NATIONALHumanities ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES . VOLUME 7 NUMBER 2 . APRIL 1986 Editor's Contents Notes

3 The Philosophical Resistance of Leszek Kolakowski by Gesine Schwan Polish philosopher Leszek A philosophy that embraces the contradictions of human experience. Kolakowski will deliver the fifteenth Jefferson Lecture in the Humanities 7 The Fifteenth Jefferson Lecturer in the Humanities by Linda Blanken in Washington, D.C., on May 7, and Leszek Kolakowski's life and work. in Chicago on May 16. The highest honor conferred by the U.S. govern­ 10 A Kolakowski Anthology ment for outstanding achievement Excerpts from the major works published in English. in the humanities, the award recog­ nizes the combination of intellectual 16 Political Theory and Political Practice vitality and social concern Political science curricula with a healthy dose of the humanities. exemplified by Thomas Jefferson. Professor Kolakowski, a senior re­ 18 The European Struggle against Totalitarianism search fellow at All Soul's College, High school teachers read four heroes of the postwar resistance. Oxford, and member of the Univer­ sity of Chicago's department of phi­ 20 Yugoslavia's Memory, Vladimir Dedijer losophy and Committee on Social The World War II diaries of Tito's biographer now being published in English. Thought, has written more than I thirty books on philosophy and the 22 What Constitutes the Good Life? history of ideas. His life and work Adult learners reexamine the questions of Aristotle and Adam Smith. have exemplified the Jeffersonian I ideal of tolerance and an enduring 24 Philosophy and the Religious Quest by Thomas V. Morris commitment to the betterment of so­ A philosopher interprets Pascal's famous treatise on the nature of faith. ciety. In this issue we present the range of this work, from his tireless 27 Hegel's Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion resistance to totalitarian oppression A new translation of the lectures that heralded the new discipline. to his explorations of religious faith. Professor Gesine Schwan of the 28 The Tradition of Religious Freedom University of Berlin explained how A conference on the origins of the separation of church and state. Kolakowski's philosophy has worked as a force for freedom in an 30 Fundamentals: Issues and Texts address, which we reprint here, Students at the University of Chicago take the Great Books a step further. honoring him as the 1977 winner of the Friedenpreis des Deutschen 33 The Humanities GUIDE Buchhandels. Kolakowski's principle The 1986 NEH Fellows and Advice for Younger Scholars. of rationalistic doubt, said Schwan, has been "a means for shattering all the spiritual and material incrusta­ tions that force people into con­ strained categories of belief." Humanities The Jefferson Lecture was estab­ The opinions and conclusions expressed in lished in 1972 as an opportunity for a bimonthly review published by the Humanities are those of the authors and do outstanding thinkers to explore mat­ National Endowment not necessarily reflect Endowment policy. ters of broad concern in a public fo­ for the Humanities Material appearing in this publication may be freely reproduced with appropriate credit to rum. Previous Jefferson lecturers Acting Chairman: John Agresto Humanities. The editor would appreciate cop­ have been Cleanth Brooks, Sidney Director of Public Affairs: ies for the Endowment's reference. The chair­ Susan H. Metts man of the Endowment has determined that Hook, Jaroslav Pelikan, Emily T. Assistant Director for Publications: the publication of this periodical is necessary Vermeule, Gerald Holton, Barbara in the transaction of the public business re­ Caroline Taylor Tuchman, Edward Shils, C. Vann quired by law of this agency. Use of funds for Editor: Linda Blanken printing this periodical has been approved by Woodward, Saul Bellow, John Hope Editorial Board: Majorie Berlincourt, the director of the Office of Management and Franklin, Paul A. Freund, Robert James Blessing, Harold Cannon, Budget through September 1988. Send re­ Penn Warren, Erik H. Erikson, and Richard Ekman, Donald Gibson, quests for subscriptions and other communi­ cations to the editor, Humanities, National Lionel Trilling. Guinevere Griest, Pamela Glenn Endowment for the Humanities, 1100 Menke Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20506. Telephone 202/ 786-0435. (USPS —Linda Blanken Designed by Maria josephy Schoolman 521-090) ISSN 0018-7526. 2 The Philosophical Resistance of Leszek Kolakowski

Any young German at the beginning general ideological differences be­ of the 1960s who considered himself tween the East and West; despite "leftist" felt his political commitment the bitterness over the incomprehen­ less as a condemnation of the West­ sible atrocities of the past, which ern political or socioeconomic transcended all else; and despite system—in general he scarcely unresolved territorial questions. thought in categories of the One of the ways that Germans be­ "system"—than as a moral burden came reacquainted with neighboring For years in the past, intellectuals of guilt bequeathed by the recent Poland was by reading an officially of leftist origins who came from past. This burden not only rested on published magazine distributed Eastern Europe and criticized the so­ the older generation, but was inher­ abroad and entitled "Poland." It at­ cialism established there were ostra­ ited by the younger. National social­ tempted to provide representative cized by the very people from whom ism, not yet categorized as a special glimpses of the political, social and they expected empathy and produc­ case in the general phenomenon of cultural events of the nation. Here tive discussion: from, as Kolakowski "fascism" and not yet approached, Germans met a promising young called it, the humanistic Left. In therefore, with academic distance, representative of the Polish intellec­ those years, however, these people, was part of the reality concretely ex­ tual scene and an already influential especially in Germany, were aban­ perienced or retold. Preoccupation academic instructor of the young doning humanist thought, believing with it was of primary importance in generation, a philosophy professor it to be politically noncommittal and shaping political consciousness. from Warsaw: Leszek Kolakowski. too moralizing, in favor of an appar­ The most pressing political task— Now, Kolakowski has not taught ently less ambiguous division of besides the theoretical debate on in Warsaw since 1968, but rather at people into friend and foe, the ex­ how national socialism could have Berkeley, Montreal, Yale, Chicago, ploited and the exploiter—two come about—was the practical re­ and Oxford, and yet the magazine neatly divided political camps. Who­ paying of the debt, or to put it more was correct in honoring him as an ever broke out of this pattern, who­ prudently, the attempt to come to an outstanding representative of Polish ever discriminatingly refused to ac­ understanding, and perhaps even to intellectual life. With extraordinary cept the boundaries by criticizing a reconciliation with the deeply international resonance, he embod­ socialism as a socialist, was either ravaged neighboring countries. Be­ ies the resurrected vitality of the dropped from memory or high­ cause the West German government postwar Polish spirit. This vitality is handedly assigned to one of the two focused efforts at reconciliation on not characterized by a narrow na­ camps—when in doubt, that of the the most important Western neigh­ tionalism, but by an expansive, cos­ enemy. This censure approximated bor, France, the attention of the mopolitan awareness of European the same mechanism that Kolakow­ "leftists" of the day came to be in­ history and of the European present. ski has described and criticized in creasingly directed toward the In Kolakowski's work, one sees the his own country after 1956 as "extor­ East—not as an opposition but as a philosophical tradition of Europe. tion by the sole alternative." It is supplement to government policy. His command of this tradition encouraging that Kolakowski's Besides Czechoslovakia, Poland in pushes to the background the issue unwavering nonconformity, his foil­ particular came to be the center of of national origins. And yet he is un­ ing of every intellectual fashion, is their interest. Communication began mistakably a Polish patriot—even meeting with an increasingly posi­ to be reestablished between Poland outside the geographical borders of tive response from the West. and Germany despite the barriers of his country. Admittedly, it is not entirely in­ comprehensible that independent losophy. ity, even if it remains unclear in thinkers like Kolakowski were con­ Kolakowski's theoretical, and at which concrete forms these values sidered inconvenient in the wake of the same time existential, analysis of are to be realized." the policy of detente between East German national socialism and So­ "That something does constitute a and West. After years of Cold War viet Stalinism elevates the phenome­ value ...": This very statement can­ and an anticommunism, which in non of responsibility in his thinking not be justified within the bounds of Germany fed on the remains of anti­ to the category of Grunderfahrung, a rational, discursive, historical argu­ democratic thinking, fear of a re­ fundamental philosophical experi­ mentation; to get there, the bounds lapse into sterile Western self-right- ence. "Our primary relationship to must be crossed into a transcenden­ eousness might have played a role. the world," he writes in Traktat ueber tal reality. Kolakowski began as a militantly atheistic Marxist, who, [The Survival of the pluralist society] depends not only against the background of human liberation, proclaimed man's unlim­ on the continued existence of its institutions, but also on ited autonomy, and went on to criti­ a belief in their value and a widespread will to defend cize and reject first the communist practice of Marxism, and later the them— We are accustomed to expect from the state central elements of the theory itself, ever more solutions not only to social questions but also because instead of contributing to the liberation of man it led to his to private problems and difficulties___ This tendency to subjugation. In this progression, bear less and less responsibility for our own lives Kolakowski in fact went a long way toward accepting a transcendental furthers the danger of totalitarian development. reality. He describes this reality —Leszek Kolakowski more precisely as that of myth, meaning an unconditioned, absolute But just as reconciliation with the die Sterblichkeit der Vernunft: Philos- truth, by which each conditioned, fi­ democratic neighbors after the Sec­ ophische Essays (Treatise on the Mortal­ nite experience is relativized and ond World War could not be built on ity of Reason: Philosophical Essays, thus gains its meaning. the negative foundation of anticom­ Munich, 1967), can be interpreted That of all people a philosopher munism—the graves torn open by "as the relationship of a voluntarily who had for years fought against the history had to be truly filled and not assumed responsibility." He contin­ mythicization of consciousness and just covered over, in makeshift ues: "If we live, we voluntarily ac­ of politics in the name of rationalism fashion—true detente with the cept this situation. We put, so to should now declare myth to be an neighbors to the East could take speak, our signature under the fiat inalienable element of human cul­ place only when existing differences, by which the world has been formed ture was bound to elicit bewilder­ either of history or of the current so­ in the shape in which we see it; and ment. But it would be a mistake to cial and political order, are confron­ since that fiat refers to the whole, it assume that Kolakowski in this way ted courageously and openly, with applies our signature to the whole as abandoned the principle of rational­ the desire for understanding. It is well for the simple reason that one istic doubt and radical criticism. This obvious that politicians with official cannot live partially. Consequently, doubt, however, is not an end in it­ responsibilities and independent one cannot partially choose the self, but rather a means for breaking thinkers play different roles in this world in which one lives, the history up all the spiritual and material in­ effort. But the absence of tension is in which one participates. In this crustations that force people into not an indication of or a requirement way, we are debtors in every occa­ constrained categories of belief, for detente, or even for reconcilia­ sion where there is a debt, and all thereby preventing free communica­ tion and peace. On the contrary, the claims for compensation— every­ tion and jeopardizing "peaceful" co­ courage to name and to analyze dif­ thing that can be changed—are our existence. This doubt is in the ser­ ferences, not for reasons of political concern." vice of the human community, opportunism but for purposes of un­ How should these debts and the which for its part needs a bond uni­ derstanding the reasons behind dif­ meaning of responsible action, how­ fying it in freedom if it is not to fall ferences, is indispensable for genu­ ever, be defined and substantiated? apart from its internal differences. ine peace. The life and thought of Did Kolakowski not, beginning with Such a bond can be established only Kolakowski the nonconformist are the revision of Stalinist Marxism, by the transcendental reality of a tirelessly directed toward the postulate a permanent revisionism myth. The myth serves as an orien­ achievement of this understanding. that radically challenged all dogmas, tation to human behavior and activ­ For Kolakowski, peace, that still traditional truths, and values? Kola­ ity. It presents a nontemporal model precarious balance of conflicts, can­ kowski claims to be able to define explaining the deficiency, the or­ not emerge through the forceful the meaning of responsibility phe- ganic incompleteness of being, the suppression of opposites, but rather nomenologically and at the same very incompleteness that in the fun­ through positive solidarity, founded time conditionally: "The imperative damental philosophical experience on unconditional moral responsibil­ of responsibility actually weighs on of responsibility is felt as a call to di­ ity. Freedom and unconditionally us only when we at least know that minish personally the debt of man­ committed responsibility are funda­ something does constitute a value, kind. Historical projections or ideas mental tenets in Kolakowski's phi­ and as such the object of responsibil­ of societal order, which maintain 4 Christian to complete the integration values, but, in view of the absurd, obstruct the openness of existential of the two orders into one coherent without recourse to transcendence. possibilities. He has the responsibil­ w hole." Kolakowski, despite his deepest ity of promoting tolerance towards Kolakowski's strictly anthro- respect for the courage necessary to different positions, not in order to pocentric philosophy encounters the hold consistently the conviction of unify all possible or historically experience of the Christian philoso­ the absurdity of the world and thus achieved perspectives into one de­ pher: The realm of the finites—of of one's own existence, finds this finitive synthesis, but to understand autonomous reason, of discursive position unfeasible. This conviction them and make them understand­ thought in science and philoso­ not only forces man to choose be­ able in their diversity. phy—cannot and should not simply tween despair and diversion, but in All attempts to possess man intel­ be relinquished by man. However, addition denies him any opportunity lectually, to incarcerate him in an the absolutization of this realm as a for a determination of the responsi­ understandable order, are caught in self-sufficient truth would rob him bility to which he is unconditionally a swirl of doubt. Man remains in the of the opportunity to understand his committed. Unconditionalness and area of conflict between different, existence as meaningful and to es­ purposelessness are incompatible. even contradictory orders and de­ tablish his community with others in Merely living with what is known in mands. He cannot entrust himself to free solidarity. Participation in the philosophy and science is not possi­ any one of them, and it is precisely myth is the only way to reach the ble; participation in the myth is part through resistance that he gains his absolute, which alone is able to con­ of our existence. freedom. And thus even peace, as­ stitute the meaning of the existence Nevertheless, science and myth, sociated with the tempting idea of and the community of human like the two orders that they repre­ definitive harmony and calm, finds beings. sent, are not indifferent to one an­ no justification in Kolakowski's phi­ If this is how Kolakowski ap­ other and do not complement one losophy. The insight into the relativ­ proaches the Christian philosophy of another. Each truth tends to declare ity of competing claims among hu­ Pascal, then at the same time he dis­ itself as the sole legitimate truth and man demands, not the least of all tances himself from a system of to make total claims on man. Partici­ being political and social designs to thought that among all modern pation in the myth is an act of faith satisfy them, undermines the hu­ trends was initially the most closely without a need for argumentative bris, the presumptuousness, which related to his: the thought of Albert justification and in this way threat­ even today in the name of peace so Camus. The two share a fundamen­ ens to degenerate into irrational su­ frequently grants itself the right to tal ethical impetus. They are coura­ periority. Science, on the other use force in implementing political geous and radical in their question­ hand, demands that only that which objectives, without concern for the ing. They share insight into human stands up to its discursive and em­ freedom of those who think differ­ finiteness, and they reject all dogma­ pirical tests be recognized as the ently. If this insight wrests theoreti­ tism and any reliance on certainties. truth. Without the possibility of a cal legitimacy away from violence, Both start from the point that man reciprocal relationship or subordina­ then it alone makes room for the es­ cannot discern any order, absolute tion, they call one another into ques­ tablishment of genuine peace. reason, or meaning in the world as a tion, mutually fend off their respec­ Peace, which could be ensured by whole. However, Camus challenges tive claims to absolute truth and an appropriate societal structure, would then not be something static, but rather dynamic, marked by de­ Unlimited freedom for everyone means unlimited rights bate, creative efforts for withstand­ for the strong ory according to Dostoevsky, in the end, ing and dealing with conflicts. It would require an awareness of the absolute freedom equals absolute slavery. Wherever common bonds and obligations of all freedom finds itself in opposition to the law, to people with respect to values that owe their validity to a transcenden­ intellectual standards, or to tradition, it turns against tal reality. In this understanding, itself and becomes the weapon of its enemies. peace can be seen as a central issue of Kolakowski's thought and work. —Leszek Kolakowski It is not a leisurely, not a comfort­ able peace, but indeed the only pos­ man to live only with what he validity, and, in this way, show sible and human one, and Leszek knows and not to count on anything man's irrevocable state of conflict, Kolakowski might add: the only about which he is uncertain. (Here uncertainty, openness and incom­ lively and interesting peace. the influence of the Cartesian tradi­ pleteness, which owe their origins to —Gesine Schwan tion is evident.) The obvious inabil­ his participation in both orders—the Professor Schwan is a professor of politi­ ity to discern the orders or meaning finite and the infinite. cal sciences specializing in political phi­ of the world as a whole induces in The philosopher thus has the im­ losophy at the University of Berlin. Her him a belief in its absurdity. The portant task of shedding light on published works on political theory and "first and only evidence" of this con­ this basic human situation in its con­ on the policy of the German Social Dem­ viction is the call to rebellion, thus to tinually emerging forms and of pre­ ocratic Party include Leszek Kolakow­ the obligation to take action for the serving it in memory, of exploding ski: A Philsophy of Freedom after sake of realizing absolutely binding all rigid structures that threaten to Marxism (1971). 6 that their validity can be proved sci­ tical organization claiming temporal as contradictory, provides evidence entifically or philosophically— thus, power. For Kolakowski, Christianity from Christian experience of insight immanently—may presume to force and religion form an adequate ex­ into this basic human situation. In­ popular consent, even by totalitarian pression of the internal inconsisten­ terpreting Pascal, Kolakowski writes: means. The myth, however, binds cies and contradictions of the human "The human being lives simultane­ people together in freedom, because situation, which stem from the par­ ously in both orders, which cannot the truth of its nontemporal, pre- ticipation of man in the two incom­ be accepted together. Yet neither empirical model defies all attempts mensurable orders of the finite and can be simply eliminated. Both at­ to prove it immanently, to decree it the infinite. The work of the Jansen- tract man and both demand tribute theoretically, and thus to impose it ist Pascal, which is often described from him. It is not the duty of a politically. "The function of mythical consciousness," Kolakowski writes, "is primarily to arouse the feeling of obligation, the awareness of being indebted to existence, and this awareness is capable of creating a mutual bond of cooperation between the sharers of the debt, in fact a bond that is relatively resistant to change." Kolakowski makes a clear distinc­ tion between this sort of myth that joins people in a common state of in­ debtedness, and the types that pro­ claim goals of conquest or decree the shape of utopias. The latter types promise the total fulfillment of indi­ vidual or collective demands. These myths cannot bring about true soli­ darity because they do not provide a basis for the acknowledgment of norms that are binding for all people and that include everyone as equal members of the community. For this reason, Kolakowski rejects the po­ tentially egoistic central Marxist topos of the right to the satisfaction of one's needs as a basis for all polit­ ical action. An appeal by a philosopher for a category that in terms of content has its concrete form in the great reli­ gions, and for which the philosophical substantiation of its truth and valid­ ity has from the outset been rejected as a futile undertaking, is bound to cause displeasure. However, it is understandable and reasonable in its consequences when viewed as an at­ tempt to think ahead philosophically beyond the "end of metaphysics," and to try to formulate and shed light on the traditional problems of human existence. The fascination (even if over­ whelmingly negative at the outset) that Kolakowski has had over the years for Christianity and religion is matched here by philosophical re­ flection. Religion and Christianity are after all undeniably integrated el­ ements of human culture, but not in the form, so vehemently attacked, of a dogmatic system and an ecclesias­ Photo by Layle Silbert 1986 The Fifteenth Jefferson Lecturer in the Humanities

His watch still keeping London them the three-volume Main Cur­ derides common sense and reads time, a package of French, black- rents of Marxism (Oxford University sense into the absurd." A learned tobacco cigarettes in his hand, Polish Press, 1978), as near a definitive scholar of the Reformation and expatriate Leszek Kolakowski gazed study as is possible on the philoso­ Counter-Reformation and of various from his eighth-floor window over phy and its twentieth-century de­ Christian heretical movements, he the rooftops that fringe the Univer­ scendants, Kolakowski has explored had studied the processes by which sity of Chicago campus and pro­ subjects ranging over the history of ideas are transformed into dogma, claimed himself an admirer of the ideas, the philosophy of religion, then challenged by new ideas that United States, despite "irritations," and the philosophy of culture and of are in turn fossilized. He wrote, "we such as a "lack of historical sense" politics. He has confronted in his know of no completely flexible final on the part of the population. scholarship and political commen­ method invulnerable to history's "It is the most democratic country tary the gravest issues of the age, threat of petrifaction. We know only in the world, not just in its institu­ yet preserves a streak of mischie­ methods that maintain durable vital­ tions but in its way of life and in the vousness, obvious in his fiction (The ity because they have succeeded in feelings of its people. But I am a vis­ Key to Heaven and Conversations with creating tools of self-criticism, even itor here," he said. Kolakowski, one the Devil, Grove Press, 1973) and in though they may originally have in­ of the world's foremost authorities occasional irreverence toward the cluded certain dogmatic premises or on Marxism, has not been in his philosophical enterprise. "Philoso­ a belief in certain absolutes." own country for almost twenty phers," he says, "neither sow nor In Poland, Kolakowski's message years—since 1968, when he was dis­ harvest, they just move the soil to the Communist party, of which missed from the University of War­ around." he was a member, was clear. This saw following his denunciation by His self-portrait of the philosopher was the period following the "Polish Communist party chief Wladyslaw as jester, a role that combines a mild Spring," the years of de-Stalinization Gomulka. Gomulka, searching for roguishness with the dangerous and and the relaxation of censorship in­ scapegoats for student unrest that urgent task of criticism, introduced troduced by Khrushchev's 1956 re­ had been fanned into violence by an him to his first general readership in nunciation of Stalin at the Twentieth overzealous military seeking to dis­ the United States. Congress of the Soviet Communist credit Gomulka's regime, de­ The now famous essay, "The party. (It is significant that, of all the nounced Kolakowski as one of a Priest and the Jester," was first pub­ peoples' republics in the Eastern group of intellectuals who had in­ lished in the United States in an an­ bloc, only the Polish Communist spired the rebellious youth. Kola­ thology of short fiction, political es­ party circulated printed copies of kowski accepted a year's visiting says, and memoirs by contemporary Khrushchev's speech.) The increase professorship at McGill University in Polish writers, The Modern Polish in civil liberties and expansion of Montreal and never returned to Mind, edited and translated by Ma­ cultural freedom enjoyed in Poland Poland. ria Kuncewicz in 1962. It became in 1955-56, before Gomulka re­ The next year Kolakowski taught well known in this country, how­ turned to power, were the direct re­ at the University of California, ever, after its appearance in a collec­ sult of the disintegration of party Berkeley, and in 1970 became a sen­ tion of Kolakowski's own works, To­ rule, according to Kolakowski. As he ior research fellow at All Soul's Col­ ward a Marxist Humanism (Grove watched Gomulka retighten the lege, Oxford. Since 1981 he has di­ Press, 1968), a collection of social cri­ party reins, he warned that if Marx­ vided the academic year between tiques representing Kolakowski's ism were to retain its vitality in Oxford and Chicago, where, as a progression through stages of Marx­ Poland, it must stand up to rational member of the University's Commit­ ist "revisionism." In "The Priest and argument. tee on Social Thought and depart­ the Jester," Kolakowski champions a Norman Davies describes the Pol­ ment of philosophy, he teaches sem­ philosophy that "exposes as doubt­ ish reactions to Kolakowski's essay inars and tutorials during the spring ful what seems most unshakable, re­ in his two-volume history of Poland, and summer quarters. veals the contradictions in what ap­ God's Playground (Columbia Univer­ In more than thirty books, among pears obvious and incontrovertible, sity Press, 1982): "The overt compar- 7 ison between communist and Catho­ the party ideology, we should stay their Soviet masters, for a sustaining de­ lic dogmatism caused immense in the party because we believed bate to take place. Increasingly, they delight in intellectual circles; and the —rightly or wrongly—that it was the place their trust in policemen rather than role of court jester fitted Kolakow­ only framework within which criti­ in philosophers. ski's temper exactly." cism could be efficiently voiced." Toward a Marxist Humanism found As the party became more op­ In 1966 Kolakowski delivered a a large readership among American pressive, Kolakowski grew more lecture that measured Gomulka's scholars and university students in critical. achievements over the past decade the last years of the sixties. In this "I joined the communist party against the promises made in 1956. collection of essays, American read­ when I was eighteen years old," he The following day, he was sum­ ers were introduced to a philosopher says, "being driven by various mo­ moned to the Control Commission who despised foolish consistencies, tivations which perhaps are not eas­ of the Central Committee and who upheld intellectual tolerance, ily explained. In part my decision expelled from the party. who demonstrated the necessary was based on some utopian fanta­ "Later in 1968," Kolakowski re­ yoke between responsibility and in­ sies; in part it was a reaction, which members, "everywhere I was accom­ dividual freedom, and who wrote was very common among the Polish panied by the secret police. They about such matters with grace and intelligentsia at this time, against a make their surveillance obvious. wit, as in the last essay in the an­ very powerful stream in prewar Pol­ This is to intimidate you ... to re­ thology, "In Praise of ish culture of bigotry and national­ mind you always that you are at the Inconsistency": ism. There was also the feeling that mercy of gangsters." . . . the race of inconsistent people con­ the Soviet Union had proved to be Then came the student protests of tinues to be one of the greatest sources of the most powerful force in com­ 1968, Gomulka's excuse to silence hope that possibly the human species will bating the horrors of Nazism and his eloquent and influential critic. somehow manage to survive.. . . For this that Western democracies had some­ Kolakowski's career paralleled the is the race of which part believes in God how proved to be feeble and incapa­ development and demise of Marx­ and the superiority of eternal salvation ble of facing this diabolic force. ism in Poland, according to historian over temporal well-being, yet does not "Part of the time, I accepted this Norman Davies: demand that heretics be converted at the doctrine. Later I tried, as many of The rise and fall of Kolakowski over the stake; while the other part, not believing my colleagues tried, to work as an two decades after 1948 mark the brief pe­ in God, espouses revolutionary changes opponent from within." riod when Polish Marxism showed signs in social conditions yet rejects methods "Both myself and many of my of life.. . . The guardians of Party truth purporting to bring about these changes friends—though not all—believed have never felt sufficiently certain about which openly contradict a certain moral that although we no longer accepted their principles, or about the reactions of tradition in which these people were raised. Kolakowski, rejecting the mendac­ ity and repressive orthodoxy of com­ munism, continued at Oxford for the next ten years the work he was prevented from doing in Poland: subjecting Marxism to the rigors of philosophical analysis. The result is the work for which he is best known, Main Currents of Marxism, a history and critical analysis of "the strange fate of an idea which began in Promethean humanism and cul­ minated in the monstrous tyranny of Stalin." Calling the work an "intellectual event of the first order" in a review in The American Scholar (Spring, 1980) Student unrest in that applauded both its originality Warsaw was the and fair-mindedness, Sidney Hook reason Gomulka asserted that "hereafter, no one who gave for his de­ undertakes to expound or criticize nunciation of in­ Marxism can afford to ignore [Main tellectuals who Currents of Marxism] ..., the most had criticized comprehensive treatment of Marx, him. Kolakowski and of thinkers in the Marxist tradi­ was among the five professors tion, so far published." subsequently dis­ Volume I, The Founders, opens missed from the with a simple declaration, "Karl University of Marx was a German philosopher," Warsaw. the introduction to a long, careful 8 explanation of Marx's Hegelian her­ He taught himself Latin, French, Freedom in the Philosophy of Spinoza. itage and of the influence of Hess and German and read extensively. Chretiens sans eglise (Christians without and Feuerbach. The volume also With this preparation and with some a Church), written in Polish in 1964 traces the origins of dialectic from help from the underground educa­ and translated into French in 1968, is the soteriology of Plotinus, analyzes tional network conducted by the an investigation of sixteenth- and the elements of Marx's philosophy government-in-exile, Kolakowski seventeenth-century heretical and contained in The Communist Manifesto passed the examination that gained mystical movements in Holland and and Capital, and places his theories him entrance to the University of France that focuses on the alterna­ in the context of nineteenth-century Lodz, and the University of Warsaw tives to an imposition of orthodoxy. socialism. awarded him a Ph.D. in 1953 in the In The Alienation of Reason: A History With similar comprehensiveness, history of philosophy. of Positivist Thought, translated into Kolakowski treats the Golden Age of In his published Cassirer lectures, English in 1966, Kolakowski attacks Marxism in Volume 2 and the Break­ Husserl and the Search for Certitude the radical positivist restraint on down in Volume 3. In the last (Yale University Press, 1975), Kola­ philosophy. volume, he is unequivocal in his as­ kowski quotes Bergson's opinion Of course, Kolakowski resisted sertion that Stalin was Lenin's legiti­ that "every philosopher in his life the application of a single ordering mate ideological heir. "There is ab­ says only one thing, one leading principle to his work as strenuously solutely nothing in the worst idea or intention that endows all his as he has resisted the imposition of excesses of the worst years of Stalin­ works with meaning." If a single or­ such a principle on the human expe­ ism," he writes, "that cannot be dering principle could be ascribed to rience. "I do believe," he concludes justified on Leninist principles if Kolakowski's massive scholarship, in Husserl and the Search for Certitude, only it can be shown that Soviet from his early challenges of Roman "that human culture cannot ever power was increased thereby." A Catholic dogma (Szkice a filozofii reach a perfect synthesis of its diver­ more controversial assertion was his katolickiej or Essays on Catholic Philoso­ sified and incompatible components. evaluation of Leon Trotsky, which phy, 1955) to his study of Bergson Its richness is supported by this very Sidney Hook calls a "fascinating published last year by Oxford Uni­ incompatibility of its ingredients." chapter that should be prescribed versity Press, it would be his rever­ Asked for the single intention that reading for literary intellectuals who ence for intellectual freedom. One of governs his approach to knowledge, have been beguiled by Leon his first major works, published in Kolakowski looked at the empty Trotsky's tragic fate and by his rhe­ Polish in 1958, was an edition of grey-green expanse of Lake Michi­ torical brilliance." Spinoza's letters and a study of his gan and replied, "I think it would be Kolakowski has received interna­ philosophy, The Individual and the In­ very skeptical." tional recognition for both his schol­ finite: Freedom and the Antinomies —Linda Blanken arship and his courage on behalf of intellectual freedom. A foreign member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, he was awarded the Friedenpreis des Deutschen Buchhandels in 1977, the Jurzykowski Foundation Award in 1968, and the Charles Veillou Prix European d'Essai in 1980. In 1983 he won the Erasmus Prize "as a highly gifted representative of a typical Eu­ ropean, nondogmatic, intellectual tradition characterized by critical sense and respect for the freedom of the individual." His American hon­ ors include the prestigious Mac- Arthur Prize as well as the 1986 Jefferson Lecture in the Humanities. If pressed, Kolakowski will iden­ tify other "irritating sides" of the United States besides the lack of his­ torical consciousness. He is dis­ tressed by some shortcomings in public education. ("And yet here in every field there are trained some of the greatest scholars in the world!") Kolakowski's own educational ex­ perience makes understandable his impatience with what he sees as Cobb Hall, The American failures. World War II de­ University ° f prived him of a formal high school. Chicago sense and the purpose of the latter question? Husserl believed that the search A for certitude was constitutive of Eu­ ropean culture and that giving up this search would amount to de­ Kolakowski stroying that culture. Husserl was 'S s probably right: the history of science and philosophy in Europe would in­ Anthology deed be unintelligible if we neg­ lected the pursuit of such a certi­ tude, a certitude that is more than practically satisfying; a pursuit of truth as distinct from the pursuit of technically reliable knowledge. We do not have to explain why we look for certainty when doubt hinders our practical life; but the need for certainty is not so obvious when no the sciences. It started regarding it­ direct, indirect, or even possible, self either as a synthesis of the sci­ practical considerations are in­ ON CERTAINTY ences or as a psychological analysis. volved. Every high-school student is At first glance, phenomenology ap­ Even new variants of Kantianism taught that geometry, in conformity pears to be a very "technical" kind shifted to the psychological stand­ with its name, originated from the of philosophy. It strives to be a "sci­ point and explained the Kantian a need to measure land. Still, it would ence," not a Weltanschauung. But priori not as a set of transcendental be hard to explain how, in measur­ its impulse toward a Weltanschau­ conditions of knowledge (valid for ing the land, the axiomatic system of ung peeps out again and again. any rational being) but as specific Euclid—the system we admire today Husserl himself expected that his qualities of the human psyche, and as a miracle—was necessary. We method would play a great role in this led fatefully to generic know what arithmetic is for, but no saving European culture from skep­ relativism. practical needs could have incited tical decay. Like any philosopher, he Husserl's concept of "scientific Euclid to build his well-known beau­ is intelligible only in contrast to, and philosophy" was entirely different. tiful proof that the set of prime num­ against the background of, the philo­ Philosophy must not accept any bers is infinite. One can hardly im­ sophical culture he was attacking. In ready-made results from the sci­ agine how the knowledge that the many of his works, his antididactic ences and "generalize" them. Its set of prime numbers is infinite, way of writing discouraged readers: calling is to inquire into the meaning rather than finite, would make any for Husserl the discipline of content and foundation of these results. Phi­ practical difference at all. No practi­ was the only thing that counted. losophy does not have to be a cal considerations can explain the And so, his impulse toward a Welt­ "crown" or a synthesis, but a great turning points in the history of anschauung is often concealed. meaning-founding activity which knowledge, even if their results later Sometimes nevertheless it appears logically precedes the sciences, as prove to be of great practical use. clearly (as in Philosophie als strenge they are incapable of interpreting That this is often the case proves Wissenschaft or in Crisis). And, after themselves. The idea of an episte­ that if people had not expected to all, without knowing that we would mology based on a science, on psy­ derive from their knowledge more not know what his philosophy is chology in particular, is revoltingly than technical use, and had not for. absurd. sought after truth and certitude as The concept of certainty can be re­ To believe in a psychological epis­ values in themselves, they would garded as the key to Husserl's temology amounts to believing that not have produced technically fruit­ thought. He noticed that the project we are allowed to accept the results ful science. This bears out the idea of scientific philosophy in the sense of one particular science in order to that it ultimately pays in science to popularized by German thinkers in legitimate the claims of any science neglect its possible usefulness, but it the second half of the nineteenth to objectivity or to endow with does not explain why people actu­ century was misleading and danger­ meaning all sciences, and this obvi­ ally did neglect it: only the fruit, not ous. The slogan of "scientificity" ously involves a vicious circle. Thus the reasons of this search are re­ smuggled a renunciation of what Husserl took over the antiskeptical vealed to us. had passed for science in the genu­ tradition of European philosophy— The task that European philoso­ ine—Platonic—sense throughout the the tradition of Plato, Descartes, phy assumed from the very begin­ European intellectual tradition. It Leibniz, and Kant, all of whom had ning, not only from Descartes, was blurred the basic distinction between asked (1) What may be doubted and this: to destroy apparent certitudes doxa and episteme, between opinion what may not? (2) Are we entitled to in order to gain "genuine" ones; to and knowledge. In giving up the tra­ ask (and to answer) not only "how is cast doubt on everything, in order to dition of German idealism, philoso­ the world?" but also "how is the free oneself from doubting. As a phy gave up its independence from world bound to be?" and what is the rule, its destructive results proved to 10 be more efficient and more convin­ and the jester, and in almost every as doubtful what seems most un­ cing than its postive programs: phi­ epoch the philosophy of the priest shakable, reveals the contradictions losophers have always been stronger and the philosophy of the jester are in what appears obvious and incon­ in shattering old certitudes than in the two most general forms of intel­ trovertible, derides common sense establishing new ones. lectual culture. The priest is the and reads sense into the absurd. In .. . Finally, it is arguable—again, a guardian of the absolute; he sustains short, it undertakes the daily chores moral from Husserl's develop­ the cult of the final and the obvious of the jester's profession together ment—that a truly radical search for as acknowledged by and contained with the inevitable risk of appearing certitude always ends with the con­ in tradition. The jester is he who ridiculous. Depending on time and clusion that certitude is accessible moves in good society without be­ place, the jester's thinking can range only in immanence, that the perfect longing to it, and treats it with im­ through all the extremes of thought, transparence of the object is to be pertinence; he who doubts all that for what is sacred today was para­ found only when the object and sub­ appears self-evident. He could not doxical yesterday, and absolutes on ject (empirical or transcendental do this if he belonged to good soci­ the equator are often blasphemies at Ego, no matter) come to identity. ety; he would then be at best a salon the poles. The jester's constant effort This means that a certitude medi­ scandalmonger. The jester must is to consider all the possible reasons ated in words is no longer certitude. stand outside good society and ob­ for contradictory ideas. It is thus dia­ We gain or we imagine to have serve it from the sidelines in order to lectical by nature—simply the at­ gained access to certitude only as far unveil the nonobvious behind the tempt to change what is because it as we gain or imagine to have obvious, the nonfinal behind the fi­ is. He is motivated not by a desire to gained perfect identity with the ob­ nal; yet he must frequent society so be perverse but by distrust of a sta­ ject, an identity whose model is the as to know what it holds sacred and bilized system. In a world where ap­ mystical experience. This experience to have the opportunity to address it parently everything has already hap­ however is incommunicable; any at­ impertinently. Georges Sorel wrote pened, he represents an active tempt to hand it over to others de­ about the jesting role of philosophy imagination defined by the opposi­ stroys the very immediacy that was in connection with the encyclope­ tion it must overcome. supposed to be its value—conse­ dists, but in a pejorative sense. For Fichte's great contribution was the quently it destroys certitude. What­ him the jester was simply a toy of simple observation that thought can­ ever enters the field of human com­ the aristocrats. But though it is true not move without obstacles, just as a munication is inevitably uncertain, that philosophers have amused car cannot start on ice or an airplane always questionable, fragile, provi­ monarchs, their antics have played a take off in a vacuum. For the same sory, and mortal. Still, the search for part in earthquakes—precisely when reason, any philosophy that is pure certitude is unlikely to be given up, they were the gambols of jesters. autoreflection or that is realized in and we may doubt if it would be de­ Priests and jesters cannot be recon­ the closed world of a monad is sheer sirable to stop it. This search has lit­ ciled unless one of them is trans­ delusion. And to suppose that the tle to do with the progress of science formed into the other, as sometimes subject is identical with the object in and technology. Its background is happens. (Most often the jester be­ the act of cognition is internally con­ religious rather than intellectual; it comes a priest—as Socrates became tradictory; to posit such an identity is, as Husserl perfectly knew, a Plato—and not vice versa.) In every is tantamount to assuming immobil­ search for meaning. It is a desire to era the jester's philosophy exposes ity—a situation where no cognition live in a world out of which contin­ gency is banned, where sense (and this means purpose) is given to everything. Science is incapable of providing us with that kind of certi­ tude, and it is unlikely that people could ever give up their attempts to go beyond scientific rationality. Husserl and the Search for Certitude, Yale University Press, 1975.

ON THE ROLE OF THE PHILOSOPHER: "The Priest and the Jester" The antagonism between a philoso­ phy that perpetuates the absolute and a philosophy that questions ac­ cepted absolutes seems incurable, as incurable as that which exists be­ tween conservatism and radicalism The Uprising by in all aspects of human life. This is Honore Daumier, the antagonism between the priest ca. 1860 Karl Marx, can occur. If, then, philosophy un­ 1818-1883 dermines the absolute, if it rejects the uniform principles to which all reality can be reduced, if it confirms the pluralism of the world and the mutual nonreducibility of things, and at the same time affirms human individuality, it does not do so in the name of monadology or a con­ cept of the individual as a self- sufficient atom. For human individ­ uality can be upheld only in opposition to the rest of the world, that is, in its relations to the world—relations of dependence, re­ sponsibility, resistance. A philosophy that tries to dis­ pense with absolutes and with the prospect of finality cannot, by the nature of things, be a consistent structure, for it has no foundations and does not want a roof; it under­ mines existing structures and rips off existing roofs. In intellectual life it has all the vices and virtues of an indiscreet person with a stunted sense of respect. That is why in cer­ tain periods the conflict between the philosophy of the jester and that of the priest reminds us of the clash be­ tween the unbearable traits of ado­ lescence and the equally unbearable traits of senility. The difference, of course, is that only the former are curable. It is easy to see that all our reason­ its critics seems inevitable and natu­ sions, must fill an incomparably ing up to this point can be suspected ral; it is the preponderance of a greater amount of space in the sys­ of falling prey to the monistic temp­ single world over the multiplicity of tem than the growth of tensions, if tation its criticizes; the tendency to possible worlds, the preponderance the whole thing is to be kept from try to understand the multiplicity of of the ease of falling over the diffi­ blowing sky-high. If this is so, then facts by means of a single ordering culty of climbing to the top. We ob­ it explains why priests exist, though principle. However, it is not the act serve this preponderance when we it is no reason for joining their of putting facts in order that is the see the astonishing speed with ranks. opposite of anti-absolutist philoso­ which new mythologies displace old We declare ourselves in favor of phy. Order can be a police slogan or ones. In the intellectual life of a soci­ the jester's philosophy, and thus the catchword of revolution. The op­ ety in which the mechanism of tradi­ vigilant against any absolute; but not posite of an anti-absolutist philoso­ tional faith has become corroded, as a result of a confrontation of argu­ phy is only a specific type of order, new myths proliferate with the ments, for in these matters impor­ one that has put the whole multi­ greatest ease, even though they may tant choices are value judgments. tude of existing and possible worlds originate in technical advancements We declare ourselves in favor of the into a unifying classification and is or scientific discoveries. Thousands possibilities contained in the extra­ satisfied with the job. The police of people fondly imagine that the intellectual values inherent in this at­ ideal is the order of a comprehensive friendly inhabitants of other planets titude, although we also know its file; philosophy's ideal is the order will one day solve the problems dangers and absurdities. Thus we of an active imagination. The priest from which humans cannot extricate opt for a vision of the world that of­ and the jester both violate the mind: themsevles. For others the word fers us the burden of reconciling in the priest with the garrote of cate­ "cybernetics" embodies the hope of our social behavior those opposites chism, the fool with the needle of resolving all social conflicts. The rain that are the most difficult to com­ mockery. There are more priests of the gods falls from the heavens bine: goodness without universal than jesters at a king's court, just as on the grave of the one God who toleration, courage without fanati­ there are more policemen than art­ has outlived himself. Atheists have cism, intelligence without discour­ ists in his realm. Apparently it can­ their saints, and blasphemers build agement, and hope without blind­ not be otherwise. The preponder­ temples. Perhaps the longing for the ness. All other fruits of philosophi­ ance of believers in mythology over absolute, the effort to equalize ten­ cal thinking are unimportant. 12 ON CONSCIENCE AND the battle. A soldier who, on orders, feet, but they were not 'unique' SOCIAL PROGRESS participates in the mass murder of [einzig] in the sense of not needing civilians is responsible for homicide. one another: their needs (sex, trade, We profess the doctrine of total re­ His moral duty is to not carry out the division of labour) are such as to sponsibility of the individual for his the command. Only on this basis make them mutually dependent, deeds and of the amorality of the were we able to try SS men. and so they have been obliged to en­ historical process. In the latter we That is why, regardless of what ter into relationships. This they did avail ourselves of Hegel; in the philosophy of history we may wish not as pure egos but as individuals former of Descartes. It was he who to accept, we will be rightly judged at a particular stage of development formulated the famous principle, for everything subject to moral ap­ of their productive forces and needs, whose consequences are not always praisal that we do in its name. which were in turn determined by visible at first glance, "There is not a And it is not true that our philoso­ their mutual intercourse. In this way soul so weak that it cannot, with phy of history decides our main their personal, individual behaviour good guidance, gain an absolute choices in life. They are determined towards one another has created mastery over its passions." This by our moral sense. We are not com­ their existing relationships and re­ means that we cannot explain away munists because we recognized news them day by day .. . The his­ any of our actions on the grounds of communism to be a historical neces­ tory of an individual cannot be de­ emotion, passion, or the moral im­ sity. We are communists because we tached from that of his predecessors potence to act differently and that stand on the side of the oppressed or contemporaries, but is deter­ we have no right to transfer the re­ against their oppressors, on the side mined by them. sponsibility for our conscious acts to of wretches against their masters, on For Marx, then, the intentions of any factor which determines our be­ the side of the persecuted against individuals are of little account in havior; because in every instance we their persecutors. Although we determining the effect and social sig­ have the power to choose freely. know that a theoretically correct di­ nificance of their behaviour in a situ­ This assumption—which, as I vision of society is not between ation in which it is not individuals have mentioned, can be accepted "rich" and "poor" or "persecuted" that regulate social ties, but the ties without contradicting the determin­ and "persecutors," still when we they have created become an inde­ istic interpretation of the world— have to accompany our theories pendent, alien force regulating the must also be extended to all the jus­ with an act of practical choice, which lives of individuals. In the present tifications we find for ourselves in means a pledge, then we act out of age individuality is overwhelmed by historical necessities and historical moral motivations, not theoretical material forms or by 'contingency'; determinism. Neither our personal, concerns. It cannot be otherwise, for this constraint has reached an ex­ supposedly invincible emotions ("I the most convincing theory is unable treme form and has thereby im­ could not resist the desire"), nor to make us lift our little finger. Prac­ posed on humanity the necessity of anyone's command ("I was a sol­ tical choice is a choice of values, that bringing about a revolution which dier"), nor conformity with the cus­ is, a moral act, and that means an will destroy the element of contin­ toms of one's environment ("every­ act for which everyone bears his gency and give individuals the body did it"), nor theoretically own, personal responsibility. power once again to control their deduced exigencies of the demiurge Toward a Marxist Humanism, mutual relations. That is what com­ of history ("I judged I was acting for Grove Press, 1968. munism means: restoring the con­ the sake of progress")—none of trol of individuals over the material, these four most typical and popular reified forms in which their mutual rationalizations has any validity. ties are expressed. In the last analy­ This is not to say that these four ON THE INDIVIDUAL AND sis, the task facing humanity con­ types of determination do not actu­ THE COMMUNITY sists of abolishing the division of la­ ally occur in life, but merely to state It is a pious illusion, Marx argues, to bour; and this presupposes the that none of them releases us from expect individuals to live together attainment of a stage of technologi­ individual responsibility, because without the aid of the community cal development at which the sys­ none of them destroys the freedom and its institutions. It is not in the tem of private property and division of individual choice. Individual ac­ power of the individual to decide of labour presents itself as a hin­ tion remains in the absolute power whether his relations with others are drance, so that technology itself re­ of the individual. We walk the main to be personal or institutional; the quires their abolition. 'Private prop­ roads of our life on our own: division of labour means that per­ erty can only be abolished on sonal relations are bound to trans­ condition of an all-round develop­ Not I, not anyone else can travel form themselves into class relations, ment of individuals, since the ex­ that road for you and the superiority of one individual isting forms of exchange and pro­ You must travel it for yourself.. .. over another is expressed in the so­ ductive forces are universal and only — Whitman cial relationship of privilege. What­ individuals developing in a univer­ I stress that we are concerned ever individuals may intend, the sal manner can assimilate them, that with moral responsibility. The soldier nature and level of needs and pro­ is to say transform them into free vi­ who executes his commander's erro­ ductive forces determine the social tal activity.' In a communist society neous orders—orders which are in­ character of their mutual relations. the universal development of indi­ efficient as military tactics—is not Individuals have always and in all viduals is no empty phrase, but it thereby responsible for the loss of circumstances stood on their own does not mean that the individual is 13 to seek self-affirmation independ­ creators. formidable force of human aspira­ ently of others (which is in any case However, to say that Marx did not tions for power for its own sake and impossible), in monadic isolation intend the totalitarian version of his the extreme antagonisms arising and in the assertion of his rights theory is not to say that that version from the relations of power as such, against the community. On the con­ is a mistake and nothing more. We i.e., irrespective of the social origin trary, This development is condi­ shall have to consider in due course of given ruling bodies. Of all the fa­ tioned by the existing link between whether Marx's vision of social unity mous sentences which have had a them—a link constituted partly by did not contain elements contrary to dizzy career in history, this is one of economic premisses, partly by the his own intention, and whether he the most striking in its falsity: that necessary solidarity of the free de­ is not to some extent responsible for the history of all hitherto existing so­ velopment of all, and finally by the the totalitarian form of Marxism. cieties is the history of class strug­ universal nature of the activity of in­ Can that unity in fact be imagined in gles. That political bodies are noth­ dividuals on the basis of the produc­ any other way than that of a totali­ ing more than instruments of tive forces existing at a given time." tarian state, however little Marx classes; that their interests may al­ In the light of this analysis we can himself supposed this to be the ways be identified with the interests easily perceive the error of those to­ case? of the classes they are supposed to talitarian interpretations of Marx, Main Currents of Marxism, represent; that they do not produce less frequent now than formerly, Volume I: The Founders, interests of their own of any note­ which represent his ideal of commu­ Oxford University Press, 1978. worthy importance; that people de­ nism as a society in which the indi­ lude themselves if they imagine they vidual is identified with the species struggle for other values (for free­ by the extinction of all creative initia­ ON THE FUSION OF MAN'S dom or for power, for equality or for tive and all qualities that might dis­ national goals) as values in them­ ESSENCE AND EXISTENCE tinguish him from his fellows. On selves, since these values are only the other hand, Marx does not be­ The class struggle in capitalist soci­ vehicles for class interests—all these lieve that individuals can determine ety is a historical form of the strug­ beliefs are consequences of this one or assert their true personality by a gle for the distribution of surplus sentence. They gave to Marxism its mere act of self-knowledge. Self- product. Why should we presume stupendous efficiency and its cate- affirmation of this kind can take that the same struggle for surplus chismal simplicity. Needless to say, place in any conditions, it calls for product will not go on within an Marx's work shows convincingly no change in the world of social ties, economy based on public ownership that in all detailed analyses his and therefore it cannot eradicate hu­ (whether that means an authoritar­ thought was much subtler and more man servitude or the process by ian or a democratic system)? And differentiated than this sentence which human beings eternally forge since public ownership must inevita­ would suggest. And yet without and re-forge the bonds of their own bly beget social layers endowed with basically taking this belief he would alienation. In Marx's view, the affir­ privileges in controlling the means not be able to nourish his hope for a mation of one's own individuality of production, the labour force and unified man. involves the restoration of man's 'so­ the instruments of coercion, what The Socialist Idea: A Reappraisal, cial character' or 'species-nature' as reasons could we possibly have to Oxford University Press, 1974. distinct from, and opposed to, the deny that all devices will be em­ state of 'contingency', i.e. enslave­ ployed to safeguard the position of ment to alienated forces. Under these layers and increase their privi­ ON THE FATE OF communism, the disappearance of leges? (Unless, of course, we predict the antagonism between personal a sudden restoration of the angelic MARXISM aspirations and the species is not a nature in the human race.) Marxism has been the greatest fan­ matter of identification, whether It is arguable that, in dealing with tasy of our century. It was a dream forced or voluntary, between the these questions and in predicting offering the prospect of a society of two, and thus of generalized medi­ the return of man to the lost unity of perfect unity, in which all human as­ ocrity and uniformity.' What it his social and personal existence, pirations would be fulfilled and all means is that conditions will be such Marx admitted, among others, two values reconciled. It took over that individuals can develop their very common false premises: that all Hegel's theory of the 'contradictions aptitudes fully, not in conflict with human evil is rooted in social (as of progress', but also the liberal- one another but in a socially valu­ distinct from biological) circum­ evolutionist belief that 'in the last re­ able way, instead of superiority stances and that all important hu­ sort' the course of history was inevi­ turning itself, as now, into privilege man conflicts are ultimately reduc­ tably for the better, and that man's or the subjugation of others. 'Deper­ ible to class antagonisms. Thus he increasing command over nature sonalization', if we may introduce entirely overlooked the possibility would, after an interval, be matched this modern term, derives from the that some sources of conflict and ag­ by increasing freedom. It owed subjection of individuals to the work gression may be inherent in the much of its success to the combina­ of their own hands and brains; it permananent characteristics of the tion of Messianic fantasies with a cannot be cured by a mere reform of species and are unlikely to be eradi­ specific and genuine social cause, ideas,, but by reasserting control cated by institutional changes. In the struggle of the European work­ over inanimate forces which have this sense he really remained a ing class against poverty and exploi­ gained the upper hand over their Rousseauist. He also overlooked the tation. This combination was ex- 14 pressed in a coherent doctrine with Marxism may be compared to that of doing so we cannot even under­ the absurd name (derived from psychoanalysis or behaviourism in stand the past, is inherent in the Proudhon) of 'scientific socialism'— the social sciences. By expressing Marxist theory of 'social formations'; absurd because the means of at­ their theories in extreme forms, it is one reason why that theory is a taining an end may be scientific, but Freud and Watson succeeded in fantasy, and also why it is politically not the choice of the end itself. The bringing real problems to general effective. The influence that Marx­ name, however, reflected more than notice and opening up valuable ism has achieved, far from being the the mere cult of science which Marx fields of exploration; this they could result or proof of its scientific charac­ shared with the rest of his genera­ probably not have done if they had ter, is almost entirely due to its pro­ tion. It expressed the belief, dis­ qualified their views with scrupu­ phetic, fantastic, and irrational cussed critically more than once in lous reservations and so deprived elements. the course of the present work, that them of clear-cut outlines and po­ Main Currents of Marxism, human knowledge and human prac­ lemical force. The sociological ap­ Volume 3: The Breakdown, tice, directed by the will, must ulti­ proach to the study of civilization Oxford University Press, 1978. mately coincide and become insepa­ was expounded by writers before rable in a perfect unity: so that the Marx, such as Vico, Herder, and choice of ends would indeed become Montesquieu, or contemporary but identical with the cognitive and independent of him, such as practical means of attaining them. Michelet, Renan, and Taine; but The natural consequence of this con­ none of these expressed his ideas in fusion was the idea that the success the extreme, one-sided, dogmatic of a particular social movement was form which constituted the strength a proof that it was scientifically of Marxism. 'true', or, in effect, that whoever Marxism, it can hardly be dis­ proved to be stronger must have puted, would not be Marxism with­ 'science' on his side. This idea is out its claim to 'scientific knowledge' largely responsible for all the anti- of the future, and the question is scientific and anti-intellectual fea­ how far such knowledge is possible. tures of Marxism in its particular Prediction is, of course, not only a guise as the ideology of Com­ component of many sciences but an munism. inseparable aspect of even the most To say that Marxism is a fantasy trivial actions, although we cannot does not mean that it is nothing 'know' the future in the same way else. Marxism as an interpretation of as the past, since all prediction has past history must be distinguished an element of uncertainty. The 'fu­ from Marxism as a political ideology. ture' is either what will happen in No reasonable person would deny the next moment or what will hap­ that the doctrine of historical materi­ pen in a million years; the difficulty alism has been a valuable addition to of prediction increases, of course, our intellectual equipment and has with distance and with the complica­ enriched our understanding of the tion of the subject. In social matters, past. True, it has been argued that as we know, predictions are espe­ in a strict form the doctrine is non­ cially deceptive, even if they relate sense and in a loose form it is a com­ to the short term and to a single ON FAITH AND REASON monplace; but, if it has become a quantifiable factor, as in demo­ commonplace, this is largely thanks graphic prognoses. In general we The curious fate of the never-ending to Marx's originality. Moreover, if forecast the future by extrapolating faith-versus-reason debate in the Marxism has led towards a better existing tendencies, while realizing centuries which followed the salu­ understanding of the economics and that such extrapolations are, always tary shock of the Reformation (salu­ civilization of past ages, this is no and everywhere, of extremely lim­ tary for the Roman Church, that is) doubt connected with the fact that ited value, and that no developmen­ seems to bear out the common- Marx at times enunciated his theory tal curves in any field of inquiry ex­ sense truth that in an urban civiliza­ in extreme, dogmatic, and unac­ tend indefinitely in accordance with tion where movement, change, de­ ceptable forms. If his views had the same equation. As to prognoses velopment, and novelty pass for been hedged round with all the re­ on a global scale and without any eminent values, no permanent and strictions and reservations that are limitation of time, these are no more satisfactory covenant or armistice be­ usual in rational thought, they than fantasies, whether the prospect tween the Sacred and the Profane is would have had less influence and they offer is good or evil. There are likely. By doing away with the might have gone unnoticed alto­ no rational means of predicting 'the Church's continuous tradition as a gether. As it was, and as often hap­ future of humanity' over a long pe­ source of authority in interpreting pens with humanistic theories, the riod or foretelling the nature of 'so­ the Scriptures, the Reformation, as it element of absurdity was effective in cial formations' in ages to come. The turned out and precisely in opposi­ transmitting their rational content. idea that we can make such forecasts tion to the wishes of its great initia­ From this point of view the role of 'scientifically', and that without tors, promoted a more, rather than 15 less extensive use of Reason in theo­ rational religion did away with all logical matters. The march of ration­ the beliefs on which the distinction alism could not be stopped and it between various churches within produced ideological rearrange­ Christianity—or even, in a more rad­ ments on both sides of the conflict ical interpretation, the distinction be­ between Enlightenment and Tradi­ tween all the religions of the tion. Scholastic methods of sup­ world—had been grounded. It took Political porting religious truth with rational a long time before this instrument of arguments were progressively losing tolerance would breed the intoler­ credibility and efficacy, and al­ ance of fanatical rationalism. though the masters of the mediaeval In this respect we are still heirs to Theory schools never stopped exercising the conflict which has been going on their semantic and logical skills, they since the late Middle Ages, and were soon to be regarded as uninter­ which became increasingly conspic­ and esting remnants of a past age, inca­ uous in the seventeenth century, pable of competing with, let alone of when the rules of the modern scien­ matching, new intellectual trends ei­ tific spirit were codified in the works ther of the empiricist or the rational­ of Bacon, Galileo, Descartes, Locke Political ist kind, all of them contributing to and Gassendi, among others. Chris­ the merciless corrosion of faith. tian intellectuals were ever more Seventeenth- and eighteenth- aware of the simple fact that in Practice century deists and adherents of 'nat­ terms of the discipline governing ural religion' who cut away from the empirical investigations and of the Christian legacy whatever they expanding use of mathematical Philosopher Alfred North White­ thought was rationally unprovable, methods, the legitimacy of the tradi­ head maintained that "the task of clearly crossed the limits within tional metaphysical approach was the university is the creation of the which Christianity could remain increasingly open to question. The future." Today many college stu­ recognizably itself; their successors position of natural theology was be­ dents would agree. The "future" were prompt to show that if we coming obviously shaky and inse­ that they have in mind may be a want to apply strictly the rigours of cure in confrontation with a concept more specific, immediate concept rationality to the prophetic books of of Reason monopolistically defined than that contemplated by White­ old, the entire fabric of ancient wis­ by the norms of scientific proce­ head, however. The trend among dom would fall apart. The first gen­ dures. One may speak of the 'escape students is to view their education eration of deists were people led to into irrationality', yet the expression as training for a career, rather than despair by the spectacle of a reli­ carries a strong and contestable as a means of developing the "ra­ gious fanaticism, displayed by value judgement. In stigmatizing be­ tional thought and civilized modes warring sects and factions, which liefs of kinds of behaviour as "irra­ of appreciation" advocated by the eruption of the Reformation had tional' we necessarily imply a well- Whitehead. Fortunately, the two can brought to life; their religious ration­ defined concept of Ratio and this be compatible. alism was at the service of tolerance concept itself is always open to An NEH-supported program is and peace. Most of them certainly doubt: can we produce any combining the two approaches to believed that the few basic religious compelling grounds for a definition learning at the University of Mary­ tenets which really mattered—God's of Ratio without employing criteria land at Baltimore (UMBC) and at existence and providential rule of whose validity depends on the pre­ Goucher College by integrating the the world, the immortality of souls, vious acceptance of this very con­ study of political philosophy and the Christian moral norms—could be cept? And so, let us talk not of an study of political science. Over the well justified on rational grounds, 'escape into irrationality', but of an next two years, students in political whereas all the intricate and in fact expanding awareness of the irreduci- science courses at UMBC and unintelligible mysteries of trinitology bly different ways in which religious Goucher will have the opportunity or the theory of grace, all the dog­ beliefs are validated in contrast to to discuss with leading political mas and anti-dogmas which incite scientific propositions, of the incom­ thinkers how political philosophy sectarian wars, killing and persecu­ mensurable meanings of 'validity' in can inform contemporary public life. tions, have no meaning whatsoever those respective areas.. . . Each semester Christopher Kelly, as­ and are beyond the legitimate inter­ Religion, Oxford University sistant professor of political science ests of the human mind. The idea of Press, 1980 at UMBC, and James Stoner, in­ structor of politics and public policy at Goucher, will bring two guest speakers to their Baltimore-area schools to address students and fac­ ulty and conduct classes in ancient and modern political theory. Inaugurated during the 1985 fall semester, the program marks the first joint venture between two

campaign. The The practice of shakes shakes hands with a miner in the 1932 Pennsylvania politics: FDR presidential

Justice and the —Mary T. Chunko introduced Stoner's Nicomachean Ethics. A long-term effect of the guest This type of engagement with po­ "Political Philosophy and Political University of Maryland, Baltimore County/$16,575/1985-87/Promoting Ex­ cellence in a Field Practice"/Christopher J. Kelly, Jr./ structure in selecting political philos­ ent fashion and recognitionreceive formalfor doingfying so—thusboth intellectual satis­ desire needs to and prepare the for a career. the lecture series—manyare in theof whomprelaw and public admin­great deal of interestpolitical in the philosophy. minor inprovide The students minor will with guidance and preprofessional programs,ple, will for beexam­ able tion to in examinepolitical a thought tradi­ in a coher­ ophy courses. Rather than choosing speaker series maythe be political reflected science in UMBC. curriculum Guest at speakersevaluate theare coursesasked offered to in politi­ ence recently approvedpolitical philosophy. a minor in Kelly, According students to whopated havein thepartici­ courses associated with istration programs—have shown a political philosophy haphazardcourses infashion, a students in the guest lecturers, studentssplit thatsee thatthey theperceive courses in is not their reallyoutside reflected the university." in life cal philosophy and curriculumtheir place ofin eachthe UMBC department. department The of political sci­ sions of contemporaryGalston, politics, the author of litical theorists from tions other offers institu­ studentspoint "aof view diversity and come of helps a perceivedthem over­ split in their stud­liberal arts courses,"Kelly. according "Both schools to to providing are committeda liberalalong artswith educationprofessional the training,attempt but to doleads bothstudents very to oftenassee dividedtheir betweeneducation thethe practical liberal arts.and tend Students to divide can into alsothoseterested who in are furtheringin­ and thosetheir whocareers want areas.to explore By otherhaving contact with the class in Western political thought to ies between practical courses and Human Good, Aristotle's William Galston, former campaign terms of political morality, or "the tions." Besides offering students they a usually encounter in discus­ ernment is to safeguard individual ine contemporary public policy in lence in a good societycitizens shared of by a the specificmunity politicaland com­ embodied in its institu­ geared toward the works being read rights movement. class At the session, end of studentsPangleone to pressedcontinue thethe studentdiscussion snack in bar. manager for Walter nowMondale director andof economicprograms at andthe Roosevelt social Center for the relationship betweenand political liberalism morality. eralism Defining as the lib­ American belief, natural rights, that the role of gov­ sented the theoretical, others, the liberties, Galston went on to exam­ basic understanding of human excel­ broader definition of liberalism than practical, aspects ofTheir politicallecture life. topics have been in Kelly's and Stoner'sThomas Pangle courses. of Torontothe University used examples twentieth-centuryof drawn frompolitics Aquinas to to explain students upper-level in middle- courses. andcept Citingof "conscience" the con­difference as betweenthe principal Aquinas,Aristotle Pangle and wenthow Aquinas'son to show dictum that "an Martinun­ Luther King, Jr., and the civil American Policy Studies, addressed based on an Enlightenment view of just law is not law" influenced Dr. Some guest speakers have repre­ As the sole instructors of political scholars that goes beyond a single that learning is biggerschool than when any they one see that students scholars at leading doinguniversities the same are thing. lieves that "students come to see at different schoolsabout are the arguing same questions, and that strong internship programs, and study leading to suchdition, careers. both In institutionsad­ are able to philosophy at theirtutions, respective Kelly insti­andconceived Stoner of originallythe wayjoint to program "create as a a community of institution," says Kelly. Stoner be­ 1970s with an emphasis on prepar­ the two schools tures. share Both certain are fea­graduate exclusively departments, under­ both have both offer preparationpublic for administration careers in or graduate could afford to sustain by itself. rather dissimilar institutions. Goucher is a small,arts college private for liberal women,riculum has whoselong emphasized cur­lation of liberalthe re­arts tice.theory UMBCand prac­ is a public medium-sized university whose curriculum strengthening the arts. traditional Despite liberalthese ever, differences, the political how­science curricula of benefit from a program that neither was developed in the 1960s and ing students for futureAt present,employment. manyUMBC departments are revising at ments their forrequire­ graduation with a view to UPl/Bettmann Newsphoto The European Struggle against

Totalitarianism Congress of Library U.S.

(right) Albert Togliatti, and left the party. In the Camus, review of Bread and Wine, which nar­ 1913-1960; rates in fictional form how Silone (below) Joseph turned against communism after the Stalin, 1879-1953 expulsion of Trotsky from the party, Camus relived his own change of heart. He and Silone shared a time in Quest for a Democratic Humanism history when humanism and per­ in Twentieth Century Europe," was sonal freedom were being smoth­ attended by fifteen specially chosen ered. They also shared a moral im­ high school teachers from varied dis­ pulse to do something about it. In ciplines (history, English, and politi­ the tide of totalitarianism during the cal science). They met in Buffalo, 1930s and 1940s, this "moral im­ New York, to discuss the four au­ pulse" allied them with other writ­ thors' different literary approaches ers. When Camus drafted an appeal to the concept of personal freedom in 1949 for the creation of a commit­ in a totalitarian system. "The world in which I live is repug­ tee of support for Spanish Repub­ Costello selected two works from nant/' wrote Albert Camus in the lican emigres, it was signed by each writer. The Camus texts were midst of the Second World War, Silone and George Orwell, among The Rebel (1951), a long, general es­ "but I feel myself one with the hu­ others. say of political philosophy, and The man beings who suffer in it. It In 1937, Orwell had been forced to Fall (1956), a technically brilliant seems to me there is one ambition flee Spain after having fought in novel that calls into question many which should be that of all writers: Barcelona against Communists who of the same political premises he so to bear witness and shout, each time were trying to suppress their politi­ confidently asserts in The Rebel. it is possible, and according to our cal opponents. He wrote Homage of From Silone came two works of ability, for those who, like us are Catalonia, in which he expressed his fiction, Fontamara (1930) and Bread enslaved." dread of totalitarianism in a vivid ac­ and Wine (1939). Both of these are And shout he did. In both fiction count of his Spanish experience. somewhat autobiographical accounts and works of philosophy, Camus Camus could have been referring to of the Italian peasantry under fascist loudly defended human values. He either of his friends, Silone or rule. became absorbed in a crusade in Orwell, as well as himself, when he The works by Orwell were The which he would become the spokes­ wrote, "By his very function, the art­ Road to Wigan Pier (1936), and Hom­ man of his own generation and the ist is a witness for liberty, and it is a age to Catalonia (1938). The first is a mentor of the next, not only in justification for which he sometimes rather unusual combination of an in­ France, but throughout Europe. has to pay dearly. It is not the com­ vestigative report and a political This was not a one-man crusade. bat which makes artists out of us, tract. It begins by describing Camus was influenced and encour­ but art which compels us to be Orwell's experiences when he went aged by an international fellowship combatants." to live among the unemployed min­ of intellectuals. In 1939, in an issue The antitotalitarian ideas of these ers of northern England, sharing of the Alger Republican, Camus re­ three artistic combatants and a and observing their lives, and ends viewed the French translation of fourth, Milovan Djilas of Yugoslavia, in a series of sharp criticisms of ex­ Bread and Wine by his future friend, were studied this past summer in an isting Socialist movements. The lat­ the Italian anti-Fascist, Ignazio NEH funded Seminar for Secondary ter, as mentioned previously, deals Silone. Camus saw a true revolu­ School Teachers at Canisius Univer­ with his experiences fighting com­ tionary work in this book. Silone sity. Directed by David Costello, a munism in Spain. had been a high-ranking member of Russian history professor at The fourth author chosen by the Italian Communist party before Canisius, the seminar, "Camus, Costello was Milovan Djilas of he quarreled with its leader, Palmo Silone, Orwell, and Djilas: The Yugoslavia. His works, The New 18 Class (1954), is similar to The Rebel in Orwell wanted an England in portunity to do what high school that it too is a book of political phi­ which goods would be distributed teachers rarely do, that is, sit and losophy and a critique of a revolu­ equitably. Djilas became a supporter think with other adults and push tionary movement corrupted by suc­ of political pluralism as the only al­ myself to a higher degree of intellec- cess. Conversations with Stalin (1961) ternative to the corruption of a victo­ tualism than I can achieve with high is a highly politicized memoir in rious revolution. Silone, possibly the school students." which Djilas writes about the failure most pessimistic of the four, consid­ John Kenny, an English teacher of the Communist promise in the ered martyrdom at the service of the from Buffalo, focused his paper on a Soviet Union. downtrodden. Camus attempted lesser-known play by Camus enti­ Almost two decades separate the systematically to criticize those tled The Just Assassins (1958). His lit­ works of Orwell and Silone from thinkers whose works he felt ration­ erary analysis of the play cast a new those of Camus and Djilas, yet they alized the need for totalitarian sys­ light on what Camus was trying to all focus on the same dilemma. "All tems in the modern age. say in The Rebel. Kenny remarks, four were profoundly affected by the According to Costello, the seminar "The theme of the whole seminar breakdown of European order and indicates "There are no quick fixes to was how do you maintain an opti­ community after World War I, and the problem of totalitarianism. mistic perspective on humanity in a all fought fascism actively," said Mankind changes gradually." world which has so many reasons Costello. "As intellectuals defending In the six weeks the teachers met for pessimism? The response to op­ the principles of democratic human­ in twenty-four, two-hour sessions. pression is universal and revolution ism in a world changed by These included some lectures by only changes the names of the Nietzsche, Freud, the new physics, Costello on the historical context of oppressors." and World War I, they could not the four authors, but the bulk of the Costello has received a grant to look to history or revealed text for seminar was actually in the hands of conduct a similar seminar this sum­ absolute comfort and assurance. the participants, with Costello acting mer. However, Djilas will be re­ Men of the Middle Ages, the Renais­ as coordinator. The teachers studied placed with two works by Alfred sance, the Enlightenment, and the each author and his two texts for Koestler, Darkness at Noon and The mid-nineteenth century could al­ four sessions: The first two sessions Yogi and the Commissar. But the ways fall back on a belief in some­ involved a discussion of the texts theme of the seminar will remain in­ thing larger than themselves, and the next two a discussion of tact: No system, whether religious whether it was Christianity, human what others have said about the or political, can claim a monopoly on reason, or science. The fear of an­ texts. Two participants from the the truth. archy and the cultural pessimism of group were responsible for leading —Stanley E. Wolk the period between the wars drove the discussion on each author. Dur­ many intellectuals either to despair ing the final sessions of the seminar, "Camus, Djilas, Orwell and Silone: The or to the thought-suppressing rigidi­ each participant presented a short Quest for a Democratic Humanism in ties of one or another of the totalitar­ paper on issues related to the semi­ Twentieth-Century Europe"/David R. ian systems." But this was not the nar but somewhat more general Costello/Canisius College, Buffalo, NY/ case with Camus, Silone, Orwell, than those raised in earlier sessions. $47,116/1984r-85/Summer Seminars for and Djilas. "Each felt obligated," Many of the papers involved read­ Secondary School Teachers continues Costello, "often at per­ ing an additional work by one of the sonal risk, to reject the nihilism of authors, or a critical work or rele­ the era and to offer alternatives." vant novel dealing with one of the four or the problems they encountered. Guy McDaniels of Houston, Texas, entitled his paper, "Obstacles to Social Justice." In it, he analyzed another Silone work, Handful of Blackberries, and found the same theme of cruelty to peasants by the Fascists that was present in the two novels discussed in the seminar. In his Twentieth-Century European History class, McDaniels has already added Bread and Wine to his curricu­ lum. "Silone recognized barriers that were insurmountable to totalitarian­ ism. He realized it would take a long time to achieve freedom." In the seminar McDaniels reread Kant, Nietzsche, and Hegel. He is now helping his students to do the same. "The seminar in Buffalo was tremen­ dously exciting. It gave me an op­ 19 Yugoslavia's Memory, Vladimir Dedijer

(right) Colonel May 9, 1943—This battalion of seri­ "He knew all sorts of important Vladimir Dedijer ously wounded is working well. The people, and he has all sorts of per­ (head bandaged) wounded are bandaged and washed, the sonal asides. Which ones cheat at and Colonel nurses are capable, and even cook tasty cards. And with people you Milente Popovich meals despite the shortage of food. . . wouldn't imagine playing cards at in Cairo British They spent a lovely First of May. On all." Army hospital one side of a river were the wounded, on The English-language edition of where they were being treated for the other a battalion of the Second Prole­ Dedijer's diaries will include foot­ serious wounds tarian Brigade. They lit fires on both notes correcting and expanding in­ in 1943. (opposite sides of the river. The wounded sang, the formation in his previously pub­ page) Marshal fighters sang. A contest ensued to see lished war diaries and in his later Tito (Josip Broz, who could sing the nicest. The wounded diaries. Dedijer, who is 72, is as­ 1892-1979) di­ won. sisting in the publication project, recting the opera­ And Vladimir Dedijer made note and is incorporating new informa­ tions of the Com­ of their victory. Yugoslav revolution­ tion from Tito's state papers and munist forces in ary, close associate and biographer from letters and papers he has been Yugoslavia from of Tito, Dedijer is also a historian given by other Yugoslav leaders. In John Phillips, Courtesy of Michigan Press a cave on the is­ land of Vis in and political scientist who has wit­ poor health, and unable to publish July 1944. nessed—often from on stage, some­ the complete diaries in Yugoslavia, times from the balconies—pivotal he has felt compelled to find a pub­ morning ... After that you can do events in recent Yugoslavian and lisher in the United States. whatever you like, even if you want world history. Since World War II, The first volume of the diaries, to be a communist.' A good woman, when he was a colonel with Tito's covering World War II, is expected my mother." Partisans, Dedijer has also been a di­ to be in print in about a year, ac­ When war broke out, Dedijer arist, one blessed with an observant cording to Fine. It will include a fought with the Partisans against the eye and an impulse to tell truths. preface by Dedijer, elaborating on German occupiers. Wounded three Dedijer's diaries, which span the the war years in Yugoslavia, and a times, he also lost his first wife, years from 1941 to the present, are foreword by Fine. The remaining Olga Popovic. Chief of a Partisan now being translated and published, handwritten diaries will be trans­ surgical team, Popovic was mortally in six volumes, by the University of lated and prepared for publication injured by a bomb that also Michigan Press. (Only a small por­ by both Dedijer and Fine, who wounded Tito. Dedijer's account of tion of the diaries had been previ­ speaks and reads Serbo-Croation flu­ her remaining days, spent admidst ously published, and that in ently and who is a friend of the major fighting, is one of his diary's Serbo-Croatian.) author. most harrowing sections. The diaries are important sources Dedijer lives in Belgrade and in a Olga was exhausted and we barely for scholars. Dedijer's record covers village on the Istria peninsula. Born managed to get her off her horse onto a not only his experiences as a mem­ in Belgrade in 1914, he studied at bed of leaves and branches beneath a ber of Tito's general staff in World Belgrade University while working beech, when the order came to set off War II, but also Yugoslavia's expul­ as a journalist for the newspaper again at once. We had gone another kilo­ sion from the Soviet Bloc. The dia­ Politika, a job from which he was meter or two when we were told to stop ries recount Dedijer's diplomatic ca­ fired because he refused to write ar­ in some steep ravine through which reer, and his celebrated defense of ticles condemning the Republican flowed a stream. All around us, from Milovan Djilas's freedom of speech. government of Spain. both sides, could be heard the battle . . . Moreover, the diaries are diaries, In those same years, Dedijer asso­ Smoke, mixed with the angry stench of not tidied memoirs. ciated with members of the political gunpowder and the acid odor of husked "He's seen all kinds of tremen­ underground, including Tito. trees, filled up the entire forest. The dous events of the second half of the Dedijer's mother, a leader of the Yu­ bombs fell about us, their fragments rip­ twentieth century," says John V.A. goslav women's liberation move­ ping off the tree branches. I pulled out Fine, Jr., of the University of ment, "knew that members of the my bag with my diary and covered Michigan Department of History, underground would come to see me Olga's head with it, hoping to protect and what Dedijer tells of those and even sleep over," he recalls in her from the bomb fragments. A huge events is "based on notes written at one of his books. "She never asked boulder jumped right over us. . . All dur­ the time." Fine points out that questions. She loved me and re­ ing the bombing Olga held my hand, and Dedijer puts flesh on functionaries quired only two things of me: 'Com­ when it had stopped she said to me, "It and political figures who might oth­ plete the university degree which will be all right." erwise remain "ciphers." you've started and shave every Dedijer's wife died ten days later. 20 © © John Phillips, Courtesy of Michigan Press or fte. vr w hnrd Ger­ hundred two Over them. of four rm ra kle te. ■ them. killed Drvar from rmhs et " nepae ihhm in him with played once "I tent, his from groups of Germans and totally destroyed totally and Germans of groups games of chess with me. Stari [Tito] says [Tito] Stari me. with chess of games ie fegtad et hm htwy Let way. that them left and eight of piles rjn sakd h da Gras in Germans dead the stacked Krajina ad ad nvs bcue e i not did we because knives, and hands Lepoglava, and he became furious when I when furious became he and Lepoglava, two lost he because and this of because eave, an like and flap tent rock, the a out by stretched position a up taken has idleness. of ments h dais eod oe hn Parti­ than more record diaries the the Partisans, of war families the For of diary years. his kept Dedijer shovels. any have t e nw ta te eertd brigade celebrated the that known be it the from soldiers The killed. were mans en n n npcin or f Parti­ of tour inspection an on been him!" beat be­ down dripping keeps water the but a dead. but san obituary," great called "our Tito diaries war. the the Par­ in of killed thousands tisans of account names contains Dedijer's an as text; sacred regarded be almost to said are diaries I could not believe what I saw. One One saw. I what believe not could I a if as bleating a goats by heard crossed and I fence Morine. to Selo Kifino Janko Cika rain. fall boring goodness to we te ok n tefa. es angry He's flap. the and rock the tween e u Og' gae ih u bare our with grave Olga's dug We for yhs ainsws yn un­ lying was patients typhus our of arrived I when to but ran I animals, the them. save biting were snake from went "I from brigade: Dalmatian commander a battalion anecdote a an by told short recorded in He was supply. Food hospitals. san lehr, eie peevs mo­ preserves Dedijer Elsewhere, It was on Tito's instructions that that instructions Tito's on was It The Third Krajina surrounded five surrounded Krajina Third The A few weeks earlier, Dedijer had had Dedijer earlier, weeks few A honest an down, dribbling is rain The

word to his controversial controversial his to word ie ht lv m ln ad ht I that and land my love I that hide— Josip of Biography the Toward fore­ butions the in says he ha­ with love," or passion, tred with it book, writing biased a for re­ writing will for me someone proach aybe biog­ "M Tito raphy. expanded an on embarked the papers." his Dedijer of made executor 1980, in died re­ he he all, it Through Crimes . . War Russell Tribunal.. figure Bertrand major the a on became Sarajevo the on assassination, study major a wrote re­ "then Fine, John writes ile," elite. communist devel­ a of the criticize opment Milovan publicly of to right Djilas the defended he in Monde, Le serialized and Life, some languages into twenty translated was Tito Union, Soviet the Britain, A Great Nations. United the at Peace and Paris Talks, the at representative oe io" eie' msie new massive Dedijer's Tito." love Tito. Broz when who, Tito, of friend a mained 1914, for papers state editor Serbian became the of Yugoslavia, to turned after University lost Belgrade and at Party job his Communist the from publications. of biography His India. and China, visited he troubleshooter, diplomatic Yugoslav a was He thick affairs. the in world of remained he and diarist, teat." her sucking goat a der With those documents, Dedijer Dedijer documents, those With ex­ into went subsequently e "H expelled was Dedijer 1950s, the In a remained Dedijer war, the After "O ne thing I will not not will I thing ne "O and other other and New Contri­ New

Arbor/$30,000/1984r-86/Translations Erwin/ C. Tito"/Mary Marshall of pher nvriy fMcia Pes Ann Press, Michigan of University biogra­ official Dedijer, of Diaries "War ite mnts O terfcs r gri­ are faces their On minutes. fifteen atrdfo te emn, s gift. a as Germans, also the goods, from canned captured last her and poncho ger. We are climbing along Vucevo from Vucevo along climbing are We ger. atn o m. h ae e German a me gave She is me. and up, for waiting climbing has am She 1 that Prepelicje. heard on rock some on diary. The fighters march and stop every stop and march fighters The diary. else anything carry cannot 1 Mratinje. e Gra pnh o hs ak Ti is This back. his on a poncho has them German of new one each almost but maces, the and ammunition, some rifle, my but Dedijer fought. Partisans the war Michigan of University the by lished publishers, because he sells very very sells there." he well because Yugoslavian publishers, on for but source major Yugoslavia— a absolutely are Fine. says there," changing be to ing able be will Yugoslavians hether W h boyfo Bdn. la s sitting is Olga Budanj. from booty the a se t ta much. that to seen has the to readers new scholars, introduce other and enlighten will Press tive for Yugoslavian scholars— these these scholars— incen­ Yugoslavian be for there tive would only Not sion. matter. another is diaries his read to Yugoslavia." more in "the types calls Fine Stalinist opposi­ what from despite tion volume, published, by being volume is biography Tito I ol iaie n bigd ver­ abridged an imagine could "I ue , 93 e route- en 1943, 4, June n h matm, h dais pub­ diaries the meantime, the In Wh kos o tig ae go­ are things how knows ho "W ihe Lipske Michael — — an hun­ Rain,

atsn mn a man Partisans machine gun machine Yugoslav II War World installation.

What Constitutes the Good Life? How can a society's economic sys­ tem produce the greatest good for the largest number of its members? Can the Aristotelian idea of the "good life" be conceived independ­ ently of the ability to acquire wealth? What is the happiness that Ameri­ cans believe they have the right to pursue? The people of Seattle are con­ fronting questions like these in an NEH-funded adult education pro­ U.S. Library of Congress gram created by the Metrocenter YMCA with the continuing educa­ that lie at the heart of the social The readings are heavy going. tion program at the University of contract." "Aristotle's Politics, for instance, Washington. The program brings To help the lay public reclaim the bristles with difficulties," says the ideas of the great social and eco­ ability to debate economic issues in Heyne. "It reads like a student's lec­ nomic philosophers—Aristotle, the broad context of history and so­ ture notes—which it quite possibly Adam Smith, Karl Marx—to groups cial philosophy the YMCA created was—with repetitions, inconsisten­ of adults who are seeking a broad the program "The Wealth and Well­ cies, and missing transitions." understanding of economic prob­ being of Our People." Consisting of To make the readings more acces­ lems and are exploring how societies a series of six seminars, an annual sible, the scholars included attempt to promote collective lecture series, and media commentaries, which place them in well-being. programming produced by the social and historical contexts. In 1981 some of the citizens of Seattle NBC affiliate KING-TV, the "When Plato and Aristotle exam­ Seattle examined the hard economic program is structured by an anthol­ ined the question, 'What is the good questions facing their city during a ogy of readings from Aristotle, life?' they were living in an age of CityFair program sponsored by the Adam Smith, Tocqueville, Marx and anxiety. The city-state of Athens was YMCA. Engels, and John Maynard Keynes, in decline. Their best hopes were a "People felt that decisions about as well as short selections by theolo­ society that could ensure a reason­ economic growth involved more gians, novelists, poets, and contem­ able quality of life for individuals, than statistics," says Richard Conlin, porary scholars, such as Ivan Illich, despite a political environment a project director for Metrocenter Irving Kristol, Michael Walzer, Wal­ threatening chaos," says Heyne. YMCA. They discovered that eco­ ter Lippmann, and J.R. Lucas. When Aristotle asserted that 'man nomic questions are not only techni­ "We wanted to present a diversity is by nature a political animal,' he cal and political, but ethical and reli­ of sentiment and philosophical posi­ meant that man, who is neither gious as well. tions," says Paul Heyne, professor beast nor god, does not live in isola­ "People wanted to talk about the of economics at the University of tion," says Heyne, "but in a economy in terms of values, Conlin Washington, whose academic back­ community." says. "Yet when they began to dis­ ground also includes ethics and reli­ Thus, according to Aristotle, the cuss the economy, they felt they gion. Heyne led the team of scholars pursuit of material wealth should be lacked the ability to understand and involved in selecting works for the a means to strengthen the commu­ articulate the philosophical issues anthology. nity, the polis. People who pursue 22 material wealth for its own sake, though the "epoch of the bourgeoi­ —"Tocqueville maintains that Aristotle wrote, "are intent upon liv­ sie" was a necessary stage toward a 'self-interest properly understood' ing only and not living well." society where all people are at last manages to get things done. Our "Adam Smith, on the other hand, free to develop their potential as hu­ economic system, as Adam Smith did not believe that the desire for man beings, "modern society, which noted, depends basically upon self- wealth was in any way unnatural or has conjured up such gigantic interested behavior. Could a system a threat to the well-being of the soci­ means of production, is like the sor­ based on nobler obligations be as ef­ ety," says Heyne. Increasing wealth cerer who is no longer able to con­ fective in coordinating the everyday was a universal urge, Smith wrote in trol the powers of the nether world details of a highly specialized eco­ his classic treatise of 1776, The Wealth whom he has called up by his nomic system?" of Nations. People want to "better spells." The anthology and curriculum is their condition, ... a desire that "We won't find simple answers being tested and refined in Seattle comes with us from the womb and for our age in the writing of these before being presented to 100 other never leaves us till we fall into the philosophers," says Heyne. "Their urban Y's. Ten of these YMCAs will grave." worlds differed so much from ours. attend a training program to learn "But Smith knew something that But those differences can be instruc­ how to implement this program, Aristotle couldn't consider," says tive. If we can understand why how to establish a working relation­ Heyne. "Smith had observed the Aristotle opposed economic growth ship with scholars in their commu­ process of economic growth visible and why Adam Smith extolled it, it nity, and how to develop a realistic in Europe in the sixteenth and sev­ will prompt us to think about how financial plan for each city. enteenth centuries. He had seen decisions are actually made in mod­ Metrocenter YMCA, a branch of how a society could increase the ern democracies." the Seattle YMCA, frequently works production power over time, ex­ Arlis Stewart, director of with the National YMCA on such panding the supply of 'necessities Metrocenter YMCA's community new programs. "The YMCA is more and conveniences of life.' This was development programs says that than a 'swim and gym' organiza­ not unnatural or a threat to the well­ "the challenge of this project was to tion," says Stewart. "It originated in being of future generations. 'Capital select an anthology that people London to address the needs of has been silently and gradually accu­ would not only read but would re­ young men coming from the coun­ mulated by the private frugality . . . flect upon before coming together in try into what was considered an un­ of individuals to better their own the discussion groups. As an aid to savory urban environment. The "Y" condition.. .. This effort, protected such reflection, the reading selec­ was not only a place of shelter and by law and allowed by liberty . .. tions are followed by questions such fellowship but an organization has maintained the progress of as these: meant to reinforce positive social England toward opulence and im­ —"Aristotle took the institution of values. Its programs traditionally provement . . .,' Smith wrote." slavery for granted and even de­ reach beyond the most visible and To Tocqueville, who observed the fended it as natural and just. We re­ political aspects of the issues and U.S. economy in the 1830s, Ameri­ pudiate it. But do we repudiate it as raise fundamental questions of his­ cans were the incarnation of Adam thoroughly as we think? Do we be­ tory, philosophy, and ethics." Smith's social vision. "Self-interest, lieve that people should always be —Susan Rasmussen Goodman properly understood," wrote free to do as they please as long as Tocqueville, may not make a life vir­ they respect the similar freedom of "The Wealth and Well-Being of Our tuous, but its discipline "establishes others? Don't our laws as well as our People”/Jarlath Hume/Metrocenter habits which unconsciously turn it political morality support a substan­ YMCA, Seattle, WAl$53,34711984-86/ that w ay." tial amount of 'paternalism'?" Humanities Programs for Adults Only seventeen years after Tocqueville wrote Democracy in America, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote the Communist Mani­ festo. "Even Marx and Engels, fierce critics of the system of capitalism, freely admitted that it passed the test of productivity," says Heyne. But, while capitalism freed hu­ manity from its enslavement to na­ ture, average English industrial workers had "no intellectual life and were interested solely in their petty private affairs such as their looms and their gardens," wrote Engels. "They vegetated happily [yet they] were not human beings but little more than human machines in the service of a small aristocratic class." Marx and Engels believed that al­ hilosophy, once viewed as factual meaning. As Leszek the handmaiden of theol­ Kolakowski noted with regret some ogy, has toiled most of this twenty years ago in The Alienation of century as the chambermaid Reason: "Suffering, death, ideological ofP science. For quite some time the conflict, social clashes, antithetical various natural sciences have been values of any kind—all are declared widely regarded as providing clear out of bounds, matters we can only paradigms of success in the overall be silent about, in obedience to the human enterprise of acquiring principle of verifiability." But the knowledge about our world. It is principle of verifiability ultimately thus no great surprise to find that was found unfit for its task of philosophers, whose task it is to un­ serving the scientific mind-set and derstand the nature and scope of supplanting questions of theology, human knowledge, would come to values, and meaning. No cogent for­ be so impressed with the range of mulation of it could be devised. Yet procedures and techniques loosely even without the sort of focused the­ referred to as 'the scientific method' oretical justification of restricted cog­ that they would treat it as a sort of nitive inquiry that a verification standard for all our cognitive en­ principle would have provided, phi­ deavors. In consequence, questions losophers continued for many years amenable to resolution by empirical, to disregard numerous issues logical, or conceptual means have traditionally seen as vitally relevant been considered worthy of intellec­ to any reflective, fully human world tual effort. Questions about reality view. not of this sort have been largely ig­ Religious questions in particular nored and considered inappropriate seem to have suffered a studied ne­ objects of serious inquiry. glect among many of the most Of course, it is no twentieth- prominent philosophers of the cen­ century novelty for philosophers to tury. One reason for the lack of phil­ focus their attention on the methods osophical work on religious issues of science. What is distinctive of our has surely been a widespread lack of time is the extent to which leading personal interest in religion on the and active members of the philo­ part of the philosophers of the re­ sophical community have allowed cent past themselves. It is safe to their interests to be narrowed by the surmise in many cases that a per­ concerns and constraints of empir­ sonal religious skepticism has given ical science. It is a well-known fea­ birth to a religious indifference Philosop ture of recent philosophy, at least of which, in turn, has weighed heavily the philosophy that has dominated in the perception of what is or is not the English-speaking world, that it an interesting or promising, or even has not concerned itself much with a worthwhile subject of philosoph­ Religio many of the big questions tradi­ ical inquiry. The resultant neglect tionally and commonly associated and even disparagement of religious well known is that relentless skepti­ with philosophical inquiry—ques­ questions is certainly a phenomenon cal questioning reveals that, ulti­ tions concerning such matters as the worthy of critical attention. How mately, the universal demand for meaning of life, the nature and des­ should we assess it? A quick look at evidence or proof cannot possibly be tiny of human beings, and the exis­ some features of skepticism and in­ met. Consider for example a belief tence of God. The philosophers have difference will amplify some note­ we all hold, a claim that probably fiddled with technical issues of logic worthy comments that the great sci­ very few people ever conciously en­ and language while leaving unat­ entist and mathematician of the tertain or reflect on, but a claim tended such burning issues of hu­ seventeenth century Blaise Pascal which is such that if we did not be­ man existence. once made about a parallel phenom­ lieve it, and believe it rationally, we The historical precedents and enon in his own time. And this, I could not have any other rational be­ causes of this turn in philosophy are think, will help provide a perspec­ liefs: What I have in mind is the be­ many and diverse. One of the best tive on the attitude toward religious lief that "the sources of our beliefs known philosophical developments questions prevalent among philoso­ (sense experience, memory, the tes­ in the twenties and thirties was the phers in this century. timony of others, and inductive rea­ conception and deployment of a ver­ In a famous essay published in soning, for example) are sometimes ification principle of cognitive 1879, W.K. Clifford claimed that "it reliable." Careful reflection will meaningfulness, according to which is wrong always, everywhere, and show that this reliability conviction putative questions of factual signifi­ for anyone, to believe anything cannot be proved to be true. More­ cance that could not in principle be upon insufficient evidence." Notori­ over, there cannot exist a shred of adjudicated by sense experience ously, skeptics demand evidence. good evidence that it is true, be­ were ruled to be devoid of cognitive, Proof is even better. What is less cause we could not be justified in ac- tal beliefs. aesthetic component. Or consider What should we make of this? the question of whether numbers Pascal said "Reason's last step is the and other alleged abstract objects re­ recognition that there are an infinite ally exist, of whether mathematical number of things which are beyond platonism is true. These are dis­ it. It is merely feeble if it does not go puted topics beyond the realm of ra­ as far as to realize that." Many fun­ tional guarantees. But they are not damental convictions, even many topics whose resolution would necessary for the doing of science, greatly affect in any obvious way at lie beyond the range of rational all our existential self-understand- guarantee. On inspection, though, ing, the way we view ourselves and there seem to be two sorts of ques­ live our lives. From a Pascalian point tions beyond the range of simple of view, indifference concerning ex­ proof or compelling, publicly avail­ istentially peripheral topics is thus able evidence. There are, first, acceptable, morally and rationally. nearly universal beliefs, such as But an attitude of indifference con­ those we have just considered. But cerning existentially central topics, there are also widely disputed ques­ topics whose resolution would tions, such as questions concerning greatly affect our self-understanding basic religious issues. Belief in the and the way we live, is, Pascal existence of God may be like belief thought, monstrous. It was his fur­ in the existence of an external physi­ ther insistence that religious ques­ cal world, in being beyond the reach tions, at least the most basic reli­ of conclusive proof or even generally gious questions concerning such compelling, publicly available evi­ issues as the existence of God and dence. But it is surely unlike the lat­ the immortality of the soul, are pre­ ter in that it is a widely disputed cisely of this type. He said, for issue. example: Pascal once said, "Those who do The immortality of the soul is something not love truth excuse themselves on of such vital importance to us, affecting the ground that it is disputed." No us so deeply, that one must have lost all one is clearly victorious in the end­ feeling not to care about knowing the less disputes between outspoken facts of the matter. All our thoughts and theists and committed atheists. Real actions must follow such different paths, life is rarely like the Peter De Vries according to whether there is hope of story in which the village atheist de­ eternal blessings or not, that the only and the bates the town pastor on a public possible way of acting with sense and stage and each convinces the other. judgment is to decide our course in the But even if it were, many people light of this point, which ought to be our would draw the same conclusions ultimate objective. Quest they draw from the actual histories And went on to conclude: of such arguments: The wise person Thus our chief interest and chief duty is cepting anything as good evidence should keep a cool head and retire to seek enlightenment on this subject, on for the truth of this belief without al­ from such battles, turning his or her which all our conduct depends. And that ready assuming it to be true. And attention to other things, to less is why, amongst those who are not con­ yet we must hold this belief. If lofty matters, to matters clearly vinced, I make an absolute distinction denying its truth were really possi­ within our ken. Reflection on the in­ between those who strive with all their ble, it would be a paradigm of irra­ terminable nature of religious dis­ might to learn and those who live with­ tionality. And there are many more putes is one cause of religious indif­ out troubling themselves or thinking such beliefs we all hold, beliefs for ference, and is a very common about it. which we cannot have proof or even rationalization of it. Is Pascal right about this? What dif­ evidence. We all believe there is an But disputed topics beyond the ference could the existence of a God external world, that other people scope of simple proof are themselves and the promise of personal immor­ have mental experience, that the of two important types. There are tality make to the way we live our world has existed for more than five what we may call existentially pe­ lives now? In his book Religion, minutes, that we are not now ripheral disputed topics, and exis­ Kolakowski has said: dreaming. But if a skeptic asks tentially central disputed topics. An If personal life is doomed to irreversible "How do we know there is an exter­ example of the former might be pro­ destruction, so are all the fruits of hu­ nal world?" or "How do we know vided by the question "What is art?" man creativity, whether material or spir­ the world has existed for more than or perhaps by the attempt to specify itual and it does not matter how long five minutes?" we quickly find that a rigorous and exact definition of the we, or our own performances, might not a single good argument or piece phrase 'work of art.' With or with­ last. There is little difference between the of noncircular evidence can be mar­ out such a definition, life goes on, work of Giovanni Papini's imaginary shaled in behalf of these fundamen­ and life goes on with just as rich an sculptor carving his statues in smoke for 25 a few seconds' duration, and ditions for attaining certain sorts of among philosophers. There are Michelangelo's 'immortal' marbles. knowledge. He was convinced that growing numbers of philosophers, The question is one of permanency faith, the attainment of truth of just over the past few years, who be­ and one of meaning, objective eter­ these central religious matters, was a long to Pascal's two classes of per­ nal meaning. matter of the heart, meaning not sons who can be called reasonable, It has been pointed out by some that it was a matter of emotion, but and who are letting their service or philosophers that we can endow our that it required an involvement of search, as the case may be, affect activities with meaning, either by the whole person. their philosophical work. One indi­ valuing them in themselves or by Pascal would remind us that it is cation of this is the growth of a pro­ valuing them as means to goals we not just God who is hidden from the fessional organization, the Society of value in themselves. But is such casual observer. In an introduction Christian Philosophers, from a half valuation an empty gesture in an in­ to one of his scientific writings, he dozen founders in 1978 to a current different, or even hostile, universe? pointed out that the secrets of na­ membership of more than 800, in­ Anything properly placed in a ture are hidden as well. Human be­ cluding many of the most active and valuational context thereby has ings must seek them out arduously respected philosophers in this meaning. It is endowed with mean­ by devising techniques of observa­ country. ing. But do our lives themselves and tion and experimentation, by care­ If they are beyond the reach of our valuational activities have mean­ fully applying those techniques, by simple proof and compelling avail­ ing? The answer of the western reli­ painstaking checks, and so forth. To able evidence, the questions of reli­ gious traditions is that they do. Our achieve a proper position from gion are not beyond the scope of lives have a meaning which is both which to see the truth on religious reason. They are not beyond the objective and permanent, tran­ questions will require the cultivation realm of fruitful and exciting philo­ scending what we can now see, a of different capacities and abilities, sophical exploration, as numerous value with which they are endowed but will be no less difficult. Indeed, contemporary philosophers are now by an eternally existent, absolutely it may be a good deal more difficult. coming to see, and as recently pub­ perfect God. Much in life is up to us, But Pascal was convinced that a sin­ lished work in many of the major these religious teach, but much is cere search, in either case, would be professional journals as well as from provided. There are objective, rewarded. With this conviction, he many of the best academic presses proper goals for all human life and said about the question of God that amply attests. There is still a great activity, moral and spiritual goals . . . there are only two classes of persons deal of reluctance on the part of whose attainment is to issue in an who can be called reasonable: those who many of the philosophical commu­ everlasting fulfillment of intrinsic serve God with all their heart because nity to acknowledge the interest and good. According to the view which they know him and those who seek him importance of religious issues. It Pascal represents, we thus need not with all their heart because they do not would not be true to say that the with Russell build our souls' habita­ know him. dominant attitude among philoso­ tion "on the firm foundation of Pascal, I think, would be pleased phers through most of the century unyielding despair." with the very recent contemporary has collapsed in the last few years, But even if it can be argued that rediscovery of the philosophy of reli­ but it is being eroded at a rapid rate. the existence of God and the immor­ gion, the activity of the past decade Is this, though, really a change of tality of the soul are existentially or so which is redressing the cen­ which Pascal would have approved? central questions, issues of the tury's neglect of religious topics He abhorred religious indifference, greatest importance, how can we but would he have valued philosoph­ come to know the truth about such ical attention to religion? He did matters? Pascal believed that there is seem to hold that religion is a matter a significant amount of evidence fa­ of the heart, not of philosophical voring the central claims of his reli­ reason. However, although he did gious world view, but that it could insist that a knowledge of religious not be appreciated by an unfavora­ truth could not be attained by philo­ bly disposed person. He said of God sophical reasoning alone, his own that efforts in behalf of religious belief in . . .wishing to appear openly to those the Pensees are eloquent testimony to who seek him with all their heart and the salutary relationship between hidden from those who shun him with all 3 philosophy and the religious quest. their heart, he has qualified our knowl­ & — Thomas V. Morris C edge of him by giving signs which can be u Mr. Morris, assistant professor of phi- seen by those who seek him and not by ° losophy at the University of Notre those who do not. . . s Dame, is the author of Understanding adding that there is enough light for 3 Identity Statements (Aberdeen Univer- those who desire only to see, and ^ sity Press and Humanities Press, 1984) enough darkness for those of a con­ and The Logic of God Incarnate Blaise Pascal, 1623-1662 trary disposition. It was one of (Cornell University Press) as well as Pascal's most profound accomplish­ Anselmian Explorations to be pub­ ments to appreciate the moral, spir­ lished by the University of Notre Dame itual, volitional, and attitudinal con­ Press. 26 On April 30, 1821, Georg W.F. Hegel dhism." Hodgson says the early, nervously paused to clear his throat conflated texts tend to obscure such as he took the lecture podium to ad­ "extremely dramatic" changes in dress forty-nine students at the Uni­ Hegel's thought. versity of Berlin. The conflated editions, adds His resolve fortified by a pinch of Hodgson, also "conceal the distinc­ snuff, the former divinity school stu­ tive structure and argument of the dent, admirer of Napoleon and now lecture series." Each lecture series renowned philosopher, unleashed a "had a polemical setting," notes broadside against Friedrich Hodgson, though each time Hegel Schleiermacher, his colleague and ri­ took on a different target. For in­ val on the university faculty. stance, in 1821 and 1824, the philos­ Hegel had learned that his philo­ opher fired away at his rival sophical adversary was preparing to HEGEL’S Schleiermacher "and at the kind of publish a book detailing his view philosophy that tended to reduce ev­ that religious feeling was more im­ erything to subjectivity." But by portant than a systematic theology LECTURES 1827, "Hegel was being attacked by in discussing the spiritual realm. the religious right as some sort of Convinced that Schleiermacher was atheist or pantheist, so he had to wrong, Hegel—perhaps the last of ON THE reemphasize the importance of his­ the great systematic philosophers— torical subjectivity." decided to strike first. "It was a In an effort to capture the authen­ rather quick decision for him to give ticity of the original lectures, the lecture," notes Peter Hodgson, a PHILOSOPHY Hodgson has worked with Hegelian Hegelian scholar and professor of scholars from Germany and Argen­ theology at the Divinity School of tina to separate the four series of lec­ Vanderbilt University. "But Hegel OF tures and publish them as autono­ wanted to counter some of mous units based on a complete Schleiermacher's arguments." reediting of the sources. The first As a result, Hegel initiated a series RELIGION two English volumes of the new of lectures on religion that continued translation were published in 1984 intermittently until shortly before and other materials, along with a de­ and 1985. The final volume should his death from cholera in 1831. In tailed commentary pointing out cen­ appear by mid-1987. the process, the German philoso­ tral issues and untangling difficult "The obvious advantage of our pher carved out an entirely new in­ passages. Perhaps most importantly, separation of the sources," says tellectual discipline. "It really was Hodgson is taking a radically differ­ Hodgson, "is that it will allow each the start of the philosophy of reli­ ent approach to organizing the ma­ lecture series to stand in its proper gion," Hodgson notes. "The disci­ terials than did editors of Hegel's sequence, and it will enable readers pline was just a novelty at the time." own era. for the first time to distinguish what But Hodgson notes Hegelian Hegel's followers published Hegel said in 1821, 1824, 1827, and scholars have struggled through the portions of the lectures in German in to some extent 1831, and thus to rec­ years to decipher the master's views 1832 and 1840. These became the ba­ ognize changes in substance and on the philosophy of religion. Hegel sis for the only prior English transla­ form of the material." delivered four separate lecture series tion, made in 1895, which Hodgson "In the later part of the nineteenth on the subject—in 1821, 1824, 1827, calls "rather stilted stylistically and century, Hegelianism went into and 1831—each arousing furious not too accurate." Rather than eclipse," says Hodgson, as Hegel's controversy in philosophical and re­ organizing the textual materials into systematic philosophy came under ligious circles. four discrete units—one for each lec­ attack from critics ranging from However, "Hegel never published ture series—the early editors "con­ Kierkegaard to Karl Marx. "But even any of these lectures himself," says flated," or tried mixing the different then the terms of the debate were Hodgson. And so five generations of texts together in a topical organiza­ those laid down by Hegel." scholars looking for insight on this tion. The result was rather like the In the past 30 years, he adds, topic have been forced to consult jumbled product of an editorial "there's been a real rebirth of inter­ Hegel's fragmentary lecture manu­ cuisinart. est in Hegel—a real Hegel renais­ scripts and the often-confusing and Like Emerson, Hegel believed that sance. But now we can approach his contradictory accounts of the lec­ a foolish consistency was the hob­ views from a distance, and not have tures in extant notebooks of Hegel's goblin of little minds. "He often to buy into his system as a whole." own students. drastically changed his mind on par­ —Francis J. O'Donnell But with major support from ticular subjects" between 1821 and NEH, Hodgson is trying to make 1831, notes Hodgson. "In later “Complete English Edition of Hegel's clear this murky philosophical area. years, for example, he was much Lectures on the Philosophy of He is producing a new three-volume more interested in Eastern re­ Religion'VPefer Hodgson/Vanderbilt English translation of the lectures, ligions—he placed much more em­ University, Nashville, TN/$53,000 OR; derived from the student notebooks phasis on Hinduism and Bud­ $17,000 FM/1984-87/Translations . this country. Examining the history that influ­ enced Jefferson's creation, J.G.A. Pocock of Johns Hopkins University > traced the historical origins of con­ tention between church and state from A.D. 324 when Constantine be­ came emperor and established Christianity as the official religion of the Roman empire, through Augus­ tine's civitas dei holding that the earthly city could never be the city of God, through the Protestant Ref­ ormation and the English civil war, and finally to the Enlightenment when, according to Pocock, there was a profound change in the defini­ tion of religion itself: Hitherto religion has been about the op­ erations of God in the world; the opera­ tions of the Word in becoming Flesh or in becoming the vehicle of the Spirit.. . . But the effect of many changes taking place at the end of the seventeenth cen­ tury . . . was to redefine religion as the holding of opinions, and religious free­ dom as the freedom to form, hold, and profess opinions concerning the opera­ tions, the attributes, and even the exist­ Front elevation, ence of God-—a great victory for the Virginia state intellectualization of experience. capitol, by The Tradition of Without this intellectualization, Thomas Jefferson. Pocock said, religious experience Religious Freedom might never have been defined in such a way as to present a radical Two hundred years after enactment amined the origins of the statute, its claim to freedom. But there was a of the Virginia Statute for Religious historical influence and interpreta­ price to be paid, and that was the Freedom, questions continue to be tion, and its relevance and implica­ redefinition of religion itself as the raised about the separation of tions for society today. formation and holding of opinions church and state in this country. Thomas Jefferson's Bill for Estab­ concerning personal religious Such questions have most recently lishing Religious Freedom, which experience. dealt with issues relating to prayer passed the Virginia legislature In Pocock's view, the Virginia stat­ in the schools, tax exemptions for through the legislative skill of James ute successfully legislated both the parochial institutions, clerical advo­ Madison, became the basis for the freedom of the religious sect from cacy of specific political policies, and constitutional guarantees of religious the established religion and the free­ secular humanism. freedom in the First Amendment. dom of the liberal state from either. Because of the current intensity of Jefferson's words expressed the It should seem then that the statute goes interest in the relationship between principle of freedom of thought that a little way . . . towards establishing a church and state and in the continu­ was to rest at the foundation of the kind of Unitarian universalism— the reli­ ation of the unbroken tradition of American republic. The enactment gion of free enquiry— not as the official scholarship on the statute, the of the Virginia statute marked the religion of American society, but as that Virginia Foundation for the Humani­ first time in thirteen centuries of most easily recognized by that society’s ties and Public Policy sponsored a Western history that a law ended re­ magistracy and values; and at the same symposium in September 1985 that ligious persecution, exclusion, and time towards regarding the pentecostal brought together noted scholars in compulsion. It also established the sects as a kind of loyal opposition. religion, political science, philoso­ radical separation of church and Because the religious views of the phy, and history—among them state. Because the statute contrib­ "loyal opposition" do not permit a J.G.A. Pocock, Martin Marty, Walter uted to the spread of popular reli­ definition of religion as consisting of Berns, and Richard Rorty—and gions and helped to open the door free enquiry and the formation of members of the public in a discus­ of the new nation to the diverse reli­ opinions, the view of religion stated sion of the relationship between the gious groups of Europe, the Virginia in the Virginia statute and subse­ American political tradition and the Statute for Religious Freedom is one quent documents is not one the pen­ principles articulated in the Virginia of the essential documents defining tecostal sects support. For that rea­ statute. Symposium participants ex­ not only the law but the culture of son, he said, they persist in efforts 28 to remake society in an image more mistaken. Such people claim that so­ support of the people, such laws consonant with their religious be­ ciety cannot hope to achieve social will continue to be passed by state liefs. But, says Pocock, "when they virtue without agreement among cit­ legislatures, "the Supreme Court to talk of remaking liberal society in izens as to what is intrinsically desir­ the contrary notwithstanding." Christ's image, the statute and its able, what practices are good in The Virginia Foundation plans to progeny are there to tell them that themselves. publish papers from the symposium this is only bluster; their kingdom is Rorty argued that two hundred in a book to be released by the sum­ not of this world. The secular magis­ years of religious toleration, of mer of 1987. In conjunction with the trate retains his position as the best letting "other people ... try out their symposium, the foundation also guarantor of a free society and has private visions of perfection in conducted a speakers' bureau from not ceased trying to remake religion peace" have led to a "disenchant­ June through December 1985. Each according to his own specifications." ment with the religio-metaphysical of the bureau's fifteen speakers, all Martin Marty of the University of picture of the universe of human na­ of whom are on the faculty of Chicago discussed the statute's im­ ture as providing a constant and Virginia colleges and universities, portance, not for its legal standing universal goal.. . . One cannot be spoke at least twice to audiences in because it has none today, but be­ both enchanted by one picture of the thirty towns and cities throughout cause people see it as a "hinge be­ world and tolerant of all the others, the commonwealth. Topics ranged tween ages"—a key moment in the and America has consistently opted from "Freedom, Faith, and Bumper end of the "Age of Constantine" and for tolerance." Stickers" to "Jefferson's Legacy: Rad­ the beginning of a new one. It is also The spiritual liberation brought ical Liberty, Rational Engagement." widely understood that the statute about by religious toleration, he Jefferson himself described the reappears in the First Amendment, said, has opened up inspiring politi­ country he was trying to create as which of course does have legal cal possibilities and forms of moral "an experiment." Rorty believes that status. consciousness—"possibilities and if that experiment fails, our descend­ As a background and tone-setting forms which had not been and could ants will not necessarily learn either document, the statute is typical of not have been envisaged by those a philosophical or a religious truth founding texts that lie behind who thought that the world con­ from that failure. They will simply present-day debates over "who tained a telos." know what to look for while con­ owns America," said Marty. If one If the principle embodied in the structing the next experiment. "Even part of society sees separation of Virginia statute is that "liberty of if nothing else survives from the age church and state as necessary to conscience is every man's natural of the democratic revolutions," he securing liberty of conscience, an­ right," that can only mean that hu­ said, "perhaps our descendants will other part sees it (especially the Su­ mans are not legally obliged to act still remember that social institutions preme Court's "acceptance of belief- with a view toward saving their own can be viewed as experiments in co­ as-religion") as contributing to the souls. Truly religious people—Jews, operation rather than as attempts to elimination of theism from the pub­ Christians, or Muslims—cannot ac­ embody a universal and a historical lic educational system and to the en­ cept this, said Walter Berns of the order. It is hard to believe that this trenchment of secular humanism in American Enterprise Institute. "To memory would not be worth Thomas Jefferson, its place. assert liberty of conscience is to having." by Benjamin According to many of the sympo­ deny revelation; it is to say that God —Caroline Taylor Henry Latrobe sium participants, the issue behind did not reveal the commandments to much of today's debate relates to the Moses or did not reveal His word fundamental question of the role of through Christ or did not reveal His religion—and morality—in society. will to Muhammad." In his paper, philosopher Richard Yet in the course of time, most Rorty of the University of Virginia states followed Virginia in enacting said, "Ever since the Enlightenment, similar legislation. "Were they fol­ Americans have tended to agree lowing Locke and drawing a sharp with Kant that reason can substitute distinction between body and soul, for religion as far as our public life, state and society, and therefore, the our relations with others, is con­ public and the private?" Berns cerned." The assumption is that the asked. "Probably not." basis of morality lies somewhere in Toleration of religious differences, human nature, rather than in the for most Americans, has not meant will of God. Yet, he said, contempo­ indifference to religion, said rary intellectuals are "less sure than Berns."By separating church and were Jefferson and his friends that state, Americans consigned religion there is anything like a universal hu­ to the private sphere or, more pre­ man nature or universal canons of cisely, to the care of private institu­ rationality on which to fall back." tions, but they have traditionally It is not that these people believe seen reason to provide public the Virginia statute itself was a mis­ support—on a nondiscriminatory take, he said, but that the statute's basis—for those institutions." And, philosophical presuppositions were he predicted, because they retain the Fundamentals: Issues and Texts

"I usually tell people I'm majoring in gineered a program similar to Fun­ cused his interest on the questions, literature and philosophy," says damentals on their own, but they "Can there be a just war? What is an Montgomery Brown, a junior at the would have no support, no com­ appropriate response to violence?" University of Chicago. Actually, pany. Similarly, the professors who A graduate of the program, Bruce Brown's major is "Fundamentals: Is­ had been independently teaching in King, was powerfully affected by sues and Texts," a unique NEH- the Fundamentals spirit had no for­ reading the Iliad his freshman year supported program at the College of mal support." and was particularly interested in the University of Chicago. Funda­ The concept of Fundamentals: Is­ the heroic character of Achilles. mentals is an interesting blend of sues and Texts comes naturally to Once he entered the Fundamentals the kind of self-guided study that the University of Chicago, which has program, however, and began read­ came into favor in the 1960s and a a long tradition of incorporating ing books that portrayed other kinds traditional, rigorous examination of great books into its education of un­ of exemplary lives, King found that some great books. Students entering dergraduates. Unlike other great his original interest in tragic heroes the program choose a basic question books curricula, however, Funda­ and the epic seemed shallow. By the about the human condition that in­ mentals enables students and pro­ end of his senior year he was terests them, questions such as fessors to concentrate on a small concentrating on different models of those that absorbed Socrates— number of texts, to study them in virtuous conduct—the democratic "What is man? What is knowledge? great detail, and to consider the man in Emile, the friend, and the po­ What is justice?"—and with the help ideas presented in them in relation litically excellent man in Aristotle's of advisers, select for intensive to a particular fundamental question Ethics. study a few classic texts that illumi­ chosen by the student. "The spirit is There are few requirements in the nate this topic. philosophic in the old-fashioned program. Second- and third-year The program, which was first of­ sense of seeking wisdom, the belief students must take three one- fered to undergraduates in October that one can become more thought­ quarter courses (the university has a 1983, was devised by senior profes­ ful, wiser, with the help of great quarter calendar), each on a single sors in the Committee on Social minds," explains Kass. The pro­ text and taught by a different profes­ Thought, an interdisciplinary gradu­ gram's creators believe that when sor, showing how a text can be read ate department at the University of one has become intimately ac­ to illuminate basic questions. This Chicago. Allan Bloom, one of the quainted with even one great book year the sequence is Genesis, creators of Fundamentals, says he and has learned how to read it Shakespeare's late plays, and Plato's had become concerned that "stu­ perceptively and intelligently, one Symposium. dents have lost the powerful sense has learned how to read other books In addition to the sequence of the of reading that affects one's whole on a similar level. three introductory courses, majors life. The classic books are dying be­ Students usually enter the Funda­ must have two years of formal lan­ cause nobody is reading them." mentals curriculum in their sopho­ guage study, which enables them to Bloom and his colleagues planned more year, although juniors are also read one of their texts in the original a program of these books specifically accepted. All undergraduates at the language. Brown studied French in for undergraduates, taught by University of Chicago take a com­ order to read Rousseau, and Jeffreys "teachers who are distinguished mon core of courses in the social sci­ is reading Machiavelli in Italian. thinkers, teachers who are inspiring, ences, humanities, biological sci­ Many Fundamentals students learn and teachers who complement each ence, and physical science. In many Latin or Greek. other." of these courses, they read primary A requirement for admission into Another founder, and chairman of sources. By the end of the freshman the senior year of the program is the the program, Leon Kass, adds that year, therefore, the student who junior paper, which deals with some there were a number of students at might be interested in majoring in aspect of the topic of inquiry the stu­ Chicago who would become en­ Fundamentals has sufficient back­ dent has chosen. King's paper was grossed in large questions from their ground to make an informed deci­ on the Iliad and Moby Dick, readings in great books during their sion. Derek Jeffreys, a student in the comparing Achilles and Ahab as he­ freshman year. It was difficult for program, says that a course in the roic figures. Monica Powell, a junior such students to continue to pursue history of Western civilization, in in the program, is writing an analy­ the questions that interested them. which he read Thucydides, sis of Tolstoy's War and Peace from "Individual students could have en­ Machiavelli, and Max Weber, fo­ psychological, literary, and sociolog- 30 (clockwise front above) The Republic, Plato; lean Jacques Rousseau, 1712—1778; Nicollo M achiavelli, 1469—1527; William Shakespeare, 1564—1616; Ida Noyes Hall, The University of Chicago. ical viewpoints. Brown's interest is why they want to concentrate on colleges and universities will be in­ the family and its relationship to the Fundamentals. There are also per­ vited to share the results of the pro­ political order. This quarter he is sonal interviews and counseling. So gram. Model classes will be held for writing his junior paper on the first far, most applicants have qualified conference participants, and Funda­ book of Emile, and is enrolled in for admission, but Kass expects that mentals graduate Bruce King will classes on Rousseau's second Dis­ as word continues to spread, admis­ describe his question and studies, course, a survey of Rousseau's works sions may need to be restricted in followed by commentaries by two of offered by the French department, order to preserve the benefits of a his teachers about the books he and Aristotle's Politics. small program. read. A panel and discussion group The culminating activity of Funda­ Once students enter the program, will evaluate the concept of the pro­ mentals is the detailed study of six they have remarkably close contact gram in general and Fundamentals texts that articulate and illuminate with advisers and other faculty methodology in particular. the student's topic of inquiry. With members. At this time, there are Faculty and students are equally the help of his adviser, Jeffreys has thirty students majoring in Funda­ enthusiastic about Fundamentals. chosen to explore the question of so­ mentals, who are taught by the fif­ Bloom says that two expectations ciety's response to violence through teen faculty members in the pro­ have been "more than fulfilled." Machiavelli's The Prince and Dis­ gram. Not all these professors "The program has attracted good courses, which he will treat as one devote full time to the program, but students whose lives have been book; Thucydides' History of the Pelo­ fourteen of them are advisers. Each changed by the program, and a cer­ ponnesian War; a text by St. Augus­ student has four advisers: the Fun­ tain kind of collegiality has been tine or one by St. Thomas Aquinas; damentals chairman, the program achieved. Professors from various the Iliad; and the Sermon on the coordinator, the college adviser who departments—history, classics, psy­ Mount. is assigned to the program, and his chology, theology, social thought, At the end of the senior year, stu­ own faculty adviser, who is a mem­ literature—speak to each other, dents take a three-day examination ber of the program and who will su­ teach and talk to the same students, on the six books, in which they pervise the student's junior paper. and collaborate in a very fruitful write two extensive papers on ques­ Brown says he is very satisfied with way." Faculty members outside the tions set by the faculty, in order to the advising. "Not only can I talk to program regard it as a model, he demonstrate how they have inte­ my assigned advisers, but any pro­ continues. Some have begun teach­ grated their topic of inquiry with the fessor in the department is available ing single texts, or plan to do so, texts and their other studies. King for a conference." and some are willing to do small says he was given four questions on Perhaps even more importantly, tutorials. a Friday morning and asked to write the faculty-student ratio and the Bloom's first expectation, about about two of them. He went to the small number of students allow and students' lives being changed, is cer­ library and wrote all weekend. encourage a closeness between stu­ tainly true. The students themselves "Some students actually enjoyed the dent and professor and a comrade­ confirm this. Bruce King says he experience," he remarks. ship among the students that is one would become so enmeshed in This particular kind of program— of the attractions of the program. Aristotle's Ethics, which he studied intellectually demanding and rigor­ This intimate environment offers an for two quarters under Kass, that he ous, yet relatively unstructured and unparalleled opportunity for under­ couldn't stop thinking about it. "I self-directed— does not appeal to graduates not only to study under, would walk to the supermarket, every student. In a way, this is for­ but also to become closely ac­ mentally rehashing class discussions tunate, because a large enrollment quainted with, prominent scholars, or finding new ways of looking at would endanger the program's ad­ some of whom previously had the material—and this was a book vising capacity. Kass and Funda­ taught only at the graduate level. that initially I felt pretty lukewarm mentals students agree that it takes Collegiate lectures, to which the about." a certain amount of courage to de­ university community is invited, are Probably because Fundamentals part from a conventional major. part of the Fundamentals program. students have a chance to get to "The students who have joined the Distinguished scholars from the Uni­ know their professors well and can program display a variety of abilities versity of Chicago and elsewhere experience what an academic life is and tastes, but share a thoughtful­ speak to issues and ideas discussed like, the program has changed a few ness and desire to think about basic in Fundamentals classes. Leszek career goals, too. Monica Powell rep­ questions. They all like to read, Kolakowski has lectured on several resents many of her fellow students want a personally meaningful un­ occasions. Other speakers have been when she says she wants to go to dergraduate life, and an Aaron Wildavsky, who spoke on the graduate school, to be a college interdisciplinary course of study that Torah; David Grene, who lectured teacher. "Almost everyone in Fun­ integrates life and thought," says on Hamlet; and Keith Baker on damentals wants to teach." Kass. Rousseau. Approximately six of —Ellen Marsh Students are selected for admis­ these lectures are held each year. sion to Fundamentals. The appli­ The initial three-year period of the "Fundamentals: Issues and Texts: A cants are asked what question is im­ program will end this spring. In the New Undergraduate Concentration portant to them; how at least one fall of 1986 there will be a national Program"/Leon Kass/University of book they have read has helped conference to which representatives Chicago, IL/$283,97311983-861 them understand this question; and of approximately one hundred Promoting Excellence in a Field 32 THE Humanities

for those who are thinking of applying GU DE for an NEH grant

Advice for Younger Scholars GRANTSI DEADLINES PROPOSALS PROGRAMS Sixty-three high school students the Constitution to American His­ viewer of Wallace P. Mullin's pro­ and more than one hundred college tory, and to American political, so­ posal to study leitmotifs in The undergraduates have landed sum­ cial, and intellectual culture. Brothers Karamazov. A junior at mer jobs that will compensate them The 166 winners from both com­ Boston College, Mullin will write a with knowledge as well as money. petitions were selected from 983 ap­ commentary this summer that will The students are winners of an an­ plications in all disciplines of the explain the role of four leitmotifs in nual competition for Younger humanities. Their proposals were Dostoevsky's novel and that will Scholars, an NEH program awarding evaluated by independent panels of trace their significance in Slavic grants of $1,400 to $1,800 to stu­ experts in areas of the humanities thought and Russian Orthodoxy. dents for nine weeks of research relevant to the proposed research Panelists found Mullin's plan de­ and writing about topics in the hu­ topics. What were the specific qual­ manding in its requirements of a manities with guidance from hu­ ities in the 166 winning proposals close reading of a Russian text, of a manities scholars. that convinced the panelists that comparison with two English trans­ Among this year's winners, who these were studies worthy of lations, and of a study of Russian in­ come from thirty-seven states and funding? tellectual history. But they also be­ the District of Columbia and who First, a successful application pro­ lieved that the project could be are listed with the other 1986 NEH poses a project that is both accomplished because Mullin had Fellows on pages 35 to 44, are sixty- challenging and doable. A Younger limited the number of leitmotifs to six students receiving awards in a Scholars grant involves nine weeks be examined and had focused on special competition celebrating the of full-time work. A significant char­ only one major work. Had the study bicentennial of the U.S. Constitu­ acteristic of the program is that the not been so well defined or had the tion. These students will undertake study takes place during the sum­ project involved several novels, re­ research projects in areas of consti­ mer, when a student can concen­ viewers may not have been as en­ tutional study: the origins of the trate on a single subject without the thusiastic about the project, even Constitution; the meaning and in­ distraction of other academic re­ though the student is well qualified tent of its provisions; the relation of sponsibilities. The resulting prod­ to undertake such a study. uct, therefore, is expected to be Applicants should keep in mind, much more thorough and more so­ however, that a proposal is a piece phisticated than a term paper com­ of persuasive writing. The task is to pleted during the school year. persuade reviewers that an idea is On the other hand, panelists sound and worthy of the effort in­ must be convinced that the project volved and that the researcher can be completed. A project that knows what he or she is getting will take the full nine weeks for into. reading and research with no time Daniel L. Alexander, a senior at left for writing is not likely to be Lexington High School in recommended, nor is a project Massachusetts who won a bicenten­ based on a subject too vast for nine nial grant, conveyed through his es­ weeks of study, such as the social say both personal enthusiasm for impact of nineteenth-century tech­ his study on the historical origins of nological advances or the search for the accountability provisions in Arti­ the sublime in lyric poetry. The cle I of the Constitution and confi­ single most frequent shortcoming dence about the significance of his in proposals that were not recom­ research. "Here is a topic to chal­ mended for funding was lenge a bright student," a reviewer over-ambitiousness. wrote, "my only worry is that it "A rigorous and carefully deline­ might be too much. But from the ated plan of work which strikes me excellent references as well as the as feasible and realistic," wrote a re­ revealing essay, I think we ought to 33 let this young man have a go at it." into stages of work and should de­ Here it should be emphasized that Alexander's experience as an in­ scribe the specific tasks involved in the Younger Scholars Program pro­ tern for a U.S. Representative made each stage. vides grants for supervised research him aware "of the strong effect that Morgen Fleisig, a junior at Co­ in the humanities. The student certain provisions of Article I have lumbia University, won an award to should describe the nature of that in making the lawmaking branch of analyze Frank Lloyd Wright's archi­ supervision in the proposal. the federal government accountable tecture as an expression of contem­ Philip Clark, a junior from to the public," he wrote in his porary social philosophy. He pro­ Louisiana State University who won proposal. vided panelists with the following an award from the bicentennial He continued: detailed plan of work: competition, described in detail The topic I would like to research is Week 1: Examine in detail the dem­ how he would work with his adviser unusual in its character, but it is ocratic and organic philosophies in the early stages of his project: compelling.... Several American and personal life of Wright in the Because I will be spending full­ history scholars have argued that period between 1914 and 1932, fo­ time on the project, Dr. Jillson and I the correspondence that young cusing on the 1920's. have agreed that 750 to 1000 pages American law students in pre- Week 2: Examine in detail the per week is a reasonable reading Revolutionary England sent home thinking of the social pragmatists, target. I will read and take notes convinced colonists that the English and analyze the way in which this (with the final research paper in lawmaking body was corrupted.... affected Wright's thinking. mind) during the week. Dr. Jillson What is exciting about this is not Week 3: Examine Wright's architec­ will be available to me throughout just that many in the American Rev­ tural projects from the years 1914-32 the week to answer questions or di­ olution probably had clear, consti­ after a full understanding of the rect me to additional materials. On tutional objectives, but that such motivating philosophies has been Friday afternoons I will meet with objectives were realized in the achieved. Dr. Jillson for an intensive discus­ American Constitution. The seeds Week 4/1st Half: Examine the main sion on the past week's readings of some of these objectives, then, thrusts of the European architectural and for direction concerning the might well have been the corre­ movements and the ideas behind readings for the coming week. spondence of the young American them that existed at this time. The final word of advice is prob­ law students [in London] such as Week 412nd half thru Week 6: ably the most important. READ THE [John] Dickinson. In particular, the Outline argument in detail. GUIDELINES. Guidelines not only observations of Dickinson and Week 7-9: Rough draft through final provide information about applicant others on the lawmaking body of paper, with an estimated length of eligibility and restrictions, they also England and its members' lack a 50-75 pages. explain the three possible areas of commitment to office or sense of Even the best designed projects study for proposed projects—the duty to constituents might well cannot be recommended for fund­ interpretation of cultural works; the have influenced the construction of ing unless the applicants are quali­ study of historical ideas, figures, Article I and its accountability provi­ fied to carry them out. The state­ and events; and the understanding sions. Therefore, I would like to ment of qualifications in the of a discipline in the humanities— study the correspondence of these proposal is brief; therefore, it must and give examples of the kinds of American law students ... and the include educational experience that projects that could be undertaken anti-British pamphlets from [the is related specifically to the project. in each area. In the case of bicen­ same period] and compare them Panelists also base their evaluation tennial projects, they explain and with similar polemics that appeared of the applicant on the quality of illustrate the areas of constitutional in the years after such men as thinking and writing evident in the study. Dickinson returned home. proposal and on the required let­ They also give careful, explicit di­ Reviewers' comments make it ters of reference. rections for providing the informa­ clear that it was Alexander's discus­ Two other elements of the pro­ tion that must be included in a pro­ sion of the intellectual content of posal that should not be over­ posal and list the criteria by which a his project that convinced them of looked are the bibliography and the proposal will be judged. Guidelines its value. One reviewer wrote, "Mr. project adviser. Panelists read and application forms for the Alexander is dead right in his belief bibliographies. Comments about Younger Scholars Program will be that by the Revolution, Americans the proposals in the recent compe­ available in July from the NEH Pub­ believed they were fighting for a tition for Younger Scholars grants lic Affairs Office, Room 409, 1100 pure and untarnished constitution­ show that panelists base their evalu­ Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, alism, which had been perverted ations in part on the applicants' D .C. 20506. Telephone: back in the Mother Country. He knowledge of the literature relevant 202/786-0438. ought to be able to flesh out the to their topics. The next application deadline for story by his research." Panelists are also asked to assess Younger Scholars is November 1, Once panelists have determined the appropriateness of the adviser 1986. Proposals for studies of the that the project is rigorous and that to the project. The adviser should U.S. Constitution are again encour­ its objectives are attainable, they have training and knowledge in the aged; the winners of this competi­ will examine the plan of work to applicant's general field of inquiry, tion will be at work on constitu­ make sure that it is logical. Appli­ and the proposal should explain the tional projects during the summer cants should divide their projects role of the adviser in the project. of 1987, the bicentennial year. 34 THE 1986 NEH FELLOWS

Some of the items in this list are offers, not final awards.

Archaeology & Randall K. White, New York U., New York, Damie Stillman, U. of Delaware, Newark, Ice Age Art and Ornamentation in the Beloit American Neoclassical Architecture: The Fed­ Anthropology College Collections eral Period R. A. Sutton, U. of Wisconsin, Madison, M u­ FELLOWSHIPS FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY YOUNGER SCHOLARS sical Pluralism and Regional Identity in Con­ AND RESEARCH temporary Java Laura N. Albert, Oberlin College, OH, William E. Wallace, Washington U., St. Louis, Michael F. Herzfeld, Indiana U., Bloom­ Melville: Civilization and Savagery M O , The Workshops and Assistants of ington, Local, Regional, and National Identity Michael F. Bazinet, U. of Pennsylvania, Michelangelo Buonarroti in a Cretan Town Philadelphia, Two North African Cloaks: A Dora L. W iebenson, U. of Virginia, Char­ Jerome R. Mintz, Indiana U., Bloomington, Comparison lottesville, Interpretations of Vitruvius' Trea­ Social Change in the Hasidic Community, Sarah L. Caldwell, U. of California, Berkeley, tise on Architecture from 1450 to the Present 1965-86 A Study of Gesture in Classic Maya Art John G. Pedley, U. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Craig Stephen DeLancey, U. of Rochester, FELLOWSHIPS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS Architecture and Sculpture from the Sanctu­ NY, The Golden Dawn: A Study of Modern ary of Santa Venera at Paestum Magic Practice Adrienne F. Block, CUNY Research Founda­ Carol T. Silverman, U. of Oregon, Eugene, Gery W. Ryan, Carleton College, Northfield, tion/Hunter College, New York, Biography of Tradition, Cultural Ideology, and Contempo­ M N, What It Means to Understand the Amy M .C. Beach, 1867-1944 rary Folklore in Bulgaria "Other" through a Review of Works on Na­ Michael T. Davis, Mount Holyoke College, Michael T. Taussig, U. of Michigan, Ann Ar­ tive American Cultures South Hadley, MA, Paris, Jean des Champs, bor, The Magic of History and Its Healing and the Development of Rayonnant Architec­ Power ture in Southern France Mark B. DeVoto, Tufts U., Medford, MA, Pre- FELLOWSHIPS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS Arts— History & Twelve-Tone Composition in the Sketches of Alban Berg Lila R. Abu-Lughod, Williams College, Criticism Thomas A. Denny, Skidmore College, Sara­ Williamstown, MA, A Bedouin Family: Eth­ toga Springs, NY, The Emergence of nography, '‘In a Different Voice" FELLOWSHIPS FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY Schubert's Mature Instrumental Style Rebecca L. Ammerman, Colgate U., Hamil­ AND RESEARCH Michael Ann Holly, Hobart-William Smith ton, NY, The Mould-Made Coddess: A Study Colleges, Geneva, NY, The Origins of Art of Votive Terracottas in Magna Craecia Carolyn Abbate, Princeton U., Princeton, N), History Daniel A. Bradburd, Clarkson U., Potsdam, Stories Told in Music: The Narratives in Edward F. Houghton, U. of California, Santa NY, Western Economic Expansion and the Wagner's Operas Cruz, A Critical Edition of the Chigi Codex Historical Basis of Tribal Structure in 19th- John Belton, Columbia U., New York, Nathalie B. Kampen, U. of Rhode Island, and 20th-Century Iran CinemaScope: Technique and Technology Kingston, Historical Reliefs of the Roman Judith N. Friedlander, SUNY Research Vincent J. Bruno, U. of Texas, Arlington, Provinces Foundation/College at Purchase, NY, The Delos and Pompeii: A Comparative Study of Barbara A. Kellum, Smith College, North­ Rise of Jewish National Movements in Eastern Greek and Roman Painting Techniques ampton, MA, The City Adorned: Program­ Europe and the Jewish Question in France Wanda M. Corn, Stanford U., CA, Cultural matic Decoration in Augustan Rome Roger Joseph, California State U.-Fullerton Nationalism in Post World War I American Art John Platoff, Trinity College, Hartford, CT, Foundation, The Anthropological Image of Keith F. Davis, Kansas City, MO, G eorge Mozart and the Opera Buffa in Vienna

the World: European Representations of Cul­ Bernard Shaw: Photographer of Sherman's Paul E. Sprague, U. of Wisconsin, GUIDE Mil­ GRANTS ture in the 16th and 17th Centuries Campaign w a u ke e, A Documented Catalogue of the Lawrence J. Taylor, Lafayette College, Easton, Alfred K. Frazer, Columbia U., New York, Early Work of Frank Lloyd Wright PA, The Social Construction of Historical The Roman Villa Urbana; 2nd Century Paul J. Staiti, Mount Holyoke College, South Consciousness in Donegal, Ireland B.C.—2nd Century A.D. Hadley, MA, The Life and Work of Samuel Jane F. Fulcher, Indiana U., Bloomington, F.B. Morse SUMMER STIPENDS Politics, Culture, and Wagnerian Opera in Brucia Witthoft, Framingham State College, Fin-de-Siecle France MA, The Artist-Family Smillie in 19th-Century Lawrence A. Babb, Amherst College, Am­ Spencer J. Golub, U. of Virginia, Char­ America herst, MA, Image Worship in Jainism lottesville, Nikolai Evreinov: A Critical Joanna E. Ziegler, College of the Holy Cross, Jane B. Carter, Tulane U., New Orleans, The Biography Worcester, MA, The Brabantine Gothic Origins of Early Creek Lustral Basins Richard D. Leppert, U. of Minnesota, Church (Perirrhanteria) Minneapolis, Social-lconographical History of Arthur A. Demarest, Vanderbilt U., Nashville, Upper-Class Amateur Musicians in 18th- SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE The Beginnings of Civilization on the South Century England TEACHERS Coast of Guatemala: The Archaeological W.J.T. Mitchell, U. of Chicago, IL, Word and Evidence Image in the Arts Allen Forte, Yale Summer and Special Pro­ John A. Grim, Elizabeth Seton College, Yon­ Maria Teresa M. Moevs, Rutgers U., New grams, New Haven, CT, Three Masterworks kers, The Sun Dance among the Crow Peo­ Brunswick, NJ, A Study of Greek Figurative of Early 20th-Century Music ples of Montana and Decorative Arts in the 3rd Century B.C. Eleanor Winsor Leach, Indiana U., Bloom­ Emelie A. Olson, Whittier College, Whittier, Jonathan B. Riess, U. of Cincinnati, OH, Luca ington, Roman Art in a Social Context CA, Women's Symbol Systems and Rituals in Signorelli's Orvieto Frescoes and the Culture Harold S. Powers, Princeton U., N), Verdi Muslim Saints' Shrines in Turkey of Apocalypticism in Late 15th-Century Italy and the Playwrights Susan Rodgers, Ohio University, Athens, Su­ Anne W. Robertson, U. of Chicago, IL, M usic Eileen J. Southern, Harvard U., Cambridge, matran Culture in Transition and Ritual at the Royal Abbey of St. Denis, M A, Afro-American Musicians in the 19th Daniel C. Snell, U. of Oklahoma, Norman, 567-1567 Century The Cuneiform Tablets in the Emory U. Judith C. Rohrer, Hartford, CT, Architecture Museum and Politics in Barcelona, 1880-1920 35 SUMMER STIPENDS M iam i, The Theater of Manuel Ascension Priapea with Literary Commentary Segura and Felipe Pardo y Aliaga Gary B. Miles, U. of California, Santa Cruz, Cecil D. Adkins, North Texas State U., Susan F. W eiss, Garrison Forest School, Foundation and Refoundation: The Historiog­ Denton, The Design and Manufacture of the Lutherville, MD, Musical Patronage of the raphy of Titus Livius O boe in the 18th Century Bentivoglio Signoria, 1475-1505 Janis C. Bell, Kenyon College, Cambier, OH, SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SECONDARY Focus and Finish in Painting from Leonardo YOUNGER SCHOLARS SCHOOL TEACHERS to Poussin Bonnie A. Bennett, U. of Rochester, NY, Susan L. Boynton, Yale U., New Haven, CT, Charles Hamilton, San Diego State U., CA, 19th-Century Perceptions of Medieval and The Marian Motets of Ockeghem and the Greek Values in Crisis: Thucydides, Renaissance Art as Reflected in the Final Fa­ Cult of the Virgin in the 15th Century: A Sophocles, Plato cade for the Florence Cathedral Liturgico-Musical Study John R. Maier, SUNY, College at Brockport, Charles E. Brewer, U. of Alabama, University, Sharon Clarke, College of William and Mary, NY, Gilgamesh: Myth and the Heroic Quest Popular Music from Late Medieval Central Williamsburg, VA, Sir Nikolaus Pevsner: Did Marsh H. McCall, Jr., Stanford U., CA, and East Central Europe: An Anthology He Mislead Us? Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides: Perform­ Marcia J. Citron, Rice U., Houston, C ecile Connie A. Darby, Edward Little High School, ance and Interpretation of Greek Tragedy Chaminade in the Context of Fin-de-Siecle Auburn, ME, Religious Ceremony and Form Gregory Nagy, Harvard U., Cambridge, MA, France in Egyptian Architecture Principles of Classical Lyric: A Comparative Frances G. Couvares, Amherst College, Amy J. Dunlop, Ames Senior High School, Approach Amherst, MA, Movies and American Audi­ Ames, IA, Ed Kienholz and Red Grooms: The ences in the Early Years Art of Social Suggestion SUMMER STIPENDS Patricia B. Erens, Rosary College, River For­ Morgen L. Fleisig, Columbia U., NYC, The est, IL, The Film Work of British Directors Mi­ Philosophies and Architecture of Frank Lloyd Darrell D. Dobbs, U. of Houston, TX, Com­ chael Powell and Emeric Pressburger Wright: 1914-32 mentary on Plato's Laches Burt H. Feintuch, Western Kentucky U., Sarah A. Fremerman, Shawnee Mission East William A. Grimaldi, Fordham U., Bronx, NY, Bowling Green, The Music of High School, Prairie Village, KS, Dram atic A Commentary on Book II of Aristotle's Northumberland Criticism and Contemporary Theater Rhetoric Alicia B. Finkel, U. of Connecticut, Storrs, Sarah J. Gillies, U. of Maryland, College Park, Maurice (Rush) P. Rehm, Emory U., Atlanta, The Theatrical Sets of Charles Kean and His The Role of Food in 17th Century Dutch Art GA, Women's Roles in 5th-Century Wedding Designers Brian W. Hollahan, Druid Hills High School, and Burial Ceremonies as Presented in Greek Stephen C. Fisher, Widener U., Chester, PA, Atlanta, GA, Interpretation of Cultural Works: Tragedy Series I, Volume 9, of the Haydn Collected Music in the Poetry of Gerard Manley Hop­ Stephen G. Salkever, Bryn Mawr College, PA, Edition kins Aristotelian Political Philosophy Patricia J. Fister, U. of Kansas, Lawrence, Jap­ Charles S. Kronengold, Yale U., New Haven, Julie A. Williams, Lehigh U., Bethlehem, PA, anese Women Artists, 1600-1900 C T, Issues of Musical Text Setting as R e­ Formula and Formularity in the Homeric Rena Fraden, Pomona College, Claremont, vealed in Alfonso Ferrabosco's 1609 Setting of Poems CA, The W.P.A. Federal Theater Project: A Po­ Donne's The Expiration litical, Aesthetic, and Cultural Study of the Ann Marie Leavy, New York U., New York, YOUNGER SCHOLARS Negro Units The Life and Photography of Andre Kertesz Kathe B. Geist, Illinois State U., Normal, The Alice F. Mauskopf, C.E. Jordan Senior High Jorge J. Bravo III, Jesuit High School, Films of Yasujiro Ozu School, Durham, NC, The Horrors of War: Thibodaux, LA, The Peace Plays of Rona Goffen, Duke U., Durham, NC, G i­ Four Artists' Response to Modern Warfare Aristophanes ovanni Bellini and the Renaissance in Venice Phillip Lynn Nichols II, Halls High School, Thomas J. Diaz, U. of Missouri, Columbia, Ethan T. Haimo, U. of Notre Dame, Notre Knoxville, TN, Monumentality in Three Great The Sophistic Movement and Sophocles' Dame, IN, The Formation and Maturation of Democratic Capitals: Rome, Paris, and Wash­ Oedipus the King Schoenberg's Twelve-Tone Idea, 1920-30 ington Christopher M. Hawke, Swampscott High A. John Hay, New York U., New York, The Russell J. Platt, Oberlin College, OH, R o­ School, Swampscott, MA, The Satire of Chinese Dragon: An Icon of Cultural Struc­ manticism in Modern American Music Petronius and Juvenal ture Katherine E. Ramsey, Yale U., New Haven, Rebecca L. Novelli, U. of Michigan, Ann Ar­ Sumiko Higashi, SUNY Research Foundation/ CT, The Significance of Isadora Duncan and bor, A Comparison of the Sequence Hymns College at Brockport, NY, Cecil B. DeMille: Ruth St. Denis for the Development of Amer­ of Notker to Classical Lyric Fabricating Spectacle for a Consumer Culture ican Modern Dance Joann W. Kealiinohomoku, Northern Arizona Pedro A. Sanchez, Greenhill School, Rowlett, U., Flagstaff, Jennie Wilson at the Court of TX, Visions of Hell: Changes in the Christian David Kalakaua, King of Hawaii (1875-91): A Idea of Salvation in Relief Sculpture and History— Non U.S. Study in the Ethnology of Dance Painting Meredith Lillich, Syracuse U., NY, The Lauren E. Shohet, Oberlin College, OH, Text FELLOWSHIPS FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY Stained Glass of Eastern France: Chalons-sur- Setting in Six Cantatas of Elisabeth Jacquet AND RESEARCH Marne and Related Sites in Champagne, De La Guerre 1250-1325 Norman G. Barrier, U. of Missouri, Colum­ Laura L. Meixner, Cornell U., Ithaca, NY, bia, Tradition and Change in Sikhism, American Responses to French Avant-Garde Classics 1880-1920 Art, 1850-1910 Linda S. Bell, U. of Chicago, IL, Econom ic Roger L. Parker, Cornell U., Ithaca, NY, The FELLOWSHIPS FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY Developm ent in Modern China Milanese Musical Milieu (1800-50) and Its In­ AND RESEARCH Edward G. Berenson, U. of California, Los fluence on the Early Operas of Giuseppe Angeles, The Affaire Caillaux: A Study in the Verdi Mark W. Edwards, Stanford U., CA, Introduc­ New Narrative History William A. Pastille, U. of Wisconsin, Madi­ tion to and Commentary on Homer, Iliad Iris B. Berger, SUNY Research Foundation, son, Heinrich Schenker: An Intellectual His­ Books 17-20 Albany, NY, Women in South African Indus­ tory, 1890-1910 Leonardo Taran, Columbia U., New York, A try, 1925-80 Linda A. Pellecchia, U. of Delaware, Newark, Critical Edition of Simplicius' Commentary on Robert L. 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Freedman, Vanderbilt U., Nashville, IN , Storytelling and Institutional Power as Literary Epic TN, The Origins of Peasant Enserfment in Me­ Exemplified by American Television Barbara W. Boyd, Bowdoin College, dieval Catalonia David T. Van Zanten, Northwestern U., Brunswick, ME, The Style and Humor of Stephen E. Gersh, U. of Notre Dame, IN, Eu­ Evanston, IL, The Designs of Louis Sullivan, Ovid's Amores ropean Philosophy from the Late 8th to Late 1890-95: Classical or Revolutionary ? Judith P. Hallett, U. of Maryland, College 9th Century Maida I. Watson, Florida International U., Park, Edition and Translation of the Latin Jeffrey L. Gossman, Princeton U ., NJ, Society 36 and Culture in 19th-Century Basle Civic Leadership and Urban Reform in Frank­ ogy, Pasadena, Agrarian Population and Dale E. Hoak, College of William and Mary, furt am Main, 1890-1914 Economy in Qing China: Peasants in Liaoning Williamsburg, VA, The Tudor Court in the R. Keith Schoppa, Valparaiso U., Indiana, Province, 1750-1850 Reigns o f Edward VI and Mary I The Destruction of Lake Xiang: Themes of Victor B. Lieberman, U. of Michigan, Ann Ar­ Paula E. Hyman, Jewish Theological Seminary Chinese Society and Culture since the 12th bor, The Economic History of Burma, of America, New York, Emancipation and So­ Century 1450-1852 cial Change: Alsatian Jewry in the 19th Martin A. Miller, Duke U., Durham, NC, The Century SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE Origins and Development of Psychoanalysis Enno E. Kraehe, U. of Virginia, Char­ TEACHERS in Russia lottesville, Metternich's German Policy and Jan A. Nelson, U. of Alabama, University, the Contest with Russia, 1815-20: A Study in Thomas N. Bisson, U. of California, Berkeley, The Swan Knight and the First Crusade the Relationship of Ideology and Power Medieval European Feudalism Augustus R. Norton, United States Military Elias C . Mandala, U. of Rochester, NY, Peas­ Charles T. Davis, Tulane U., New Orleans, Academy, West Point, The Origins, Institu­ ant Cotton Agriculture in the Lower Tchiri Dante's Florence tions, and Meaning of the Political Awaken­ Valley o f Malawi, 1907-60 Walter Pintner, Cornell U., Ithaca, NY, Rus­ ing of the Shi'a Muslims of Lebanon Phyllis M. Martin, Indiana U., Bloomington, sian and European Social History: New In­ Douglas R. Reynolds, Georgia State U., At­ Aspects of European Colonialism in Brazza­ sights lanta, Modern Sino-Japanese Relations, ville, 1885-1960 Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., Tulane U., New 1898-1945 Susan Naquin, U. of Pennsylvania, Phila­ Orleans, Central American Crises in Histori­ Donald D. Searing, U. of North Carolina, delphia, The Temples of Peking cal Perspective Chapel Hill, The New British Conservatism Randall M. 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Fix, Lafayette College, Easton, PA, pan, Europe, and the United States, tine Empire (284-1453) The Quaker-Collegiant Controversy of 1660 1800-1980 Martin J. Wiener, Rice U., Houston, TX, Con­ and the Coming of the Enlightenment World­ ceptions of Man and Criminal Policy in Brit­ view YOUNGER SCHOLARS ain, 1820-1914 Maureen M. Flynn, U. of Georgia, Athens, Madeleine H. Zelin, Columbia U., NY, The The Changing Perceptions o f Pain and Sor­ Dianne J. Cowan, Immaculate Heart Central Redevelopm ent o f Sichuan, 1650-1900 row in Medieval and Early Modern Spain High School, Watertown, NY, Historical Revi­ Rachel G. Fuchs, Arizona State U., Tempe, sionism about the First Duke of Marlborough FELLOWSHIPS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS Charity and Welfare for Impoverished Mary E. Fitzgibbons, Northwestern U.,

Mothers in 19th-Century Paris Evanston, IL, The Theme of the Word GUIDE and the GRANTS Selma Botman, Simmons College, Boston, Gay L. Gullickson, U. of Maryland, College Book in Eight Exeter Book Riddles Political Opposition in Egypt: The Commu­ Park, Women and the Paris Commune of Alexander R. Judkins, Warsaw Central High nist Movement, 1952-65 1871 School, Warsaw, NY, An Analysis of Popular Kendall W. Brown, Hillsdale College, Ml, Sarah Hanley, U. of Iowa, Iowa City, The Culture in 14th- to 16th-Century France and The Huancavelica Mercury Mines and the Crucible of Royal Justice: Private Interests Italy Spanish Empirial Economy, 1700-1824 and Public Passions in Early Modern France L. A. Kauffman, Princeton U., NJ, The Idea of Linda L. Clark, Millersville State College, PA, (1550-1750) the Nation in 19th-Century Catalan Crossing Administrative Barriers: French Pro­ Mack P. Holt, West Texas State U., Canyon, Nationalism fessional Women and Careers in the Govern­ War, Economy, and Society in 16th-Century Tina L. Lu, St. John's School, Houston, TX, mental Bureaucracy, 1870-1940 Burgundy The Influence of Women on the Diplomacy Paul A. Cohen, Wellesley College, MA, An Kenneth W. Jones, Kansas State U., Manhat­ at the Congress o f Vienna Exploration in Historical Epistemology: The tan, The Defense of Orthodoxy by Punjabi Bethel A. Saler, Bryn Mawr College, PA, The Boxers as Experience, Event, and Symbol Hindus during the 19th and 20th Centuries Women's Settlement House in Britain and Emily Honig, Lafayette College, Easton, PA, Robert L. King, College of Our Lady of the the United States, 1880-1920 The Making of an Underclass: Subei People Elms, Chicopee, MA, Political Rhetoric and Nayan B. Shah, Swarthmore College, PA, in Shanghai, 1840-1980 the Execution of Charles I Swadeshi and the Evolution of Indian Nation­ Mary C. Karasch, Oakland U., Rochester, Ml, Maryanne Kowaleski, Fordham U., Bronx, alist Thought, 1870-1947 Before Brasilia: Settlement Patterns and Pop­ NY, The Role of Domestic Trade in the Pre- ulation Change in Goias, 1780-1890 Industrial Economy: Local Markets and Re­ Margaret L. King, CUNY Research Founda­ gional Trade in Late Medieval Exeter History— U.S. tion/Brooklyn College, NY, Grief and Conso­ Norma B. Landau, U. of California, Davis, lation in Quattrocento Venice: The Marcello The Relation of Magistrate to Neighbourhood FELLOWSHIPS FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY Episode in 18th-Century London AND RESEARCH David C. Large, Montana State U., Bozeman, Erick D. Langer, Carnegie-Mellon U., Cultural History o f Munich, 1886-1918 Pittsburgh, Liberalism and the Debate for In­ James L. Axtell, College of William and Mary, Johanna M. Meskill, CUNY Research dian Integration in Bolivia Williamsburg, VA, American Encounter: The Foundation/Lehman College, Bronx, NY, James Z. Lee, California Institute of Technol­ Confluence of Cultures in Colonial North 37 GUIDE GRANTS Thomas L. D ublin, ublin, D L. Thomas Acculturation e England New America i Cag ndPessenc i Modern M in ce n ersiste P d an America Change l a n gio Jerold S. Auerbach, Auerbach, S. Jerold Joel Joel ville, TN, TN, ville, 1825-1860 Buffalo, NY, in Immigrants herst, m A and , Buffalo at tion/College bia, entral C Ford, K. Lacy in ulture C iego, D l litica o 1713-1861 P Massachusetts, and ety Brooke, L. John Paul P. Abrahams, Abrahams, P. Paul Kulikoff, L. Allan C ross, W orcester, M A, A, M orcester, W ross, C Dewey W. Grantham, Grantham, W. Dewey Education Higher Americans Pluralism: American An f o Making Gerber, A. David 1919-1967 Foundation, , H O ., U Friedman, J. Lawrence 1800-60 Carolina, delphia, delphia, nlec, 1918-48 Influence, Bay, Or­ the and Migration Black Cotton: to bacco n atm Dtot 1943-46 Detroit, Wartime in igrant m Im and Law yers: w La and Rabbis Movement E, M Jr., Beales, W. Ross Dam e, IN , , IN e, Dam Gleason, Philip David J. Hogan, Hogan, J. David ec, 1800-1980 lence, South New geles, the in Monkkonen, H. Culture Eric Slave f o igins 1808-1920 Philadelphia, in tion State U ., Springfield, Springfield, ., U Jr., State Capeci, J. Dominic Massachusetts estborough, W 18th-Century ELWSIS O CLEE TEACHERS COLLEGE FOR SHIPS FELLOW ol: aiy Rlgo, n Cmuiy in Community and Religion, Family, World: usi Te rbe rme nA erica, Am in e Crim f o Problem The : e stic Ju Alan A. Roger Ekirch, Ekirch, Roger A. etc utr i Mdr America Modern in Culture peutic Frank C. Costigliola, Costigliola, C. Frank tute and State U ., Blacksburg, Blacksburg, ., U State and tute ua, n MiiayReatons t Western W ith w s n tio ela 1956-74 R ilitary Europe, M and tural, Kingston, itr ofte ntd tts 1890-1932 States, United the f o History Colleges, G eneva, N Y, Y, N eneva, G Colleges, George, . .R V Carol Thomas J. Schlereth, Schlereth, J. Thomas William S. McFeely, McFeely, S. William Koppes, R. Clayton Hill, A. Mary 1760-1810 C harlotte Perkins G ilm an: A Jo u rn e y from y e rn u Jo A an: ilm G Perkins harlotte C town, MA, MA, town, , H O Douglass MA, Hadley, South Hays The Art: Democratic the and Censorship A Demographic and Econom ic Study o f Pre- f o Study ic Econom and Demographic A 38 Patricia J. Tracy, Tracy, J. Patricia , IN e, am D 1900-75 City, Peter M. Rutkoff, Rutkoff, M. Peter Hollywood and Office Within eouinr Nw Towns New Revolutionary 1876-1915 Sally R. W agner, agner, W R. Sally C . . C i Orgns son i South in n ssio e c e S f o s rigin O l cia o S ii ofte rcn e ea ce peran Tem erican m A the f o s rigin O mrcn epltcl huh ad Its and Thought Geopolitical American C. C. w Yr Moden: h Ars n the and rts A The : ern d o M York ew N h Derasng T eanc f Vio­ r fo ce n lera To g sin ecrea D The Bernard, Bernard, me' Caer i 19th-Century in areers C en's om W Education and the Great Transforma­ Great the and Education Dawley, Dawley, Hsoy te enne Clinic- Menninger the f o History A h Suh n h 0h etr: Re­ Century: 20th the in South The mrcn oiia, cnmc Cul­ Economic, Political, American Hit yofA rcn atholic C erican Am f o ry isto H A New England Frontier Settlement: Frontier England New . f ot Crln, Colum­ Carolina, South of U. vrdy ie n erica, m A in Life Everyday B u ckn ell U ., Lew isb urg , PA, PA, , urg isb Lew ., U ell ckn u B Tufts U .; Medford, MA, MA, Medford, .; U Tufts Colby College, W aterville, aterville, W College, Colby U . of Notre D am e, Notre Notre e, am D Notre of . U o Pnslai, Phila­ Pennsylvania, of . U Williams College, Williams- Williams- College, Williams Princeton U ., NJ, NJ, ., U Princeton Trenton State College, NJ, NJ, College, State Trenton igna oyehi Insti­ Polytechnic Virginia Kenyon College, Gambier, Gambier, College, Kenyon UNY eerh Founda­ Research Y N SU nao tt U. MN, N M ., U State ankato M U. of W isco n sin , Green Green , sin n isco W of U. A Biography o f Frederick f o Biography A W ellesley College, MA, MA, College, ellesley W Mount Holyoke College, College, Holyoke Mount U. of California, Los An­ Los California, of U. Riot and Reconstruction and Riot U. of C a lifo rn ia , San San , ia rn lifo a C of U. H ob art-W illiam Smith Smith illiam art-W ob H O b e rlin C o lle g e , O H , , H O , e g lle o C rlin e b O C o lleg e of the H oly oly H the of e lleg o C nebl U. Nash­ ., U anderbilt V U . of Rhode Islan d , , d Islan Rhode of . 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Thomas Bender, Bender, Thomas rahs o h Hsai Ps, 1540-1910 Past, Hispanic the to proaches UMR EIAS O COLLEGE FOR SEMINARS SUMMER Yellin, F. Jean Walter Nugent, Nugent, Walter TEACHERS Reformer and Author, Slave, Suffragist Otis L. Graham, Graham, L. Otis Charles E. Neu, Neu, E. Charles Reputation Martinez, J. Record, Oscar Origins, Deal: UMR STIPENDS SUMMER ritJ obs AfoAmeia F gitive Fu erican m fro-A A s, b co Ja arriet H f o utrl itr n Cte i America in Cities and History Cultural a f o y Biograph A age: G n sly Jo atilda M rnirad h Evrnet n America in Environment the and Frontier Policy eign Fred W. Anderson, Anderson, W. Fred TX, Dallas, eber, W J. David eao Fak hrh n te iems f o Dilemmas the and Church Frank Senator raiainl iesos mrcn For­ American f o Dimensions Organizational Perspective in Borderlands exico U.S.-M Ceta Sae hort i America, m A in rity o Blight, th u W. A David State entral C f o enn ofte mrcn ii War Civil American the f o Meaning York, New search, States United the Benedict, bus, olum L. C ichael M Liberalism Modern Ashby, LeRoy Massachusetts Charles L. Cohen, Cohen, L. Charles Jurisdiction N aperville, IL, IL, aperville, N 1859-1919 entury 18th-C in ty cie o S and War Robert Robert Bensel, F. Richard ation, Washington, D C, C, D Washington, ation, Society American Colonial in Puritanism (1785-1872) ington, n Porsiim 1880-1917 Progressivism, and Noralee Frankel, Frankel, Noralee Mary E. Frederickson, Frederickson, E. Mothers, Mary and Wives, Workers, Women: Black Thomas J. Knock, Knock, J. Thomas oeet 10 t te Present the to 1900 Movement, ingham, 1860-70 sorc Orgns Fdea Euity Equ eral Fed f o s rigin O l rica 1744-1850 isto H Carolina, Hotter, C. South Peter County, Newberry ochran, C Head, M. David Gullett, A. Gayle Gary L. Huey, Huey, L. Gary John L. Larson, Larson, L. John Nations Hobart, Jeffrey J. Safford, Safford, J. Jeffrey Dallas, Dallas, Liberalism Southern and Long Gillis Margaret R. Neussendorfer, Neussendorfer, R. Margaret Carol A. O 'Connor, 'Connor, O A. Carol U.S. Little, Early J. the Douglas in Legitimacy tional , IN man, man, America Mormon f o Urbanization The Biography ssa, A e d (1804-94): O Peabody asin, B ian Perm Nationalism, Arab to 1956-67 Response American The n Clue 1865-1920 Culture, and David E. Shi, Shi, E. David 1936-48 NC, NC, ehnlg, noain ad nsiu­ stitu on C and Innovation, nology, Tech h Ae Raim Aeia Thought American Realism: f o Age The S. rtme oiyadDilmacy, iplom D and Policy e aritim M . .S U C . . C The Life and Myth o f Peter Cartwright Peter f o Myth and Life The odo Wlo ad h Lau of o League the and Wilson Woodrow h Clfri Wmns vment ovem M Women's California The lc Wmn n h Suhr Labor Southern the in Women Black Bray, From Frontier to Slave S o cie ty in ty cie o S Slave to Frontier From otwsen mrc: e Ap­ New America: Southwestern vl iet n Cii ihs in Rights ivil C and Liberty ivil C Washington State U ., Pullman, Pullman, ., U State Washington Pace U ., New York, York, New ., U Pace Davidson C ollege, D avidson, avidson, D ollege, C Davidson Louisiana State U ., Eu n ice , , ice n Eu ., U State Louisiana Frederick D ouglass and the and ouglass D Frederick lios elyn , Bloom­ ., U Wesleyan Illinois U. of Notre Dame, IN, IN, Dame, Notre of U. Purdue U ., W est Lafayette, Lafayette, est W ., U Purdue Brown U ., Provid ence, R l, l, R ence, Provid ., U Brown Stanford U ., CA, CA, ., U Stanford mrcn itrcl Associ­ Historical American U. of Georgia, Athens, Athens, Georgia, of U. M iddle G eorg ia C o lle g e , , e g lle o C ia eorg G iddle M New Yo rk U ., N ew Y o rk , , rk o Y ew N ., U rk Yo New Southern M ethodist U ., ., U ethodist M Southern U. of W isconsin, Madison, Madison, isconsin, W of U. Clark U ., W orcester, MA, MA, orcester, W ., U Clark e Sho fr oil Re­ Social for School New U. of Texas, El Paso, Paso, El Texas, of U. N orth C en tral C o lle g e , , e g lle o C tral en C orth N otn Sae , Boze­ ., U State Montana Southern M ethodist U ., ., U ethodist M Southern h Oiis n Exercise and Origins The U. of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, of U. Indiana U . N o rth w est, est, w rth o N . U Indiana Utah State U ., Logan, Logan, ., U State Utah . f lbm, Birm­ Alabama, of U. h Eacpto of o Emancipation The O h io State U ., ., U State io h O lz eh Pl er Palm beth Eliza

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Attitudes Bryan T. Callahan, Callahan, T. Bryan York, Browne, R. 1959-79 Christopher Georgia, Macon, CT, Vermont Moretown, Abbott, A. Deborah Jonahan A. K. Truelove, Truelove, K. A. Jonahan search and Interpretation o f the Good Neigh­ 1933—45 Good the f Policy, o bor Interpretation and search Male f o y d tu S A Virginia: est W in ent m Portzline, L. Peggy Buffalo in frage Faber, S. Eve View Anderson L. Robert Nineteenth-Century Late in Life Community Deerfield, MA, MA, Deerfield, ONE SCHOLARS City YOUNGER Immigrant an in Society and zation School, Jemison, AL, AL, Jemison, School, Sean D. Teare, Teare, D. Sean New all Sm a d te c Rosenthal, I. ffe Seth A War Town ivil C England the ow H Richards, L. Heather V, W Fayetteville, 1870-1900 Valley, Connecticut NY, Cortland, at tion/College h Yo n ame i Wetr North N estern W in er Farm an Yeom Link? a There The Is Benjamin Revolution: American the Communicators Presidential N RESEARCH AND Reconstruction A, M Scituate, New Ueda, Reed 1783-1859 Post-Revolutionary f o England, Culture Religious Veto tial aoia uig h Cii Wr and War ivil C the during Carolina Harry S. Stout, Stout, S. Harry Spitzer, J. Robert ton, D C, C, D ton, Oppenheim, Janet ickstein, D Y D Morris TU S T EN D DEPEN IN R FO IPS SH W FELLO A. M. Smith, Smith, M. A. Jeff T. Titon, Titon, Jeff T. in Culture f o Study A America: Rediscovering uin h Ry hoy ih fo Euclid from Light f o Theory Ray the f o lution Schiebinger, L. Londa England Victorian in 1930s the rn C L Franklin L. C. erend Descartes to , Flushing , e g lle o C ueens Foundation/Q Interdisciplinary David M. Van Leer, Leer, Van M. David ELWSIS O CLEE TEACHERS COLLEGE FOR SHIPS FELLOW Science Modern f o Origins the and Women NJ, NJ, Rev­ the f o Sermons and Life Mountain: This W . . W UMR EIAS O COLLEGE FOR SEMINARS SUMMER System Enterprise Japanese the Sciences Earth the in Revolution Recent the City, Frankel, R. Henry Martin J. Klein, Klein, J. Martin TEACHERS Foundation, Programs, New Haven, CT, Context CT, torical Haven, New Programs, o' Cs lg: h Midofte World the f o ind M The ology: Cosm Poe's Mark Fruin, Fruin, Mark itr of h Cvl ihs vmet in ent ovem M Rights Civil the f o History itrcl n PioohclAayi of o Analysis Philosophical and Historical 98 pigClmi: Retrospe.ctive A Spring-Columbia: 1968 A History o f a Medical Phenomenon Medical a f o History A W . . W Tufts U ., Medford, MA, MA, Medford, ., U Tufts Tufts U ., Medford, MA, MA, Medford, ., U Tufts h Hsoyad raiain f o Organization and History The U. of California, Riverside, Riverside, California, of U. Swarthmore College, PA, PA, College, Swarthmore Veghte, Veghte, .D. adJF. a Effective as . .K J.F and . .R D F. U. of Connecticut, Storrs, Storrs, Connecticut, of U. h Lbr oe n i the in ent Movem Labor The California State U ., Hayward Hayward ., U State California h WmnSfrg Move­ M Suffrage Woman The Yale Sum m er and Special Special and er m Sum Yale Deerfield Academy, South South Academy, Deerfield Oberlin College, O H , , H O College, Oberlin UNY eerh Founda­ Research Y N SU Scituate High Sch o o l, l, o o Sch High Scituate Fayetteville High School, School, High Fayetteville V Yl U. Nw Haven, New ., U Yale IV, meia U. Washing­ W ., U erican Am U. of M isso u ri, Kansas Kansas ri, u isso M of U. Princeton U ., Princeton, Princeton, ., U Princeton Haverford College, PA, PA, College, Haverford ao' Rblin and Rebellion Bacon's C olum bia U ., N YC , , YC N ., U bia olum C C o lum b ia U ., N YC , , YC N ., U ia b lum o C C U N Y Research Research Y N U C ouba , New ., U Columbia Stanford U ., C A , , A C ., U Stanford

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------Karen Offen, Stanford U., CA, The Woman Jurisprudence Henry James and the Woman Business Question in Western Thought: Europe and Josue V. Harari, Johns Hopkins U., America, 1750-1950 SUMMER STIPENDS Baltimore, MD, The Cultural Treatise: Litera­ ture of Ethnography in the French SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SECONDARY James B. Atleson, SUNY Research Founda­ Enlightenment SCHOOL TEACHERS tion, College at Buffalo, NY, The Continuing Amy V. Heinrich, New York, Double Weave: Effect of Federal Labor Regulation Imple­ The Fabric of Modern Japanese Women's Theodore M. Anderson, Stanford U., CA, m ented during World War II Writing Four Medieval Cultures Denis Hollier, U. of California, Berkeley, Elizabeth Rauh Bethel, Rhode Island Black Emile Zola and the Theory of Realism Heritage Society, Providence, Black Autobio­ Language & Linguistics Winifred Hughes, Princeton, NJ, Social Atti­ graphy and the Quest for Identity tudes and Theories of Fiction in 19th-Century James G. 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Elliott, Princeton U., NJ, H istory Romance The Western Education of Chinese Intellectu­ and the Novel in America: The Moral Joseph A. Wittreich, Jr., U. of Maryland, als at Columbia University Imperative College Park, The Poetry of the Rainbow: Ro­ Elizabeth Ransome, Harvard U., Cambridge, Robert N. Essick, U. of California, Riverside, mantic Literature as Prophecy MA, The Portrayal of Women Criminals in the William Blake and the Language of Adam: Chapbooks and Broadsides of 18th-Century Blake's Poetry and the Search for an Ideal FELLOWSHIPS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS England Semiotic Kateryna A. Rudnytzky, La Salle College, Franco Fido, Brown U., Providence, Rl, Be­ Kathleen M. Ashley, U. of Southern Maine, Melrose Park, PA, Peale's Garden as Art fore and After Manzoni: The Quest for the G o rh am , Cycle Drama and Late Medieval Ian M. Watson, The Harley School, Novel in 18th- and 19th-Century Italy Urban Culture Rochester, NY, Catawba Indian Genealogy Alfred Habegger, U. of Kansas, Lawrence, Pamela Benson, Rhode Island College, Provi- 39 d en ce, The Dilemma of the Independent and Literature about Fairies in England, M ichael J. Curley, U. of Puget Sound, Women in the Renaissance 1832-1923 Tacoma, WA, Arthurian Literature of the Mid­ Lynn M.Z. Bloom, Virginia Commonwealth Charles W. Thornbury, Saint John's U., dle Ages U., Richmond, Songs of Ourselves: A History Collegeville, MN, The Life and Art of john Barbara C. Ewell, Loyola U., New Orleans, of American Autobiography Berryman LA, The Short Stories of Chopin, Welty, Thelma J. Bryan, Coppin State College, Robert Viscusi, CUNY Research Foundation, O'Connor, and Walker: Linking Region, Gen­ Baltimore, MD, Black American Women Brooklyn, Italics and Romans: Robert Brown­ der, and Genre Poets, 1915-30 ing and Italy David W. Foster, Arizona State U., Temple, Suzanne L. 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Brombert, Princeton U., NJ, The David Lowenthal, Boston College, Chestnut V A , European Modernism and Vladimir Prison Symbol in Modern Society and Hill, MA, Shakespeare's Political Wisdom Nabokov's Career from 1925 to 1950 Literature M ichael C . Lund, Longwood College, Anthony L. Geist, Dartmouth College, Maurice Friedberg, U. of Illinois, Urbana, Lit­ Farmville, VA, Dickens, Eliot, james: Great Hanover, NH, Spanish Surrealist Poetry, erature and Society in Russia Serial Novels 1927-32 Sander L. Gilman, Cornell U., Ithaca, NY, Bruce K. Martin, Drake U., Des Moines, IA, Jerome J. Griswold, San Diego State U., CA, The Humanities and Medicine George Eliot's Middlemarch: The N ovel as Classic American Children's Books, 1865-1914 Javier S. Herrero, U. of Virginia, Worlds Margaret P. Hannay, Siena College, Charlottesville. From Romance to the Novel: David J. 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Gregory, U. of Illinois, Urbana, Chi­ Graeme R. Forbes, Tulane U., New Orleans, al-'Arabi nese Buddhist Thought: A Primer Languages of Possibility: An Essay in Philo­ Alberto R. Green, Rutgers U., New Charles H. Lippy, Clemson U., SC, Joh n sophical Logic Brunswick, NJ, The Storm-God and His At­ Thomas and the Christadelphians in America Daniel M. Hausman, Carnegie-Mellon U., tendants: A Conceptual Development in Tomoko Masuzawa, Middlebury College, VT, Pittsburgh, The Role of Causal Asymmetry in Near Eastern Religions Reclaiming Max Muller's Theory of Religion: Explanation and Decision Making Gordon Darnell Newby, North Carolina State from Nature Myth to Language Harold A. Kincaid, U. of Alabama, U., Raleigh, A History of the Jews of Arabia Edgar V. McKnight, Furman U., Greenville, Birmingham, C. W.F. Hegel's 1819-20 Lec­ Alvin C. Plantinga, U. of Notre Dame, IN, SC, A Reader-oriented Literary Approach to tures on Political Philosophy: An English Epistemic Justification and Theistic Belief the Book of Hebrews Translation James M. Rhodes, Marquette U., Milwaukee, Diane B. Obenchain, Kenyon College, Gam- Linda L. McAlister, Florida State U., W l, Religion, Politics, and Freedom bier, OH , The Establishment of Confucianism Tallahassee, The History of Women in Philos­ Robert A. Segal, Louisiana State U. A&M during the Former Han Dynasty (206-100 ophy: Edith Stein and Cerda Walther College, Baton Rouge, Theories of Myth B.C.E.) 42 John B. Payne, Lancaster Theological Semi­ SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE nity During the Great Depression nary, PA, Erasmus' Annotationes in Epistolam TEACHERS Richard Curt Kraus, U. of Oregon, Eugene, ad Romanos: An Annotation Political Controversies about Western Clas­ Robert J. Ratner, Wellesley College, MA, A John W. 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Rutland, U. of Virginia, of German Idealism and the Liberal Tradition France Charlottesville, Understanding the First Stephen Crawford, Bates College, Lewiston, Amendment: What the Framers Intended FELLOWSHIPS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS M E, The Making of the Service Class in David J. Walsh, Catholic U. of America, France and Britain: Historical Sources of Na­ Washington, D.C., The Recovery of the Tran­ William Ray Arney, Evergreen State College, tional Variations in Class Structure scendent Foundation of Politics: Where We Olympia, WA, Experts and Expertise in the James C. Dobbins, Oberlin College, OH, The Are Today New Age Letters of Eshinni, Buddhist Woman of Medi­ Elizabeth R. Bethel, Lander College, Green­ eval Japan FELLOWSHIPS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS wood, SC, Afro-American Community Build­ Lynn Dumenil, Claremont McKenna College, ing in the Old Northwest Claremont, CA, American Catholics and Stanley C. Brubaker, Colgate U., Hamilton, Miriam A. 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