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History and Role of Plant Breeding in Society

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History and Role of Plant Breeding in Society POPC01 28/8/06 4:02 PM Page 3 1 History and role of plant breeding in society Purpose and expected outcomes Agriculture is the deliberate planting and harvesting of plants and herding animals. This human invention has, and continues to, impact on society and the environment. Plant breeding is a branch of agriculture that focuses on manipulating plant heredity to develop new and improved plant types for use by society. People in society are aware and appreciative of the enormous diversity in plants and plant products. They have preferences for certain varieties of flowers and food crops. They are aware that whereas some of this variation is natural, humans with special exper- tise (plant breeders) create some of it. Generally, also, there is a perception that such creations derive from crossing different plants. The tools and methods used by plant breeders have been developed and advanced through the years. There are milestones in plant breeding technology as well as accomplishments by plant breeders over the years. This introductory chapter is devoted to presenting a brief overview of plant breeding, including a brief history of its devel- opment, how it is done, and its benefits to society. After completing this chapter, the student should have a general understanding of: 1 The historical perspectives of plant breeding. 2 The need and importance of plant breeding to society. 3 The goals of plant breeding. 4 Trends in plant breeding as an industry. 5 Milestones in plant breeding. 6 The accomplishments of plant breeders. 7 The future of plant breeding in society. What is plant breeding? goals of plant breeding are focused and purposeful. Even though the phrase “to breed plants” often con- Plant breeding is a deliberate effort by humans to nudge notes the involvement of the sexual process in effecting a nature, with respect to the heredity of plants, to an desired change, modern plant breeding also includes the advantage. The changes made in plants are permanent manipulation of asexually reproducing plants (plants and heritable. The professionals who conduct this task that do not reproduce through the sexual process). are called plant breeders. This effort at adjusting the Breeding is hence about manipulating plant attributes, status quo is instigated by a desire of humans to improve structure, and composition, to make them more use- certain aspects of plants to perform new roles or enhance ful to humans. It should be mentioned at the onset that existing ones. Consequently, the term “plant breeding” it is not every plant character or trait that is amenable is often used synonymously with “plant improvement” to manipulation by breeders. However, as techno- in modern society. It needs to be emphasized that the logy advances, plant breeders are increasingly able to POPC01 28/8/06 4:02 PM Page 4 4CHAPTER 1 accomplish astonishing plant manipulations, needless to consumption of nutrient-deficient foods, as obtains in say not without controversy, as is the case involving the many developing regions where staple foods (e.g., rice, development and application of biotechnology to plant cassava) often lack certain essential amino acids or nutri- genetic manipulation. One of the most controversial of ents. Plant breeders may also target traits of industrial these modern technologies is transgenesis, the techno- value. For example, fiber characteristics (e.g., strength) logy by which gene transfer is made across natural bio- of fiber crops such as cotton can be improved, while oil logical barriers. crops can be improved to yield high amounts of specific Plant breeders specialize in breeding different groups fatty acids (e.g., the high oleic content of sunflower of plants. Some focus on field crops (e.g., soybean, cot- seed). The latest advances in technology, specifically ton), horticultural crops (e.g., vegetables), ornamentals, genetic engineering technologies, are being applied to fruit trees (e.g., citrus, apple), forage crops (e.g., alfalfa, enable plants to be used as bioreactors to produce grasses), or turf species. More importantly, breeders certain pharmaceuticals (called biopharming or simply tend to focus on specific species in these groups. This pharming). way, they develop the expertise that enables them to be The technological capabilities and needs of societies most effective in improving the species of their choice. of old, restricted plant breeders to achieving modest The principles and concepts discussed in this book are objectives (e.g., product appeal, adaptation to produc- generally applicable to breeding all species. However, tion environment). It should be pointed out that these most of the examples supplied are from breeding “older” breeding objectives are still important today. field crops. However, with the availability of sophisticated tools, plant breeders are now able to accomplish these gen- etic alterations in novel ways that are sometimes the Goals of plant breeding only option, or are more precise and more effective. Furthermore, as previously indicated, they are able to The plant breeder uses various technologies and undertake more dramatic alterations that were imposs- methodologies to achieve targeted and directional ible to attain in the past (e.g., transferring a desirable changes in the nature of plants. As science and techno- gene from a bacterium to a plant!). Some of the reasons logy advance, new tools are developed while old ones are why plant breeding is important to society are summar- refined for use by breeders. Before initiating a breeding ized next. project, clear breeding objectives are defined based on factors such as producer needs, consumer preferences and needs, and environmental impact. Breeders aim to Concept of genetic manipulation of make the crop producer’s job easier and more effective plant attributes in various ways. They may modify plant structure so it can resist lodging and thereby facilitate mechanical The work of Gregor Mendel and the further advances harvesting. They may develop plants that resist pests in science that followed his discoveries established that so the farmer does not have to apply pesticides or can plant characteristics are controlled by hereditary factors apply smaller amounts of these chemicals. Not applying or genes that consist of DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid, pesticides in crop production means less environmental the hereditary material). These genes are expressed in an pollution from agricultural sources. Breeders may also environment to produce a trait. It follows then that in develop high-yielding varieties (or cultivars) so the order to change a trait or its expression, one may change farmer can produce more for the market to meet the nature or its genotype, and/or modify the nurture consumer demands while improving his or her income. (environment in which it is expressed). Changing the The term cultivar is reserved for variants deliberately environment essentially entails modifying the grow- created by plant breeders and will be introduced more ing or production conditions. This may be achieved formally later in the book. It will be the term of choice through an agronomic approach, for example, the appli- in this book. cation of production inputs (e.g., fertilizers, irrigation). When breeders think of consumers, they may, for Whereas this approach is effective in enhancing certain example, develop foods with higher nutritional value traits, the fact remains that once these supplemental and that are more flavorful. Higher nutritional value environmental factors are removed, the expression of means reduced illnesses in society (e.g., nutritionally the plant trait reverts to the status quo. On the other related ones such as blindness or ricketsia) caused by the hand, plant breeders seek to modify plants with respect POPC01 28/8/06 4:02 PM Page 5 HISTORY AND ROLE OF PLANT BREEDING IN SOCIETY 5 to the expression of certain attributes by modifying the pro-vitamin A (the precursor of vitamin A). The genotype (in a desired way by targeting specific genes). “Golden Rice” project, currently underway at the Such an approach produces an alteration that is perman- International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the ent (i.e., transferable from one generation to the next). Philippines and other parts of the world, is geared towards developing, for the first time ever, a rice culti- var with the capacity to produce pro-vitamin A. An Why breed plants? estimated 800 million people in the world, including 200 million children, suffer chronic undernutrition, with The reasons for manipulating plant attributes or perfor- its attendant health issues. Malnutrition is especially mance change according to the needs of society. Plants prevalent in developing countries. provide food, feed, fiber, pharmaceuticals, and shelter Breeding is also needed to make some plant products for humans. Furthermore, plants are used for aesthetic more digestible and safer to eat by reducing their toxic and other functional purposes in the landscape and components and improving their texture and other indoors. qualities. A high lignin content of the plant material reduces its value for animal feed. Toxic substances occur in major food crops, such as alkaloids in yam, cynogenic Addressing world food, feed, and nutritional needs glucosides in cassava, trypsin inhibitors in pulses, and Food is the most basic of human needs. Plants are the steroidal alkaloids in potatoes. Forage breeders are inter- primary producers in the ecosystem (a community of ested, among other things, in improving feed quality living organisms including all the non-living factors (high digestibility, high nutritional profile) for livestock. in the environment). Without them, life on earth for higher organisms would be impossible. Most of the Addressing food needs for a growing world crops that feed the world are cereals (Table 1.1). Plant population breeding is needed to enhance the value of food crops, by improving their yield and the nutritional quality of In spite of a doubling of the world population in the their products, for healthy living of humans.
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