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Innovation. Perspectives for the 21St Century Innovation: Changing the Face of Disability Hugh Herr and Ernesto Approximately 650 million people in the the physical capabilities of healthy able- Martinez-Villalpando world suffer from some type of disability bodied individuals. The Affective Computing MIT Media Lab and as the population ages this figure is group works towards the development of expected to increase. Those afflicted with technologies to expand our understanding of a physical, emotional or cognitive disability affect and its role in the human experience, face a myriad of serious and debilitating with a focus on autism research and therapy. challenges. Fortunately, the modern The interdisciplinary nature of the work of explosion in scientific and technological both groups integrates a broad gamut of innovations provides an extraordinary disciplines, ranging from medicine to opportunity to deliver profound improvements engineering. to their quality of life. Moreover, the same The Biomechatronics Group and Affective cutting-edge technology that can minimize Computing Group are part of MIT’s Human 2.0 or eliminate the adverse effects of disabling initiative to mitigate the effects of disability conditions can also be used to expand human and redefine the limits of human capability. abilities and transcend the ordinary limits of the human condition. BIoMECHaTRonICS: DISaBLED PEoPLE oR At the Massachusetts Institute of DISaBLED TECHnoLoGIES? Technology’s (MIT) Media Laboratory, the Though often taken for granted, walking Biomechatronics Group and the Affective remains essential in modern life, as stairs, Computing Group are focusing on developing uneven terrain, and other obstacles easily novel technologies that can deeply impact conquered by legs but not wheels remain people’s lives at the physical and emotional ubiquitous. The loss or disability of a leg levels. The Biomechatronics Group seeks tremendously impacts quality of life and to understand the basic principles of patients strive to regain or retain the ability biological locomotion in order to develop to walk even in the presence of severe both rehabilitation technologies that restore impairment. functionality to the physically challenged In the United States there are more and augmentation technologies that amplify than 26 million people with physical HUGH HERR anD ERnESTo MaRTínEz-vILLaLPanDo 367 disabilities including more than 1.7 million comfort. Such technologies cover a large (more than 1 in 200) living with limb loss spectrum, from gel liners and vacuum- (NLLIC, 2008). In order to restore lost assisted sockets to modern interfaces limb functions, prosthetic and orthotic that rely on residual limb laser scanning technology is generally required. The need and computer-aided manufacturing. Two for rehabilitation and prosthetic technology particular technologies that have proved to is latent, as the total number of persons be successful in pain reduction have been with an amputation and using a prosthesis is shock absorbing pylons and dynamic elastic expected to reach 2.4 million by the year 2020 response (DER) prosthetic feet (Perry et al., (Ziegler-Graham, 2008). 1992). The damping and compliance features Currently commercially-available they provide have made them popular in technologies for lower limb amputees most of the commercially available prosthetic are still far from providing fully functional systems. Despite their success in preference replacements of biological legs. Even with the among amputees, abnormal gait patterns most advanced prosthetic systems available and associated with walking fatigue are still on the market, amputees still exhibit clinical prevalent. problems associated with lack of adequate Walking fatigue is synonymous with mobility. These include gait asymmetry, higher metabolic expenditure and is a instability, decreased walking speeds and common affliction of lower-limb amputees. higher energy requirements. Together these Walking fatigue in lower-limb amputees is gait pathologies result in significant pain considerably higher than in their matched and walking fatigue for lower limb amputees able-bodied counterparts at comparable (Postema et al., 1997). speeds. Measures of metabolic expenditure Although the pain felt at the residual limb during walking are commonly obtained by corresponds to the behavior of the entire analyzing oxygen level consumptions. For prosthetic system (i.e. from the liner and unilateral below-the-knee amputees, the socket interface to the pylon and the rest of rate of oxygen consumption is 20-30% higher the prosthetic components), it is particularly (Herbert et al., 1994; Molen, 1973) than that associated with the coupling between the for healthy persons with no impairments, residual limb and the prosthetic leg. The and for above-knee amputees this rate imperfect coupling allows relative motion increases by an additional 25% (James, 1973; between the socket and the femur stump Waters and Mulroy, 1999). caused by the compression of soft tissue. Conventional lower-limb prostheses, This motion is uncomfortable for the amputee despite their damping and compliance and causes a lack of confidence to apply large features, have not provided a real metabolic forces to the prosthetic leg. In addition, the advantage for amputees (Lehmann et al., relatively short moment arm between the hip 1993; Torburn et al., 1990; Colborne et joint and the socket reduces the force that the al., 1992; Huang et al., 2000; Thomas et hip muscles can apply to the artificial limb al., 2000). In addition to higher energetic (Whittle, 1991). requirements, lower-limb amputees show a Recent advances in socket technology reduction in their self-selected speed, and in have reduced pain in patients by focusing consequence they present overall diminished on cushioning, a primary contributor to endurance. 368 Robotic Ankle-Foot Prosthesis Currently commercially- The human ankle joint is essential “ to locomotion because it provides a available technologies for significant amount of energy to push the body off the ground and propel it forward lower limb amputees are during walking, especially at moderate to fast speeds (Winter, 1983; Palmer, 2002; still far from providing fully Gates, 2004). For transtibial (below-the- knee) amputees, the loss of this energy functional replacements of generation at the ankle produces an abnormal asymmetric gait, with higher biological legs metabolic energy requirements and slower ” speeds. Additionally, the mechanical behavior of commercially available ankle- foot prostheses greatly differs from that of a Prosthetic systems ideally need to fulfill healthy human ankle-foot. Even though most a diverse set of requirements in order to of these prostheses offer some compliance restore the biological behavior of normal and function as initial and terminal rockers and healthy limbs. For the Biomechatronics due to their shape, they cannot provide Group, the biomechanics of normal the amount of external energy required walking provide a basis for the design and in walking, making them inadequate in development of new actuated artificial limbs. replicating the natural ankle’s flexibility and This unique biomimetic approach to the actuation (Whittle, 1991). design and development of these prostheses In order to overcome the disadvantages shows promise in improving amputees’ gait of current prosthetic technologies for below- symmetry, walking speed and metabolic knee amputees, the Biomechatronics Group requirements while enhancing the adaptation has developed the world’s first robotic to the particular amputee’s gait. ankle-foot prosthesis that can successfully One of the objectives of the recreate the actions of the biological lower Biomechatronics Group is to develop leg (Au and Herr, 2006; Au et al., 2007). Using sophisticated modular biomimetic leg advanced biologically-inspired design and prosthesis for lower-limb amputees that intelligent computer algorithms, this novel is capable of restoring the functionality device can propel an amputee forward while of the ankle and knee joints of the intact easily adapting to changes in ambulation human leg and fully emulating their natural speed and the walking environment. This behavior. This task poses many challenges artificial ankle-foot prosthesis allows for researchers as they investigate novel amputees to enjoy a natural human gait over electromechanical designs and control level ground, stairs, ramps, and even uneven strategies that can adequately integrate and terrain. Moreover, the device’s low weight and adapt to the patients’ needs. The complete biological form-factor make it comfortable to robotic lower l3 limb is comprised of two wear and inconspicuous to even the trained modular robotic joint prostheses: a powered eye. Most importantly, this innovative device ankle-foot and robotic knee prosthesis. reduces the rate of oxygen consumption in HUGH HERR anD ERnESTo MaRTínEz-vILLaLPanDo 369 walking amputees by up to 20% relative to accurate control of the knee joint, particularly conventional prosthetic devices (Au et al., while the leg is swinging during each step. 2009). The knee cannot be allowed to swing freely The success of the active ankle prosthesis because it will extend too rapidly and stop derives from the Biomechatronics Group’s suddenly as it reaches full extension. On commitment to biomimetic design. The the other hand, the knee joint cannot be so mechanical design of this motorized device rigid that it does not bend in response to imitates the biological structures of the ankle dynamics;
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