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TABLE OF CONTENTS: Key dates 2 BATTLE OF WARSAW 1920 Introduction 4 DOWNLOAD Profiles of Polish commanders 9 APPLICATION ROUTE Warsaw 11 Ossów 19 Radzymin 24 tourist guide Modlin Fortress 27 www.dziedzictwomazowsza.pl Zakroczym 29 Płock 30 Borkowo 31 Serock 32 Wyszków 34 Mińsk Mazowiecki 36 Project entitled “Tourist routes showcasing the cultural heritage of Mazovia”, co-funded by the European Union from Sulejówek 38 the European Regional Development Fund, as part of the Regional Operational Programme of the Mazowieckie Voivodship for 2007-2013, Priority 6.2 Tourism W e P l i s a Brodowe Płośnica a Zbójna Burkat Str. Łąki Dębniki N LIDZBARK id CHORZELE a N Nw. Wieś Kadzidło Morgowniki NOWOGRÓD r Wlewsk Cibórz Rembielin ew Wlk. Wieś Wlk. Raszujka R Gródki DZIAŁDOWO o Gąski Łąck Napierki z S Mątwica o Gleba Dąbrówka z g k a a Przyłęk Kisiny Purgałki Krzynowłoga Rycice Parciaki w Chmielewo r D Dylewo Bryńsk k Duży z Nw. Wlk. Baranowo a W Nick ia O GÓRZNO łd ka Wieczfnia Kośc. Brzozowo Małowidz Lelis ów m R Świniary óż Kuklin u Jabłonowo Narzym l Durlasy BIAŁYSTOK Chojny Mł. Krzynowłoga e Miastkowo 1 Warsaw Gnojno | p. 11 w Zieluń- Uniszki Zawadzkie Mł. Gaczyska Rydzewo -Osada Iłowo- Skierkowizna MŁAWA OSTROŁĘKA Świedziebnia -Osada Dzierzgowo JednorożecŻUROMIN 2 Ossów Kęczewo| p. 19 RatajePRZASNYSZ Zabrodzie Szczepankowo Gościszka Wólka Łątczyn- Lubowidz Lipowiec Dębsk Drążdżewska MAKÓWNw. Wieś -Włośc. 3 Radzymin Kośc. | p. 24 Rzęgnowo CIECHANÓW Garbnik Zabiele MŁAWA Szydłówek SIERPC MAZ. Sinogóra Osówka Zielona Drążdżewo The series Szydłowo Mchowo Zabiele Olszewo- OSTROŁĘKA Kleczkowo 4 Modlin Fortress | p. 27 Str. Wlk. -Borki Kuczbork Podkrajewo Wiśniewo Kępa AmelinPUŁTUSK OSTRÓW MAZ. Cieszki ŻUROMIN Grudusk Węgra Rzekuń Zamość Okalewo Biernaty Nożewo Dzbenin 5Poniatowo ZakroczymKliczewo | p. 29Str. Piegłowo- Bartniki Chodkowo- PŁOŃSKKrasnosielc WYSZKÓW also includes Duże Kosiny -Wieś PRZASNYSZ -Kuchny Rafały Troszyn Pietrzyk Będzymin Stupsk Czernice PŁOCK FranciszkowoPłock Szreńsk | p. 30 Sypniewo SOKOŁÓW Piski Skrwilno 6 Łysakowo Borowe Obrębiec Karwacz ZAKROCZYM KamiankaPODLASKI Zamość LEGIONOWOKołaki Tyszki- Chrapoń Strzałkowo Dobrzankowo Płoniawy- 7 Borkowo | p. 31 Golany GOSTYNIN-Bramura NOWY SławkowoWOŁOMIN WĘGRÓW Dzwonek -Nadbory Stawiszyn- Liberadz w Lutocin Kowalewko Morawy c GąsewoDWÓR MAZ. -Łaziska y e ŁOSICE Gniazdowo Bogate z r Zimolza Dąbrowa SOCHACZEWr Poduchowne WARSZAWA 8 Serock | p. 32 Młynarze a Żabin SIEDLCESuchcice Czerwin Wola O N BIEŻUŃ Ratowo Bońkowo Szulmierz Szczuki MIŃSK MAZ. Str. Września Kośc. Pniewo- Regimin Wierzbowska GRODZISKKrzyżewo- PRUSZKÓW Jawory Lubotyń Blizno Mdzewo -Czeruchy Żbiki Węgrzynowo MAZOWIECKI 9 Wyszków Wkr a | p. 34 Dzbonie -Jurki OTWOCKDyszobaba Str. Radzanów Krasne Sulęcin Ulaski ŻYRARDÓWCzerwonka PIASECZNO Goworowo Jelonki Szlachecki Szczechowo Pawłowo Opinogóra Włośc. RÓŻAN 10 Mińsk Mazowiecki | p. 36 Strzegowo- Grn. Zaręby Wąsewo Giełczyn Kołaczków Załuzie Kaszewiec Rościszewo -Osada Chotum MAKÓW MAZ. Perzanowo KaszewiecGARWOLIN Rząśnik Siemiątkowo GRÓJEC Ponikiew Szlach. Str. Sulejówek | p. 38 11 Unierzyż CIECHANÓW Orz Duża Str. Lubiejewo Komorowo Borkowo Krzeczanowo ŁÓDŹ Rzewnie Grądy SIERPC Zgagowo- BIAŁOBRZEGI Kośc. Szyjki Ościłowo Gogole Wlk. Karniewo Str. Sielc -Wieś Tłucznice Gumowo Szelków a a KOZIENICE Plewki Rogoźnia w Zawidz Kośc. i Piaski Dreglin Śródborze n r Kisielewo y Gołymin- Chrzczanka k Gorzewo Koziebrody GLINOJECK d -Ośrodek RADOM Włośc. S Ły Sarnowa Dzierżanowo Nw. Stropkowo Młock Kraszewo Góra Garnowo PRZYSUCHAPrzeradowo Lubiel ZWOLEŃ Nagoszewka Duże LUBLIN Goleszyn Marianowo Długosiadło Mochowo RACIĄŻ Luberadz Sońsk Nagoszewo Kurówko Słupia Lipa SZYDŁOWIEC Malużyn Ojrzeń Kozłówka Zambski Blochy Dybki Gromin Kośc. k DROBIN Drozdowo Bądkowo Szyszki Gzy LIPSKO o Lelice Gąsocin Kleszewo Obryte Rząśnik BROK r Porządzie B PUŁTUSK Psary Gozdowo Łęg Tupadły Gralewo Gąsiorowo Bonisław Raciążn Bożewo Probostwo Kozłowo Galomin ica Karolinowo Gładczyn Poręba-Kocęby Sochocin Kacice Rządowy MAZOVIA. Today, it is the heart of Poland. At the time of the formation of the Commonwealth, it was its own Baboszewo Szymaki Świercze Strzegocin Golądkowo Trzcianka Sadowne Nw. Wielątki state for more than three centuries. The centre of the region is the bustling metropolis of Warsaw, surrounded Bielsk Sędek Nw. Szczawin Cieńsza Brańszczyk Kamionki Zągoty Góra Miasto Szynkarzyna Dzierżążnia PŁOŃSK Kołoząb Winnica Turzyn by towns, villages and landmarks yet to be fully explored. Curious travellers will discover in the region a number Pokrzywnica Zatory WYSZKÓW Staroźreby a Świerkowo of mysterious castles and manors, historic churches and quaint little towns, as well as former battlefields and J Str. n Zdziebórz Kamieńczyk ez. Goślice Ciółkowo Rogowo Joniec W Biała Siedlin a NASIELSK w U ł Nw. S go oc e 9 sz diverse landscapes that have been attracting film makers to the area for many years now. Mazovia is one big ł Sarnowo Błędostwo r cz aw Maszewo Duże Cieksyn Ogrodniki s Szczytno Str. Dzierżenin a Gwizdały k Radzanowo W Pieścirogi Nw. Somianka reservoir of historical, cultural and natural wealth. All you have to do is stand at its boundaries and say the magic ie N Strachów L Majdan PŁOCK k g i Przyborowice Borkowo r WolaWierzbica Popowo Bu w Wola Brwileńska Bulkowo a i ŁOCHÓW words: Mazovia, open sesame! And then enter and take the route of your choice. Smolana e Blichowo Kośc. Sosenkowo Cegielnia c Kamionna 6 Psucka Niegów Urle Krysk SEROCK Kania Polska Brwilno Dln. Ramutowo 7 Wólka Borowiczki Naruszewo Załuski 8 Zawiszyn Paplińska Dzierżanowo Janowo Kikoły Zabrodzie Jadów Słupno Dębe Jadwisin Dąbrówka Paplin Here is the BATTLE OF WARSAW 1920 ROUTE – a journey into the not-too-distant past, just under a hundred I Trojany Mokra Wieś I Bodzanów I Kroczewo Pomiechówek Narew I Zegrze Nowinki Rowiska Borzychyyears back, into a time when the future of Poland, and also the whole of Europe, was being decided. The British Dobrzyków I Kozły Kobylniki Skrzeszew I I I Wola I J. Zegrzyńskie Strachówka I politician and diplomat Edgar D’Abernon considered the Battle of Warsaw to be the 18th most crucial battle in Łąck Mł. Wieś I Rasztowska Korytnica W Przybójewo WieliszewI ZAKROCZYM I TŁUSZCZ i NW. DWÓR MAZ. I s 5 4 I Białobrzegi ł Kępa I world history. During three days of August 1920, the Polish Army halted the Bolshevik revolution’s march to the a I Chylin I RADZYMIN Jasienica Trawy Polska Brody Duże Chociszewo I Nieporęt Twierdza Modlin I I 3 Rębowo Goławin Michałów-I I Zdwórz LEGIONOWO I I I Klembów Miąse West. Looking at the battlefields of Ossów or Radzymin, memorial sites in Warsaw and the fortifications of Modlin Wymyśle- Nw. -ReginówI I Czerwińsk I I Zamostki Roguszyn -Pole Grochale I WYSZOGRÓD n. Wisłą I WólczyńskieI GĄBIN Czosnów I Tuł Fortress, it is hard not to wonder what it was that decided the Poles’ victory. A miracle? A brilliant strategy? The I I Duczki Pniewnik Nw. Jabłonna I R Miedzyleś Zakrzew Słubice I z RembelszczyznaI Czarna ą Szczawin Łady Secymin Cybulice Duże I d Przęsławice I I za Kośc. I defenders’ determination? Konstantynów Kamion Palmiry WOŁOMIN Nw. Januszew I Walentów I Poręby Sanniki MARKI Rządza Wierzbno I I I Dobre TułowiceI I I I I I I KOBYŁKA I Poświętne I I I I I ŁOMIANKI I Iłów I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Polków- Suserz I I Brochów I Stanisławów Rudno -SagałyThe Battle of Warsaw 1920 Route is one of three new routes that will enable you to discover the Mazovian I I I I I ZIELONKA I I Wszeliwy I I Janówek I I Ossów I Młodzieszyn I I I Izabelin I Pacyna I I Laski Cierpięta I Osmolin I I I I I I I Wólka Heritage. It is also worth exploring the other two. The Chopin Route follows in the footsteps of one of the world’s ZĄBKI Michałów Czarnińska Skrzeszewy Giżyce Janów Łazy Julinek Borzęcin Goździówka Luszyn Kiernozia Zaborów Duży 2 SULEJÓWEK Chrościce foremost composers, who spent half his life in Mazovia. The Dukes of Mazovia Route is a journey into a world of Kampinos Żelazowa Leszno 1 HALINÓW Brzóze mediaeval castles, valiant knights as well as wise and ambitious rulers who reigned in Mazovia as an indepen- Rybno Wola Str. 11 Jakubów KAŁUSZYN ŻYCHLIN Karsznice a Dębe P r ta Rozlazłów Ut OŻARÓW MAZ. Babice Nw. Wlk. r dent state for three centuries. Dobrzelin z Paprotnia WARSZAWA Konik y Ołtarzew Stojadła Janów Nw. Jędrzejów s SOCHACZEW o Mastki Góraszka w PIASTÓW 10 P Niepokalanów Boryszew MROZY Bedlno a Str. is Boża BŁONIE W i PRUSZKÓW Wiązowna MIŃSK MAZ. You can find more information about the routes by going to www.dziedzictwomazowsza.pl Wola PRUSZKÓW Płaskocin Dębsk a Michałowice i Zamienie Grodzisk Bąków ra Nw. Jeżówka s u Kaski ł Cegłów Dln. Goleńsko z Sucha Komorów Raszyn a JÓZEFÓW B BRWINÓW Aleksandrów Janki Wola Zduny Rudzienko Czerwona- Ducka Ś Pogorzel Orłów MILANÓWEK Wolica ka Posiadały Kuflew There is also an application for mobile devices Maurzyce ŁOWICZ -Niwa Baranów r w Sobota PODKOWA Mysiadło io OTWOCK Siennica Chlebnia z Opacz i e d Ziąbki Guzów LEŚNA Lesznowola J Łazy e GRODZISK r Nadarzyn KARCZEW Jeruzal Bielawy Wiskitki MAZ. KONSTANCIN- Kołbiel Nieborów Bolimów Międzyborów Jaktorów Celestynów R PIASECZNO Arkadia a Siestrzeń -JEZIORNA Starogród Latowicz Oszkowice Jamno w Mroków Lisiewice k ŻYRARDÓW Kuklówka- Pilawa Serczyn a -Zarzeczna Brześce Regut Wielgolas Duże Zalesie M Nw. Grudze Bełchów Wola Grn. Baniocha r Żabia o Bartniki Radziejowice Wola Mrokowska Redzyńskie Battle of Warsaw 1920 Route ga Bogatki Bednary Słubica Puznówka Parysów Domaniewice Polesie GÓRA KALWARIA Dziecinów Mokra Prawa Kaleń TARCZYN Łoś Osieck GŁOWNO MSZCZONÓW Warszawice Trąbki Łyszkowice Czachówek Borowie Lubianków Puszcza Czersk PILAWA Wilchta Pszczonów Maków Mariańska Jeżewice Rembertów Koźle PrażmówWola Natolin Str. Głosków Chudolipie LesznowolaPrażmowska Sobienie- Dmosin SKIERNIEWICE Coniew Mo Konie Głuchów -Jeziory Miastków sz cz Wola Chynów GARWOLIN Kośc. en STRYKÓW Godzianów Strobów Zawady Rębków i ca Pękoszewska Drwalew Podgórzyce Trzcianka Lipce Osuchów Słomczyn Konary Sulbiny Reymontowskie Wilczoruda Wilg a a lic Pi Reconstruction of the Battle of Ossów 8-12 August 1920 Defensive preparations get underway on the outskirts of 9 August 1920 Polish-Bolshevik War – key dates Polish-Bolshevik War Warsaw.
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    NESTOR MAKHNO IN THE RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR Michael Malet THE LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE TeutonicScan €> Michael Malet \982 AU rights reserved. No parI of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, wilhom permission Fim ed/lIOn 1982 Reprinted /985 To my children Published by lain, Saffron, and Jonquil THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD London rind BasingSloke Compafl/u rind reprutntatiW!S throughout the warld ISBN 0-333-2S969-6 Pnnted /II Great Bmain Antony Rowe Ltd, Ch/ppenham 5;landort � Signalur RNB 10043 Akz.·N. \d.·N. I, "'i • '. • I I • Contents ... Acknowledgements VIII Preface ox • Chronology XI .. Introduction XVII Glossary xx' PART 1 MILITARY HISTORY 1917-21 1 Relative Peace, 1917-18 3 2 The Rise of the Balko, July 19I5-February 1919 13 3 The Year 1919 29 4 Stalemate, January-October 1920 54 5 The End, October I92O-August 1921 64 PART 2 MAKHNOVSCHYNA-ORGAN1SATION 6 Makhno's Military Organisation and Capabilities 83 7 Civilian Organisation 107 PART 3 IDEOLOGY 8 Peasants and Workers 117 9 Makhno and the Bolsheviks 126 10 Other Enemies and Rivals 138 11 Anarchism and the Anarchists 157 12 Anti-Semitism 168 13 Some Ideological Questions 175 PART 4 EXILE J 4 The Bitter End 183 References 193 Bibliography 198 Index 213 • • '" Acknowledgements Preface My first thanks are due to three university lecturers who have helped Until the appearance of Michael PaJii's book in 1976, the role of and encouraged me over the years: John Erickson and Z. A. B. Nestor Makhno in the events of the Russian civil war was almost Zeman inspired my initial interest in Russian and Soviet history, unknown.
  • Baltic Security and Defence Review 2010

    Baltic Security and Defence Review 2010

    Baltic Security and Defence Review Volume 12, Issue 1 2010 Baltic Security and Defence Review is the publication of the Baltic Defence College © 2010, Baltic Defence College, All rights reserved ISSN 1736-3772 (print) 1736-3780 (online) Editorial Board Editor: Dr. James S. Corum, Dean, Baltic Defence College Lt. Col. John Andreas Olsen PhD, Norwegian Air Force, Dean, Norwegian Defence University College Dr. Richard DiNardo, Professor, US Marine Corps Staff College Dr. Joel Hayward, Dean, RAF College Cranwell, UK Dr. Adam Seipp. Dept of History, University of Texas Dr. Jürgen Foerster, Department of History, University of Freiburg Col. Robert Ehlers PhD, Professor, USAF School of Advanced Air and Space power Studies Dr. Arunas Molis, Department of Strategy and Politics, Baltic Defence College Brigadier General Walter Feichtinger PhD, Austrian National Defence Academy Dr. Hannu Kari, Finnish National Defence University Dr. Flemming Hansen, Royal Danish Defence College Assistant editor and layout: Villu Varjas Cover design and print: Momo Electronic version of the Baltic Security and Defence Review can be accessed on the website of the Baltic Defence College at www.bdcol.ee All articles of the Baltic Security and Defence Review are also available through the International Relations and Security Network (ISN) at www.isn.ethz.ch All inquiries should be made to the Baltic Defence College, Riia 12, 51013 Tartu, Estonia, ph: +372 717 6000, fax: +372 717 6050, e-mail: [email protected] Baltic Security and Defence Review Volume 12, issue 1, 2010 Contents Baltic Defence College Workshop on the New NATO Strategic Concept, 18 February 2010 By Baltic Defence College faculty............................................................
  • Russian Army, 4 June 1916

    Russian Army, 4 June 1916

    Russian Army 4 June 1916 Northwest Front: Finland Garrison: XLII Corps: 106th Infantry Division 421st Tsarskoe Selo Infantry Regiment 422nd Kolpino Infantry Regiment 423rd Luga Infantry Regiment 424th Chut Infantry Regiment 107th Infantry Division 425th Kargopol Infantry Regiment 426th Posinets Infantry Regiment 427th Pudozh Infantry Regiment 428th Lodeyinpol Infantry Regiment Sveaborg Border Brigade 1st Sveaborg Border Regiment 2nd Sveaborg Border Regiment Estonia Coast Defense: 108th Infantry Division 429th Riizhsk Infantry Regiment 430th Balksy Infantry Regiment 431st Tikhvin Infantry Regiment 432nd Baldaia Infantry Regiment Revel Border Brigade 1st Revel Border Regiments 2nd Revel Border Regiments Livonia Coast Defense: I Corps 22nd Novgorod Infantry Division 85th Vyborg Infantry Regiment 86th Wilmanstrand Infantry Regiment 87th Neschlot Infantry Regiment 88th Petrov Infantry Regiment 24th Pskov Infantry Division 93rd Irkhtsk Infantry Regiment 94th Yenisei Infantry Regiment 95th Krasnoyarsk Infantry Regiment 96th Omsk Infantry Regiment III Corps 73rd Orel Infantry Division 289th Korotoyav Infantry Regiment 290th Valuiisk Infantry Regiment 291st Trubchev Infantry Regiment 292nd New Archangel Infantry Regiment 5th Rifle Division (Suwalki) 17th Rifle Regiment 18th Rifle Regiment 19th Rifle Regiment 20th Rifle Regiment V Siberian Corps 1 50th St. Petersburg Infantry Division 197th Lesnot Infantry Regiment 198th Alexander Nevsky Infantry Regiment 199th Kronstadt Infantry Regiment 200th Kronshlot Infantry Regiment 6th (Khabarovsk) Siberian
  • The Changkufeng and Nomonhan Incidents – the Undeclared Border War and Its Impact on World War Ii

    The Changkufeng and Nomonhan Incidents – the Undeclared Border War and Its Impact on World War Ii

    University of Texas at El Paso DigitalCommons@UTEP Open Access Theses & Dissertations 2014-01-01 The hC angkufeng And Nomonhan Incidents - The Undeclared Border War And Its Impact on World War II Tobias Block University of Texas at El Paso, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.utep.edu/open_etd Part of the Asian History Commons, Asian Studies Commons, Military History Commons, Slavic Languages and Societies Commons, and the Soviet and Post-Soviet Studies Commons Recommended Citation Block, Tobias, "The hC angkufeng And Nomonhan Incidents - The ndeU clared Border War And Its Impact on World War II" (2014). Open Access Theses & Dissertations. 1588. https://digitalcommons.utep.edu/open_etd/1588 This is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@UTEP. It has been accepted for inclusion in Open Access Theses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@UTEP. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE CHANGKUFENG AND NOMONHAN INCIDENTS – THE UNDECLARED BORDER WAR AND ITS IMPACT ON WORLD WAR II TOBIAS BLOCK DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY APPROVED: __________________________________________ Joshua Fan, Ph.D., Chair __________________________________________ Paul Edison, Ph.D. __________________________________________ Jose Villalobos, Ph.D. __________________________________ Bess Sirmon-Taylor, Ph.D. Interim Dean of the Graduate School THE CHANGKUFENG AND NOMONHAN INCIDENTS - THE UNDECLARED BORDER WAR AND ITS IMPACT ON WORLD WAR II by Tobias Block, BA Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at El Paso in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department Of HISTORY THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS OF EL PASO May 2014 Table of Contents Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
  • The Russian Civil War

    The Russian Civil War

    Reds! RULEBOOK © 200 Rodger MacGowan TheREDS! Russian Civil War, 98-92 Table of Contents . Introduction ................................................ 2 3. City, Sea and Resource Control ................. 13 2. Components ................................................ 2 4. Reinforcements and Replacements ............ 14 3. Game Set-up ............................................... 3 5 Poland ......................................................... 14 4. How to Win ................................................ 4 6. The Makhno Partisans ................................ 15 5. Sequence of Play ........................................ 4 7. Nationalist Garrisons .................................. 15 6. Initiative and Random Events .................... 5 8. Allied Withdrawal ....................................... 16 7. Activation and the Action Phase ................ 5 9. Winter ......................................................... 16 8. Zones of Control ........................................ 6 20. Special Units and Markers .......................... 16 9. Stacking ...................................................... 7 Strategy Notes ................................................... 19 0. Movement .................................................. 8 Design Notes ..................................................... 20 11. Combat ....................................................... 10 Historical Overview .......................................... 2 2 Supply and Rally ........................................ 12 Expanded
  • The Armed Forces of South Russia by Marja Erwin

    The Armed Forces of South Russia by Marja Erwin

    The Armed Forces of South Russia By Marja Erwin The Armed Forces of South Russia developed from the previously-separate Don Armies and Volunteer Army, and incorporated other pro-White forces such as the Southern Army. In 1919, they had the support of the Entente powers, which eventually supplied about 200,000 rifles, more than 6,000 machine guns, more than 1,100 artillery pieces, and even 74 tanks. By 1919, Armed Forces of South Russia included three main troop categories: 1. Officers' Units. The officers' units were the original core of the Volunteer Army. The Guard and Grenadier units joined later but were similar. These were the most reliable shock troops of the Armed Forces of South Russia. By late 1918, the Volunteer Army began to conscript officers in Volunteer-occupied areas. By late 1919, the Armed Forces of South Russia combined regular units into the officers' regiments, in order to mobilize additional officers' regiments. 2. Cossack Units. These included most of the Don Armies and much of the Volunteer Army. These included most of the White cavalry. The Don and Terek Cossacks were mostly Russian. The Kuban Cossacks were mostly Ukrainian, but included many Russians. 3. Other Units. These included revived units of the old army, non-Cossack units of the Cossack hosts, and others. The Armed Forces of South Russia did not consider peasants, workers, and others as reliable as the officers and Cossacks; the regular forces generally conscripted officers and cossacks before trying to recruit others, but the Cossack forces often conscripted non-Cossacks into their scout units.