X,
Mr. comes “Here
ma’am”;
well,
“Very
ma’am”;
served,
ideological
and
cultural
of forms
other
and
comics
the
is
dinner “The ma’am”;
“Yes,
than
more no says
who
maid
black
or
photo-stories,
those of
pages the
infiltrating
poison
the
detect
is a her
helping
is
who woman
etc.; the
necklaces, pearl
with
to
prepared be
will
they
And etc.
spouses,
own
their of
those
gown,
evening a long
in dressed
is woman
the
contrary,
the
on
with
them
compare and
attitudes
wife’s
or
husband’s
the at
own,
Tellado,
Corin In etc.
etc., shack,
one-room a
is
house the
work;
their
to
it
compare
and
house,
lady’s
the at
look
will
They
one.
day’s a long after tired
home
comes
husband the
things;
various
comparative
critical, a
instead but
attitude,
expectant
passive, a
about to chat comes
who
neighbor, a
is her
helping one the
meal;
assume
longer
no
will they
version,
Tellado’s
CorIn read
do
they
the be preparing
naturally will
husband her
expecting
home at
when
afterwards,
themselves, story a
out
act to
have
all of
first
woman a customs: to their
acted according
participants
The
they
if
but
“spectators”;
of role passive the
assume
mediately
housework. with the
her
helping
is who woman
another
im
they
Tellado
CorIn read
they
when
understood: be
must this
of
company the in her husband
for
waiting is
woman A
And
shock.
a
experience
they out,
acted
just have
they plot
the
this: like
started
genre,
brutalizing this
of
author worst
the
of
origin
the
told
are
participants the
performance,
the
of
end
the
Tellado,
CorIn from taken
story stupid
rather a
example:
For
at
When
meaning.
different
entirely an on takes
peasants, by
out
are discussed. differences the and
149
Oppressed
of the
Poetics
OPPRESSED THE OF THEATER 148
phenomena. of the analysis through
obtained laws, of those knowledge the with enriched perience
an
accept
such
would if she daughter
eldest frightened his asked
ex of this come out must spectator-participants The phenomena.
lot, and a
cried
while,
long a
for
future thought
The
landlord
those govern that laws social the toward plot the in sented
her.” marry
may I that
so daughter pre phenomena the from the law; toward phenomenon the from
your me oldest
give
you will exchange in but Peru; all of water ascends one that is discussion, the during afterward or mance
freshest the with
filled lagoon a you give will I beautiful. most the perfor actual the during realized, be to process The general.
is oldest
“the
stranger, the responded three,” the of “And the reach to indispensable it but is departure, of point the serve as
else.” nothing daughters, must instance particular the experiment theatrical type of this In
three is
my
possession
precious only my
particular, in myself And understood. be study under case particular the of nature generic
lives.
even
our not
precious,
nothing
have We hunger. terrible that the care take to necessary is it hand, other the On
most
from
the suffer
shacks, miserable in live water, of lack the more. once itself
from suffer We here all
poor. very lam have nothing; I “But presents occasion when the reality, future a in effectively resist
moaned: distressed,
very man, poor The to him prepare will to oppression resistance a rehearsed having
possession.” precious your most me of fact the not cathartic: is this seen that already have we But
give
must friend, you,
but you, all of
lagoon a for give will “I reality. to in do able been not had what he fiction, out, in carrying
the like others:
peasant
a poor only once trying and more of opportunity the protagonist the gives
then
was who
landowner, the addressed and arrived horse black It also enemy. the of true strength the measure to helps it so;
a
riding
and poncho black in
long a dressed man a however, day, do to yet resist fails and to has one often possibility the measure
same
the
of At
midnight
village.
arid that on have pity not did God to helps results clash The that performance. first the in as sion
But
water. of a
stream tiny even them to grant God to praying repres the and to maintain are urged participants The other wishes.
lamenting were
villagers the all heat
intense day a of on water, no his ideas, will, his his to impose fighting repression, the accepting
still
was
When
there
it. explains legend
The
man? one of property time without but this scene, the repeat to asked is protagonist
the
become
it how did
and up
spring lagoon that did How owner. the over, is event the actual of “reproduction” the Once
land
local
a
of property
the there, exists a lagoon Today thirst. feelings. original same the and cumstances,
of
dying
were
water, of a get glass to kilometers several for
travel
cir same the scene, same the
recreating reality in happened
—
to
having peasants,
the all
and that there water no was there it just as incident the act out protagonist the and participants
that
said
is It
Cheken.
of
lagoon the of that
is legend Another the by protagonist, the provided directions and information the
mountain. receiving after Then, incident. the of the reconstruction pate in
that
of
top the on
precisely located mine gold a owned who cans partici will who characters all other the participants the of rest
Ameri
reality some were
in They “ghosts.” the found he where the among from also story chooses the tells who person The
top, the to
climbed
and himself armed man who young brave a of others. to pens
told
also
is
the
But story
mountain. the top of the inhabited ghosts hap what of typical time is same the at but which particular, in
sanguinary
some
that
believed was It returned. never had tried to someone happened has that something with to deal and versa,
had
who
few
the and fear,
inspired it dangerous; was it beyond vice not general, to the the from particular pass to necessary is
go
to
cross:
as that
far go as could One a cross. stood top the to It is oppressed. proletariat the therefore oppressed; are letarians
halfway
top;
to
the trees the
through led that road a narrow with we pro a oppressed; am I, proletarian, meaning: personal deep
mountain,
a
hill, almost a was
there Motupe
called place a In a moment must have That desires. own to his contrary manner
truths. a evident to began in act repression, and that accepted repressed, cially
its
revealing
story, a
tell logically to myth: the behind espe obvious felt moment he when a particular to remember
participant
the
discovering
of question a
simply is It theater: Myth 5) a asking in consists repression breaking of technique The
151
Oppressed of the F Poetics
OF OPPRESSED THE 150 THEATER
(superstructure).
society
a of
culture
the
determine
structure)
each
Afterward
it.
improvise actors
the
immediately
and pants
(infra
production
of
relations
The
masks:
and
Rituals 7) partici the by of one told is story A theater: Analytical 6)
class!
his
useful.
extraordinarily
speaks
individual
the
through
always,
almost
psychology:
vidual
be can theater
the task
In this
revealed.
truths hidden
their
and
indi
of
result
primordial and exclusive
the
not
are
actions
human
analyzed and
be studied
should
people
the
by told
myths The
that
realize
will they
way this In present. those
all by
criticized
gold.
like was lagoon the
landlord
and
actors
the
by
performed be
must
combinations
proposed
the
the that
for is
truth the
Yes,
comb.
golden
a beautiful with
.
. .
and
combinations
varying to make
asked are
participants
The
long hair her combing and naked still lagoon, the of bottom the at
order?
fraternal
the
for
singing girl the hear
one could
moon
the new of
nights
the on that
symbol
same
the
had
both robber the
and
policeman
the
d)
legend said the of that, a reminder as serving
And
place!
took tion
revolver?
a
had robber
the
c)
a transac possession
precious most
landlord’s
the
daughter,
necktie?
hat or
a top
had robber
the b)
eldest
the of by
loss the
explained was
lagoon
the of
property
necktie?
the
or hat top
the
have
not
did
policeman the
a) the case, In this used. still are magical less no
explanations
if:
same
the
exactly
today rights, and
property
of their
granting the
to God
attributed
be
story the
Would
well.
as roles
social
some
consequently
noblemen the
If formerly
to him.
belong not
did what of
sion
and
character,
each
from symbols the
of
some
away
taking
but
posses took landlord the
a truth:
hides
doubt no myth
This
made,
is
the story
tell
to
attempt fresh a
clarity), and
simplicity
of
all
Peru. of water
freshest
the
with lagoon the
formed
sake the
for
only,
characters
central
the
to
operation
this
limit
to and
flow
to started a
spring ground, the
in
made been
had
that
advisable
is (it
characters or
character,
the
analyzed
Having hole huge the From disappeared. had girl naked and horseman,
be
chosen.
may
horse, the
where place
the very in
remained
smoke of cloud
armchair
an
then
symbol; a
be
not
may
it is, that
anything, cate
large
a and
heard, was explosion
an enormous
Then plains. the
communi
not
may
symbol
this
community
another
For
family. in
depression a
great toward
gallop
a at off
set which
horse, on his
the
controls
way
in this and
finances,
household the
controls
her placed and
herself, girl
the besides
house that
from
anything
who
person
the is
he because
wallet, a
be
might
family
the
of
head
take
to want
not did he for girl, the
undressed
black
in man
the
for
symbol
the
community
particular a
For
above.”
“from
The work. the
expedite
to
order in
water, of liter
a of price the
imposed
be
not
they that and
present
participants
by
the
chosen
showing signs little
some
make to daughter
the
asking
meanwhile
be
symbols
the
that important is
It
etc.
etc.,
order,
a fraternal
of
decision, the of
in black man the
to inform
went
father kind
member
example),
for wallet,
the
(symbol:
family a
of
head
roles:
the
tearful, somewhat
course of and
contented,
and
Happy
his
all
analyzed
have participants the until
continued
is
This
me.” take will he places the
revolver.
a
bol: of and identity
true his of
suspicious Jam
heart my in if
even him,
sym
policeman;
a
is he
because
agent
repressive
a is
he
c) with go will I that horse, black his astride poncho, black the in
etc.;
hat,
gentleman the tell all
this,
for it is if
kilometers
many
so travel
—
top
a
or
necktie, a
symbol: life;
human
than
more
it
values
and
to
than you from buy to
cheaper it find will
who peasants,
the
property
private
protects he
because
bourgeois
a
is
He
b) to water wonderful
this to able sell be will
you for
riches and
—
overalls;
of pair
a
prosperity personal you
and bring
alone you to belong
will
lagoon
symbol:
labor-power;
his rents he
because
worker
a is
he
a)
that that so is it if all Peru, of water freshest the with lagoon
analyzed:
is
policeman
a have
may you
it so is if that end, to an
come
will
peasants the
all
The
thief.
chicken a
killed
policeman
a
example,
For
role.
of
hunger and thirst so
that the all, of
salvation for the is it “If
each
symbolize
to
object physical a choose to
asked
are
pants
way:
this in self
partici
the
and
roles
social
all
his
into down
broken
is character
her expressed daughter obedient The proposal. marriage unusual
153
Oppressed of the OPPRESSED THE OF Poetics THEATER 152 154 OF THE OPPRESSED Poetics of the THEATER Oppressed 155
Sometimes the infrastructure changes but the superstructure bad word! The spectator is less than a man and it is necessary to for a while remains the same. In Brazil the landlords would not humanize him, to restore to him his capacity of action in all its allow the peasants to look them in the face while talking with fullness. He too must be a subject, an actor on an equal plane with them: this would mean lack of respect. The peasants were accus those generally accepted as actors, who must also be spectators. tomed to talking with the landlords only while staring at the All these experiments of a people’s theater have the same objec ground and murmuring: “yes, sir; yes, sir; yes, sir.” When the tive — the liberation of the spectator, on whom the theater has government decreed an agrarian reform (before 1964, date of the imposed finished visions of the world. And since those responsi facist coup d’etat) its emissaries went to the fields to tell the ble for theatrical performances are in general people who belong peasants that now they could become landowners. The peasants, directly or indirectly to the ruling classes, obviously their finished staring at the ground, murmured: “yes, friend; yes, friend; yes, images will be reflections of themselves. The spectators in the friend.” A feudalistic culture had totally permeated their lives. people’s theater (i.e., the people themselves) cannot go on being The relationships of the peasant with the landlord were entirely the passive victims of those images. different from those with the agent of the Institute of Agrarian As we have seen in the first essay of this book, the poetics of Reform, but the ritual remained unchanged. Aristotle is the poetics ofoppression: the world is known, perfect This particular technique of a people’s theater (“Rituals and or about to be perfected, and all its values are imposed on the masks”) consists precisely in revealing the superstructures, the spectators, who passively delegate power to the characters to act rituals which reify all human relationships, and the masks of be and think in their place. In so doing the spectators purge them selves havior that those rituals impose on each person according to the of their tragic flaw — that is, of something capable of roles he plays in society and the rituals he must perform. changing society. A catharsis of the revolutionary impetus is pro A very simple example: a man goes to a priest to confess his duced! Dramatic action substitutes for real action. sins. How will he do it? Of course, he will kneel, confess his sins, Brecht’s poetics is that of the enlightened vanguard: the hear the penitence, cross himself, and leave. But do all men con world is revealed as subject to change, and the change starts in fess always in the same way before all priests? Who is the man, the theater itself, for the spectator does not delegate power to the and who is the priest? characters to think in his place, although he continues to delegate In this case we need two versatile actors to stage the same power to them to act in his place. The experience is revealing on confession four times: the level of consciousness, but not globally on the level of the First scene: the priest and the parishioner are landlords; action. Dramatic action throws light upon real action. The Second scene: the priest is a landlord and the parishioner is a spectacle is a preparation for action. peasant; The poetics of the oppressed is essentially the poetics of Third scene: the priest is a peasant and the parishioner is a liberation: the spectator no longer delegates power to the charac landlord; ters either to think or to act in his place. The spectator frees Fourth scene: the priest and the parishioner are peasants. himself; he thinks and acts for himself! Theater is action! The ritual is the same in each instance, but the different Perhaps the theater is not revolutionary in itself; but have no social masks will cause the four scenes to be different also. doubts, it is a rehearsal of revolution! This is an extraordinarily rich technique which has countless variants: the same ritual changing masks; the same ritual per formed by people of one social class, and later by people of another class; exchange of masks within the same ritual; etc., etc. Conclusion: “Spectator,” a Bad Word! Yes, this is without a doubt the conclusion: “Spectator” is a