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Journal of Critical Reviews

ISSN- 2394-5125 Vol 7, Issue 11, 2020

THE LINGUISTIC EVIDENCES FROM SEJARAH MELAYU SHOWING THE GREATER INFLUENCE OF TAMIL IN

Mohana Dass Ramasamy1

1University of Malaya. [email protected]

Received: 07.04.2020 Revised: 14.05.2020 Accepted: 05.06.2020

Abstract The number and the influence of and Tamil borrow-words in Malay could not be undermined. It is not known clearly when and how these words were brought in. Studies by the local and western scholars have claimed that the contact between these loan terms started since the era of pre-Christianity and it was extended till 16th century, in different pace and forms. This resulted-in the loanwords were adopted within the local’s language system as an integral part of the language. Most of these scholarly works have focused on verifying the contributions of Sanskrit within Bahasa in great extent, but little interest have been shown to study the influence of Tamil in Malay spoken in . The contributions of Tamil, in fact, is equally parallel within the Malay spoken in Malaysia, if a serious stocktaking is done properly. This study, for this reason, aimed at offering such linguistic evidences from a historical manual, Sejarah Melayu, one of the oldest Malay Manual, to verify the claim. The manual is studied before extracting the Sanskrit and Tamil loan terms, which were compared for their contributions. The outcome of the study shows that the influence of Tamil borrow- words in the old that show little differences compared to that used in the present-day Malay. The outcome of the study contends the widely accepted stance on Sanskrit, but concedes that Tamil borrow-words have expounded contributions. Keywords: Sanskrit Borrow-words, Tami Borrow-words, Borrow-words in Malay, Sejarah Melayu, -Malay Early Contact.

© 2020 by Advance Scientific Research. This is an open-access under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.11.86

INTRODUCTION Sanskrit and Tamil loan words in Malay language are relatively Sanskrit or Tamil the borrow-words have reached the host many in number but its origin or beginning point of arrival is yet language, the Malay. These are the loanwords from two verified empirically. Disputes arises among the scholars on influential languages in the Indian sub-continent of significant various issues regarding this. No consensus also reached contribution that is remembered and used on day-to-day basis, whether the Sanskrit or Tamil loan words were received directly i.e., Sanskrit and Tamil. Scholarly works by Gonda (1966) and or indirectly, or whether it were brought in by pandits, sailors, Sneddon (2001) on loanwords and its contributions have rather Indian traders, Gujarati traders or local traders. It also not clear emphasized the influence of Sanskrit in the , in among them, whether the borrow-words were royal terms, . On the other hand, Singaravelu (1988), Asmah (1964) special terminologies or terms of common mans. It also made and a few others who have studied the influence of Tamil in unclear whether or unverified whether transaction of both of Malay Malaysia, confirmed that Tamil has made equally these terms have taken place in parallel. These unanswered and significant loan contribution, too. There are few contradictions. unsettled issues were not in the locus point of scholarly works, Unfortunately, the question remained unanswered, or even even now or in the past future. untouched. The present-study explores possible answer for this unanswered query. It is not an unknown fact that Malay has bowed handful of borrow-words from various language. It might be hard to accept Sanskrit and Tamil borrowings in Malay might have been the fact that the followings were not pure Malay terms, but they received in various time-frame, from different sources with were borrowed from two languages from Indian sub-continents. different degree of acceptance. Though finding the exact timeframe is not that easy, a few sources might offer solutions for BM Sanskrit Tamil Meaning it. From some notes of pre-Christian era, events that unfolded aneka /ʌnɛgʌ/ /ʌnɛgʌm/ various during the invasion of Kadaram and Sri Vijaya by King Chola aniyaya /ʌnɪjɑjʌ/ /ʌnɪjɑjʌm/ injustice during 8th AD, the uprising of , annals of its golden era anugerah /ʌnʊgərhɑ/ /ʌnʊkɪrʌkəm/ bless and the post Malacca Empire may offer close look into the bahagian /βɑgɪ/ /bɑkkɪ/ section uprising of contact of Tamil with the Malay archipelago. Four bahasa /βɑʃɑ/ /pɑcəɪ/ language noteworthy ways, out of the many, might be noted for on how the bakti /βʌkθɪ/ /bʌktɪ/ loyalty borrowed terms might have reached the South-east . (M)/Covere bandar /βʌntʌr/ /pʌntʌr/ i. One of them is through trading activities. Historians like d area (T) Gonda (1966), Hill (2007), Khoo (1974), Arasaratnam Treasure(M)/co /βʌndʌgʌrʌ/ /bʌɲdʌm/ (1970) believed that traders who have travelled from the mmodity (T) southern part of India were responsible for using these bicara /vɪcɑrʌ/ /vɪcɑrʌɲəɪ/ interrogation terms largely in their conversation; those convenient terms destroy, eventually settled and became part of the language system binasa /vɪnɑʃɑ/ /nɑsʌm/ destruction in Malay Malaysia. budi /βʊɖɖɪ/ /pʊttɪ/ intellect, mind ii. Secondly, it is possible to believe that the terms also might bumi /βumɪ/ /bumɪ/ earth have reached the language through Gujarati traders from . The borrow-words in BM did not show much differences from iii. Thirdly, it might have reached here though the learned Sanskrit and its resemblances in Tamil. Now, the question Indian pandits and scribes. seeking answer is this. From which language, whether the

Journal of critical reviews 478

THE LINGUISTIC EVIDENCES FROM SEJARAH MELAYU SHOWING THE GREATER INFLUENCE OF TAMIL IN MALAY LANGUAGE iv. Last but not least, the terms might have been brought in by This study is aimed at offering another perspective to Malay traders who have visited India. understand the reality of the situation and seek answer for contravening reality. This might attest the long-standing Among the four, the first factor is considerably rational and perception that Sanskrit loanwords have been extensively deserve clarification. Sanskrit, then and even now, is treated as a borrowed by Malay spoken in Malaysia. Events unfolded as a scholarly language that widely applied by the learned people and result of constant interaction between the and India, bureaucrats; therefore, has little chance to reach common people. might have paved succinct path for Tamil loanwords received The Sanskrit should have reached the Malay Archipelago as the popular recognition compared to Sanskrit terms in Malay scholarly language by the pandits and royal patrons and there is Malaysia. Sanskrit, the language praised as medium of a high possibility to consider that the language might have been communication of goddess, and hindered itself from any forms of maintained and applied within a closed community, for ritual imperfection through assimilation of local contributions could ceremonies and royal courts mentioned Gonda (1966), Hill not easily be brought in and applied directly in the local (2007), Khoo (1974), and Arasaratnam (1970). As royal language. It must have taken in differently to reach the public. language, Sanskrit, in this sense, should have enjoyed limited Sanskrit might also have reached the Malay, especially Malay practices and limited chances to reach common people. It is Malaysia, through Tamil spoken by the traders, who have worthy to note Asmah (1966) who conceded that most of the travelled from the southern India, the indirect passage which has borrowed terms of Tamil belong to the common people. As a never been discussed by any literature. language of offering less attractions and necessities to common people and benefits to their day-to-day life, Sanskrit had little Moreover, linguistically, it has been accepted that give and take chance to enjoy a significant recognition among the local between languages take place provided the donor language is common people. Such limited practices and lesser economic well accepted for nourishing factors, including linguistic value posits by the Sanskrit could have prevented the language substance and its economic values. Tamil borrow-words that from enjoying popularity among the common people. found in large quantity in the vocabulary of Malay showing that there has been a shift in the pattern of borrowing in between. A The second point should be reflected from the viewpoint of sudden drift has made the contribution of Sanskrit were borrowing practices. Generally, borrowing and assimilating overshadowed by the Tamil borrowings. It is impossible for such elements of different languages into a host language would takes transitions to take place without receiving crucial intervening substantial time. Moreover, accepting borrowed terms from two motivations. This study is aimed at giving some empirical different languages and applying them side by side in tandem, is evidences to prove that such interventions have started to take an exceptional act. Receiving and adopting two languages with place as early 16th century, and this could be attested using the two different systems from same region alongside almost within text produced somewhere in the period close to Malacca’s, same time-frame, is simply not that possible. As what will be Sejarah Melayu. As a manual that describing the uprising of shown in the collected data, Sanskrit and Tamil, loanwords exist Malacca written in early of 19th century, it gives the accounts of side by side in the language, moreover, with less self- Malacca’s history and its rulers, besides the language application, identification of similarity. This, on contrary, allows to consider as it was written using the language style of 19th century. The that the borrowed terms have reached the Malay Malaysia manual is expected to shed insight into the reality of the language through an alternative way; there is a high probability to used in the distance time from now. consider that it should have travelled through a single language, Tamil. THE RATIONALE Asmah (1968), a Malay scholar, reflected that Sanskrit and Tamil It is rather interesting to note that the Malay Archipelago has loanwords have been well perceived in Malay Malaysia, just like experienced a long-lasting continuous contact between two the counterparts. The loan words have been integrated Imperialistic nations before the pre-colonial era. The Indians on and adopted well into Malay structure. She added that the ‘Tamil the West and the Chinese on the East have established contacts speaking people who immigrated into Malaya, were not more than of trading traditions, including the exchange of missionaries’ that responsible for bridging loan terms based on cultural, religious and others. The contribution exclusiveness of the characteristics of the loan terms. Therefore, ‘…we do not these elements show that the Indians influences towards the meet with any religious or philosophical items in the range of the Malay Archipelago is rather comprehensive compared that of the loanwords’. The loanwords found within Malay vocabulary Chinese. Among them linguistic exchange remain as an important concern with ‘…items of the everyday life’, added she. The contributions of which relevance is not attested at large. commonness characteristics of the terms been an important Available studies in this spectrum have offered great interest in motivation in ensuring their complete integration within the confirming the contribution Sanskrit at most, as its contribution structure of the host language, Malay language (Asmah, 1968). could not be undermined at any point. Rather interesting is that the present study place forwards evidences from a local Gonda (1962) offers a different view that the Sanskrit, which was historical manual, Sejarah Melayu, to show that it is the Tamil brought in by the learned pandits, made significant contribution that has significant contributions in the manual, compared to in enriching the Malay, and the Tamil has lesser contribution in Sanskrit. enriching the Malay. Gonda has made a clarification, might be, based on the status of the language, where it was spoken and Geographically the SEA could be divided into two areas based on applied widely by less important class of people such as the less the influence of Sanskrit and Tamil linguistic borrowings. One is educated traders and sailors from the sub-continent of Indian. He the Malay Archipelago and the other is the Indo-China regions. added that, therefore, the Malay enrichment must be considered While the Malay Archipelago exhibits equally parallel influence parallel to that of Sanskrization, which begun as early as pre- between the Sanskrit and Tamil loanwords, the Indo-China Christian era in . The Malay turned itself into a region showcase otherwise, the impact of Sanskrit is greater. The multi-coded language with heavily mingled foreign inducements Malay Archipelago covered by Indonesia, Malaysia and by accepting the important and catchy elements formally and show that the Tamil and Sanskrit appeared to have equally informally, argued Gonda (1966). It must be accepted that Gonda significant influences within the Malay language that applied (1966) has a valid stance that suit well for regions beyond the vastly in Malaysia (Natesan, 1996; Singaravelu, 1988; Asmah, , like the Indonesia Islands. However, for Malay 1968). The Indonesia Malay shows otherwise, where the Sanskrit used in the Malay Peninsula ought to be stressed that his stance influence is at large. Gonda (1966) and Sneddon (2005) have has little validity. offered elaborative explanations in support of Sanskrit in Indonesia. For unknown reasons, the Malay spoken in Malaysia

Journal of critical reviews 479

THE LINGUISTIC EVIDENCES FROM SEJARAH MELAYU SHOWING THE GREATER INFLUENCE OF TAMIL IN MALAY LANGUAGE displays substantial connection with and the we must bear in mind that Sneddon was referring to a period culture of the south Indians (Singaravelu, 1992), manifesting the much latter than what we are referring to. closeness of contact established between these regions, and subsequently showing that the Tamilian and their language have Nevertheless, Sneddon also has made remarks on influence of had close interactions with Malay Malaysia than elsewhere Sanskrit on Malay, and claimed its beginning must be associated because of the direct contact established between the languages with advent of Hindu Kingdom in Sumatran Island, or spoken by common people from all of walks of lives in both even earlier. Inscriptions discovered in Minye Tujuh and th regions. Such a close connections is not clear elsewhere in the Minangkabau inscriptions belong to late 14 century also gives region, except in Bali, Indonesia. reference to Hindu kingdom established in around AD 400. Besides, there are some other inscriptions also showing the The foregoing evidences shows that Dravidians, especially the establishment and continuation of Sanskrit influence in the from the southern part of the India have established maritime Asia. We should bear in mind that, again and again, prominent contact with Malay Archipelago. The contact was Sneddon references seeming have prioritize the Sanskrit and cohesive says Khoo (1974, 3-4). He ascertains that the effect of influence in the Malay Archipelago at large, but does not trading encounters between Malay maritime and India goes emphasize the Malay Malaysia, in specific, the spectrum which is beyond the exchange of merchandise. It also touched the lives argued in this paper. Besides of these buried remnants, immortal and the way of life of the coastal inhabitants in the region, which, evidence, living within the day-day spoken communication of the then subsequently civilized and transformed them culturally. It is localities have been foreseen by him. That is Tamil, indeed. historical fact that northern regions like and northerly Isthmus of Kra have endured significant stimulus from Indian Singaravelu (1992) clarifies that the historians like .. Sebastian, civilization to a level of accepting the concepts of Brahmanical K.T. Thirunavukkarasu, and A.W. Hamilton also share the same god-kings. It has severely transformed the beliefs they have viewpoint regarding the influence of Tamil in the maritime upheld for ages, and subsequently changed their belief system as region. They believe that Tamil was also applied as a widely well. As a result of their active participation in the maritime Asia applied influential language during the peak of the Malacca trading between two important ‘business languages’, Malay and Sultanates and in the post Malacca era. What is important to Tamil, became inevitable at this point. The continued trading study is act of Dutch East India Company recognizing its tradition between two economic giants at that time has significance which resulted in endorsing Tamil as one of the subsequently given rise to ‘borrowings into Malay from Tamil popular languages in usage in the straits of Malacca. It also was increase between the 12th and 19th centuries due to their surplus accepted to form a part of its official correspondence between th th commercial activities in the region. [(2003, p73) (Discussed by and Malacca and other seaports from 17 till 19 century. In the Adelaar (1996a: 695-96 and Jones (1984))] same work James Sneddon (2003, 73), Adelaar (1996a: 695-96), and Jones (1984) pointed out that Malay terminology pertaining The early-day Tamil were noted for inheriting some to book-keeping and accountancy was still largely kept in Tamil, praiseworthy qualities. They used to be a seafaring race who during the post golden era of Malacca Empire. conquered the sea routes and controlled eminent sea-trading ports in the pre-Christian era. This allowed them to establish In nutshell, there is a premise to accept the view point of cultural contacts with the Asian and European countries (In Sneddon that Tamil probably was the most important Indian Singaravelu, 2012(Foreward message))’ The seafearing Tamils source of borrowings. Other Indo Aryan languages such as not only have conquered seas and seatrading, but they also have Sanskrit, , Gujarati and others, are of secondary importance. have brought along civilization to places they have landed, Nevertheless, regarding the Sanskrit, it should be accepted as a including their language, Tamil. language that was largely introduced via priest and scribes associated with royal courts,’ as noted by Sneddon (2003:73). As The multi-facet connections between Malay land in Southeast such, it somehow stands a chance to stay ‘beyond’ the reach of Asia and Tamil language must have brought the language closer common men. On the other hand, Tamil should have received to local people than ever during the Tamil invasion in and event wider acceptance for its commercial value in the region, unfolded thereafter. Unfortunately, we have no clear evidences therefore, should be claimed as gained popular recognition arguing for the kind of interactions and its effectiveness in the among the common people in the region, in Malay Malaysia. earlier period, leaving us handicap in elaborating contribution of the era in detail. Nevertheless, as we have seen the language This study is, therefore, aimed at offering empirical evidences invasion goes in tandem with Chola invasion, and extended to showing the linguistics evidences of Sanskrit and Tamil from th periods covering upspring of Malacca Empire. There are worthy Sejarah Melayu, a Malay historical annals that belong to 16 references clarifying the presence and status of Tamil in the century but was translated into Malay by Shellabear in the late of region for one solid reason, medium of communication in trading 1880’s to shed some light into the issue that yet answered activities. empirically. While ascribing the status of Tamil, James Sneddon (2003:73) The relentless connections between the Indian sub-continent, argues that presence of ‘Tamil language in the region is which is relatively close to SEA compared to China, in the forms conspicuous since the period of the powerful southern Indian of trades, religious, and imperialism activities might be kingdom of Chola in the 11th century’. Tamil traders have been underlying factors for closeness. The close approximate between recognized as one of the important trading group of people in the India and Malaya compared to that of the China should be maritime Asia. Their presence and influence remained pertinent pointed as one of the fact that has strengthened the monopoly of in and Malay Peninsula not in activities related to Indian traders in the Malacca commodity trade. The adaptation trading alone, but also that very close to the localities, he argues. and assimilation of Indian cultural values within the culture, He also stresses that the Indian traders and seamen were not social and psychological lifestyle of was far significant speakers of Sanskrit but of languages that had descended from compared to their Chinese counterparts because of this assays Sanskrit, such as Hindi, and of unrelated Indian languages, such as Khoo (1974, p3). Hill (2008, p1) notes that ‘colonies of Indian Tamil (2003, 72) also have entered the Malay lexicon. However, traders, especially from coromandal coast, have selected along the list of languages listed by Sneddon is to an argument. the western shores of the Malay Peninsula, and the rich Inclusion of Hindi in the list raises doubt in verifying the merchants introduced a luxuriant culture to the royal court and timeframe pointed out by him. As such, Hindi was an invented the cosmopolitan citizens of the ports.’ Needless to point out, language popularized through the period of Moghul Empire in Malacca during its golden-days of trading activities, has turned India, somewhere from as early as of 10th or 11th century. Hence, itself as locus point of cultural and trading interaction and

Journal of critical reviews 480

THE LINGUISTIC EVIDENCES FROM SEJARAH MELAYU SHOWING THE GREATER INFLUENCE OF TAMIL IN MALAY LANGUAGE transmission. Having said that, the language contact and its evidence showing that the Indian decendants were notably active importance in enforcing the local and the merchants’ interaction, in religious and commercial activities. especially for effective communication, could not be undermined. Tirunavukkarasu (2012) listed some evidences that found in REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Classical literary works Tamil provides new support for the issue There are a few studies investigated the loan nature of borrowed at hand, too. The established contacts between Tamils and the terms in Tamil and Malay. These studies have shown interest in glorious South East regions have been mentioned in the literary studying the linguistic nature of the adaptation. A few of them of works from pre-Christian era till the latter, covering atleast first importance were studied for the relevance and importance in five centuries have inked, he clarified. The references are found understanding the issue at hand. The claims made by these in many forms, namely, their names, invasions, trading, and studies could not be taken as mere conclusion, but also that religion and so on. Names of places often visited by the traders in concedes the point of view that Tamil language has made the literatures such as akananuuru, purananuuru, substantial borrowings, significantly. and ceentan thivaakaram refer to area in the . For instance, Malaya was portrayed as land of fortune and trading The paper entitled Vocabulary of Sankrit and Tamil Loanwords heaven for Indian traders in ceentan thivaakaram. He clarified by Singaravelu (1992: 205-208) offers notable findings on that these lands were often referred as kaazhakam, kadaaram Sanskrit and Tamil presence in Malay used in Malaysia. The study and swarnabhumi. The same region is called as savakam, offers a list of loanwords that have enjoyed functional role and khalakam, and swarnabhumi in Manimegalai and Patirrupattu have populous recognition in Malay in the day to day life of that belong to 3rd or 4thAD, respectively. Besides notes in publics. He claimed that both languages have considerably equal purananuru (a text belong to classical literature of Tamil) also representation. Russell Jones (2007) offered a comprehensive offer indication of frequent flow of trading fleets between two study Loanwords in Indonesian and Malay. This manual regions also found in between selected verses, verifies explained the nature of Sanskrit and Tamil and their Manikkanar (1999, pp55-56). According to him, the fleets sail to contributions as well. The work has emphasized on Malay ports on frequent basis from Musoli, Thondi, morphological changes and its impacts towards the receiver kavirippoompaddinam, a few of noted strategic seaports in the language. These studies, however, did not offered information southern part of India during that era. They have served as port beyond the present-day status; not on the empirical factors of choice for many traders and travellers, who travelled to east underlying the language borrowings. before 3rd AD. The study by S Nathesan’s (1996: 11-12) entitled, ‘Tamil Sastri (1966:191; El XXII: 267-81) offer insight on the prosperity loanwords in Malay; Semantic Study’ offers two significant of local rules of Kingdom in southeast asia. The manual discoveries; one is the list of Tamil words that found within the describes the glory and the prosperity of King Malay; another, is the semantic explanation of these terms, which Cuulamanivarmadeva of Sri Vijaya in Kadaram (Kedah), and his are direct in nature. He claimed that these terms have been gracious acts for religius monastries. A Buddhist monastery received into Malay about 2000 years, along with terms from called cuulaamani varmavihara was built in in AD Sanskrit. Neither additional clarification nor explanation were 1005 by the king. This Buddhist temple was granted an given on this. On top of these two languages, he claimed that the endowment of the revenue through the paddy cultivation from a Malay also has heavily benefited from other languages like the for maintenance of the monastery, and the benefits of its Arabic, Portuguese, Hindi, Chinese, Dutch, and Persian. The visitors from the kingdom of Sri Vijaya (ELxxii: 213:66, Sastri English loanwords are received in large number in the present- 1949a:128-31). It also mentioned about an envoy from Cola day Malay in response to advancement of science and technology Kuloottunga I (1070-1122) to Malay ruler of Kadaram in 1090 spectrum, he added. On top of that, he assays that most of the regarding regulations of affairs relating to the monastery at Tamil loanwords were common man terms that utilized widely Nagapattinam. Sastri offered a great deal of information about in common commination. the close ties between two regions and its adversity. Sastri (1932:314-327) indicated the ambience of commercial and Yen (2000), Zaharani Ahmad (2004), Ling (2008) and Seong religious contacts between Tamil merchants and Malay land (2011) studies on borrowing words in Malay has focused on were so prevalent. He added that it also could be learned from showing how the Malay has profited from Chinese loanwords. the inscription of 1088AD, in the form of appraisal for newly These studies have paid intense focus on phonological adaptation established Hindu Kingdom discovered near Lubuk Tua in Barus and accommodation, indeed. Chen Eng (1999), on the opposite, Sumatra. touched on the nature of Malay loanwords in Chinese, yet it is limited to the contemporary borrowings. Singaravelu (1985) Sastri (1949: 84) says that there is a well-known historical fact, pointed that there are some non-linguisitic remnents in the form invasion of Virarajendra Cola (1063-1069) conquering Kadaram,. of archeological and epigraphic, showing the extensity of the link The echo of significant political changes took place in the between Malay-Tamil world. Fragments of beads, crude southern India, also heard in the political scenario of the local glassware, etc. from India were discovered in excavations at polities in the South-east Asia. In 7thAD when Pallava kings Kuala Selinsing, , dated way back the pre-modern times, regained their ruling power in the southern India, the trade showing the extensitivity of the contact in the early days. Along contact between India and Malay Peninsula entered a new phase, this is a cornelian in the that was used to says Nedumaran (In Paramasivam, 2012, p40). Besides represent Sanskrit sounds, from dated way back to establishing trading contacts, they also established cultural, 5AD. It shows that the longstanding stimulus contact between religious and political contacts with Malay maritime . the India and Malaya Peninsular, in particular, between the Tamil However, their contacts were short lived; it not last beyond 13th and Malay languages have started to take place long ago. Wheatly AD. (1966:266-272), on the other hand, clarified that a few inscriptions which were found in an ancient port of Takuapa in Khoo (1974) says that ‘…traders from the sub-continent of India the region, too, in support of the view that Tamil and Malay have have established intimate relationship with Malay Archipelago, had closed link starting from the pre-Christian era. The remark compared to Chinese traders’. Its strategic location and visionary was made based on a Tamil incription, in Takuapa or a port rulers’ innovative approaches led Malacca develop from a fishing th which is identified as Takkola, saying that the port has served as village to a world-class entreport in the early of 13 century. a stopover for Tamil merchants before they continue their While traders from India and the far west nations anchored on journey to far eastern cauntries, Funan (, China and the western shore of the nation, ships of Chinese traders filled etc). Sastri (1966:25-30) stressed that the lines should be read as the eastern shore of the nation (Khoo, 1974:3), which covers

Journal of critical reviews 481

THE LINGUISTIC EVIDENCES FROM SEJARAH MELAYU SHOWING THE GREATER INFLUENCE OF TAMIL IN MALAY LANGUAGE whole of peninsula, encompassing ‘ in the North and on the saying that there has been a tradition from the time of his west right into the neighbouring island of Sumatra to include forefathers, members of well to do and reputable people learned Aru, Rokan, Siak, Kampar and Inderagiri’ (Mohd Jamil, 2012: Indian language. The language he referred to is Tamil indeed 386-414). These remnants still serves as evidences for the (Hamdan Hamzah, 2007: 26). cherished relationship between the Indian sub-continent and Needless to stress that the foregoing amplified that Tamil has Malay Peninsula is evident in more than one way, such as culture, enjoyed an unprecedented recognition during the era of Malacca beliefs, norms and values of the locals, says Khoo (1974,3). Large sultanate in the Malay Peninsula. The foregoing literatures have numbers of India traders travelled from North-west and noteworthy information of describing the contact between Tamil Southern part of India also have brought in various forms of and Malay Archipelago. These literatures covering various levels social and cultural contributions to locals in the peninsula and stages of the contacts that have been discussed here. Malacca. The development of Malacca is also a contributively Literatures of both local and western scholars have covered the factor for encouraging word borrowing activities between the historical, literature, linguistics and non-linguistics types of languages; yet, the short lifespan of the contacts, covering three different eras, pre-history era, Era prior prosperity was not a blockade for the borrow-words exchange. to Malacca Empire and during the Malacca Empire. Each of them may offer detailed insight to understand the severity and the Arasaratnam (1970) offers some evidences that showing the nature of the contact between these regions, and between the emergence of Islamic related influence in the political landscape Malay speaking community and Tamil speaking community. of Malacca, through Tamil . He argues that Tamil Muslims gained significant position in royal court, mainly Tamil and Malay Archipelago Contact: The Linguistic through, inter-marriages with members of royal decedents. Their Evidence viewpoints also heard more regular than anyone in political An earliest written manual comprising historical episodes of issues. Some of them appeared to have occupied higher Malacca rulers is studied to verify the application of the administrative positions in the ports and customs, as well. In loanwords has been chosen and scrutinised. The manual was recognition to their involvement, a settlement so-called selected for language, which is common to public at large. Keling, a place where official employees, teachers, Besides, it is also evident the well-established status of the petty traders, goldsmiths and craftsmen live, was established. loanwords in Malay. Besides, other reliable sources showing the Arasaratnam also pointed out that during this time, Tamil close approximate between Tamil and the Malay land to establish language strengthened its position of literature the foregoing claim. The following sections offer some (1970:7). Evidence also received from Tome Pires notes who explanation of relevant evidences depicting the acknowledged stated that Malacca straits was filled with numerous Indian relation and its severity between Tamil and Malay, in the vessels, during the invasion of Portuguese (Sastri, 1976:224). following order. Hill (2008:1) also notes that colonies of Indian traders, especially A simple glance at the data shows some interesting outcomes. To from coromondal coasts, have set up along the western shores of our surprise, closed to 186 identified borrowed terms are also the Malay Peninsula. He also said that the rich merchants found in Tamil, but not all of them are exist in Sanskrit. In other introduced a luxuriant culture to the royal court and the word, the 186 words have traits of origin within Tamil language, cosmopolitan citizens of the port. Hill (2008:45) also ascertained but only half of them have traits of origin within Sanskrit. On top the attainment of Tamil during the glorious period of Malacca. He of that, every identified Sanskrit borrowing also found within the quoted that ‘…my father sent me to a teacher to teach Tamil, an vocabulary of Tamil. Such an imbalance distribution of the loan Indian Language, because it has been the custom from the time of words and their sources apparently send us different message our forefathers in Malacca for all the children of good and well- from what has been claimed previously. The list of data is given do-to families to learn it. It was useful for doing calculations and below. accounts, and for purposes of conversations because at that time the Malacca was crowded with Indian merchants. The very same The Data information also seen in Shellabear (1918: 19). Munsyi Abdullah, a famous Malay writer of 18 and 19th century, who accord this, BM SANSKRIT TAMIL MEANING (ber)cemara /cɑmʌrɑ/ /cɑmrʌm/ a kind of fan (orang) garam - /kɑrʌm/ hot/fierce (ubat) guna /gʊnʌ/ /kʊnʌm/ quality, attribute, etc (ulat) bulu - /pʊɮʊ/ an insect adu - /ɑdʊ/ to cook, to complaint, etc agak - /ɑkə/ so aneka /ʌnɛgʌ/ /ʌnɛgʌm/ various aniyaya /ʌnɪjɑjʌ/ /ʌnɪjɑjʌm/ injustice anugerah /ʌnʊgərhɑ/ /ʌnʊkɪrʌkəm/ bless arah - /ɑr/ guide/lead asal - /ʌcəl/ the original ayah - /ʌɪjɑ/ father babak - /ʌppɑ/ father bahagian /βɑgɪ/ /bɑkkɪ/ section bahasa /βɑʃɑ/ /pɑcəɪ/ language bapa - /ʌppɑ/ father baiduri /vʌɪdʊrjɑ/ /vʌɪdʊrjəm/ a gem (cat’s eye) bakti /βʌkθɪ/ /bʌktɪ/ loyalty bandar /βʌntʌr /pʌntʌr/ town(M)/Covered area (T) bendahara /βʌndʌgʌrʌ/ /bʌɲdʌm/ Treasure (M)/commodity (T) bicara /vɪcɑrʌ/ /vɪcɑrʌɲəɪ/ interrogation binasa /vɪnɑʃɑ/ /nɑsʌm/ destroy, destruction budi /βʊɖɖɪ/ /pʊttɪ/ intellect, mind buka - /pʊkkʊ/pʊkʊ/ enter bumi /βumɪ/ /bumɪ/ earth

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bunga - /pu(ŋ)ŋɑ/ park cahaya /ɟɑjɑ/ /cɑjɑ(l) light cap /cɑp/ /cɑppɑ/ seal cara-cara /cɑrɑ/ /cɑrəm ingredient (T) catera /cʌrɪtʌ/ /cʌrɪtəm/ chapter/history cempaka /cʌmbʌgɑ/ /cəmpʌkʌm/ a type of flower champaka cendani /cʌɳdɑ/ /cʌntʌɳʌm/ sandal wood cerita /cʌrɪtʌ/ /cʌrɪtəm/ story cermat /cʌmʌt/ /cʌmʌttʊ/ strength, power, etc cetera /cʌrɪtʌ/ /cʌrɪtəm/ story cita /cɪθʌ/ /cɪttʌm/ will/grace cuki /sugɪ/ /sʊgɪ/ a type of wood curi - /curəɪ/ robbery, plunder dalam - /ɑləm/ deep dara(-dara) - /tɑrəkəɪ/ virgin female(M)/star(T) darat - /tɑrəɪ/ ground/land datuk - /θɑtθɑ/ grand father dekat - /kɪddə/ close approximate denda - /tʌɳdəm/ fine denda pati - /tʌɳdə pʌdɪ/ paid as fine dewa /dɛvɑ/ /θɛvɑ/ god dewi /dɛvɪ/ /θɛvɪ/ goddess /ɖoʃɑ/ /θocʌm mishap, spell duka /ɖʊkkɑ/ /θʊkkɑm/ sorrow duli /ɖulɪ/ /θulɪ/ dust durhaka /ɖrohʌkʌ/ /θʊrokʌm/ betrayal, crime, treason emak - /ʌmmɑ/ erti /ʌrθʌ/ /ʌrθʌm/ meaning gaga /Gʌŋɑ/ /Kʌŋəɪ/ a river gagak /kɑkɑ/ /kɑkʌm/ Grow ganda /gɑɲd/ /kɑɲdɑ a kind of a long log gembala /gʌpʌlɑ/ /kɪmpɑlɑ/ shepherd hal-ehwal - /ɛvʌl issues hulu - /ʊl/ remote area hurai - /ʊrəɪ/ explain /kait - /kʌddʊ/ tight indera /ɪɲdrɑ/ /ɪɲdɪrʌɳ/ inderagiri /ɪɳdrɑgɪrɪ/ /ɪnθɪrɑgɪrɪ/ Indra Mountain isteri /ɪstrɪ/ /ɪsθɪrɪ/ wife jaya /jʌjʌ/ /jʌjʌm/ victory jual - /vʌcul/ (MT) sell(BM)/collect(BT) kait - /kʌddʊ tie kakak - /ʌkkɑ/ sister kala /kɑlɑ/ /kɑlɑm/ time kambi - /kʌmpɪ metal wire kanda - /ʌkkɑ/ sister kapal - /kʌppəl ship karya /kʌrjɑ/ /kɑrɪjʌm//kɪrɪjəɪ/ the work kata /kʌθɑ/ /kʌθʌɪ/ word/story kawasan /kʌvʌsʌ/ /kʌvʌcʌm/ area(BM)/shield(BT) keling /Kɑlɪŋɑ/ /Kʌlɪŋkʌm/ An Indian state kepala /kʌpʌlʌ/ /kʌpʌlʌm/ head kerana /krəɳʌ/ /kɑrʌɲʌm/ reason kerja /krɪjɑ/ /kɑrɪjʌm/ job keti /kəθɪ/ /kʌddɪ/ 10 million - /kulʌm/ pond/lake kota /koθɑ/ /koddɑɪ/ Fort kuda - /kʊtɪrəɪ/ horse kurang - /kʊrɑɪ(vʊ)/ reduce /lʌkʃɑ/ /ɪlʌtcʌm/ one hundred thousand laksamana /lʌkʃʌmʌɲʌ/ /lʌkcʌmʌɲʌɳ/ Laksamana lama - /mɑlɑ(MT)/ nonstop/end linga /lɪŋɑ/ /lɪŋʌm/ symbolic statue- Siva maha /mʌhɑ/ /mʌkɑ/ huge, great maharaja /mʌhɑrɑj/ /mʌhɑrɑjɑ/ Supreme King malam /mɑlɑ/ /mʌləm/ dark mamak - /mɑməm/ Uncle mani /mʌɲɪ/ /mʌɲɪ/ gem, bead manikam /mʌɲɪkjʌ/ /mʌɲɪkkʌm/ ruby/sapphire manusia /mʌɳʊʃɑ/ /mʌɳɪθʌɳ/ man mempelai - /mɑppɪlləɪ/ bridegroom

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menteri /mʌnθɪrɪ/ /mʌnθɪrɪ/ Minister misai - /micəɪ/ mustache modal - /mʊtθʌl/ capital mudra /mʊdrɑ/ /mʊtθθɪrəɪ/ mark muka /mʊkhɑ/ /mʊhɑm/ face mula - /muləm/ beginning murka /murk/ /murkʌm/ fierce mutu /mʊtɪɑrɑ/ /mʊθθʊ/ pearl naga /nɑgɑ/ /nɑkʌm/ serpent nama /nɑmʌ/ /nɑmʌm/ name narwastu /nɑrwʌsθʊ/ /nɑvʌsθʊ/ fragrance negara /nɑkʌrʌ/ /nʌkʌrʌm/ town n(d)engar - /riŋŋɑrʌm/ humming nescaya /nɪʃcɑjɑ/ /nɪccʌjʌm/ must/sure nilam /nɪlɑ/ /nɪləm/ sapphire nilai - /nɪləɪ/ be/value nyala - /nyɑjɪrʊ/ Sun *(BM=Malay language, T= Tamil language, MT= Metathesis)

There is another reason to worry about, too. As has been pointed The list consists of Sanskrit and Tamil borrowed terms consisting out, Sanskrit is not a common man language. The language is of abstract, concrete and special , verbs, and acknowledged as holy language with fond of applications in ritual . The list consists of 186 identified borrowed terms. All and royal court related activities. Such determined applications of them found in Tamil, but not in Sanskrit. About 108 of them are not an encouragement for the language to enjoy a profound representation in Sanskrit, the rest are not. All of the collected application among the common people. Borrowing from a loanwords in Malay also well perceived and applied in Tamil. In language like Tamil, therefore, is also not possible. On this basis, other words, almost all of them have traits of origin within Tamil it could be assured that there is zero chance for Tamil loan terms language, but only two third of them do have traits of origin in Malay reached there through Sanskrit, but through Tamil itself. within Sanskrit. It is for this reason, I believe not only Tamil loans, but most of the Sanskrit loans in Malay also may have travelled through Tamil language itself. This concedes the view point of the Asmah, that FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Tamil loan words were borrowed as common man terms. The implication is simple. It shows that a well-circulated manual written for common men during the period close to the Golden Another mundane factor worth of consideration at this point era of Malacca consists of well-received terms that were common comes from linguistic perspective. Linguistically, borrowing and to both, Sanskrit and . Tamil loans have enjoyed lending take place for many reasons, such as filling the gaps, the extensive application since then in Malay. The imbalance adding more flavour to the language and so on. The donor ratio of representation between Sanskrit and Tamil loans raises language usually viewed as a reputable one to initiate borrowing. another doubt, too. Were all well settled loan terms have been Acceptance and assimilation of Tamil data at large as seen in the borrowed through Sanskrit itself or Tamil language? Reflecting data shows Tamil language has sustained an equally a reputation the nature of Sanskrit that does not allow foreign elements not any lesser than the Sanskrit, a promising status needed for within, there is a high tendency for the Sanskrit terms might have allowing unhindered flow of borrowing terms. The foregoing reached Malay through Tamil. Sanskrit has always been gives us a premise beyond doubt to established claim - the considered as a ‘pure’ language and given prestigious recognition loanwords ended up in Malay of Malaysia through an alternative by limiting its application within affairs limited related to high medium - through the Tamil speaking Indian traders. class society, royal courts, religious and literary activities alone. The status quo of the language also maintained by preserving its CONCLUSION ‘cleanliness’, by avoiding borrowed terms from other languages In the foregoing sections, we also have seen some traces of like Tamil. This makes a clear sense that the Tamil loan terms evidences which enable us to establish the claim that most of could not have reached the Malay of Malaysia through the Sanskrit and Tamil loanwords might have reached the Malay of Sanskrit. On the other hand, there is a possibility to consider that Malaysia through various forms. Though borrowing of loan terms most of the Sanskrit loans found within Malay of Malaysia might might have started in pre-Christian era, it was intensified have reached here through Tamil language itself. The imbalance somewhere a century ago. Since then, it gradually increased due distribution of the loan terms and their origin send us a clear to trading contacts established between the regions. At this time message that even the Sanskrit loan terms might not have been Tamil speaking Indian traders, the Tamils or Indian Muslims, introduced directly into Malay land, but they could have been who have travelled from various ports in Southern India, should brought through another language, Tamil. be held responsible for transmitting the Sanskrit and Tamil loans to Malay of Malaysia. Besides, we also have seen a handful of It is apparent from here that a well-circulated manual written for evidences showing the close proximity established between common men in a period close to the Golden era of Malacca, well- them. received the application of terms that are common to both, Sanskrit and Tamil languages. The data also clarifies the The region of Southeast Asia can be divided into two spectrums extensive application enjoyed by Tamil loan terms. Note that the as far as the influence from India and its assimilation are outnumbered Tamils loans are not only handful, but also concerned. Countries in the mainland of Asia and Indonesia sustained full representation of them in Sanskrit. Such an apparently show significant attachments to Indian cultural imbalance situation raises doubts and probe us to argue whether values and Sanskrit as far as the lingual factor is concerned. On the Sanskrit has been directly introduced to Malay land at first the other hand, the and Indo-china nations show place, or it might have been brought through another language; inclination to Sanskrit and its cultural traditions. The same form that is Tamil in this case. of attractions also clearly evident in Indonesian Islands. However, for an unknown reason, it is interesting to note that

Malay Malaysia and the region denoted by these terms apparently shows close connection with Tamil and .

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Such an obvious setting verifies the closeness of contact between 5. Foundation, I.T.L. (2000). The Handbook of Tamil Culture the two regions, whereas the Tamils have had close-interactions and Heritage International Tamil Language Foundation: with Malay Malaysia than elsewhere. As a result of this, Tamil Chicago. language reached so close to most spectrums within the walks of 6. Gonda, J. (1952). Sanskrit in Indonesia. . : Uitgave lives of most of the common people in the Malay of Malaysia. Van Oriental Bookshop. The paper has been evaluating the contribution of Sanskrit and 7. Gustav, S. (1891). Chinese Loanwords in the Malay Tamil language towards Malay Malaysia. Gonda’s claim that Language. T'oung Pao, 1(5), 391-405. Sanskrit has significant contribution in enriching the languages 8. Hsieh, F.-F., & Kenstowicz, M. J. (2008). Phonetic Knowledge in the Southeast Asia, still valid. It may hold well for languages in in Tonal Adaptation: and English Loanwords in Indonesian Islands and Indochina nations, but not for the Malay Lhasa Tibetan. Journal of East Asian Linguistics, 17(4), 279- of . Here, Tamil language appeared to be the 297. active initiating the lending to a point that has changed the 9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitty. borrowing landscape, which once dominated Sanskrit. As we 10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Malay_loanwords. have seen, borrowed Sanskrit and Tamil loan terms should have 11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian_Indian&Chitty. reached the Malay through the latter. The status of Sanskrit and 12. http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kata_pinjaman. the preserved practices adopted in the language have been 13. http://www.2malaysia.com/malacca/history.htm. pointed as why the language could not have reached the local 14. http://www.enotes.com/topic/List_of_Malay_loanwords. more freely compared to Tamil. On the other hand, Tamil with 15. http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/melaka.htm. simplicity and flexibility and popular application have had all 16. Interview with Mrs Salina on Records of Dutch ship and possible means to reach common people. This includes also trading routes in Malacca during 16th century.). commercial activities during the era of Malacca Sultanate, the era 17. Jones, R. (1984). Loan-words in contemporary Indonesia. In before and after it. For all of that, Tamil seemed to have enjoyed I. I. V. (ed.) (Ed.), Towards a Description of Contemporary the reputable status as one of the lingua-franca beginning from Indonesia: Preliminary Studies Part II. NUSA: Studies in 8th century, reached its peak during the era of Malacca Sultanate, Indonesia and Languages in Indonesia (Vol. I, pp. 1-38). and its popularity which lasted till 18th century within various : Atma Jaya University. forms of contact with Malay of Malaysia such as trading, invasion 18. Jones, R. (2007). Loan Words in Indonesian and Malay. and religious activities have paved ways for its successes to Netherlands: KITLV Press. trade-in large number of Tamil loanwords into Malay language. 19. Khoo, G., & Loo, D. (1977). Asian Transformation, A History The present-day Malay has handful of loan terms that have of South East South and East Asia. Heinemann undergone tremendous modifications after having absorbing Educational Book (Asia) Ltd. various forms of alterations and standardization before form a 20. Lai, T. (2005). Analisis kesilapan morfologi dalam Bahasa part of the Malay language system. There are two schools of Cina : Satu kKian Kes : Universiti Malaya. thoughts arguing for how they could have been transported. One 21. Lin, Y.-H. (2008). Variable Adaptation in Standard claims that the loans might have been brought-in as Sanskrit Mandarin Loanwords. Journal of East Asian Linguistics, terms by Indian traders, and also by the priests who have visited 17(4), 363-380. 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