Early Near Eastern Steel Swords Author(s): Herbert Maryon, R. M. Organ, O. W. Ellis, R. M. Brick, R. Sneyers, E. E. Herzfeld and F. K. Naumann Source: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 65, No. 2 (Apr., 1961), pp. 173-184 Published by: Archaeological Institute of America Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/502669 . Accessed: 11/07/2013 03:55

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

.

Archaeological Institute of America is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to American Journal of Archaeology.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Early Near Eastern Steel Swords

HERBERT MARYON

with technical reports by Mr. R. M. Organ, Dr. O. W. Ellis, Dr. R. M. Brick, Dr. R. Sneyers, Dr. E. E. Herzfeld and Dr. F. K. Naumann

PLATES 65-72

Surveys of the early history of iron-working have was evidently one of his most cherished possessions. been made by many experts. Here it is necessary to When the coffin was opened the weapon was found refer only to some of the earliest known examples to be in perfect condition, uncorroded, and with but of worked iron. For it seems that in the fourth and a few small spots of tarnish. It is believed to have third millennia B.c. the craftsmen to whom the been made of meteoric iron (nickel steel) and in smelting of copper and the working of bronze was all probability was a present from the ruler of one a traditional craft, with many centuries of skillful of the iron-working districts of Asia Minor. How and artistic workmanship to their credit, sometimes keenly such presents were appreciatedmay be learnt became curious as to what use they might put some from the well known letter from a Hittite king, of the numerous masses of iron ore which came to Hattusilis III (ca. 1283-1260 B.c.) to another ruler, the surface of many hills on the southern side of the probably ShalmaneserI, King of Assyria. Black Sea, and in various districts of India and of "As to the good iron about which thou hast China. The craftsmen began to smelt the ore and written to me. Good iron is not available in my to forge the bloom into useful tools, though, as sealed store-house in Kizzuwadna. It is a bad time Homer tells us, their iron was "wrought with much for producing iron. I have written that they should toil." A few specimens of worked iron of the fifth produce some good iron. So far they have not and fourth millennia are known, such as the iron finished it. When they have finished I will send it beads found in prehistoric graves at Gerar in Egypt, to you. To-day however I have sent you a dagger- which are of meteoric iron. A millennium later is blade of iron." the iron blade from Tell Asmar (ca. 2800 B.c.), Kizzuwadna, it is now agreed, was situated in which Desch found to be made from man-smelted Cilicia. The letter proves that iron weapons were iron. Later again is a sword with a crescent-shaped still rare, and that even at this period, the thirteenth gold pommel and a long golden hand-grip of century before Christ, the king of the Hittites had rectangular section. Two half-tubes of gold, with no easy access to supplies of smelted iron.' crenellated edges, decorate the scabbard. This In the earliest Near Eastern examples of iron- weapon, dating from 2400-2100B.C., was found at working the smith's actual workmanship is of a Alaca Hfiyfik, near Ankara, by Dr. Hamil Kosay, fairly simple character;flattened strips of iron coiled and is now in the Archaeolgical Museum at Ankara to produce beads, and straightforward forge work (pl. 65, fig. I). Later, by perhaps a millennium, is for the blades. Many early tools and weapons were the sword of Tutankhamen (ca. 1360 B.c.), which unhardened. But until a method of hardening iron was found within his innermost, gold coffin and had been discovered this metal was a less useful 1 It is no uncommon thing for the fame of some rare product eleventh centuries,and the Sagas and Eddas contain many to spread far from the country of its origin. Throughout the storieswhich enshrinetheir fame. The Vandalsin theirpassage ages the search for an efficient weapon has been universal, from EasternGermany through Europe acquired some of these and fine weapons travelled far. The story of the "pattern weaponsand carriedthem throughSpain to their campaigns welded" swords is a case in point. These are swords with in North Africa,where they conqueredCarthage in A.D.439. twisted strips of steel and iron welded into the blade. Though Then they built a fleet,captured Rome (455), and made them- in all probability made only at a few places in the Rhine selvesmasters of the greaterMediterranean islands. A few years Valley, their efficiency and beauty were so great that their later their king sent to Theodoric,the Ostro-Goth,King of reputation spread throughout Europe, and warriors from many Rome (493-526), a presentof some patternwelded swords, lands sought to possess them. They became the favourite weapon thus repeatingthe gesturemade by the Hittite king, Hattusilis, of the Teutonic and Scandinavian warriors of the first to the seventeencenturies before.

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 174 HERBERT MARYON [AIA 65 materialthan bronze,which could be hardenedby the weapon he saw in the Khanenko Collection at hammering.We come now to work in iron and Kiev was the same weapon as that which had been steelof much higherquality than the smith'searlier acquired many years before at Samsun on the Black effortscould produce. Sea coast. He believed that it had been found in In recentyears a numberof finely designedsteel one of the many tumuli of that region of Pontus. daggers or short swords, all having their hilts But he gives no evidence that this was so, nor does decoratedwith humanheads and figuresof crouch- he state where the tumulus was situated. Also, he ing lions, datingfrom some unknownearly period, evidently believed that the weapon was of cast iron, have found their way from the Near East into for his words "from the same mould" imply that variouscollections. No closelycomparable material the technique employed in its manufacture was is known, and their place of origin has not been that of the foundry. But, as is shown in this paper, exactlyascertained, though a numberof the weap- these weapons prove to be of wrought steel. ons have been found in tombs in Luristan. At the present time swords of this type are to be The modernhistory of theseweapons begins with found in the following collections, and without Herzfeld's discoveryat Leningrad,in 1935, of a doubt further specimens will be recorded, as frag- catalogue of the Khanenko collection at Kiev, ments of many others are said by Godard to have Russia,in which referencewas made to a dagger, been discovered in tombs in the Zagros mountains. said to be of iron, which was in that collection. i. Khanenko Collection, Kiev. Herzfeld made a specialjourney to see the piece 2. Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology, in question.Of it he wrote "It is the identicaldag- Toronto. ger, from the same mould, acquired at Samsun, 3. British Museum, London. east of Sinope, before 90oo-I believe about 890o. 4. University Museum, Philadelphia. No such dagger had come from Luristanbefore 5. Muse'esRoyaux d'Art et d'Histoire, Brussels. 1930, and the Khanenko piece was certainlynot 6. Louvre, Paris. broughtfrom Luristanto Samsunbefore 900oo,but 7. University Museum, Hamburg. was found in one of the many tumuli of that region 8. Oriental Institute of the University of of Pontus. The iron daggersare indeed a foreign Chicago, Chicago. elementamong Luristanbronzes, and though only 9. Museum, Teheran. one of the specimensis known to have come from io. Deutsches Klingenmuseum, Solingen- Pontus, that must be the original provenanceof Grifriith. them all. In Pontus,iron, easily workable, lies above Ii. Dusseldorf. ground. This rare occurrenceaccounts partly for Although these works are generally recorded as the importantpolitical role this land played after coming from Luristan there is no evidence to show the middle of the secondmillennium, when Egyp- that they were made there. A characteristicfeature tians barteredtheir gold, Babylonianstheir lapis of so many of the early works found in Luristan lazuli, for iron."2 is that their makers were interested in the casting Now if Herzfeld is correct in attributingthe of bronze rather than the forging of iron. For the centreof manufactureof these weaponsto Pontus, development of that craft we should look further his opinionfits in well (a) with the extensiveiron north-to the lands known to the Greeks as those ore depositsalong the south coastof the Black Sea, of the Chalybes-to Pontus and the western slopes (b) with the locationin E. Pontus of the Moschi of the Caucasus. and Tibareni(= Meshechand Tubal of the Bible) Kermanshah in Luristan, in whose neighbour- the originalsmiths who worked iron, and (c) the hood many of these swords are said to have been location of the Chalybes who, in the western world, found, is but 400 miles from Lake Van, and 600 tradition says invented steel. miles from the Black Sea coast: distances within Herzfeld does not explain what he means by the easy trading-caravan range. words "the identical dagger. .. " We may ask From early times in the Near East, as elsewhere, "identical with what?" Presumably he means that direct work was done with knife, chisel, punch and 2 E. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East (i941) 135-39; fig. 252.

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1961] EARLY NEAR EASTERN STEEL SWORDS 175 drill upon stone, wood and bone; and with tracer evidence of hardening by heat treatment. A sample and punch on bronze, gold and silver. But it is from the tip of the blade showed it to be of un- improbable,so soon after the introductionof iron, hardened unlaminated steel, with a Vickers hard- when worked specimens were rare and much- ness number of 19o. The omission of hardening treasuredpossessions, that the skill of the smiths treatment on this weapon suggests that it was prob- had advancedsufficiently to enable them to make ably made before 900ooB.c. For early in the first carvedor wroughtdies or stampsfor the mass pro- millennium before Christ the discovery of the ductionof the human headsor the crouchinglions method of heat-hardening steel led to the great which areto be found on thesesword handles. Such development in the use of iron which is so char- dies would have been useful if they could have acteristic a feature of the centuries which followed. been hardened,when they might have been em- So the lack of hardening in a weapon of this im- ployedas shapedpunches to produceon the red-hot portance is a fairly clear indication that the process metal an eye or perhapsa head. However, in the was as yet unknown at the time and place of its extremelysmooth, level and true surfacesbetween manufacture. the transverseridges on the handlesof theseswords Just as the earliest books printed with moveable (pl. 65, fig. 6) we seem to have evidence for the type are in many ways unsurpassed, so here, the use of the "flatter."This is a smith'stool, a solidly- sword handles forged in the new metal, steel, by made steel punch, employedwith a handle made these pioneer smiths of the Near East, exhibit skill from an iron rod (or perhaps,in early times, a of a high order, and no comparable steel sword-hilts withy). The tool has a flat face, perhaps,/2 inch have been found in any other land before the time square.It is held upon the red-hotwork and blows of the Renaissance in sixteenth century Europe. are struckon it either the smith or his by helper. Some of the wedge-shaped lateral pieces, formed we must rememberthat the of Still, hardening like crouching lions, as on Herzfeld's drawing and steel was in its until about the infancy i2th-9th on the other specimens, were fastened to the body centuries when, as a direct result of the dis- B.c. of the hilt by welded joints. That on the British coveryof methodsof hardeningand occasionallyof Museum specimen, as shown in the attached metal- temperingsteel, the true Iron Age can be said to lurgical report by R. M. Organ,8 proved to be not begin. a the had held for Although there is a superficialresemblance be- good weld, though joint 3,000 The smith had tried to make it tween all the known specimensof these swords, years. strong by round it the of the recess in yet if they are closely examinedno two are found hammering edges which the but these were not to be quite alike. A comparisonof the published piece fits, edges welded. In some of the other in that of measurementsof the componentparts of the hilt, specimens, for the weld seems to be the shapeof the transverseridges and their position Toronto, example, perfect. in relationto each other,the variedtapering forms An interesting characteristicof these weapons is of the intervening rectangular-sectionedportions the thickened, blunted section of the blade adjoin- of the hilt, the positionof the headson the pommel- ing the hilt. It extends about 3/4 inch along the disc and the inclinationof their beardsto the rec- cutting edges. Many of the swords and rapiers of tangularhilt below them, confirm the impression the Middle Ages in Europe were provided with that, though corrosionhas made directcomparison this device, which is known as the ricasso. It was difficult, the weapons were forged individually, intended to protect the forefinger from injury when thoughfrom a single design. it was curled round the upper part of the blade The formationof the lions and of the human in some modes of attack or defence. It should be heads would have been effected first by forging, remembered that in the East a dagger or knife is then the finer details would be added by means of not held in the manner so beloved by the illustra- chasing tools and punches, for there is no indication tors of our melodramas, with the blade next to the of the employment of cutting tools upon them. The little finger. It is generally held pointing forwards blade of the Toronto specimen has been tested for in preparation for the characteristicupward thrust

8 Like the joint on the iron head-restof Tutankhamen(1360 B.c.).

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 176 HERBERT MARYON [AJA 65 at abdomen or chest. The effective grip on these tion B. Khanenko," Kiev. Livraisons I-6 (1899-1922) weapons therefore includes the ricasso. The hand is pl. xxvii. E. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East well forward, clear of the which placed pommel, (0940) fig. 252; pp. I135-39. here, with its projecting bearded heads, would v2. M. Spence and W. Needler, "An Iron Dagger seriously interfere with the use of the weapon if it from Luristan," Bulletin of the Royal Ontario were grasped in the ordinary manner of the swords- Museum of Archaeology 23 (May 1955) fig. 14, man. It is probable that the spaces between the pro- pp. 14-24, with a careful survey of the evidence for jecting collars on the hilt were filled by gaily origin and dating. coloured coiled and or leather British Museum No. plaited cords, thongs. 3. Catalogue. 1933 io-I6-7. Herzfeld's specimen was examined many years And report by R. M. Organ, printed infra. ago, and reported that "a chemical and microscopic / 4. University Museum, Philadelphia. U.M. 30- analysis ... speaks of wrought iron." Analyses of 38-18. Leon Legrain, "Luristan Bronzes in the Uni- the London, Toronto, Philadelphia, Brussels and versity Museum," pl. xI; p. 16. Hamburg specimens have been made, and in each 5. Mus6es Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire, Brussels. case the material was found to be steel, Bulletin des Musces wrought Speleers, 5 (I933) III. as shown in the reports given infra; and the sword 6. The Louvre, Paris. David Weill Collection. and bracelet of similar fabric, at Philadelphia, were 7. The Museum, Hamburg. ZAssyr (i7 May found to be of no note of their And Dr. K. "Ex- forged iron, though 1953) 187; pl. I. F. Naumann, carbon content seems to have been published. amination of an Iron Luristan Short Sword," infra. References to the specimens reported include the 8. Chicago. Oriental Institute of the University. following: 9. Teheran Museum. I. "Antiquit&sde la region du Dnieper. Collec- 10. Teheran, Maleki Collection.

MEASUREMENTS

The measurements of some of these weapons, as quoted in their published descrip- tions, are:

British Museum Toronto Philadelphia Blade 270 x 26 280 x 25 279 x 31 mm. Hilt 16o 130' 140 mm. Top 86 x 70 76 8o x 62 mm. - Guard 44 x 8 42 x 21 mm. Hamburg Hamburg Brussels Total length 430 mm. Total length 430 mm. 540 mm. Length of handle 175 mm. Maximum width of 30 mm. - Diameter of disc 75 mm. blade Diameter with heads 95 mm. Maximum thickness 5 mm. Thickness of disc 8 mm. of blade Width of handle 26 mm. Thickness of handle 9 mm. The width of the handle is greater in its upper third, as it approaches the pommel. 4Or 165 mm. measured from the top of the heads to 1/2 inch below the lions.

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1961] EARLY NEAR EASTERN STEEL SWORDS 177 REPORTS ON CERTAIN SPECIMENS5

A. London. B. Toronto. C. Philadelphia. D. Brussels. E. Kiev. F. Hamburg. A. LONDON on abrasives carried on the plate glass which sup- the steel balls of the Abrasives The London specimen was examined by Mr. ported polishing jig. used in turn: wet silicon carbide R. M. Organ, Chief Experimental Officer, Research were, papers 240 and diamantine in wax, diamond Laboratory of the British Museum. He reports: 400: (301o) dry: dusts and lubricated with paraffin oil: a A Steel Sword. B.C. 4-8p/ o-Ip, 9th-7th century paste of heavy magnesia. British Museum No. 123304 ( W.A.A.933, zo-z6-7) The general appearance of this section is shown in 66, INTRODUCTION pl. fig. 4. The metal is heavily mineralized and exhibits an of this Metallographic observation of the features outer layer of haematite (a), which is soft, red- weapon have been limited to those which could be brown in colour, and has little power of specular made without seriously altering its appearance. reflection from the polished surface. Inside this it a careful Thus was at first intended to carry out layer is a fissured layer of magnetite (b), hard, examination merely of the metal of the pommel black and very reflective. In the centre is the pol- disc with a examination of the together cursory ished metal (c), deeply entered from the side and showed interesting welded-on side lions. These from above by magnetite. The centre of this section weld-lines not on apparent any of the other weapons is about 2 mm. below the original oxide surface, of this the type. However, an accident led to one of which has been removed by the polishing. so more "welded-on" lions becoming detached, a The polished surface contains lines of slag in- detailed examination became possible. But the clusions running parallel with and near the mid unsafe fragile state of the blade made it to attempt plane of the disc. examination for evidence of metallographic temper- The polished section was etched with 3% nital ing. and a series of photographs (one of these is pl. 66, was taken the marked in DESCRIPTION fig. 5) along path pl. 66, fig. 4. The structure revealed is of ferrite in pearlite The weapon (pl. 65, fig. 2) is a long blade, ap- and indicates a normalized steel. It may contain made parently in one piece with the handle. Two about 0.5% carbon, although this estimate would side pieces, lions, pl. 66, fig. 3A & B, appear to have to be modified if manganese were known to have been added to the main piece. Overall length be present. The group of non-metallic inclusions 43 cm. Centre of gravity 104 mm. from the top of shown in pl. 66, fig. 4, may be seen as black areas the head decorations. on the centre-line of fig. 5. The ferrite crystals have been laid down at the THE METAL OF THE POMMEL DISC grain boundaries of the austenite from which the In order to observe the structure of the metal, a steel cooled. The rate of cooling has been rapid section was polished on one edge of the pommel enough to prevent all ferrite diffusing to the grain disc. In order that successive polishing operations boundaries and so the beginnings of a Widman- should take place in parallel planes it was necessary stitten pattern are visible in some grains. The fact to provide additional points of support for the that there is no preferred direction of the ferrite object. This was done by rigidly attaching to the grains shows that no working of the metal has blade (with a temporary fastening) a crosspiece taken place while it was cooling for the last time of wood carrying a steel ball at each of its ends. below Ac3 (750.O C. for 0.5% carbon steel). Perhaps Thus a three-point support on the polishing plane other parts of the weapon were being worked on was provided, two points being steel balls and the during this particular cooling. third the edge of the disc to be polished. The loca- The section is uniform in structure along its tion of the section made was of necessity midway width and length, no case-hardeningor decarburiza- between the heads. The edge of the disc was rubbed tion being observable. This may be because the Not all of the photographs referred to in these reports have been reproduced.

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 178 HERBERT MARYON [AJA 65 whole section is limited to a portion near the sur- removed from the pommel of the sword at the face of the metal. position shown in pl. 67, fig. 7. This section includes It is thus certain that the disc of the hilt is not a number of non-metallic inclusions which lie made of cast iron, as some descriptions have sug- parallel to the upper and lower surfaces of the gested, but is of steel forged into shape. pommel. Numerous non-metallic inclusions of the same were found the centre of the THE CROUCHING LIONS BESIDE THE TOP OF THE BLADE type throughout section. The size of these non-metallic inclusions The of the A & B fixing side-pieces (pl. 66, fig. 3) supports the view that the metal from which the is of some interest. The of the be- shape junction pommel was made was manufactured by what are tween them and the hilt (fig. 3) suggests that the now out of date methods. The metal cannot be de- ancient aimed at in the side smith holding place scribed as wrought iron, in view of the relatively blocks of section triangular (the lions) by forging high carbon content. the hilt round to the corners of their them, grip Plate 67, fig. 8, shows, at a magnification of ioo bases. The fact that the line is obvious is junction diameters, a section (etched in 3% nital) approxi- evidence that the weld was not no perfect. Indeed, mately 0.15" from the rim of the pommel. Here place can now be found where metal is continuous can be seen a number of non-metallic inclusions. across the joint. It may be that the smith later found Most of these lie near the centre line of the section that his added could be fixed even pieces securely shown in this figure, which corresponds approxi- if not locked and thus he discovered that properly, mately in position to the centre line lying between he could weld metal to metal. the two roughly parallel circular surfaces of the to an accident one of the side be- Owing pieces pommel. came loose and was detached. There was carefully Microscopic examination of the etched sample as a narrow between the Both cavity parts. adjacent a whole brought out the interesting facts that the surfaces were covered with oxide of various colours pommel, to judge by the structure of the sample, which black tubercles and blisters incorporated comprised (a) a case of low carbon steel, (b) a of in the of certain typical rusting processes presence core of medium carbon steel (0.45-0.65% C.) which bacteria. In addition there was a curious narrow contained more non-metallic inclusions than the ridge of bright red oxide whose origin is obscure. case. Both blisters and a certain amount ridge required It is probable that the pommel, and in all prob- of between of metal in which space adjacent pieces ability the haft, of the sword were fashioned out to form. of steel having a content of from 045% to 0.65% This side piece had been locked to the main mass of carbon, and that during the process of fashioning of metal so well that it was found only possible the pommel and haft, the steel was decarburized eventually to refit it when the lion was cooled in a superficially to an appreciable depth while, con- mixture of solid carbon dioxide and acetone. currently, many of the non-metallic inclusions It seems probable that this was locking technique which were present near the surface of the original a of and that in this sword precursor welding proper ingot of steel were extruded from it. we have one of the last of its type, since all the There are no evidences of cold work remaining other known weapons of this pattern appear to in the structure. The possibility that the pommel have been genuinely forge-welded. and haft were cold worked cannot be entirely dis- counted, but it seems that, after cold work- B. TORONTO unlikely ing, the sword would have been reheated unless it The Toronto specimen was examined by Dr. were for the purpose of hardening the blade by O. W. Ellis, Director of the Department of Engi- quenching in water from above at least 7350C.- neering and Metallurgy, Ontario Research Founda- quenching would, in this case, be normally followed tion, Toronto. He reports: by drawing. It would be of considerable interest to Microscopic Examination of Sample Removed from check the structure of the blade, which would in- Pommel of a Luristan Suword(pl. 65, fig. 6) volve the removal of but a fragment of steel from Plate 67, fig. 8, shows a section of a small sample the very tip of the blade-a very much smaller

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1961] EARLY NEAR EASTERN STEEL SWORDS 179 fragment than that removed from the pommel. front.The structuretowards the backof the beard It seems most likely that the pommel, if not the suggeststhat the steel here is relativelyhigh in haft and blade, were fashionedwhen hot, with a carbon,0.55 to 0.65%at a guess.The carbon falls off finishingtemperature of very roughly8oo0 C., that fairlyuniformly as onepasses from the backto the during this processthe steel, originally having a centreof the beardand then quiterapidly as one carboncontent throughoutof somewherebetween approachesthe front of thebeard. If it wereassumed 0.45% and 0.65%, was superficiallydecarburized that the craftsmanwho made this swordstarted and that concurrentlythe non-metallicinclusions with a piece of steel having a uniformcarbon which it containedwere extruded,as a result of contentof 0.55to 0.66%,which is probablyrather hot working,from the outerlayers of the pommel. unlikely,as the pommeltook shape, its outerparts, the facesand the frontsof the beardsbecame de- MicroscopicExamination of Further Samples carburized,so muchso thatthe steelat the surface from LuristanSword of the beardwas in placesrendered almost free fromcarbon (see pl. 70, fig. ioC). INTRODUCTION It is not improbable,as suggestedabove, that Our previousreport dealt with some of the char- whoevermade the swordhad at his commanda acteristicsof a small sample removed from the pieceof steelwhich varied considerably in carbon edge of the pommel of this sword. The question contentwithin itself owing to themanner in which at issuewas whetherthe pommelwas castor forged. it was produced.It seemslikely also that during It was shown by microscopicexamination that at the forgingof the piecethe slaggymatter which least that partof the pommelfrom which the small was presentin the steelafter it had beenreduced sample was removed had been forged. It seemed from ore was, under the actionof a hammer, likely that the whole sword had been forged, but squeezedout of the steeland concentrated near its this could not be determined without seriously surface.This would account for the relativelylarge damagingthe weapon. amountof non-metallicmaterial which can be seen However, permissionwas obtainedfor us to re- in pl. 70, fig. ioC. It wouldalso accountfor the move samples (i) from the free end of the beard apparentlapping of themetal over the non-metallic on one of the heads with which the pommel was impuritiesin this partof the beard. decoratedand (2) from the tip of the blade. This The fact thatthe sectionsshown in pl. 69, figs. report deals with the microscopicexamination of ioA and ioB, arerelatively free from non-metallic these samples. impuritiesseems to confirmthe ideathat forging resultedin the extrusionof non-metallicmaterial SAMPLEFROM FREE END OF BEARD fromthe centreof the forgingas a resultof ham- Plate 68, fig. 9 is a photostatcopy of a very rough mering. sketch of the section of the beard which was the Towardsthe right of pl. 70, fig. IoD, can be subjectof examination.It will be seen that the steel seen the channelwhich separatesthe main body forming the beard is at this section divided into of the beardat this sectionfrom the wing of steel more or less three separateareas, these tending to whichforms the right hand side of the beardat this lap over one another.It should be borne in mind section(the left handside of the sectionis shown that the parts which in this section seem to be in pl. 68, fig. 9). This wing was attachedto the almost separate from one another were joined rest of the beardat this sectionby nothingmore securelyto partsof the beardcloser to the head. than a threadof steel,but must have been well The samplesA, B, C and D in plate 68, figs. 9 securedto the beardelsewhere. and io, refer to photomicrographswhich are dis- It will be observedthat the stringersof non- cussed below. metallic inclusions in pl. 70, fig. IoD, lie roughly Figure io shows the structure of an almost com- parallel to the channel and to the root of the cavity plete cross section of the beard corresponding in at the back of the beard (see fig. 9). This suggests position to the area in fig. 9 occupied by the samples that the face and beard were formed from a piece A, B, C and D. of steel attached to the pommel having a T-shaped The structure of the steel in this part of the beard cross section. varies considerably as one passes from back to Either by forcing the T-section piece into a die

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 180 HERBERT MARYON [AJA 65 or hammeringit with a countersunkpunch en- ring or bracelet) were of forged iron." (P1. 71, with the featuresof the the arms of graved face, figs. 12, 13.) the T were bent backwards.Before this was done the stringers of inclusions in all probabilitylay parallelto the arm of the T; afterwardsthey occu- D. BRUSSELS the shown in ioD and pied positions figs. 9. Reportby Dr. R. Sneyers,Chef de Laboratoire, SAMPLE FROM TIP OF BLADE Musies Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire,Parc du Cin- quantenaire,Bruxelles, to MonsieurG. Goossens, The structureof this is shown at a sample mag- Attache, Asie Anterieure,M.R.A.H., kindly sup- nificationof diametersin I The 500 pl. 67, fig. I. Count de d'Altena, structureresembles that of a modern razor blade. plied by Joseph Borchgrave Conservateuren Chef. It is a structurewhich one associateswith Damascus blades (see paper by N. Belaiew on "Damascene Examend'une epde en fer du Luristan,No. Steel," Jour. Iron and Steel Inst. 97, No. I [1918] d'inventaireo.982. Longueur totale 54 cm. 417-39).However, much to our surprise,we found 71, fig. that the steel had an average Vickers hardness (pl. 14) number of 90oonly, which means that the blade PAR METALLOGRAPHIE: had not been and drawn to it the quenched give Un polissagesur le disque de la poignte permet propertiesone generally associateswith a Dama- de constater le metal est en fer tres scene blade. In technicalterms the structurein que carburd pl. a structurede ferrite + avec consistsof of cementite heterogene, perlite 67, fig. iI spheroids (iron Certaines du meme in a matrix of ferrite ratherthan impuretes. plages polissage carbide) (iron) des tres variablesde of of cementitein a matrixof martensite, presentent quantites perlite. spheroids La teneuren carbonemaximum 6valude metal- which is the structure of steel when correctly par hardened. lographieest de l'ordrede 0.4%. On ne voit aucune trace Il ne nullement d'une It seems probablethat the craftsmanwho made d'6crouissage. s'agit la teneur en carbone6tant absolument this sword was aware of the means wherebysuch fonte, trop blades were made and hardened,but he did not faible. hardenthe blade. It is not impossiblethat daggers werenot alwayshardened, on the one hand because E. KIEV they were short and did not requirethe strength and flexibilityof swords and, on the other hand, Dr. E. E. Herzfeld reports that a metallographic becausethey were not subjectedto the conditions examinationof an iron sword in the Khanenko under which swords were used. The possibility Collection, Kiev, Russia, was made, and that the existsthat this swordmight have been a ceremonial handle was found to be of wrought, not cast iron, weapon. However, the unhardenedblade of the as had been believed. one now in question would lose its edge quickly, particularlyif it were employed as a weapon in combat.It would havebeen quite suitable,however, F. HAMBURG for the purpose which Ehud had in mind when The reporton the Hamburgsword by Dr. F. K. he visited Eglon, the king of Moab (Judges3: 21, Naumann, which follows, is of exceptionalvalue. 22). It throws much new light upon the structure of the weapon, and on the technical methods em- ployed in the munition works of this early period. C. PHILADELPHIA The original publication is too long to quote here The Philadelphia specimen was examined by in full, but the relevant portions of the report, Dr. R. M. Brick, of the University of Pennsylvania. which deal with the structure, the metallurgical He reported on the sword and on the bracelet of and chemical composition of the weapon, are given similar workmanship as follows: "Both specimens below (Report from the Max Planck Institute for (U.M. 30-38-18 iron sword; U.M. 30-38-28 iron Iron Research Treatise 731. Report No. 19 of the

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1961] EARLY NEAR EASTERN STEEL SWORDS 181 Historical Department of the Society of German possibly exist that might support the assumption Metallurgists) : that the sword was an assembled structure, it was next examined by the magnetic powder process. Examination of an iron Luristan short sword, By this method on the extremely rusty surface, a by Dr. Friedrich Karl Naumann in Dusseldorf clear indication could nowhere be observed. Better insight into the structure of the sword A Luristan short sword (pl. 72, fig. 15) which could be hoped for from a radiation process. The to outward appearance might have consisted of ray had to be sufficientlyhard to penetrate the thick cast iron, was examined radiographically, metal- cross-section. X-rays could not have fulfilled this lographically and chemically. It is shown that the demand. Apart from this, interference through sword is not cast, but of a number of composed white radiation with its content The of powerful long-wave forged separate parts. processes examination, had to be For this reason radiation from carried out with careful treatment of the are anticipated. find, Ir was used. With this the described. ... Iridium-Isotope 192 sword was radiographed from different directions. The sword was placed at our disposal by the The pictures revealed noteworthy discoveries con- Hamburg Museum for Arts and Craft. Its total cerning the structure of the weapon. The sword length is 43 cm. The exceedingly rusty blade, of then, excepting the three binding rivets, consists 30 mm. maximum width and 5 mm. thickness, of at least ten separate parts. (pl. 72, fig. 16) seems to supply evidence for a thickened central On the broad faces of the blade below its entry ridge. into the hilt, two plates are attached by rivets, The broad faces at the lower part of the hilt are presumably to stem the blade against the hilt. Gaps reinforced; the hilt being thickened on the wider between the plates and the blade are clearly recog- faces of the handle, and ornamented on each of its nizable in the radiograph (fig. 16).... The lower narrower faces with a figure, perhaps a recumbent section of the handle is split to take the blade .... animal. At the line of transition between the figure The blade is fastened in the split by a single rivet. and the hilt section, a narrow ridge runs down From the radiographs the structure of the hilt is alongside the figure like a welded or soldered part. not ascertainablebeyond dispute. It is probably an Perhaps it is an indication as to the method by integral part of the handle which is more thickly which the figures were fixed. formed in its lower part. Seams are recognizable Strangely enough the handle is placed at right between the lower part of the handle and the angles to the blade. The handle is 26 mm. wide and figures on the narrow faces. If the figures were 9 mm. thick, and is subdivided into three sections attached directly on to the handle then they could by two encircling rings. In the upper third the have been fixed only superficially. The ridges handle broadens at the transition to the pommel. which run laterally and at the top along the figures The pommel consists of a circular plate of roughly and appear as darker seams, could be interpreted 75 mm. in diameter and 8 mm. in thickness. It as welded or soldered parts. The fixing of the bears, on the narrow sides of the handle, two figures to the handle could also have been achieved bearded male heads facing outwards which are laid by means of a groove, forged or chased in the upon the pommel plate, with their curly wigs narrow faces, into which the bases of the figures bound by a headband, while their beards protrude were fitted, and whose edges were then hammered downwards below the plate. According to H. against the figures so that a dovetailed joint re- Potratz these heads to the male correspond type sulted. At the same time it is possible to imagine common to the North of art in the Syrian sphere the hilt-section as a right-angled shell, and the first B.c. millennium, figures as integral parts of this shell. The shell To produce an article of such in cast- complexity could have been expanded by heat and fastened 'by iron would no doubt require certain skill. The contraction ... same, however, applies at least to the same extent Both the ridges that subdivide the handle are if one considers the handle with hilt and pommel clearly recognizable on the radiograph as wires that as being assembled from a number of wrought have been bent round it. Both the separating lines sections of iron. between handle and ridges, no less than the surface In order to make visible any joints which might of contact in the wires, stand out clearly.

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 182 HERBERT MARYON [AJA 65 The joint structureof the pommel,and how it is of the handleor as an integralpart of an expanded fixed to the handle is again more difficultto dis- shell. If this last suggestion is accuratethe sub- cover.A radiographtaken from below at an angle stanceof the figuresof the hilt is at the same time ... indicateda joint betweenhandle and pommel- determinedwith this grinding. Above all it was plate,from which may be deducedthat the handle necessaryto examine the figures, for if cast-iron has been set into a slot in the plate. A radiograph had at all been used, they would most likely have of the pommel-platealong a diameterparallel to been producedfrom it. After the processhad been the round surfaceswas impossiblewith Iridium tried on this easily accessibleplace, one of the 192. It was necessaryfor this to use a still more figures themselveswas examined,namely, one of penetratingray. For this purposea Betatronwith the male headson the pommel-plate.The grinding a radiographicstrength of 15 MeV had to be was applied above on the head-band.. . . In the used ... In a photographtaken from below at an unetched ground surface one rough and several angle, the width of the slot in the pommel-plate finer slag particlesappear, such as are characteristic now became evident. It is less than the width of of wrought iron. The particlesall extend in the the handle at its upper end. The handle then is same direction,which provesthat the parthas been set into the plate as a tenon. . . . After it was forged. establishedthrough the radiographsthat the handle Flakes of graphite,which would appearin an of the sword was composed of a multiplicityof unetchedsection had the hilt been producedfrom parts,the conclusiondrawn from the outwardform cast iron, were not observable.The structurede- that the sword had been made by castinghad lost veloped by etching consists of ferrite and a little much of its probability.There still remainedthe pearlite. Consequently,lacking carbon, it is a question whether separateparts, particularlythe specimenof wroughtiron. A very similarstructure ornamentalfigures, consisted of cast-iron.This was was revealedby the grinding of the figure on the only possible to decide by an analytical,or surer pommel.... The parts examined do not consist still, by a metallographicexamination. For such an of cast-iron,but of forged wroughtiron. If this ap- examinationthe thick layer of rust had first to be plies to theseparts which are so complexin forma- removedfrom the part to be examined.By means tion, thereare no groundsfor assumingthat parts of of the customarymethod of sectioning it would simplerform, such as the handleand pommel-plate, not havebeen possible without considerable damage have been cast. The ridges on the handle have to its appearance.However, it was possible by alreadybeen recognizedin the radiographas wires. means of a specialmethod of grinding to restrict Further, it seemed worth knowing how the the necessaryinterference to a greatextent. figureshad been attachedto the hilt and pommel. The processconsists of boringthrough the layers The presence of caterpillar-likeridges alongside of rust with a fast rotating drill of obtuse conical the figuresof the hilt and at the sidesof the heads shape, i mm. in diameter,as is used by micro- of the pommel could, as was remarked,indicate a analysts,and then grindingthe uppersurface of the fixing by means of welding or soldering.A metal- bore-holewith a wooden rod, adding elutriated lographicexamination of the ridges by boring in emery and then polishing with argillaceousearth. the way above described,showed that these con- The processhad the disadvantagethat the surface sistedof the same substanceas the aboveexamined is difficultto grind evenly.Moreover, small particles parts.A solderingwith non-ironmetal is therefore of rust could not be preventedfrom breakingoff excluded.Also, by analysis,no other metal could from the surface and falling into the hole and be discoveredin the collectedbore-dust, apart from scratcheson the producing polishedsurface. There- iron and tracesof calcium,magnesium and copper. fore, no very high demandscould be made as to It was obvious from the outset that the blade the condition of the bore-hole. However, it was was not cast. With reference to the observed central sufficient for the practical elucidation of the ques- fluting the idea had to be considered whether the tions that arise here. Moreover, the process could blade was not assembled and ornamented by weld- doubtless still be improved. ing together different layers of iron and steel in a The first grinding carried out in this way was similarly skilful manner, as is the case with the made on the flat face of the hilt, which in view well-known Roman swords from the Nydam of the above one can either imagine as a thickening Moor .... Such an examination, which would have

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1961] EARLY NEAR EASTERN STEEL SWORDS 183 to comprise the whole cross-section of the blade must be overwhelmingly present in the slag par- was indeed impossible by the non-destructive ticles in silicate form. The carbon content represents process already described. But, because of the sig- a medium value in the different layers, some poorer, nificance of the expected result, it was considered some richer in carbon.... that a be obtained representative specimen might The above report by Herr Naumann tells how a cm. out by sawing piece, roughly 1/2 in size, by the employment of radiation from Iridium- of the centre of the blade. This was there- sample Isotope, Ir.192, and a yet more penetrating ray its width and and later upon ground along length, from a Betatron, with a radiographic strength of broken after the examination. up metallographic 15 MeV, it was possible to determine that the In the from surface to surface polished planes sword was built up from no less than eleven separate the blade revealed the characteristic structure of forgings, riveted together. steel with of carbon con- wrought layers differing Such a revelation was perhaps not quite un- tent and numerous coarse One surface slag particles. expected in view of the statement by M. Godard, The layer corresponds to a steel of roughly o.2%C. who was Consul-General for France, in Persia, ferrite is in the form of needles or sheets dispersed at the time when many of the weapons were being which indicates that (Widmanstaitten structure), excavated from tombs in Luristan. He reported the blade had been heated and highly quickly that he had seen hundreds of these weapons, but cooled off in an earlier The manufacturing stage. that they were in a very fragmentary and dilapi- pearlite is bunched together spherically. dated condition. The last of or stage manufacture, treatment, It is evident that at the time when they were followed at a low tem- thereupon comparatively being manufactured some very efficient workshops The other surface perature (below 7oo00C.). layer must have been available, and that the separate has a low carbon content and consists of very parts of the weapons were mass produced. The a ferrite with fine coarse-grained re-crystallized sword may have been worn as a badge of honour, which in the with needle-shaped outcrops etching awarded perhaps to some distinguished company sodium picrate prove to be tertiary cementite and of warriors for a notable deed of valour. For the a little This zone is rich in pearlite. especially many production of so remarkable a weapon in such and coarse, heterogeneously compounded much- numbers as M. Godard reports must surely imply broken of silicate It particles welding slag. may that there had occurred an exceptional event which be concluded from the structure of both zones, called for some unique award-if indeed that was that the blade was in the forged complete region its origin. of re-crystallization,that is, at a temperature under It would be difficult to overestimate the im- 7000C. portance of the contribution that this study has is the of in the Noteworthy presence twinning made to our knowledge of the workshop practice ferrite. Such twins are formed under coarse-grained of the armament workers of the time. The only multi-axial tension treatment through by striking. comparable evidence is that provided by some Their formation is assisted by low temperature and bronze arrow-head moulds of the seventh or sixth a coarse-grained structure. century B.C., from Mosul and from Carchemish is observed in the structure Twinning frequently respectively, now in the British Museum. In the of blades and of knives and edges antique swords, mould from Mosul, pl. 72, fig. 17, even the setting- and it be concluded that are a axes, may they out lines, incised in the separate pieces of the mark of in those As no genuine forging parts. mould by the fitter who constructed it, which is the distortion that leads grain-line recognizable, enabled him to make each part register accurately to the twin formation could have been produced, with its neighbours, are still visible. They show not by means of reforging when cold, but rather with what skill and care he drew out on each by single powerful straight blows .... part lines which enabled him to produce a mould The analytical examination of the sample taken such as this, of which a modern tool-makers' work- from the blade showed the following chemical shop would not be ashamed. composition: o.o67%C; 0.23%Si;

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 184 HERBERT MARYON [AJA 65 We may note the great advancesin the working and by their careful survey of the evidence for and hardeningof iron; the combinationof decora- origin and dating have made so importanta con- tive partsof iron with castingsin bronze; and the tributionto their study;to my colleagues,Dr. R. D. productionof door and furniturefittings of box- Barnett, Keeper of the Department of Western like, hollow bronzecastings. A surveyof the reliefs Asiatic Antiquities,and Mr. R. M. Organ, Chief from Nimrud (Assyria), now in the British ExperimentalOfficer, Research Laboratory, British Museum, will demonstratethe immense variety, Museum, for his valuable report printed above. the skilful constructionand great beauty of the And, in particular,I wish to thank Dr. F. K. ornaments and weapons borne by the Assyrian Naumann in Dusseldorf,for permittingme to re- warriorsof the time. The steel swords which we producesome of his photographsand notes on the have been studying,wherever made, mark an im- fine example of these swords in the Museum at portantstage in the historyof iron working. Hamburg. I wish to expressmy thanks especiallyto Miss The photographstaken in the Laboratoryof the Winifred Needler, Curatorof the Near Eastern BritishMuseum are publishedby permissionof the Department,and to Miss MargaretSchmunk (now Trustees. Mrs. MichaelSpence), both of the Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology,who were the first to THE RESEARCH LABORATORY draw my attentionto these remarkableweapons, BRITISH MUSEUM

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MARYON PLATE 65

lrj r' I

cc -- "1

i

A

FIG. 2. Steel sword. FiG. 6. Steel sword. Royal Ontario British Museum Museum of Archaeology, Toronto

FIG. I. Iron sword with gold pommel, grip, and scabbard ornaments. Alaca Hfiyuk, near Ankara, 2400-2100 B.C.Archaeological Museum, Ankara

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions >3

>

?P ~~? ~PIP ah~llY1-t~ rr *~EICJ~' I I-"rkb .nm~-pd. led rsl~a?::~ idr,~E~L rii~ ;r"~ ;t~4, 1Q,' , 1 w ?f!L"; r 'f Xf

Ip: i?; ii4~~,I~ ?r~B~F " . ~vi,? ~ I• lip :?~-" ~lrh~prd~

. b.'%*i3; ?~ILPIII-"-L~~tli?IIC ~~;n x4.. c =`- ~kcc;F~t; h' iA ~a7? :: ' ' Q:;d~hl~~c~Bt?;3 ~~~F~s~-_:;-~P~~z~~ "P iP

~ ,, ;Biu: ? r n~' *;il

( r ~I + ~~ TYII1 i? rbab " ? ?I is;BiiS1~33~g~i~l~i~r section of disc x 200. FIG. General appearanceof polished section FIG. 5. Polished pommel FIG. 3. Steel sword, detail. 4. Ferrite and in steel about of pommel edge x 5.4. Rectangleshows location pearlite British Museum BritishMuseum carbon. British Museum of fig. 5. a) haematite, b) magnetite. 0.5/

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MARYON PLATE 67

4. - - it v r;E

rwFb

q_'54"tor-~ il

r :q-I1L ~ dI~:-;$j*; it~ Rrk, 0, kit ? ~?t~As 4k7 ~~ti ;* L~well,

for, A,p

AIR AN16? ~~?,

FIG. 8. Steel sword pommel section x ioo. Toronto

v . ,, I,-) .z;~i-~ . . 'Q'~f~t0~0~ to~ .+

Qr L

~?;L:~P Ilk, V F rr 'r ?

?r P~if 4ii)E?_~oi f I~~,3" ~f*- 91 1~~'~j pkB~ ridti~ ~ i~~J.z1iV~,):?.0;j:I": f:Til ,1r ~~a1c C~~~p3 11r~M

-Al

FIG. 7. Showing where test specimen was taken from pommel (wedge-shaped cut). Toronto FIG. I I. Structure of steel near tip of sword x 500. Toronto

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions PLATE 68 MARYON

40

I k

A OW ~4?~ % ?IL

4' -"06 4 A~

FIG. io. Section through beard (see fig. 9 A, B, C) x 50, showing relative positions of structure shown in figs. io A, 0oB, o10C. This is mirror image of structure shown in iToA, io B, io C. Toronto L

FIG. 9. Appearanceof section ?" through beard. Toronto (drawing by Dr. Ellis)

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MARYON PLATE 69

*ggfR : Tit77 S'F; 26 4 *: e C/; # / l UHIliIIIFai FIG. IO A. Structure of steel, section adjacent to back of beard, x ioo (see A in fig. 9). Toronto ...... Wit4am M

FIG. IO B. Structure of steel, section near centre of beard, x 100oo(see B in fig. 9). Toronto

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions PLATE 70 MARYON

-<.0

4f

_.4. "? o

. -40.

. . d.. .

FIG. IOC. Structureof steel, section adjacentto front of beard,x ioo (see C in fig. 9). Toronto

o - 4c, k

4t p/

FIG. IOD. Sectionthrough beard (see D in fig. 9) x 50. This is mirrorimage of structureshown in fig. 9. Toronto

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MARYON PLATE 71

FIG. 13. Bracelet. Philadelphia

i

Steel FIG. 12. sword. Philadelphia FIG. 14. Handle of sword. Brussels

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions PLATE 72 MARYON

I

FIG. I6. Handle of steel sword at Hamburg. Radiographs by Dr. F. K. Naumann

-4 /

I . I ,• , , H,.M,, Fic. 15. Handle of steel sword. Hamburg FIc. 17. Bronze six-piece arrowhead mould for three arrowheads at one pouring. From Mosul. British Museum

This content downloaded from 134.245.242.153 on Thu, 11 Jul 2013 03:55:53 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions