Geographical Review of Japan Vol. 69 (Ser. B), No. 1, 21-41, 1996

Studies in the Historical Geography of Japan, 1988-1995

Tsunetoshl MIZOGUCHI Department of Geography, Univ. of Toyama, Toyama 930, Japan

Abstract: This paper reviews major studies in historical geography in Japan published after 1988. After a brief summary of the recent trends in historical geography in Japan, the studies are reviewed under five headings: 1) Changes of rural landscape, 2) Urban transformation, 3) Population and migration, 4) Traffic and transportation, and 5) Religious and imagined world.

Key words: historical geography, landscape, transformation, pictorial maps, imagined world

at the following three periods: 1) at the begin Recent Trends in the Historical Geogra ning of the eighth century when the ancient phy of Japan capitals were planned, 2) during the late fif teenth and the early seventeenth century when "Geography always has been , and must con the castle towns were constructed, and 3) in the tinue to be, an historically grounded enterprise" twentieth century when industrial towns ap proclaimed Alan R. H. Baker in the Kyoto Uni peared. Kinoshita (1991) viewed the periods of versity Geographical Conference in 1995, and transformation as the times when political and stressed the importance of historical geogra administrative transformations took place. In phy, citing L. Rodwell Jones who said "All ge contrast, Mizoguchi (1991) emphasized that the ography is historical geography." In Japan, the transformation of agriculture and the rural journal Historical Geography was founded as community can occur even in peaceful and early as 1959 by the Association of Historical stable times when agricultural innovations Geographers of Japan, and has published many took place as well as in times of political change worthy papers. This paper reviews major when a new land and tax system was intro studies published after 1988, for Kobayashi and duced by a new government. Kinda (1988) had reviewed those published in Two large areas, the northeast and southwest 1978-1987. regions of Japan have been distinguished, and The Association of Historical Geographers of their distinct regional characteristics have been Japan sponsors a symposium on a special theme the focus of discussions. Tanioka (1993) identi every year. Scholars interested in the theme fied some landmarks of spatial organization present their studies, and most of them are such as the ancient jori system in the paddy published in the next year's Historical Geogra fields, myo and zaike as the component units of phy. Recent special themes have been: histori the medieval manor, in order to clarify the dis cal geography of administration (1987); histori tinct characteristics of the northeast and south cal geography of basins (1988); historical geog east regions of Japan. Landform characteristics raphy of the periods of transformation (1989 are related to living, cultural and economic ac and 1990); northeast and southwest Japan tivities of the inhabitants. Nakayama (1992) (1991 and 1992); and environment in historical presented a basis for the division of Japan into geography (1993 and 1994). Therefore, trans northeast Japan and southwest Japan in terms formation, regionality and environment can be of landform characteristics and proposed a considered key words of the recent historical boundary determined on this basis. The bound geography in Japan. ary of the two regions divided according to Ashikaga (1991a) theorized that the transfor landform characteristics is the line from Tsu mation of Japanese urban morphology occurred ruga Bay to the Suzuka Mountains. Motoki 22 T. Mizoguchi

(1993) summarized the diffusion of rice cultiva are used for the Japan's historical periods: 1) tion throughout Japan, and investigated the Ancient period (around 300-1192): Increasing process in terms of the regional distribution of stratification within local groups fueled con rice cultivation down to the present day. As the flicts among large clans in western Japan immediate condition that hindered diffusion (Kofun period), and after the beginning of the and settlement of rice cultivation on a national eighth century the new aristocratic state cen scale, the geographical environment of north tered at Nara, and then Kyoto; 2) Medieval eastern Japan, in particular its cold climate was times (1192 to 1600): With the decline of the mentioned. aristocratic elite, central authority fragmented Many historical geographers have begun to during centuries of struggle among military pay more attention to environment. Kusaka houses; 3) Early modern period or the Toku (1991) reconstructed the ancient landscape and gawa period (1600 to 1868): In the early seven places for living, paying special attention to the teenth century, the entire country was con physical environment. M. Takahashi (1994) dis solidated under the bureaucratic-feudal rule of cussed the geomorphologic environment and the Tokugawa shoguns, 4) Modern period or reclamation in coastal plains after the end of Meiji, Taisho and Showa period: The first part ancient period from a physical geographical of Japan's modernity before World War 11(1868 point of view. Analyzing pictorial maps in the -1945) was characterized by nation-state build Tokugawa period, Onodera (1995), Iwasaki ing, capitalist industrialization and imperial ex (1995) and Arizono (1994) tried to reconstruct pansion, and ended in the country's defeat in the landscape and environment of those days. World War II. In the latter part of its modern Takizawa (1995) used Meiji cadastre maps and period (after 1945), Japan recovered from the drew the land allocation, land use of every plot wartime devastation and since then has grown of the maps. rapidly into one of the world's largest economic Apart from these topics, a new trend is seen giants. in studies that explore the imagined world of old days. Senda (1991) tried to explain the Changes of Rural Landscape perceived spatial structures of ancient times through a semiotic approach. He considered Ancient landscape that the structure of geographical space is formed as a system of square, vertical and an The interaction between human activities orientation which originates in the pattern of and vegetation in the prehistoric Jomon period mandala. He examined the layout of the old (1000-300 BC) and Yayoi period (300 BC-AD capitals, and interpreted the religious meaning 300) have been uncovered by archaeological of their spatial patterns. Kanasaka (1995) re excavations and pollen analysis. Nukata (1993) viewed three kinds of new approaches in histor studied the conditions of location of Suna Site ical geography concerning the environment, in the northeastern part of Osaka Plain and place and spatial perception, and investigated deduced the geomorphologic environment of the ancient Japanese language and place names those days by restoring the environment by by extracting more than 1,000 nouns and geomorphic and geological methods. He dis makura kotoba (pillow words). Katsuragawa covered much pollen of broad-leaved trees from Ezu Kenkyukai (1988, 1989), the study group of black silt layer of the late Jomon period by young historical geographers who are interest pollen analysis. ed in pictorial maps, teaches how to read and Sano (1995) clarified the range and social understand the world of maps. Onodera (1991) stratification of political territories in the an and Iwahana (1992), who are members of this cient Kofun period. Assuming that the extent group, published books on river maps of the of irrigation reflects the range of the territory of Tokugawa period and on the distribution of a powerful clan, and that the dispersion of the Dewasanzan pilgrims respectively. ancient tombs (kofun) showed the movement of Throughout this paper the following terms clans, she analyzed the relation between the Historical Geography 23 positions of ancient tombs and irrigation area Aoyama (1994) examined the border line be and inferred that the prototype of the cities in tween Arakawa-no-ho and Okuyama-no-sho in Kinai region had already been completed in the medieval Echigo Province (now Niigata Pref.) sixth century. Nakatsuka (1989) classified 99 with special reference to the dispute map. Re kofun into four groups by investigating their analysis of pictorial manor maps has enabled shape, length, location, date, altitude, and visi him to reconstruct landscape of medieval rural bility from the tombs. area. Koyama (1987) formulated the process of Some of the grid pattern land and roads in reclamation in the Hineno Hill area (in Shiga the present day originated in the ancient jori Pref.), H. Kuroda (1987) investigated the agri system. Kinda (1993a), who has written many culture and water troubles among the manors outstanding papers on this system for the last in Yamashiro Province (now Kyoto Pref.). two decades, recently discussed the appearance The location of settlements and arable land is and transformation of the grid pattern, and restricted by subtle differences of landform be tried to represent the ways the ancient people cause paddy field agriculture required water in thought by analyzing many pictorial maps. Re every small part of the field. Kinda (1993b) search on jori system has progressed in various reconstructed the landscape of medieval times, regions. Suzuki (1989) reported the distribu i.e. location of the settlements, reclamation and tion of jori in Aizu Province (now Fukushima agricultural land use, occupations of the people, Prefecture), Nakano (1989) examined the jori etc. by analyzing the relation between micro system in Kui Province (now Wakayama Pref.) topography and land use. Throughout medie and T. Ito (1994) considered agricultural land val times, the poor conditions improved and the reclamation and jori system in Yamato Prov ratios of harvest to cultivation gradually in ince (now Nara Pref.). A valuable textbook was creased. In order to intensify land use, Kinda published by Kusaka (1991) who attempted to says, it was necessary not only to provide irri restore the ancient landscape concerned with gation ponds, canals and shimabata (dry field the spaces of activity where ancient people en surrounded by paddy field), but also to intro gaged in producing and consuming. Not only duce new crops and double cropping. Though the settlements in jori system but also the the major part of Kimura (1988) deals with the changes of rural landscape from the pre villages in the Tokugawa period, it presents a historic times to the modern times are briefly method of how to reconstruct the medieval summarized in the revised edition of the rural landscape, and delineates the historical textbook (Fujioka et al., 1990). transformation of the villages in Kanto District. The settlements located on the foot of moun Medieval manors tains in the earlier medieval times gradually The possessors of shoen (manor) at first only spread into the lowland in which shimabata had appropriated the produce of their lands, but been newly developed, thus mixing with paddy they began to be exempt from taxes and not fields. subject to the provincial government. Thus, Reclaimed villages and advances in agricul their number gradually increased and in the ture in the Early Modern period 11th century, half of the country had been con verted into shoen. Ideta (1989) presented an A large number of shinden-son or newly re approach to the reconstruction of manor settle claimed villages appeared all over Japan and ment by examining the changes in the rural most of the villages had reclaimed some land landscape of Tashibu-no-sho manor in Oita Pre during the Tokugawa period. Tanaka (1993) fecture. First, he inferred the location of settle studied the development of the mountain vil ment by picking up the place-names with lages in Chichibu area (in Saitama Pref.) after yashiki (mansion) and the spots in which the end of the medieval times. The com stone monuments were located. Second, he in mercializing of timber resulted in some newly vestigated myo (taxed unit in medieval times) in independent peasants. The ruling Hojo family order to sketch the development of the manor. controlled these peasants and enhanced their 24 T. Mizoguchi own power. Onodera (1994) explicated the came, those who had slash-and-burn fields next process of development of shinden in harachi to each other worked together. (plain-forest land) and ryusakuba (riverside land The upland field irrigation went through a between levees and riverbanks) in Hitachi remarkable development due to an increased Province (now Ibaraki Pref.) in the 1720s-40s. irrigation of cotton, Chinese indigo plant and Harachi shinden were developed jointly by the sugar cane which were typical commercial elders of surrounding villages. All farmers in crops in the late Tokugawa period and the early the villages were allotted new fields according Meiji period. M. Nakajima (1992) studied main to the amount of their landholdings. M. Oka production areas of the products: the Yoshino mura (1991) inquired into the establishment of River basin (in Tokushima Pref.) for Chinese the dispersed settlement on the Isawa fan (in indigo crop and eastern part of Sanuki Province Iwate Pref.) by analyzing the cadastres and (now Kagawa Pref.) for sugar cane crop. Iwa tracing individual family lines. Yamazaki saki (1994) theorized that in Owari Province (1993) examined ownerships of cultivated land (now Aichi Pref.) cotton was planted in dry of Hirose-mura (in Saitama Pref.) and showed fields as a summer crop while barley grown as a that older settlements located near the paddy winter crop, and that cotton was not planted in fields were superior to new settlements. paddy fields because paddy fields were too A lot of dry fields were reclaimed as well as marshy for cotton cultivation. Nakanishi paddy fields. In mountainous areas slash-and (1992) studied population fluctuation in a burn fields commonly existed and they in cotton producing village outside Osaka in the creased after the latter half of the Tokugawa late Tokugawa period. period. Mizoguchi (1989) investigated the proc Many scholars have discussed irrigation and ess of the development of slash-and-burn culti water control. T. Ito (1993) surveyed the date of vation. It had been theorized in the previous construction of the irrigation ponds in the Nara studies that slash-and-burn fields decreased Basin and concluded that most of them were with the passage of time, but his study showed built in the Tokugawa period. Y. Ito (1994) that the opposite was the case. That is to say, examined the transformation of the water con slash-and-burn fields in fact increased after the trol system in southern Gifu area. early Tokugawa period (the seventeenth centu On the development of the forestry villages, ry) down to the late Meiji period (the late nine Y. Fujita (1992) investigated the system of Yo teenth century). Only after the late Meiji period shino Forestry which had been established by did they begin to decrease, becoming extinct in farmers who had created the most intensive a fairly short time. The main location of slash method of afforestation with the planting of and-burn fields shifted from the vicinity of res more than ten thousand saplings per one hec idential sections to land farther away, and from tare. Harada (1993, 1994) examined the relation gentler slopes to steeper slopes. When changes between villages and the exploitation of mines. in agricultural land use took place, almost all Though timbers were supplied from the com the slash-and-burn fields were turned into munal woodland to the mine developers, mine forest, dry fields or wasteland, but not into developments gave villagers opportunities to paddy fields. As for the cultivators of slash earn wages. Akagi and Sadakata (1988) sur and-burn fields, it had been held that while the veyed the landform transformation caused by large-scale land owners engaged in cultivating iron sand mining (kanna-nagashi) and the recla paddy fields and dry fields, it was small-scale mation of paddy field on kanna-nagashi stopes land owners or the serf peasants who engaged in the Takahashi River basin. Furuta (1989) in slash-and-burn cultivation. Mizoguchi, how discussed the structure of the fishery villages ever, specifically points out that both land paying attention to the settlement pattern, the owners and serf peasants were engaged in culti possession of fishing means, and the residential vating slash-and-burn fields. Every peasant he system of the fishermen. studied had slash-and-burn fields at several dif The climate of eighteenth century Japan was ferent places, and when the burning season characterized by some unusually cool summers Historical Geography 25 and long periods of precipitation. Ikeuchi tates and servants began to appear. Although (1989, 1992, 1995) has been studying the these landlords cultivated their land at first, damage of Kyoho famine (1732-33). The rainy they gradually turned most cultivation over to season in 1732 lasted for some fifty days. In the hands of sharecroppers in the twentieth western Japan, abnormal insect damage had century. Nakanishi (1990) identified the charac occurred in almost all areas by mid-July. He teristics of farm management of small landlords pointed out that the rice crop of western Japan from 1910 to 1930 by looking at farm size and plagued by locusts caused a large scale famine labor organization. Nakanishi (1994) also stud until the barley and wheat harvest of the fol ied the distribution of cattle and farming lowing year. As a result, the shogunate govern houses and regional differences in plowing with ment, the supreme ruler of daimyo (feudal draft animals in the 1880s. Miura (1991) ex lords), had to take steps to relieve famished amined the changes over time in horse and people living in the territories of daimyo. cattle breeding as sericulture and transporta tion developed. Nakasato (1990) shed light on Rural transformation in the modern period the imports of Korean cattle and its transac Recently many scholars have paid much at tions in Japan in the Meiji and Taisho periods. tention to understand the relationship between Kawasaki (1995) focused upon the changes in formal regions and substantive regions. Sugi investment activities of landowners and their ura (1991) examined to what degree a former effects on the foundation of local banks. In the clan boundary has influenced the affiliations Meiji-Taisho period, many small-medium size and organizations of people and how the actual banks were established in the Saku Basin (in integration has proceeded since the institution Nagano Pref.). He explained the change in the al framework of feudal territory disappeared. economic activities of the bank founders by Oshiro (1992) attempted to come to grips with several factors. First, the deflation between "place" in the context surrounding it , rather 1881 and 1886 discouraged the raw silk trade, than as superficial substance, by devoting at and many bankers abandoned trade with Yo tention to its relationality. He argues that ele kohama raw silk merchants. Some relocated ments of landscape can be considered as "place" their trading headquarters out of the Saku and, as such, as social constructs. Basin. Second, the opening of the Shin'etsu rail Ukita (1989) edited a book on the transforma line in 1888 demoted the Saku Basin from a tion of Japanese rural, mountainous and fishery transit trade center to a mere transit point. villages, in which he insisted on the importance Third, sericulture farmers began to borrow of studying the basic human activities such as money for purchasing mulberry leaves and fer living, working, getting supply, education and tilizer in the late Meiji period, and many of the taking rest. Mizoguchi (1992) investigated a landowners who lent money to the farmers farmer's daily activities by analyzing his diaries later established a bank. for 1883-93. Though the aim of keeping the Though the variables and variations in water diary was to keep in mind the management of management are quite daunting to any effort to sericulture, it offers an interesting image of the catalogue, characterize, and account for the life of people in those days attending to mental thousands of irrigation-drainage networks in and social events such as diseases, deaths, wor Japan, many scholars try to explicate these shipping gods, and mutual aid. Osako (1994) problems. Noma (1989) investigated the tradi overviewed the transition of villages depended tional irrigation system and intervillage irriga on sericulture. tion management groups in the Omi Basin (in The typical small-scale farm management in Shiga Pref.) in the 1910s, and Hirai and Fujita Japan originated with the introduction of (1995) studied the reclamation and irrigation kenchi or the intensive land check survey in the system on the Ayukui River alluvial fan, a beginning of the seventeenth century. Howev branch of the Yoshino River. K. Uchida (1991) er, after this system broke down in the nine studied conflicts and adjustments concerning teenth century, landlords with large arable es irrigation and drainage with special reference 26 T. Mizoguchi

to the cases of Nishikambara area (in Niigata cultivation was distributed throughout all of Pref.). She analyzed in other papers (1992, these districts located near the central settle 1994) the causes of failure of a flood prevention ments where afforestation was developed. In cooperative to share expenses, and considered discussing the diffusion of the Yoshino Forest the problem of local share in expenses. The ry system, Fujita (1993) pointed out the great fenlands of the coastal margins of Nobi Plain demand for timbers in the periods just after the had endemic flooding and drainage problems, following three wars: the Sino-Japanese War which were seriously exacerbated in the early (1894-95), the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) seventeenth century by state-sponsored em and World War 11 (1941-45). bankment construction upstream along the Ikeya (1991a) presented interesting surveys major rivers that flowed across the plain to the concerning the traditional activities of moun sea. Several lords responded with embankment tain people. He clarified the distribution of projects to protect what have now become zenmai (Osmunda japonica) producing regions larger polder islands (waju), and they actively and their formation in Tohoku District during coordinated upkeep and operation of the com the Meiji and Taisho periods. He also described pleted embankments and associated intake and the natural, economic, and religious characteris drainage works (Ando 1988; Y. Ito 1994). tics of matagi (the hunters living in the moun Concerning mountain villages, Miyaguchi tains) settlements in the remote mountain vil (1992) described the socio-economic change of lages of Tohoku District. Their bear ceremony isolated mountain villages and vitalization of consists of four kinds of activities: swinging the depopulated areas in Japan, and Y. Fujita (1991) skin after dissection, cutting the heart, roasting considered the formation of the mountain vil the meat on sticks, and the bear celebration. lages and the complex branch settlements in The bear ceremony was conducted by hunters Mikawa area (in Aichi Pref.). Katsume (1990) or itinerant priests called yamabushi at the hunt discussed the sorts of systematic relationship ing grounds or in the village (Ikeya 1988, between villages and forestland commons and 1991b). Seko (1992) researched the distribution the types of spatial structure formed there. The of the imitated animal, in particular deer, shoot forestland commons were, in fact, extremely ing customs in the border area among Aichi, important in that they formed the basis of the Gifu and Shizuoka Prefectures. Sega (1993) traditional type of agriculture in which grass examined how and why an old folk song gathered from the forestland was not only used madara has been preserved better in Wajima as feed for the cattle and as barnyard manure zaki (in Ishikawa Pref.) than in other locations, but were also put to direct use in the paddy by focusing on its relation to the regional com fields where the grass was spread over the fields munity. She found that Wajimazaki communi to be used as fertilizer. K. Arai (1994) explored ty provided an opportunity for the youth to the environment of forestry products in rural learn madara. Every boy who became fifteen settlements in Kanto District, and Tateishi years old must join renchu, a youth group com (1990) examined changes in forestland use. posed of boys of the same age. Apart from Sekido (1994) investigated the subjective classi acquiring fishing skills, he was taught madara fication of lands in a shifting cultivation village, so that he could sing it in the donation ceremo relating it to the social framework of forestland ny to the community shrine by the renchu ownership and the spatial formation of forest group. He had to learn it by any means, land use. For this purpose, she attempted to because without finishing the donation he was describe the villager's knowledge of the for not considered independent. estlands in a mountain village. Y. Fujita (1989) Rural environment surveyed the distribution and scale of manage ment of shifting cultivation in Toyone-mura (in How to understand environment has been Aich Pref.). He attempted to reconstruct the one of the major themes in historical geogra distribution of the exact cultivation and scale phy. Nakashima (1989) attempted to explain of management of shifting cultivation. Shifting the relationship between man and his environ Historical Geography 27 ment by studying how pastureland at the foot ical geographer should miss. He put his heart in of Mt. Aso has been utilized in the modern era. reconstructing Fujiwara-kyo (694-710), the He treated utilization of pastureland in two con capital prior to Heijo-kyo (710-84), and estab texts, the ecological and the social. In the eco lished a synthetic historical research method logical context, an adaptation to the scarcity of utilizing not only historical documents but also pastureland is vital. Realizations of the short old place-names, allotment of land, old roads age of resources and the limitations of an auton and archeological remains. He has stimulated omous ecological system lead to new systems of many historical geographers to study the an utilization. In the social context, conflicts be cient capitals both in Japan and in East Asia. tween villages have arisen and landlord-tenant Senda (1991) considered the meaning of the arrangements concerning the utilization of pas location of ancient capitals from a religious tureland can be observed in an egalitarian point of view. Onizuka (1992) reported on the social system. The accumulation of such con planned allotment of grounds of Dazaifu (mili flicts also leads to the disruption and the recre tary government of Kyushu) in the eighth ation in different form of the organization. century, and S. Takahashi (1990, 1994) in Sekido (1995) tried to comprehend villagers' vestigated in detail the characteristics of one cognition of their environment based on place hundred remains of capital cities in East Asia. names, land use and folklore materials. As the result of the Taika reform in 645, the Arizono (1994) pains-takingly created land country was divided into 66 kuni (provinces), use data files of Japan around 1850. It shows consisting of 592 gun (counties). The capital of that much of the country was covered with a province was called kokufu, and the seat of a forests, with farmland scattered in narrow river county was named gunke. Kinoshita (1988a) valleys, and wasteland constituting one of the explicated the transformation of kokufu from components of sustainable land ecosystem the ancient to the medieval times. Yonekura during that period. Takizawa (1995) traced (1988), who has been trying to bridge the gap boundaries of parcels of land in cadastral maps between geography and archeological studies, based on 1/17,300 scale areal photos in order to found a prototype of kokufu established by the recapture areal environment and landscapes. ancient government in the remains of Suo Arayama (1989) paid attention to the way Kokufu (in Yamaguchi Pref.). Onizuka (1995) scenery from the top of the mountains was studied the relationship between religious represented in the third decade of Meiji and places and boundaries in ancient palace cities showed that it was much influenced by that of and provincial capitals. Though the boundary magazine articles written by the Europeans is, generally, defined either by natural bounda who described their views of Japan. Abe (1991) ries such as mountains and rivers, or by man emphasized that the symbolic landscapes of a made boundaries such as administrative unit, nation were important clues to the human she considers it as a liminal space which has landscape relation. He examined the symbol symbolic meaning related to human life. Kana ism of Mt. Fuji in textbooks to suggest tenden saka (1992) attempts to delineate the formation cies in the relationship between the Japanese of Obama, the ancient official port of Wakasa and their environment and concluded that the Province (now Fukui Pref.) by interpreting the relation between Mt. Fuji and the nationalistic introductory verse of poem No. 737 of the sentiment seemed to have been sustained by an Man'yoshu. His innovation involves the intro orientation to legitimacy. duction of a new historico-geographical per spective to the study of the ancient world of Urban Transformation Japan.

The development of medieval towns Ancient city plans We begin our review of the development of A study of the ancient capitals written by the medieval towns with the work of the urban historian Kishi (1973) is a book which no histor archaeologist Maekawa (1991). He formulates 28 T. Mizoguchi the following three important conditions on leading information center in the global society, which to recognize a settlement as a town: 1) but yet the destruction of traditional town central place network, 2) existence of a con scapes, the insufficient supply of adequate struction which surrounds the whole settle houses, etc. are problems. The loose planning ments, and 3) assembling of the traders and has caused a concentration of more than 30 artisans. From this point of view he carefully million people and a mix of all urban functions. sketches the urbanizing processes of several Terrible congestion occurs at certain spots, but settlement remains such as Namioka joshi (in so far, Tokyo does not seem to be paralyzed. Aomori Pref.), Honsakura joshi (in Chiba Pref.), Rather it seems to invite more immigrants in its Ichijo no Tani Asakura joshi (in Fukui Pref.), expanding metropolitan region. Greater Tokyo Myorakuji iseki (in Shiga Pref.), Sakai kango is now growing rapidly as a global super city, toshi iseki (in Osaka Pref.), Tamura isekigun (in but the possible catastrophes, natural and Kochi Pref.), and Kusadosenkencho iseki (in Hi politico-economic, are still not negligible topics, roshima Pref.). For example, in Kusadosenken if not nightmares, among the Tokyo citizens. cho, the settlement area was divided by some Yamori (1988), who was a great pioneer of the ditches and many implements for lacquer paint study of the castle town, recently published a ing from the second half of the thirteenth cen book about the shape of castle towns. He dis tury had been found. In the fourteenth century cussed the location of kosatsu, which was one of the settlement area was divided by ditch and the landscape in the castle town. Kosatsu is a fence, and a great number of wells, potteries, notice board on which the ordinances of the mokkan (a narrow strip of wood on which an Tokugawa shogunate or of a daimyo were writ official message is written) and coins were dis ten. In the old days, Yamori says, kosatsu was covered. In the fifteenth century there ap respected by townspeople as a symbol of the peared a big residence of a lord who enforced power of the governing side. But, as time engineering public works, along with recon passed, people came to pay less respect to kosa structing the market place bigger than those of tsu, and some townspeople even dared to tie previous times. Showing many remain maps, their horses to it. Others regarded it as a nui Maekawa also discussed the formation of the sance because it blocked the traffic. Yamori castle towns in the Sengoku period (1490 (1992) notes interesting changes in the topos of -1600), a subject which was already illuminated the corner of kosatsu. by Kobayashi (1985). Yamada (1993) examined the regional differ ence within the merchants' section of a castle Castle town and urban landscape town, Sumpu (now Shizuoka), based on Edo (now Tokyo), the capital in Tokugawa Yamori's suggestion on classification and trans Japan, was the largest castle town where more formation of town plannings. Nakayama (1994) than 1.5 million people lived. Masai (1990) examined the development of Sumpu and its examined Edo city and its transformation. Edo vicinity from an environmental point of view had a city plan for centralized feudalism with and concluded that the valley floor and the strict social stratification and land use zoning. alluvial fan of the Abe River and other geo It was a pedestrian city, the result being a dom graphical features of the region have greatly inance of narrow roads even today. The binu influenced the development of early modern clear city plan, with its intended irregularity, Sumpu. Nakafuji (1990) described the rise and still influences the urban spatial structure of fall of a licensed gay quarter outside of Morioka present-day Tokyo. Modernization proceeded castle town, Yasugi (1989) and Yano (1989) in rapidly after the Meiji Restoration of 1868. The vestigated the structure of Omizo castle town railroad age has been deep-rooted in Japanese (in Shiga Pref.), and Yasuta (1990) explored soil, and Tokyo is still constructing new lines. Yonezawa castle town (in Yamagata Pref.) and Efficiency has long been pursued, having re its vicinity. sulted in the realization of an extremely dense Many instructive studies on other kinds of rail network, and also in the expectation to be a towns such as post town, market town have Historical Geography 29 been carried out. Chiba (1990) considered the Prefecture grew and led the national textile appearance and extinction of cities hedged with production from the 1900s to the 1920s. He walls in the sixteenth century. T. Ito (1989) investigated what kind of farmers became tex noted place-names presented as machi in Omi tile factory owners, and the driving force for Province (now Shiga Pref.). Tsuchihara (1991) the industrialization of the rural area. He fur tried to recapture land divisions, waterways, ther identified the factors which contributed to and roads through archival and field surveys. the differences between the distribution pattern His analysis of occupational structure also iden of the non-dyed cotton cloth factories and that tified many farmers inside jin'yamachi. Tsuchi of the cotton blanket factories in the same area. da (1994) published an outstanding book on On the other hand, Kandatsu (1987) argued re post towns with special reference to sukego gional formation and differentiation in Oka system. O. Okamura (1994) investigated the yama Prefecture, as a case of the peripheral functions of the periodic markets in Chichibu areas, during the industrial revolution period area (in Saitama Pref.), which were founded in around 1900. Nishino (1988) studied the devel the early Tokugawa period. He stressed the opment of electric supply companies and their importance of specialization of consumer prod regional base in Japan before 1938 and de ucts which were circulated inside the area. scribed a conflict between the electric power Some of the markets located at post town or enterprise and the villagers. ferry sites flourished and grew bigger, whereas Some geographers have been concerned with the local small markets disappeared. Some mar the traditional industries. Sadakata (1991) ex kets developed into specialized silk markets plicated the influence of iron sand mining on separated from the periodic markets. Yamachi the formation of the Sotohama beach ridges in ka (1991) paid attention to the various perform the Yumigahama Peninsula (in Shimane Pref.). ances such as theaters, festivals which had been Shigemi (1989) studied the transfer of property carried out in the compounds of temples and ownership of the Mitajiri salt fields in Hofu (in shrines in Kyoto during the late Tokugawa Yamaguchi Pref.). At the beginning of the Meiji period. T. Uchida (1990) investigated the places period, the total area of the salt field was about which were thought mysterious by people in 235 hectares, which was divided into 152 lots Edo from a humanistic-geographical point of and owned by eighty-five people. By 1955 the view. percolating method which had been long em ployed in the salt fields was changed to the Regional formation in the modern period falling down method, and the local adminis The new regime that seized power in the trative reform in the industry brought about Meiji Restoration of 1868 set about converting the abolition of the salt fields in 1960. Yamanaka an alliance of competing fiefdoms into a unified (1989) carried out a case study of handmade industrial and imperialist state, capable of hold paper making in the northern part of Kuma ing on in an intensely competitive global econ moto Prefecture. omy. While the remote regions were clearly It is generally accepted in geography that an peripheralized in the industrializing process, it essential task for regional study is to identify a is also clear that the rapidity of their subordina functional region: a contiguous area united by a tion to the new nation-state actively con complementarity of economic and political re tributed to Japan's industrial and imperial suc sources, and integrated through the routine in cess. In this process Tokyo and Osaka became teractions among its constituent parts. Kohno two large economic cores with other regions (1990) studied transformation of the central subordinate to them. S. Nakajima (1990) sur place system in the Nagano Basin from the veyed the characteristics of cotton textile facto early Meiji period to the postwar period. He ry owners in several of the villages of Semboku also attempts to examine the transformation of gun (in Osaka Pref.) in the 1910s. As a result of central place functions through his analysis of the rapid expansion of the cotton textile pro hotel guest registers in Komoro (in Nagano duction in Izumi area, the production in Osaka Pref.) and found that Komoro had lost its cen 30 T. Mizoguchi

trality because of the reorganization of the through various observances. Onjo stressed transportation system and of the merchan the role of identification for the formation and diser distribution system with Tokyo as its core maintenance of the community. The topic of (Kohno 1993). It is said that banks played an the transformation of regional cities has been important role for the modernization of Japan. pursued by a number of geographers: Kane Kawasaki (1992) investigated the economic ac shige (1992) discussed the transformation of ur tivities of the bank founders in the Saku Basin ban space in interwar Nagasaki; Yokoo (1993) (in Nagano Pref.). A great number of them studied the historical transformation of the abandoned trade with the Yokohawa raw silk urban structure of Akita, a former castle town; merchants due to the deflation between 1881 Fujioka (1992) examined the structure of for and 1886, and some relocated their trading eign settlements in Yokohama and Kobe; and headquarters out of the Saku Basin. Teraya (1989) considered the development of Hong (1993) has traced urban land use in frontier urban settlement in Takigawa, Hok Tokyo in the early twentieth century. The kaido. uplands tended to be preferred for residential, imperial, military, and educational uses, and the Population and Migration valley bottoms showed a similar tendency, whereas the lowland was characterized by finan cial, commercial, government, warehouse-port, Population and manufacturing uses. Y. Arai (1992) investi The first official family registration in Japan gated characteristics of the Senju Vegetable/ was compiled in 702 using a contemporary Chi Fruit Market and establishment of the nage nese model in order to redistribute land and shi (dealers' groups) in the early Showa period. requisition corvee labor. Though they are poor With extensive expansion of the urban district sources of population data because their cover and suburban agricultural area, the suburban age was limited to areas and large numbers of area was flooded with small vegetable markets; men in their prime of life were omitted, these in contrast, in the old city region, market inte early population registers are priceless sources gration proceeded under the control of the for understanding Japan's agricultural families Central Wholesales Market Law. Y. Arai (1994) in the eighth to tenth centuries, and many investigated market location and market zone scholars have made use of them (e.g. Kishi regulation in vegetable production areas in the 1973). After 1004, population documents were south part of Saitama Prefecture in the early totally nonexistent for the following 600 years, Showa period (1929-37). The rapid expansion with the exception of a few upper-class genealo of the Tokyo urban zone after World War I gies. accelerated the development of an agricultural In the late sixteenth century, both central and zone in the neighboring prefectures. local authorities turned once again to land and An outstanding case study of the formation population surveys for their administrative of an urban community has been done by Onjo needs, producing shumon aratamecho, or literal (1992), who studied Hakata (Fukuoka) from the ly census investigation registers. Hayami 1910s to the 1930s, paying special attention to (1992), who introduced these valuable popula the role of various social bonds within a local tion registers to the demographers both in area and the influence of some institutions on Europe and North America, discussed birth, its bonds. He notes, in relation to yamakasa marriage, death, labor and migration, and re festival, a mutually supportive role of neigh constructed the family in the village commu bors, both materially and economically. As in nity in the Tokugawa period. yamakasa festival the various and heterogene Historical demography has plainly shown ous residents were integrated together in the how the reconstruction of demographic behav internal system, they recognized each other as ior of individuals and communities may pro members of the local community and preserved vide a key to the understanding of past socie identity and loyalty to their community ties more generally. Using shumon aratamecho Historical Geography 31 of sixteen villages in Kinki District, Kawaguchi Gifu Pref.). These data provide a remarkably (1988) analyzed the marriage pattern and popu detailed picture of the Tempo famine of the lation mobility. It had been believed that the 1830s. Normal mortality patterns, by age and sphere of marriage was very closed in preindus sex, were compared with patterns of mortality trial Japan. But he found some evidence that it during the famine. China (1988) discusses the was not so rare that people chose their spouses reason for depopulation in Soma area (in Fuku from distant places. In Keihanshin area some shima Pref.) and in Kiso area (in Nagano Pref.) spouses came from over twenty kilometers in the Tempo famine, and showed that the pop away in the period between the beginning of ulation of mountainous and coastal villages the eighteenth century and the middle of the decreased much more than those of agricultural nineteenth century. In the urban part of the villages. Keihanshin area, the average age of brides who Turning to the modern period, we find that married into Kyoto or Osaka families from the new civil government after the Meiji Resto distant places was usually higher. Kawaguchi ration of 1868 instituted a new population reg reasoned that it was because they worked istration system as part of its general creation as domestic servants in Kyoto or Osaka for sev of a nationwide legal system. This koseki eral years before getting married. Kawaguchi system, like shumon aratamecho, used the house (1990) made a historical demographic data base hold as the fundamental unit of registration. for analyzing shumon aratamecho, adopting Unfortunately, koseki are not available to re 61 demographic indicators. Kawaguchi (1994) searchers for consideration of individual priva also described actual cases of infanticide based cy: entries in the earliest years include designa on an old diary kept by Tozaemon Tsunoda tion of outcaste status, information that contin from 1669 until 1735. It had previously been ues to promote social prejudice. However, believed that poor people with many children scholars have tried to find alternative popu had no choice but to resort to infanticide in lation registers. Kawahara (1992) managed to order to survive, and that the victims were find jinko tokei shohyo hikaebo or the secondary mostly females, as females had a lower labor statistical population registers in Mikata-cho value than males. Against this received view, (in Fukui Pref.) during 1933-49 and analyzed which had been based on the records written by the sphere of marriage with special reference local government officials or intellectuals, to occupation. The sphere of marriage and Kawaguchi dramatically reported his findings selection of a spouse in Japan and China have based on the diary: 1) Tsunoda and his wife been reviewed by Kojima (1994). had 10 children. Three children were killed Migration right after birth. They killed one boy, one girl, and one child whose sex was unknown. So in As will be discussed later, transport routes by fanticide was committed to both female and sea developed during the Tokugawa period. By male babies. 2) They did not practice infan this sea route many people moved as well as a ticide due to poverty. Tsunoda was a rich great amount of goods being carried. Furuta merchant dealing in hemp and they killed their (1989) reported on an interesting fishermen's newborn babies not only in a poor harvest year immigration from Kansai to Kanto during the but also in good harvest years. 3) Some new Tokugawa period. Just after the Meiji Restora born babies except the first-born baby were tion, not only warriors who lost their means of killed if his/her sex failed to fulfill a prediction living but also a great number of farmers from calculated from their parent's ages. all over the mainland of Japan moved to Hok Jannetta (1992) presented evidence and a kaido in order to obtain land. Hirai (1988) claim that mortality crises, famines in particu delineated the migration process to Hokkaido lar, also played an important role in checking which was initiated by the Meiji government's population growth during the Tokugawa colonization policy by looking at experiences of period by analyzing the death register of Ogen individuals within both the emigrant and the ii, a Buddhist temple in Hida Province (now immigrant regions. Hirai (1991) studied also 32 T. Mizoguchi the migration and settlement of immigrants in network has been one of the main topics of Hokkaido before World War II. On the other historical geography, and Kinoshita and Ashi hand, Endo (1990, 1994) and Katakami (1992, kaga have been the leaders of this field of study. 1993) investigated the migration of Ainu, the Kinoshita (1988b) reviewed recent studies native people in Hokkaido. Ainu, who lived on of ancient roads, and discussed ways to restore fishing, hunting and collecting, were migratory the ancient straight roads based on the place people. It is also widely accepted that Ainu names and landform. He organized a group for moved seasonally from their fixed bases. How studying the ancient traffic in 1992 and has ever, analyzing the name, age, and kinship rela contributed to the ancient historical and geo tions of each of the household members in graphical studies. Ashikaga (1991b) argued detail, Endo found two types of mobility in that the construction of the Seta bridge in 672 Ainu society: inter-settlement movement of was influenced by the planned routes radiating households and inter-household movement of from the Otsu capital which was established the inhabitants. Minamide (1991) discussed the in 666. He examined construction works under ways in which Russian and Japanese settlement taken by the ancient state in its formative policies represented different evaluations of the period and the following period of early devel southern part of Sakhalin Island in the period opment, focusing particularly on the building from the latter part of the nineteenth century to of major routes. Planned straight routes, distin the early part of this century. He categorized guishable from naturally formed paths, reached the settlements into three types: 1) those lo the farthest corners of the nation as extensions cated along the main military postroad, 2) those of such routes as Yoko-oji and Shimotsumichi, located on well drained and fertile fans, and 3) or Toba Highway which started from the Ras those located near the rivers in the lower flood homon gate of Heian-kyo (the capital after 794, plains. now Kyoto). It has been speculated that Mizutani (1989) examined the processes of straight routes which existed in the latter half decrease, migration and recovery in the urban of the seventh century had certain influence on population after disasters. According to his the location and the scale of the capital in the study, major disasters which had a great impact following periods. on stricken communities, caused decreases in T. Nakamura (1990) tried to recover the an population due to large-scale evacuations and cient Mimasaka Road (in Okayama Pref.) run relocations, in addition to the net decrease in ning through the mountainous area and dis population which resulted directly from the covered that most of them were planned to run loss of lives. After such a disaster, the popula straight according to the planning of the an tion generally recovered towards its predisaster cient national highway. Kimoto (1990) also figure at a gradually decreasing growth rate. succeeded in finding traces of ancient straight The size of the population decrease and the rate roads in Nasu area (in Tochigi Pref.). of recovery can be used as major indices to the magnitude of the impact of the disaster. Just Commercial flows in medieval times after the Kanto earthquake of 1923, there was a Though we have only a small number of mass exodus of nearly one million people from studies of the commercial flows in medieval the cities of Tokyo and Yokohama. At the end times, valuable contributions have been made of World War II, the population of the major on the following issues: 1) commercial flows in cities in Japan decreased greatly due to air raids the city, 2) circulation of copper coins, and 3) or natural disasters. the establishment of the monetary system. Analyzing a diary written by a monk named Traffic and Transportation Eishun in Tamon-in temple in Nara in the six teenth century, H. Fujita (1989) has clarified consuming behavior of the monks and pointed Ancient road system out that exchange of gifts among the urban Reconstruction of the ancient transportation people had a great influence on commercial Historical Geography 33 flows. Agricultural products such as rice, peas, the greatest economic center. This problem potatoes and tea were mainly taken for gifts as was solved when two annual circuits of the well as Buddhist alter fittings. Fujita also main island of Japan were opened up, from two found out that flow channels concentrating to different ports on the Japan Sea coast. One was Nara had already been established not only a voyage northeast along the coast of Dewa from nearby rural areas but also from remote (western Tohoku), through Tsugaru Strait, and areas, such as the channels for clothes from thence south to Edo. The other was a voyage Echigo Province (now Niigata Pref.), inkstones southwest along the Japan Sea coastal route, from Izumo Province (now Shimane Pref.) and then through Kammon Strait and the Inland fish and salt from the Setouchi (the Inland Sea) Sea to Osaka. Furuta (1990) discovered that area. Furthermore, H. Fujita (1990) enlisted the fish manure used in Omi Province (now Shiga names of merchants and artisans who lived in a Pref.) was transported along the Pacific coast section of Nara and were supposed to have had via Osaka or Yokkaichi (in Mie Pref.) from contact with Eishun. Kanto till the middle of the eighteenth century, Some social historians have reported on the but after that its route was changed to the circulation of money in medieval times. Ota Japan Sea side via Tsuruga (in Fukui Pref.) (1995) explicated the circulation of copper coins from Ezo (now Hokkaido), because the rapid in East Asia, particularly Japan and China, from exploitation of lowlands in Kanto in the eigh the twelfth to the early fifteenth century. He teenth century demanded a great amount of pointed out two specific periods, from 1215 to fish manure. He emphasized the importance of 1225 and the 1270s, when copper coins circu river for transporting fish manure in Shimo lated actively in Japan because of a large inflow tsuke Province (now Tochigi Pref.) during the from China. Kamiki (1991) concluded that in last Tokugawa period (Furuta 1991). medieval Japan copper coins were exclusively Onodera (1988) showed statistical data on used for payment. In this sense we might call river transportation and the distribution maps the medieval monetary system "single copper of ships in the Meiji period and elucidated the coin system." In contrast to this, the Tokugawa transport capacity by sea, lake and river in the shogunate held the monopolistic right of coin Early Modern period. Okajima (1989, 1991) age and established the early modern monetary examined intraurban navigation in Tokyo and system based on gold. The Society for Studies Nagoya areas in modern times, focusing spe in Market History, established in 1984, pub cially on navigation connected with marine lished a special issue of its journal on commerce transportation, navigation connected with rail and markets in medieval times, in which K. way transportation, navigation linked straight Nakamura (1988) discussed the honai za (mer to the hinterland transshipment, and reciprocal chant groups for market monopoly rights) transportation within the city. Last but not trade and the markets in medieval Omi Prov least, a fascinating monograph on the develop ince (now Shiga Pref.), and Uranagase (1988) ment of a traditional shipping system called traced the changes in the price of rice in the Ryukyu yambarushin in Okinawa Island (Ikeno latter half of the sixteenth century. 1994) deserves our notice.

The days of water transportation Regional development by railway transporta tion As the national economy expanded in the middle of the Tokugawa period, a new trans Transport geography was introduced into port system had to be developed instead of the Japan in the 1920s, when the German school of overland route. Carriage by land was always geography established itself in Japan through difficult, sometimes impossible, because the the textbooks and articles by Hettner and Has country was rough, the roads poor, and rivers sert. Transport geographers after World War II often in spate. The serious problem was how to have been concerned with analyzing transport carry bulk supplies of heavy goods, rice in par phenomena in relation to regional environment, ticular, from distant parts of Japan to Osaka, and with explaining other phenomena using 34 T. Mizoguchi transport as a variable factor. Then from the relationships between the environment and re latter half of the 1960s, many young transport ligion requires two indispensable approaches, geographers turned to quantitative methods, empirical and symbolic, for the space created which were very useful in analyzing transport by these relationships has both aspects. networks and traffic flow (Aoki 1988). The There are many studies of ancient shrines. studies on this field has become more popular Kimoto (1992) considered the historico and interdisciplinary after 1984, when the new geographical background of three shrines journal Japan Railway History Review was which were carefully constructed to face the founded. Aoki, one of the editors, has pre same direction. Seko (1990) considered the mat sented many instructive papers in the follow ters affecting jingisaishi by the transfer of the ing issues of the journal (Aoki 1986, 1991, capital in ancient Japan. Kan'no (1988) in 1993). Furthermore, he studied the construc quired into the enshrined sites of Aoi Jinja tion of the Ohigawa railway in relation to the which appeared in Engishiki (a collection in 50 development of waterpower plants (Aoki and volumes of the regulations concerning the cer Kurihara 1990). emonies in the palace, the audiences of the offi Miki (1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1994) has cials, the customs of the provinces, etc.) studied the changing functions of railways in Iwahana (1992) found out that the religious the period of modern transport construction. In settlements in the Dewa Mountains (in Yama this series of papers he pursued the following gata Pref.) were located at the border between themes: l) the construction of an industrial rail sacred and secular areas. Onodera (1990) stud way during the interwar period, 2) the charac ied patterns and changes of pilgrim routes to teristics of industrial railway built during the Ise Shrine by examining travelers' records left railway building boom in the Taisho period, 3) in the Kanto District. The changes of the pil the regional development of a local public util grim route resulted not only from a rise of ity in the last years of the Meiji period, 4) reor Kompira (in Kagawa Pref.) pilgrimage but also ganization of the railway transportation system from the changes in travelers' attitudes toward under government regulation of transport, and the pilgrimage. He argued that around 1800 5) the formation of the modern transportation the pilgrimage mainly for religious purpose had system in Japan with reference to the relation changed into one oriented more to amusement. between trunk railway and private railway At the same time, the pilgrimage began to at lines. Ohba (1994) reported on the construction tract even lower-upper class. Tanaka (1988) of Tokaido Railway in Shizuoka Prefecture in investigated Osaka route for Togoku pilgrims the 1880s and the attitude of regional society in order to reconstruct the Saikoku pilgrim toward it. route through the western provinces. He also reported on pilgrims who visited 34 sacred sta Religious and Imagined World tions called fudasho in Chichibu area (in Sai tama Pref.) in the postwar period (Tanaka 1990, 1991). A. Kuroda (1992) discussed religious Religious and pilgrim world landscape images from the Hakusan pilgrimage According to Matsui (1993) geography of reli mandala of Kunigami Shrine. Shimazu (1990) gion has four major fields of research. The first argued that temples and shrines, designated as is that of the relationships between the natural fudasho, embodied the bonds of rural com environment and religion. It is necessary to munities. clarify the role of religion in environmental Meaning and symbolic landscapes on pictorial protection, for instance. Secondly, geographers maps of religion study how religion influences social structures, organizations, and landscapes in There is a new trend of studies which tries to local areas. Thirdly, pilgrimage forms another find the thought and meaning expressed in pic major field of research in geography of religion. torial maps. Senda (1991) investigated the per Lastly, geography of religion as the study of ceived spatial structures of ancient Japan from Historical Geography 35

a semiotic point of view. Sasaki (1988, 1990) in words as well as through distorted drawings. proposed a correspondence between behavioral Onodera (1995) also explored the representa context and landscape context, and attempted tions of vegetation in old pictorial maps of to interpret kinai-no-shiishi (territorial making Dewa Province (now Yamagata Pref.) in order by four points) in the context of landscape se to reconstruct its natural environment. Iwasaki miotics, based on the relation between people (1995) described the geographical features in and landscape as treated in research on en Owari Province (now Aichi Pref.) in the late vironmental perception in behavioral geogra Tokugawa period based on many village maps. phy. Yoshida (1989) attempted to extract some cognitive model of space through an analysis of Concluding Remarks spatial representation in pictorial maps and the boundary-making system in early medieval The next decade of historical geography of Japan. He also explicated how to read medieval Japan will be an even more exciting and fruitful pictorial maps in an instructive book edited by one if efforts are continued 1) to discover origi Koyama and Sato (1987). Aoyama (1992) drew nal materials, 2) to introduce methods of other our attention to the imaginary land which was social sciences, and 3) to produce various maps drawn on many maps as a place to which all by GIS (Geographic Information System) in evils were sent away in the medieval and Early order to advance our understanding of spatial Modern ages. However, such a land lost its differentiation of different regions. substance because of the expansion of geo A great many documents are still kept in graphical knowledge, the changes in the shape private houses. We have to discover such doc of the country, the changes in the attitude of uments and utilize them for geographical stud the people and other things. He called such a ies. Studies drawing on interviews, private dia process as a change in cosmology. ries, local gazetteers, local newspapers, etc., are In the Tokugawa period, bakufu (shogunal now needed more than ever. government) and every han (fief governed by While historical geography has been greatly daimyo) made various kinds of pictorial maps influenced by historians' and archeologists' find due to administrative necessity. Kawamura ings, works by some historical geographers (1990), who has published excellent studies on have given impact on those fields: on ancient the pictorial maps for the last twenty years, cities by Senda and Kinda, on ancient roads by recently published 68 provincial maps in the Ashikaga and Kinoshita, on medieval maps by 1630s. Uehara (1992, 1993) examined the con Yoshida, and on Sengoku and Tokugawa castle tents of Keicho county maps and Isonaga (1994) towns by Kobayashi and Yamori. Nevertheless, examined the drawing and writing of the Shoho ideas and research methods from social scineces Yamashiro Kuni Ezu (provincial maps of Ya such as sociology, anthropology and philoso mashiro, drawn in 1644). Onodera (1991) in phy have not been utilized enough in the histor quired into boatmen's perception of rivers as a ical geography of Japan. Young historical ge transportation route from old maps in the To ographers who are engaged in such interdisci kugawa period. He categorized the river maps plinary studies, Shimazu, Ikeya and Abe to into the following five categories: 1) maps pre name just a few leading examples, are explor pared for flood control, 2) maps showing the ing new possibilities of such studies. ownership of the land between levees, 3) maps The study group Katsuragawa Ezu Kenkyu showing the channels for drinking water and kai has established a new way of comprehend irrigation, 4) maps of river transportation, and ing and explaining pictorial maps. Further 5) maps for regional description. While the old more, Kawamura examined numerous maps in maps were prepared for specific purposes, they the Tokugawa period and Arizono has made also reflected living world of the people. Ono mesh maps and their database for the Tokuga dera argued that the representations of the dan wa and early Meiji periods in order to restore gerous spots were strongly related to their per the environments in those days. It is expected ception. The degrees of danger were indicated that the use of GIS will greatly facilitate de 36 T. Mizoguchi tailed regional analysis and make the study of 16-30. (JE) maps more productive in the future. Ashikaga, K. 1990a. Transformation periods of urban (Received Jan. 25, 1996) morphology and community. Historical Geogra (Accepted Mar. 28, 1996) phy 152: 16-19. (J) Ashikaga, K. 1991b. Setabashi to kodai kando (Seta Bridge and ancient government road). In Seta References Karahashi (Seta Bridge), ed. Y. Ogasawara, 113 - 216. Osaka: Rokko Shuppan. (J) Abe, H. 1991. The symbolism of Mt. Fuji in textbooks Chiba,T. 1988. On the depopulation at a lean year in in modern Japan. Geographical Review of Japan feudal Japan. Historical Geography 141: 17-24. (J) 65A: 238-249. (JE) Chiba T. 1990. The appearance and extinction of Akagi, Y., and Sadakata, N. 1988. Landform transfor cities hedged with wall in Japan at the 16th cen mation caused by iron sand mining (kanna tury. Historical Geographic Review 32: 89-108. (J) nagashi) and the reclamation of rice fields on Endo, M. 1990. Mobility of household members of the kanna-nagashi stopes in the Takahashi River Ainu in the Monbetsu district of Hokkaido, basin. Human Geography 40: 197-220. (JE) Japan. Geographical Review of Japan 63A: 221 Ando, M. 1988. Waju: Sono keisei to suii (Villages -236. (JE) surrounded by circle levee: Its formation and Endo, M. 1994. The mobility of household members changes). Tokyo: Taimeido. (J) of the Ainu in the Takashima District of Hok Aoki, E. 1986. A perspective on railway history kaido, Japan, 1834-1871. Geographical Review of studies in Japan. Japan Railway History Review 3: 1-8. (J) Japan 67A: 79-100. (JE) Aoki, E. 1988. Socio-economic transport geography Fujioka, H. 1992. Structure of foreign settlements: in Japan. Geographical Review of Japan 61B: 150 Yokohama and Kobe. Historical Geography 157: -158. 57-84. (JE) Aoki, E. 1991. The development of steam locomotives Fujioka, K., Minamide, S., Ideta, K., and Noma, H. for trunk railways in Japan: A critical essay. 1990. Shintei rekishi chin (Revised historical geog raphy). Tokyo: Taimeido. (J) Japan Railway History Review 9: 7-16. (J) Aoki, E. 1993. A perspective on railway opinion and Fujita, H. 1989. Commercial flows as seen from the activities of the urban people in the 16th century. policy during the interwar period. Japan Raiway History Review 12: 57-65. (J) In Nihon toshishi nyumon 1: Kukan, ed. Y. Taka Aoki, E., and Kurihara, K. 1990. The construction of hashi and N. Yoshida, 43-61. Tokyo: University the Ohigawa Railway: A study of railway for of Tokyo Press. (J) development of water power plants. Historical Fujita, H. 1990. Tamonin-Eishun's purchase at Nara Geography 150: 1-21. (JE) and the flow system in Tamon-in nikki. Memories Aoyama, H. 1992. A study of an imaginary land of Nara University 18: 67-81. (JE) gando. Human Geography 44: 565-585. (JE) Fujita, Y. 1989. The distribution and scale of manage Aoyama, H. 1994. The border line between Arakawa ment of shifting cultivation in Toyone-mura, no-ho and Okuyama-no-sho in the medieval Aichi Prefecture, in the middle years of the Meiji Echigo Province. Human Geography 46: 334-348. era. Memoirs of the Community Research Institute (J) of Aichi University 34: 16-40. (JE) Arai, K. 1994. The environment of forestry products Fujita, Y. 1991. Formation of the mountain villages in rural settlements: The case study of Sambu and the complex branch settlements in Mikawa machi in Sambu-gun, Chiba Prefecture in the east area, in Aichi Prefecture. Memoirs of the Commu ern part of the Kanto Plain. Historical Geography nity Research Institute of Aichi University 36: 1-26. 167: 31-41. (JE) (JE) Arai, Y. 1992. Characteristics of the Senju Vegetable/ Fujita, Y. 1992. Development of the Yoshino Forestry Fruit Market and establishment of the "nageshi" system related to the deforestation of the Kiso group in the early Showa era. Geographical and Hida area in the 17th and 18th century. Review of Japan 65A: 515-528. (JE) Historical Geography 157: 24-42. (JE) Arai, Y. 1994. Market location and market zone reg Fujita, Y. 1993. On the diffusion of the Yoshino ulation in vegetable production areas in the Forestry system in the Meiji era: The first move south part of Saitama Prefecture, in the first ment of afforestation in Japan. Human Geography epoch of Showa era (1929-1937). Geographical 45: 581-602. (JE) Review of Japan 67A: 26-44. (JE) Furuta, E. 1989. A study on the fishing villages Arayama, M. 1989. A study of landscape ideas in established by the fishermen emigrated from Meiji era: "The Japanese landscape" and the Kansai to Kanto district during the Edo era. In Alpine Club. Human Geography 41: 551-564. (J) Nihon no engan bunka (Culture along the seaside in Arizono, S. 1994. Environment of Japan as land use Japan), ed. Kyugakkai Rengo Chosa Iinkai, 275- maps circa 1850 see it. Historical Geography 167: 291. Tokyo: Kokon Shoin. (J) Historical Geography 37

Furuta, E. 1990. The conversion of fish manure and heavy snow zone. Science Reports of the Tohoku its distribution structure in Omi Province during University 38: 104-118. (JE) the Edo period. Human Geography 42: 408-426. Ikeya, K.1991 b. The ecology and the bear ceremony (JE) of matagi settlements in northern Japan. Report Furuta, E. 1991. The distribution structure of fish of International Research Center for Japanese manure in the southeast district in Shimotsuke Studies 27: 5-28. (JE) Province, during the last Edo period. Bulletin of Isonaga, K. 1994. Some consideration about the draw Tokyo Gakugei University (Section 3) 42: 137-155. ing and writing of "Shoho Yamashiro kuni ezu" (JE) of the Uji City Archives. Historical Geography Harada, Y. 1993. The development of small mines in 169: 2-22. (J) Nakatsugawa Village, Chichibu, in the Edo Ito, T. 1989. A coment on the small place "machi" in period, Human Geography 45: 398-415. (JE) Omi Province. Historical Geographic Review 31: Harada, Y. 1994. Forestry and mining in Nakatsu 131-152. (J) gawa Village during the Edo period, Historical Ito, T. 1993. Controllers and periods of construction Geography 168: 1-16. (JE) of irrigation ponds in the Nara Basin: A case Hayami, A. 1992. Kinsei Nobi chiho no jinko, keizai, study of Tenri-shi and Tawaramoto-cho. Human shakai (Population, economy and society in Early Geography 45: 117-138. (JE) Modern Japan: A study of the Nobi region). Tokyo: Ito, T. 1994. Yamato no Kuni ni okeru kodai no nochi Sobunsha. (J) kaihatsu to jorisei ni kansuru kisoteki kenkyu Hirai, S. 1988. The structure of chain migration to (Agricultural land reclamation in ancient period Hokkaido: The case of Yamagata-chiku in the and jori-system in Yamato Province). Nihon Joshi City of Bibai, Hokkaido. Geographical Review of Daigaku Kiyo 43: 79-98. (J) Japan 61A: 727-746. (JE) Ito, Y., 1994. Chisui shiso no fudo: Kinsei kara kindai Hirai, S. 1991. Migration and settlement of immi e (Environment of thought of water control). Tokyo: grants in Hokkaido before World War II. Geo Kokon Shoin. (J) graphical Review of Japan 64A: 447-471. (JE) Iwahana,T. 1992. Dewasanzan shinko no rekishi Hirai, S., and Fujita, H. 1995. Reclamation and irriga chirigatuteki kenkyu (A historical geographical tion system on the Ayukui River alluvial fan, study on the Dewasanzan worship). Tokyo: Meicho located at a branch of the Yoshino River. Journal Shuppan. (J) of Human Science and Arts, Tokushima University Iwasaki, K. 1994. The regional character of cotton 2: 27-60. (J) cultivation in Owari during the late Edo period. Hong, C. 1993. Urban land use in Tokyo in the early Historical Geography 170: 1-25. (JE) twentieth century: A comparison with Edo. Geo Iwasaki, K. 1995. The use of village map in Edo graphical Review of Japan 66A: 540-554. (JE) period as a material for geographical description Ideta, K. 1989. An approach to the reconstruction of on mesoscopic-scale region. Historical Geography manor settlement: The change of rural landscape 172: 39-54. (JE) of Tashibu-no-sho manor in Oita Prefecture, Jannetta, A. 1992. Famine mortality in nineteenth south-western Japan. Historical Geographic century Japan: The evidence from a temple death Review 31: 189-216. (J) register. Population Studies 46: 427-443. Ikeno, S. 1994. Development of the transportation of Kamiki, T. 1991. Establishment of the monetary Ryukyu Yambaru-shin. Tokyo: Roman Shobo system of early modern Japan. Socio-Economic Honten. (J) History 57: 167-178. (JE) Ikeuchi, N. 1989. The relief policy and performance of Kanasaka, K. 1992. A geographical interpretation of the Tokugawa shogunate government during the the introductory verse of Poem No. 737 of the Kyoho famine (1732-33). Historical Geography Man'yoshu and an ancient official port of Wakasa 145: 1-20. (J) Province. Osaka Daigaku Kyoyobu Kenkyu Shu Ikeuchi, N. 1992. Flood and planthopper damage to roku 40: 19-59. (J) crops during Kyoho 17 (1732) and how informa Kanasaka, K. 1995. Environment, landscape and spa tion on the oiling method was circulated. Human tial perception in ancient Japanese classics and Geography 44: 1-24. (JE) historical geography. Historical Geography 172: Ikeuchi, N. 1995. Rice planthopper damage to crops 80-104. (JE) and taxes distribution in the Kinki District in Kandatsu, H. 1987. Sangyo kakumeiki ni okeru chiiki Kyoho 17 (1732). Historical Geography 173: 21 hensei (The industrial development and its effects - 44. (JE) on the regional system of economy in the period of Ikeya, K. 1988. Changes in bear-trapping in Miomote, the Industrial Revolution in Japan). Tokyo: Ocha the Asahi Range. Annals of the Tohoku Geo nomizu Shobo. (J) graphical Association 40: 1-14. (JE) Kaneshige, K. 1992. The transformation of urban Ikeya, K. 1991a. Spatial structure of zenmai gather space in interwar Nagasaki: Landscape formation ing: A case study of the mountain village in the and urban mass consciousness. Human Geogra 38 T. Mizoguchi

phy 44: 68-81. (J) kawa Kobunkan. (J) Kan'no, A. 1988. Researches into the enshrined sites Kinoshita, R. 1988a. Kokufu (Capital of province in of Aoi Jinja appeared in "Engishiki." Historical ancient Japan). Tokyo: Kyoikusya. (J) Geography 141: 25-32. (J) Kinoshita, R. 1988b. Results and problems of recent Katakami, H. 1992. The regional structure of Ezo-chi studies of ancient Japanese roads. Human Geogra in the work of Takeshiro Matsuura (1818-1888). phy 40: 336-354. (J) Historical Geography 158: 22-36. (JE) Kinoshita, R. 1991. Themes in transformation periods Katakami, H. 1993. Regional changes of Ishikari of transportation. Historical Geography 152: 48 during the late Edo period. Human Geography 45: -65. (J) 603-617. (J) Kishi, T. 1973. Nihon kodai sekicho no kenkyu (Study Katsume, S. 1990. The spatial structure of "mura" of the population registers of ancient Japan). Tokyo: (village) territory as seen from the viewpoint of Hanawa Shobo. (J) forestland commons: A case study of the Miyako Kobayashi, K. 1985. Sengoku jokamachi no kenkyu no district, Kuji-machi, Oita Prefecture, Kyushu. (The study of Sengoku castle towns). Tokyo: Tai Human Geography 42: 1-24. (JE) meido. (J) Katsuragawa Ezu Kenkyukai ed. 1988, 1989. Ezu no Kohno, K. 1990. Transformation of the central place kosumoroji (The cosmology of pictorial maps). Part system in the Nagano Basin from the early Meiji 1 and Part 2. Kyoto: Chijin Shobo. (J) era to the post-war period. Geographical Review Kawaguchi, H. 1988. Long distance marriage in Kinki of Japan 63A: 1-28. (JE) District, the 17-19th century. Historical Geogra Kohno, K. 1993. Hotel guests' home regions and their phy 140: 1-16. (JE) transformation of Komoro, Nagano Prefecture, Kawaguchi, H. 1990. The development of a historical during the modernization period: A historical demographic data base system for analyzing the analysis of a middle-order central place. Geo shumon-aratame-cho: Japanese religious investi graphical Review of Japan 66A: 59-80. (JE) gation registers in the Tokugawa period. Histori Kojima, Y. 1994. Tsukonken to haigusha sentaku cal Geography 151: 16-33. (J) (Marriage pattern and choise of spouse). Journal Kawaguchi, H. 1994. A case of infanticide in north of Kobe City University for Foreign Languages 31: eastern Tokugawa Japan. En Marge de l'Histoire 71-102. (J) 29: 1-18. (JE) Koyama, Y. 1987. Shoen sonraku no kaihatsu to Kawahara, N. 1992. The sphere of marriage around keikan (Development and landscape of manor vil the Second World War in former Nishida Village, lages). In Ezu ni miru shoen no sekai (A world of Fukui Prefecture, Japan. Historical Geography manor maps), ed. Y. Koyama and K. Sato. 85-104. 161: 28-40. (JE) Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. (J) Kawamura, H. 1990. Kuniezu (Pictorial maps of the Koyama,Y., and Sato, K. eds. 1987. Ezu ni miru shoen provinces). Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan. (J) no sekai (A world of manor maps). Tokyo: Univer Kawasaki, T. 1992. The location of banks and region sity of Tokyo Press. (J) al characteristics from early Meiji era to Taisho Kuroda, A. 1992. Religious landscape images from era in Toshin region of Nagano Prefecture. His Hakusan pilgrimage mandala of Kunigami torical Geography 159: 21-44. (JE) Shrine. Human Geography 44: 708-726. (J) Kawasaki, T. 1995. Changes in investment activities Kuroda, H. 1987. Chusei nogyo to suiron (Agriculture of landowners and their effects on foundation of and water troubles in the medieval times). In Ezu local banks: The case of Saku Basin in the Meiji ni miru shoen no sekai (A world of manor maps), ed. Taisho era. Geographical Review of Japan 68A: Y. Koyama and K. Sato. 105-126. Tokyo: Univer 503-526. (JE) sity of Tokyo Press. (J) Kimoto, M. 1990. Ancient road system in Nasu dis Kusaka, M. 1991. Kodai keikan no fukugen (Recon trict, Shimotsuke Province. Historical Geography struction of ancient landscape). Tokyo: Chuoko 148: 12-22. (J) ron-sha. (J) Kimoto, M. 1992. Hioki, Mibu-no-kishi and Hikawa Maekawa, K. 1991. Studies of urban archaeology. shrines: One example of the ancient direction Tokyo: Kashiwa Shobo. (JE) faith. Historical Geography 163: 17-37. (JE) Masai, Y. 1990. From a feudal million city to a global Kimura, M. 1988. Sonraku keikan no shiteki kenkyu (A supercity. Geographical Review of Japan 61B: 1 historical study of village landscape). Tokyo: Yagi -16. Shoten. (J) Matsui, K. 1993. Development of geography of reli Kinda, A. 1993a. Kodai Nihon no keikan: Hokaku gion in Japan. Human Geography 45: 515-533. puran no seitai to ninshiki (The landscape of an (JE) cient Japan: Ecology and perception of the grid pat Miki, M. 1988. The functional change of railways in tern plan). Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan. (J) the period of modern transport construction. His Kinda, A. 1993b. Bichikei to chusei sonraku (Micro torical Geography 143: 1-22. (JE) topography and medieval villages). Tokyo: Yoshi Miki, M. 1989. The construction of an industrial Historical Geography 39

railway during the interwar period: A case stttttudy Senboku-gun, Osaka Prefecture in the 1910's. of cement industry and the Sangi Railway, Mie Human Geography 42: 483-502. (JE) Prefecture. Historical Geography 147: 10-22. (J) Nakamura, K. 1988. The honai za trade and the Miki, M. 1990. The characteristics of industrial rail markets in medival Omi Province. Studies in ways built during the railway building boom in Market History 5: 1-21. (JE) the Taisho era: A case in the Tobi district, south Nakamura, T. 1990. Restorable study of the ancient eastern Okayama Prefecture. Human Geography Mimasaka Road, a branch of Sanyo Road. Histor 42: 50-65. (JE) ical Geography 150: 22-34. (J) Miki, M. 1991. The regional development of a local Nakanishi, R. 1990. Farm management and labor public utility in the last years of the Meiji era: A composition under a small landlord in western case of the linan district, the southern part of Mie Ibaraki Prefecture from the late Meiji era to the Prefecture. Human Geography 43: 328-347. (JE) early Showa era. Human Geography 42: 317-341. Miki, M. 1992. Reorganization of the regional trans (JE) formation system under government regulation Nakanishi, R. 1992. Population fluctuation in a cotten of transport. Geographical Review of Japan 65A: producing village, Kawachi Province in the late 548-568. (JE) Edo period. Studies of Kagoshima Womens' Col Miki, M. 1994. Formation of the modern transporta lege 27: 31-44. (J) tion system in Japan in terms of the relation Nakanishi, R. 1994. Distribution of cattle and farm between trunk railway and private railway lines. ing houses and regional differences in plowing Geographical Review of Japan 67A: 677-700. (JE) with draft animals in Japan in the 1880s. Histor Minamide, S. 1991. The impact of sovereignty trans ical Geography 169: 2-22. (JE) fer on the settlement pattern of Sakhalin Island. Nakano, E. 1989. Kii-no-kuni no jorisei (Jori system in In The Geography of border landscapes, ed. D. Kui Province). Tokyo: Kokon Shoin. (J) Rumley and J. V. Minghi, 104-128. London: Nakashima, K. 1989. Utilization of pastureland at the Routledge. foot of Mt. Aso in the modern era: Rethinking the Miura, H. 1991. Historical geography of horse and man-environment relationship. Geographical cattle breeding in the southern part of the central Review of Japan 62A: 708-733. (JE) highland. Historical Geography 154: 18-36. (JE) Nakasato, T. 1990. The study on the imports of Miyaguchi, T. 1992. Socio-economic change of iso Korean cattle and its transactions in Japan at the lated mountain villages and vitalization of depop Meiji and Taisho periods. Historical Geographic ulated areas in Japan: A case of Momiki Village of Review 32: 129-160. (J) central Kyushu. Regional Views (Komazawa Uni Nakatsuka, R. 1989. The location analysis about the versity) 5: 3-21. series of chief mounded tombs: The case study of Mizoguchi, T. 1989. Slash-and-burn field cultivation Yamashiro-Kameoka Basin, Kyoto Prefecture. in pre-modern Japan: With special reference to Historical Geographic Review 31: 51-82. (J) Shirakawa-go. Geographical Review of Japan 62B: Nakayama, M. 1992. The influence of the landform 14-34. characteristics on the cultures of northeast Japan Mizoguchi, T. 1991. Transformation periods of agri and southwest Japan. Historical Geography 157: culture and rural community. Historical Geogra 8-23. (JE) phy 152: 29-44. (J) Nakayama, M. 1994. The development of Sumpu and Mizoguchi, T. 1992. An Analysis of a local farmer's its vicinity: An environmental approach to the diary for 1887. Journal of the College of Liberal history of Sumpu and Abe River. Historical Geog Arts, Toyama University 25: 91-136. (J) raphy 168: 17-32. (JE) Mizutani, T. 1989. Processes of decrease, migration Nishino, T. 1988. The development of electric supply and recovery in urban population after disasters. comapnies and their regional base in Japan Geographical Review of Japan 62A: 208-224. (JE) before 1938: Case studies from central Japan. Motoki, Y. 1993. The role of rice culture in Japanese Human Geography 40: 504-528. (JE) east-west differences. Historical Geography 162: Noma, H. 1989. Traditional irrigation system and 4-17. (JE) inter-village irrigation management groups of Nakafuji, J. 1990. The rise and fall of a licenced gay Omi Basin in the 1910's. Historical Geographic quarter in the later Edo period: A case study of Review 31: 83-130. (J) Shin-Tsushida-machi, located outside of Morioka, Nukata, M. 1993. The location of relics and paleo a castle town. Historical Geography 148: 23-39. (J) geographical changes in the northeastern part of Nakajima, M. 1992. Upland field irrigation of com the Osaka Plain. Human Geography 45: 416-431. mercial crops during the late Edo period and the (JE) early Meiji period. Historical Geography 161: 2 Ohba, S. 1994. Construction of Tokaido Railway in - 27. (JE) Shizuoka Prefecture during the 1880s and the Nakajima, S. 1990. The characteristics of cotton tex attitude of regional society. Geographical Review tile factory owners in several of the villages of of Japan 67A: 833-857. (JE) 40 T. Mizoguchi

Okajima, K. 1989. Intra-urban navigation in the south-western Japan. Geographical Review of Tokyo area in modern times. Human Geography Japan 64A: 447-471. (JE) 41: 489-511. (JE) Sano, S. 1995. The spatial structure of political areas Okajima, K. 1991. Inland navigation in modern city: during the Kofun period. Human Geography 47: A case study in Nagoya. Historical Geography 131-154. (JE) 154: 1-17. (JE) Sasaki, T. 1988. A diffensive character of "kinai-no Okamura, M. 1991. The establishment and the struc shiishi": A case of Nabari-no-Yokawa. Historical ture of the dispersed settelment on the Isawa fan Geography 142: 17-31. (JE) during the early Tokugawa period. Human Geog Sasaki, T. 1990. Factor selection in "kinai-no-shiishi" raphy 43: 305-327. (JE) from the standpoint of landscape semiotics. Okamura, O. 1994. Chichibudani ni okeru ichimachi Human Geography 42: 299-316. (JE) no seiritsu to tenkai (Birth of the market towns Sega, A. 1993. The inheritance of an old folk song and their development in the Chichibudani area). madara in a fishing community: A case study of Historical Anthropology (Univ. of Tsukuba) 23: Wajimazaki, Ishikawa Prefecture. Historical Ge 87-111. (J) ography 165: 25-37. (JE) Onizuka, K. 1992. A note on the planned road pattern Sekido, A. 1994. The socio-spatial organization of of Dazaifu in the 8th century. Human Geography forest-lands and the subjective classification of 44: 81-309. (J) its lands in a shifting cultivation village. Human Onizuka, K. 1995. Relationship between religious Geography 46: 144-165. (JE) places and boundaries in ancient palace cities and Sekido, A. 1995. Land use of rural villages and provincial capitals. Human Geography 47: 1-20. villagers' cognition of environment: Referring to (JE) some discussions concerning research materials Onjo, A. 1992. The "community" and its transforma in Japanese folklore. Historical Geography 172: 2 tion in urban space: Hakata, Fukuoka City, from -16. (JE) the 1910's to the 1930's. Human Geography 44: Seko, S. 1990. On matters affecting jingisaishi by the 341-365. (JE) transfer of the capital in ancient Japan. Historical Onodera, A. 1988. Statistical materials on the river Geographic Review 45-58. (J) transportation in the Meiji period. Historical An Seko, S.1992. The distribution of the imitated animal thropology (Univ. of Tsukuba) 16: 252-276. (J) shooting observance: Mainly concerned with shi Onodera, A. 1990. Patterns and changes of pilgrim kauchi function in Mikawa-Shinano-Tohtohmi routes to Ise Shrine: A study based on travelers' boundary area. Historical Geography 157: 85-97. records left in the Kanto District. Tsukuba (JE) Studies in Human Geography 14: 231-255. (JE) Senda, M. 1991. Kodai Nihon no rekishi-chirigakuteki Onodera, A. 1991. Kinsei kasen ezu no kenkyu (Classi kenkyu (Historical geographical studies of ancient fication and examination of river maps of Edo era). Japan). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. (J) Tokyo: Kokon Shoin. (JE) Shigemi, Y. 1989. On the transfer of property owner Onodera, A. 1994. Development of riverside land and ship of the Mitajiri salt fields in Hohfu City, Ya plain-forest land in Makabe-gun, Hitachi-no-kuni, maguchi Prefecture. Historical Geography 144: 1 in the early eighteenth century: A region trans - 20. (JE) formed by shinden reclamation. Tsukuba Studies Shimazu, T. 1990. Place system and rural com in Human Geography 18: 117-132. (JE) munities: A case study in Japan. Historical Geog Onodera, A. 1995. Natural environment drawn in old raphy 151: 1-15. (JE) pictorial maps: A case study of the Sugiura, T. 1991. Spatial organization and territorial Dewa-no-kuni-ezu's vegetation expression. His ity in the former border area: A case study of the torical Geography 172: 21-35. (JE) Oniyanagi and Aisari districts, northeastern Osako, T. 1994. Nihon no yosan-son: Sono suii to genjo Japan. Human Geography 43: 415-438. (JE) (The sericultural villages in Japan: Transition and Suzuki, S. 1989. The distribution of jori-type land the present). Tokyo: Kokon Shoin. (J) division within the Aizu Basin. Historical Geo Oshiro, N. 1992. Social and historical aspects of land graphic Review 31: 23-50. (J) scape: Focused upon ritual facilities in an Oki Takahashi, M. 1994. Geoenvironment and land use in nawa rural settlement. Historical Geography 159: the recent alluvial plains after the end of ancient 2-20. (JE) age: Particularly in the Kawachi Plain, western Ota, Y. 1995. The circulation of copper cash in East Japan. Historical Geography 167: 1-15. (JE) Asia from the 12th to the early 15th century, Takahashi, S. 1990. Remains of capital cities in East with special reference to Japan and China. Socio ern Asia. Human Geography 42: 442-465. (JC) Economic History 61: 156-184. (JE) Takahashi, S. 1994. Nihon kodai toshi kenkyu (A study Sadakata, N. 1991. The influence of iron sand mining of ancient cities in Japan). Tokyo: Kokon Shoin. (J) (kanna-nagashi) on the formation of the Sotoha Takizawa, Y. 1995. Restoration of areal environment ma beach ridges in the Yumigahama Peninsula of and landscapes using cadastral maps: Their effec Historical Geography 41

tiveness and limitations. Historical Geography 99: 128-168. (J) 172: 57-75 (JE) Ukita, T. ed. 1989. Nihon no nosangyoson to sono henyo: Tanaka, T. 1988. Osaka route for Togoku pilgrims: Rekishi-chirigakuteki, shakai-chirigakuteki kosa Reconstruction of the Saikoku pilgrim route tsu (Transformation of Japanese rural, mountain around the western provinces of Japan. Histori ous and fishery villages: Historico-geographical and cal Geography 142: 1-16. (JE) socio-geographical studies). Tokyo: Taimeido. (J) Tanaka, T. 1990. Chichibu pilgrimage in the years of Uranagase, T. 1988. The changes of the price of rice, Showa 30's and 40's: The pilgrims from Kanto the rate of interest and the circulation of bad area. Studies of Osaka Womens' College 15: 13-28. copper coins in the latter half of the sixteenth (JE) century. Studies in Market History 5: 22-34. (JE) Tanaka, T. 1991. Chichibu pilgrimage in the years of Yamachika, H. 1991. Formation of theater districts in Showa 30's and 40's (2): The pilgrims from all precincts of temples and shrines in Kyoto during over Japan. Studies of Osaka Womens' College 16: the late Edo period. Human Geography 43: 439 21-37. (JE) - 459. (JE) Tanaka, T. 1993. Formation of kinsei-son in a moun Yamada, S. 1993. The regional difference within the tainous region of Akuma-mura, Chichibu. Histor merchants' area of a castle town: A case study of ical Geography 164: 20-37. (JE) Sumpu in the Edo era. Historical Geography 166: Tanioka, T. 1993. Whether or not comparisons in 20-33. (JE) terms of historical geography can be made be Yamanaka, S. 1989. Some condition of the changes of tween in the northeast (tohoku) and southwest making region in a local ziba industry: A case (seinan) regions of Japan. Historical Geography study of handmade paper making region in the 162: 33-53. (JE) northern part of Kumamoto Prefecture. Regional Tateishi, T. 1990. Explanatory note: A change of Studies (The Rissho Geographical Association) 29 forestland use. Historical Geographic Review 32: (2): 1-17. (JE) 5-20. (J) Yamazaki, T. 1993. Ownership of cultivated land in Teraya, R. 1989. The development of frontier urban the early Edo era: The case of Hirose Village, the settlement: Takigawa City, Hokkaido. Human Province of Musashi. Historical Geography 166: 1 Geography 41: 6-22 (JE) -19. (JE) Tsuchida, R. 1994. A historical geography on the post Yamori, K. 1988. Jokamachi no katachi (Shapes of town in the Edo era. Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobun castle towns). Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo. (J) kan. (J) Yamori, K. 1992. On the location of the kosatsu in the Tsuchihara, H. 1991. The regional structure of Ta castle town. Historical Geography 157: 43-57. (JE) waramoto jinyamachi in Yamato-no-kuni. Histor Yano, S. 1989. The structure of jinya-town in Oomizo. ical Geography 155: 1-21 (JE) Historical Geographic Review 31: 153-168. (J) Uchida, K. 1991. A geographical study of conflict and Yasugi, J. 1989. The area structure and special qual adjustment concerning irrigation and drainge: ity of the castle town Oomizo. Historical Geog The case of Nishikanbara area in Niigata Prefec raphic Review 31: 169-188. (J) ture. Human Geography 43: 124-142. (JE) Yasuta, H. 1990. A historico-geographical point of Uchida, K. 1992. A geographical analysis of flood view on Yonezawa castle town and its vicinity in control work and local share in expenses: The the outset of the recent times. Historical Geog case of Kokufu River Flood Preventation Cooper raphic Review 32: 69-80. (J) ative on Sado Island. Human Geography 44: 321 Yokoo, M. 1993. The historical transformation of the -340. (JE) urban structure of Akita. Human Geography 45: Uchida, K. 1994. A geographical study on the devel 244-260. (JE) opment and decline of flood prevention coopera Yonekura, J. 1988. How to bridge the gap between tives in Japan. Geographical Review of Japan 67A: archeology and historical geography: In the cases 325-346. (JE) of kokufu, ancient provincial capitals of Chikugo, Uchida, T. 1990. On "mysterious places" for Edo citi Harima and Higo. Historical Geography 143: 36 zens: A humanistic geographical study. Shirin - 46. (J) (Journal of History) 73: 917-944. (J) Yoshida, T. 1989. On shiishi-bouji ezu, or the bound Uehara, H. 1992. Contents of Keicho county-maps. ary-making system and spatial cognition in early Kumamoto Tandai Ronshu 98: 33-72. (J) medieval Japan. Historical Geography 144: 20-43. Uenara, H. 1993. Historical geographical study on (JE) Keicho county-maps. Kumamoto Tandai Ronshu