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Notice Concerning Copyright Restrictions NOTICE CONCERNING COPYRIGHT RESTRICTIONS This document may contain copyrighted materials. These materials have been made available for use in research, teaching, and private study, but may not be used for any commercial purpose. Users may not otherwise copy, reproduce, retransmit, distribute, publish, commercially exploit or otherwise transfer any material. The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material. Under certain conditions specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other reproduction. One of these specific conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction is not to be "used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research." If a user makes a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excess of "fair use," that user may be liable for copyright infringement. This institution reserves the right to refuse to accept a copying order if, in its judgment, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of copyright law. \\01&9 AN INVESTIGATION OF SELECTED ALASKA GEOTHERMAL SPRING SOURCES AS POSSIBLE SALMON HATCHERY SITES R. 0. Baker, R. C. Lebida, W.D. Pyle and R.P. Britch alaska division of energy and power development The study investigated seven thermal sites The hydrothermal convective resources have in Alaska as possible locations for a sal- thus far received the greatest actual use mon hatchery to test and demonstrate geo- in the United States. These systems result thermal energy potential in aquaculture. from ground waters infiltrating heated Each site was evaluated for physical, chem- rock formations, and represent a relatively ical and biological suitability. Remoteness small portion of the total geothermal re- of most of Alaska's geothermal springs com- source base. Present uses of geothermal plicates the application of energy/cost energy consist of electric power production saving techniques, and impacts their econ- ( via steam turbine ) and non-electric ap- omy. Hatcheries are seen as a key to re- plications, mainly space heating. storing the state's dwindling salmon cat- ches. Reducing the high costs of construc- Alaska contains numerous and widely scat- ting and operating these facilities are seen tered geothermal resources. The occurance as vital to a successful rehabilitation pro- and characteristics of more than 94 Alask- gram. One site, Bell Island ( located 40 an thermal springs have been documented miles north of Ketchikan), in Southeastern since 1917. Alaska is seen as the' most promising site for a demonstration salmon hatchery utili- However, the utilization of these thermal zing geothermal energy. Economic, clima- springs has been quite limited. Early tological and biological considerations prospectors and settlers in the Alaskan favor this Southeastern Alaska location. interior used some of these hot springs for bathing, space heating, hot tap water, and agriculture. Most of these early set- tlements have since been abandoned. Recent concern over possible worldwide The purpose of our study,was to investig- energy shortages has generated consider- ate selected thermal spring sites in Al- able interest in developing energy resour- aska as possible locations for the con- ces alternative to traditional fossil fuel struction of a salmon hatchery to test supplies. Geothermal energy has been iden- and demonstrate the potential applications tified as an alternative energy source with of geothermal energy in salmon aquaculture. significant potential. Geothermal areas in The study, a joint project of the Alaska the United States are found primarily in Division of Energy and Power Development the western states associated with the and the Department of Fish and Game, was circum-Pacific belt of young volcanism conducted from January 1977 to September and mountain building ( Goodwin, et al., 1977. 1971 ). A complete review of existing information The nation's geothermal base is large. The on Alaskan thermal springs attempted to potential for recoverable heat is estim- identify candidates for hatchery sites. ated to be in the order of 4.4X105 Quads; Limited funding precluded a survey of all an amount equal to the entire energy con- geothermal sites. The location of candi- sumption of the United States for 50 to date springs relative to existing common 100 years ( ERDA, 1975 ). However, with property fisheries, accessibility, land present technology, only a small fraction availability, logistical considerations, of that total is considered recoverable. availability of construction material, Implementation of a national geothermal fisheries management requirements, "exis- energy research, development and demon- tence of adjacent non-thermal water sup- stration program by the Energy Research plies", and suitability of release areas and Development Administration (ERDA) is are factors that were used to further ev- expected to produce 4.4 Quads annually by aluate the potential of candidate springs the year 2000 ( ERDA, 1975 ). as hatchery sites. 11 Baker Seven sites were investigated by biolog- of salmon. Estimates of mortality from the ists from the Alaska Department of Fish egg to fry stage of development in the nat- and Game (ADFG) and engineers contracted ural environment versus hatcheries are va- from Dames and Moore ( Map 1 ). The sites riable but generally indicate that hatchery finally selected for evaluation are: (1) survival is 5 to 8 times greater than cor- Akutan, in the Aleutian Islands; (2) responding natural rates. This is the dir- False Pass, on the Alaska Peninsula; (3) ect result of the ability to control the Port Moller, on the Alaska Peninsula; (4) hatchery environment. Natural variables Mother Goose Lake, on the Alaska Penin- ( For example,freezing, predation, dewater- sula; (5) Ophir Creek, in the Kilbuck ing, flooding, siltation, low oxygen lev- Mountains northeast of Bethel; (6) Bailey, els ) are responsible for the mortality of North of Ketchikan in southeastern Alaska salmon eggs. Higher survival rates of sal- and (7) Bell Island, also north of Ket- mon in hatcheries necessitates fewer sp- chikan. The Bell Island location appears awners and corresponding greater numbers to be the best candidate for a pilot hat- of fish are available for commercial har- chery program utilizing geothermal ener- vest. gy. ( Map 2 ). The process of propagating salmon in hat- Near term utilization of Alaska's geoth- cheries, release to graze at sea, and har- ermal springs is dependent to a large de- vesting either in an ocean fishery or upon gree on developing non-electrical applic- return to their natal stream has been ter- ations which produce usable commodities med ocean ranching. It is an efficient at remote sites. method to produce large amounts of high quality, low cost animal protein. Alaska's salmon fisheries have historica- 1ly been an extremely valuable resource Heating water solely for hatchery use is representing a major segment of the expensive, utilizes valuable fossil fuel State's economy. In recent years the tot- resources, and increases the cost of fish al value of salmon landings to commercial production. Fuel costs in rural'Alaska fishermen varied from $24.6 to $67.9 mil- range from $1.00 to $2.75 per gallon with lion annually CTable 1 ). fuel transportation logistics often com- plicated by early freeze-up and late spring However, the total catch of salmon in Al- thaws. For example, the Crystal Lake hat- aska has undergone drastic reduction the chery near Petersburg in Southeast Alaska last 5 to 6 years. The reasons for this heats hatchery waters using heating fuel. decline are complex but related mainly to Annual heating costs exceed $80,000 per past over fishing, recent severe climatic year. Economical heat sources are avail- conditions, and habitat alternation. This able as waste industrial heat and thermal decline in salmon abundance has stimulated springs. Industrial cooling water is now major efforts towards rehabilitation and used to produce coho and king salmon in enhancement of these fisheries by the Alaska. There is limited potential for State of Alaska. use of this concept, however, since many future hatcheries must. be located in re- Hatcheries and other artifical propoga- mote areas of the State. To date, the ap- tion techniques will play key roles in plication of geothermal energy to salmon the restoration effort. Current plans call aquaculture has not been·demonstrated in for the expenditure of upwards of $500 the State. million of public and private funds thr- ough 1990 for hatchery construction in Geothermal energy could play a major role Alaska. in developing Alaska's hatchery program for coho and king salmon. Natural water The rationale behind this expenditure is temperatures in most of Alaska are too low the greater overall survival rate of ear- during long winter periods to successfully ly· freshwater life history stages of sal- operate hatcheries where overwinter rearing mon in hatcheries as opposed to-correspon- is required. Optimal growth and conversion ding survival in the natural environment. efficiency for coho salmon occur when Except for certain isolated land-locked water temperatures'are in the 10-150C ran- populations of red or sockeye salmon, ge. Growth is negligible below 4.50C. all five species of Pacific salmon are anadromous. The salmon's early life his- A viable hatchery program for coho and tory stages are spent in fresh water, king salmon is dependent upon·producing· with a subsequent migration to the ocean smolt in a single growing season. Subject- where they mature. Completion of the life ing fish to longer periods of hatchery re- cycle occurs with a return to natal stre- sidency increases. their susceptibility to ams to spawn. disease-related mortality.·The greater food conversion efficiencies associated Alaska's harsh climate severly restricts with increased survival to smolt size are survival of the early life history stages instrumental factors in developing a,sal- mon hatchery operation having favorable 12 Baker cost/benefit ratios. Initial analyses included a topographic evaluation of the sites.
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