This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. AN AMERICAN ATRA? BOUNDARIES OF DIASPORIC NATION-BUILDING AMONGST ASSYRIANS AND CHALDEANS IN THE UNITED STATES ERIN E. HUGHES DOCTORATE IN SOCIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH 2016 This is to certify that the work contained within has been composed by me and is entirely my own work. No part of this thesis has been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. _________________________________ Erin E. Hughes 1 ABSTRACT Voluntary and forced migrations over the past century have given rise to the number of displaced peoples and nations who consider themselves diasporas. The resiliency of these extra-territorial nations after displacement is something of a paradox in nationalism studies. For diaspora, the nation is simultaneously local and transnational, divided and caged by the confines of state borders, often intermixed with other ethnic groups, nations, and cultures, and yet, undeniably, a singular community. Through a comparative examination of the Assyrian and Chaldean diaspora in the United States, this dissertation uses boundary theory to explore the role of diasporic elites in making and sustaining a diasporic nation, and the events, identities, and ideologies that shape diasporic action. It draws from twenty-nine interviews held with Assyrian and Chaldean leaders in Michigan, Illinois, and California, and with policy-makers, as well as research into congressional documents, policy papers, and press reports. The multi-ethnic fabric of American society is formative to boundary-creation, and yet challenges its retention, providing an open society for ethnic expression and civic and political engagement, whilst at the same time facilitating assimilation and loss of diasporic culture and identity. Diasporic elites pursue institutional completeness to sustain diasporic presence in local societies, and cultivate national ideologies that in turn engender activism on behalf of the greater diasporic nation. The Iraq War served as a catalyst to nation-building, providing the first political opening in decades for diasporic actors to mobilize on behalf of Assyrians and Chaldeans in the homeland, seeking constitutional recognition as equal members of the Iraq state. However, the impermeable, exclusionary Iraqi national boundary wrought in conflict instead posed an existential crisis, forcing Assyrians and Chaldeans from Iraq and forcing diasporic leaders to confront questions of what will become of their nation if the homeland is lost. Revealed in the resulting political demands are two distinct strains of nationalism: that for resettlement into diaspora and continued integration into Iraq; and that for territorial autonomy within Iraq’s Nineveh Plain. This dissertation argues diaspora is a continuous, evolving product of boundary- making, often the result of diasporic elite mobilization. Diaspora is a nation not simply born of displacement, but formed through social boundaries encountered and made upon resettlement outside the homeland. Nationalism is a significant component of diasporic nation-building, offering insight into political goals, ideologies, and the dedication of diasporic elites to sustaining an Assyrian and Chaldean homeland, an atra, in diaspora. 2 LAY SUMMARY This dissertation examines the Assyrian and Chaldean diaspora in the United States at a pivotal moment in Assyrian and Chaldean history. It considers specifically the role of diasporic leaders in working to create and sustain the diaspora within American society whilst sustaining ties to the diaspora’s homeland and its global population. Political claims of the diaspora were significantly affected by the Iraq War, which offered an opportunity for diasporic activists to mobilize in demand of recognition and national rights within a democratic Iraq. Political and national goals remain affected by the ethno-sectarian conflict that followed and still persists, which caused mass displacement of Assyrians and Chaldeans in Iraq and compelled diasporic activists to mobilize in support of their co-ethnics, demanding refugee admissions and local autonomy over the homeland as a means to preserve their national existence in Iraq. It is argued diaspora is not simply the byproduct of displacement, but made through interaction with the state and society of resettlement, shaped by the openness or exclusion the diaspora encounters and the desire of diasporic elites to build a diasporic nation. Boundary theory is therefore used to understand how cultural practices, language, religion, and historical memories are drawn upon to define who the diaspora is in relation to its surrounding society. It finds in contrast to the increasing exclusion experienced in Iraq, where Assyrians and Chaldeans were defined by their Christianity and unique ethnicity, upon arrival in the U.S. Assyrians and Chaldeans instead encountered relatively open borders and were able to integrate, often assimilating and losing the cultural attributes and identification with the diaspora. Such assimilation challenges diasporic retention, a challenge particularly concerning to elites in the context of the ongoing crisis in Iraq and the absence of an Assyrian and Chaldean state. Diasporic leaders thus work to find a way to balance integration with retaining enough cultural elements to stave off assimilation. This is aided by building organizations, making political claims, and finding ways to make membership in the diaspora relevant and lasting. To this end, diasporic elites aspire to build a measure of a diasporic nation integrated within their state of resettlement. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am immensely fortunate for the support I have received throughout this undertaking. Foremost, I must thank my supervisors, James Kennedy and Liliana Riga: Lilli, who was so kind to come into a long-developed thesis and whose insight made it whole; Jimmy, who was essentially my only supervisor for much of this project and focused and shaped mountains of ideas and data into an actual research project, and whose help over these years was invaluable. I am entirely certain without the immeasurable support of my parents, graduate school would not have been possible, and I am forever grateful for and indebted to their love, kindness, and generosity. Moreover, this research would not exist without the kindness of the dedicated activists who were willing to meet with a PhD student and share their experiences, stories, and hopes. It is because of the dedication of these community leaders in the face of profound challenges, and the abiding resiliency of the Assyrian and Chaldean people, that I was inspired to write this thesis, and whose story I hope I do justice. I must thank in particular Joseph Kassab, who allowed me to learn firsthand the layers and layers of effort undertaken, and the commitment and compassion of those involved. Undoubtedly when I remember my years at Edinburgh, my memories will be the friends I’ve had the immense pleasure to know and who inspire me constantly. In particular I must thank Sam and Amanda and Seti and Ashiq for being constant sources of fun and entertainment despite distance and geography; Jen and Grant and Dani and Eirik for their incredible generosity and hospitality; Gëzim who was occasionally helpful; Shamiran for her insight and knowledge, and also to whom I said this ‘will be over and it will be glorious’ and I would like to point out I was right; and Martina and Shruti and Ceren and Carl and Ibrahim who helped make the mundanity of this process and the long nights at CMB enjoyable – with extra gratitude to Martina for making this monstrosity a physical reality. And lastly, this is dedicated to the loves of my life, Nick and Anders. How lucky I am to have found you. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………2 LAY SUMMARY…………………………………………………………………...3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………......4 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….…8 Existing Assyrian and Chaldean Scholarship……………..……………16 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………....21 Defining Diaspora: Class, Criteria, and Consciousness…………………25 Boundary Theory as an Alternative Framework………………………...33 Diasporas Are Not Borne from Displacement.……………….………….39 Identity and Institutions: Building Diasporic Membership…..40 Nationalism and Political Activism……………………………48 Research Questions and Thesis Outline…………………………….......56 CHAPTER II RESEARCH DESIGN……………………………………………………………59 Research Methodology…………………………………………………….....62 CHAPTER III ASSYRIANS AND CHALDEANS IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT………...71 Denominational Schism: The First Assyrian-Chaldean Boundary……………..73 Confronting the Boundaries of the Iraqi State………………………..79 From Ottomans to Iraqis: The Quest for an Assyrian