UNIT The 14

Learning Objectives

To acquaint oneself with „„Foundation of Mughal rule in India „„’s inability to sustain his rule leading to the establishment of Sur dynasty under Sher Shah „„Sher Shah’s administrative reforms „„Consolidation of Mughal rule during the reign of „„Akbar’s Religious and policy „„Significance of ’s rule „„’s contribution to art and architecture „„’s military conquests and his ruinous Rajput and Deccan policies and his wars against the Marathas „„India during Mughal rule: Development of literature, painting, music, architecture; Bhakti Movement, Sufism Sikhism, spread of Christianity and Islam, trade, commerce, industry, science and technology

Introduction Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, known as the “Great Mughals”, left their mark on Indian India had been invaded from the west/ history. The empire declined after the death north-west several times over the centuries, of Aurangzeb in 1707. The empire formally beginning with Alexander. Various parts of ended a century and a half later, when power had been ruled by foreigners passed to the British crown after the great like the Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Kushans and revolt of 1857. Afghans. The Mughals, descended from the Mongol Chengiz Khan and the Turk , At the height of its power the founded an empire in India which lasted for Mughal empire stretched from Afghanistan to more than three centuries. But we remember Bengal and from Kashmir down to the Tamil them not as rulers of foreign origin, but as region in the south. Mughal rule created a an indigenous, Indian dynasty. was uniform, centralized administration over the founder of the Mughal empire which the entire country. The Mughals, especially was established in 1526 after Babur defeated Akbar, created a polity integrating Hindus Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat. Thus a and Muslims into a unified nation, forging new epoch and a new empire in India began, a composite national identity. In addition, lasting for nearly three centuries beginning the Mughals left behind a heritage of great from 1526 to 1857. Six major rulers of this architecture, literature and art which has dynasty, Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, enriched India.

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 199 29-02-2020 15:45:36 14.1 Zahiruddin Muhammad was trying to expand his territory. Babur Babur (1526–1530) received an embassy from Daulat Khan Lodi, a principal opponent of Ibrahim Lodi, and The race for political Rana Sangha, ruler of Mewar and the chief supremacy in Central of Rajput Confederacy, with a plea to invade Asia amongst the Uzbeks India. When Babur marched to India he first (Turkic ethnic group), the defeated the forces of Daulat Khan Lodi at Safavids (the members Lahore as he had gone back on his promise of the dynasty that to help Babur. ruled Iran patronising Shia Islam) and the Ottomans (Turkish (21 April 1526) Babur people practicing Sunni Babur then turned towards the Lodi- Islam) forced Zahiruddin Muhammad governed Punjab. After several invasions, he Babur, the ruler of Samarkand, to seek his defeated the formidable forces of Ibrahim career prospects elsewhere. Historically the Lodi with a numerically inferior army at trade conducted by countries of Central Panipat. Babur won this battle with the help Asia through the Silk Route with India had of strategic positioning of his forces and provided the required knowledge about the effective use of artillery. Babur’s victory the country (India) they were interested in. provided hopes for him to settle in India Babur who dreamed of repeating what Timur permanently. Babur had conquered Delhi and had done a century and a quarter earlier, Agra, but he still had to suppress the succeeded in founding the Mughal kingdom and the Afghans. with Delhi as its capital in 1526 in the wake of the political disintegration of the Delhi Artillery is an army unit that uses large Sultanate. cannon-like weapons, transportable and Babur, a boy of eleven, inherited usually operated by more than one person. the throne of Samarkand (now a city in Gun powder was first invented by the Chinese th Uzbekistan) from his father. As there were and found its way to Europe in the 13 enemies all round him, he lost his throne but century A.D. (CE). It was used in guns and soon reclaimed it. But soon he realized that, cannons from the mid-fourteenth century with the powerful Safavid dynasty in Iran onwards. In India we have no instances of and the Uzbeks in Central Asia, he should artillery being used in war before Babur. rather turn to the southeast towards India to (1527) build an empire of his own. As a Timurid, Babur decided to take on of Babur had an eye on the Punjab, part of Chittor, who as ruler of Mewar, had a strong which had been Timur’s possession. Between influence over Rajasthan and . Babur 1519 and 1524 when he invaded Bhera, selected Khanwa, near Agra, as a favourable Sialkot and Lahore, he showed his definite site for this inevitable encounter. The ferocious intention to conquer Hindustan, where the march of Rana Sanga with a formidable force political scene also favoured his adventure. strengthened by Afghan Muslims, Mahmud After conquering Kabul and Ghazni, Babur Lodi, brother of Ibrahim Lodi, and Hasan crossed the Indus to India and established Khan Mewati, ruler of Mewat, confronted the a small kingdom. The time for invading forces of Babur. With strategic positioning India was also ripe as there was discontent of forces and effective use of artillery, Babur among the Afghans and the Rajputs, as defeated Rana Sanga’s forces. This victory was Sultan Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty followed by the capture of forts at Gwalior

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 200 29-02-2020 15:45:36 and Dholpur which further strengthened There is a story about Babur’s death. His son Babur’s position. Humayun was ill and Babur in his love for Battle of (1528) him is said to have prayed, offering his own life if his son got well. Humayun recovered. The next significant battle that ensured Babur’s supremacy over the Malwa region was fought against Medini Rai at Chanderi. 14.2 Humayun (1530- Following this victory Babur turned towards 1540 & 1555-1556) the growing rebellious activities of Afghans. Humayun, a cultured and learned person, Battle of Ghagra (1529) was not a soldier like his father. He was faced with the problems of a weak financial This was the last battle Babar fought system and the predatory Afghans. Bahadur against the Afghans. Sultan Ibrahim Lodi’s Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, also posed a great brother Mahmud Lodi and Sultan Nusrat threat. Humayun’s brother Kamran who was Shah, son-in-law of Ibrahim Lodi, conspired in-charge of Kabul and Kandahar extended against Babur. Realising the danger Babar his authority up to Punjab. Humayun marched against them. In the battle that remembering the promise he had made to his ensued along the banks of Ghagra, a tributary father on the eve of his death that he would of Ganges, Babur defeated the Afghans. But treat his brothers kindly, agreed to Kamran’s he died on his way from Agra to Lahore in suzerainty over Punjab to avoid a civil war. 1530 The growth of Afghan power in the Estimate of Babur regions around Bihar and Uttar Pradesh under Babur, the founder of Mughal Empire, the leadership of Sher Khan (later Sher Shah) made Humayun to initiate action. Defeating was a scholar of Persian and Arabic. Babur’s the Afghans at Daurah in 1532 Humayun memoirs Tuziuk-i-Baburi () is besieged the powerful fort of Chunar. After considered a world classic. Babur found a period of four months, Humayun, believing nothing admirable either in the Afghans who the word of Sher Shah that he would be loyal ruled India for some time or in the majority of to the Mughals, withdrew the siege. This the people they governed. But his description turned out to be a great mistake. of India is delightful. Humayun spent the succeeding years of What Hindustan possessed, in Babur’s his life in constructing a new city in Delhi, view, is described as follows: ‘The chief Dinpanah, while his enemies were strengthening excellence of Hindustan is that it is a large themselves. Realising the ensuing danger from country and has abundance of gold and silver. Bahadur Shah who had annexed Rajasthan and Another convenience of Hindustan is that the instigated and provided refuge to all anti-Mughal workmen of every profession and trade are elements, Humayan marched against him. He innumerable and without end.’ captured Gujarat and Malwa and left them under Babur’s dominions were now secure from the control of his brother Askari. Unable to Kandahar to the borders of Bengal. However, put down the rebellions of the Gujarati people, in the great area that marked the Rajput desert Askari decided to proceed to Agra. This alarmed and the forts of Ranthambhor, Gwalior and Humayun stationed at Mandu, for he was afraid Chanderi, there was no settled administration, that Askari would take Agra for himself. Hence, as the Rajput chiefs were quarrelling among abandoning Gujarat and Malwa Humayun themselves. So Babur left a difficult task for pursued his brother. Both the brothers reconciled his son Humayun. after a meeting at Rajasthan.

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 201 29-02-2020 15:45:36 When Humayun was deeply engrossed ability and efficiency, he emerged as the chief in the affairs of Bahadur Shah, Sher Khan had of Afghans in India. His military capability strengthened himself by defeating the ruler of and diplomacy made him victorious over Bengal. Sher Khan captured the fort of Rohtas Humayun and many other Rajput rulers. and Bengal. After capturing Chunar Humayun Malwa fell without a fight. Rana Uday Singh marched to Bengal to confront Sher Khan. of Mewar surrendered without resistance. When Humayun reached Gaur or Gauda he Sher Shah’s next venture to capture Kalinjar received information on the rebellion of Hindal, failed as a gunshot caused his death in 1545. his younger brother. Humayun proceeded to Sher Shah was succeeded by his second son Agra to quell the rebellion. Sher Khan who had Islam Shah who ruled till 1553. His death at been quiet all this time started attacking the a young age led to a state of confusion about army of Humayun. When Humayun reached succession. Humayun used this opportunity Chausa with great difficulty there was a full- to regain Delhi and Agra from the Sur rulers. fledged battle. Sher Shah’s Reforms Battle of Chausa (1539) When Sher Shah was pursuing Humayun, This battle was won by Sher Khan due he had left Khizr Khan as the Governor of to his superior political and military skills. Bengal. Khizr Khan married the daughter of Humayun suffered a defeat in which 7000 the former ruler of Bengal, Sultan Mahmud, Mughal nobles and soldiers were killed and and started behaving like a king. On his return Humayun himself had to flee for his life by Sher Shah ordered him to be put in chains. As swimming across the Ganga. Humayun who one familiar with the problem of provincial had arrived at Agra assembled his army with insubordination, he thought that the real the support of his brothers Askari and Hindal solution to the problem would be to set up to counter Sher Khan. The final encounter a strong administrative system. So he made took place at Kanauj. his government highly centralised. The local Battle of Kanauj (1540) administrative structure of the Delhi Sultanate was followed with certain changes. The village This battle was won by Sher Khan and headmen who were made responsible for the Humayun’s army was completely routed, and goods stolen within the area under their control he became a prince without a kingdom. became vigilant. The welfare of the peasants was 14.3 Sher Shah a prime concern. When the peasant is ruined, Sher Shah believed, the king is ruined. Sher and Sur Dynasty Shah took great care that the movements of From the time the army did not damage crops. He followed a Humayun abandoned flexible revenue system. Land was surveyed and the throne in the Battle of revenue settled according to the fertility of the Kanauj to his regaining soil. In some areas, the jagirdari and zamindari of power in 1555 Delhi systems were allowed to continue. In yet other was ruled by Sher Shah places he arranged to collect only a portion of of the Sur Dynasty. Born the gross produce. in the family of a Jagirdar Sher Shah showed the same concern while and named as Farid, dealing with traders. In order to encourage he received the title of Sher Shah trade, he simplified trade imposts, collecting Sher Khan after killing a taxes only at the point of entry and the point of tiger (sher in Hindi). When he ascended the sale. The standardization of the metal content throne, he was called Sher Shah. Through his of gold, silver and copper coins also facilitated

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 202 29-02-2020 15:45:36 trade. His currency system continued through The fiscal administration for which Akbar the entire Mughal period and became the basis and Todar Mal have been so highly praised of the coinage under the British. was largely based on the methods of Sher Shah. During his short rule, Sher Shah did not have Jagirdari much time for building new cities and palaces. It is a land tenure system developed during He started building a new walled city in Delhi, the Delhi Sultanate. Under the system the which later came to be known as Purana Qila collection of the revenue of an estate and the (Old Fort). He built his own mausoleum in power of governing it were bestowed upon Sasaram. an official of the state. 14.4 Humayun’s Return Zamindari from Exile The term refers to another land tenure system. The word zamindar means After Sher Shah’s death in 1545 his weak landowner in Persian. In Mughal times the successors ruled for ten years. Humayun,who had zamindars were drawn from the class of fled after his defeat at Kanauj, had taken asylum nobles. Akbar granted land to the nobles in Persia. Humayun then went to Afghanistan as well as to the descendents of old ruling with Persian troops. He succeeded in capturing families and allowed them to enjoy it Kandahar and Kabul. But his brother Kamran hereditarily. Zamindars collected revenue did not allow him to hold them in peace. The from the tenants and cultivators and struggle between the brothers intensified, and remitted a fixed amount to the state. yet in the end Kamran had to seek a compromise with Humayun. Meanwhile the had fragmented, and so Humayun’s invasion became For enhancement of trade and commerce easy. The Afghan forces in Punjab, on the approach Sher Shah maintained a robust highway system of Mughals, began to flee. Humayun became the by repairing old roads and laying down new Emperor once again. He died very soon after roads. Apart from repairing the Grand Trunk regaining Delhi when he slipped down the stairs road from the Indus in the west to Sonargaon in of the library in the fort at Delhi. In the colourful Bengal, he also built a road connecting Gujarat’s words of Lane Poole, “Humayun stumbled out of seaports with Agra and Jodhpur. A road was laid his life, as he has stumbled through it.” connecting Lahore with Multan. The highways were endowed with a large network of sarais, rest houses, where the traders were provided with food and accommodation, ensuring brisk commerce. Some of the sarais constructed by Sher Shah still survive. These sarais also ensured the growth of towns in their vicinity. Sher Shah practiced charity on a large scale. He gave stipends from the treasury to destitute people. Sher Shah was an orthodox and devout Sunni. He is said to have dispensed justice Humayun’s Tomb without bias, punishing the oppressors even if 14.5 Emperor Akbar they were nobles or his relatives. Through stern (1556–1605) punishments to rebellious zamindars and nobles and to thieves and robbers he ensured effective During Humayun’s wanderings in the maintenance of law and order in the empire. Rajputana desert, his wife gave birth to a son,

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 203 29-02-2020 15:45:36 Jalaluddin, known as under his regent Bairam Khan. Soon Bairam Akbar, in 1542. Akbar Khan began to behave haughtily towards his was crowned at the fellow nobles. Akbar, enraged by his behaviour age of fourteen. At issued a farman dismissing Bairam Khan. This led the time of Akbar’s to Bairam Khan’s revolt which was ably dealt with ascension, the Afghans by Akbar. Bairam Khan, finally agreeing to submit and Rajputs were still himself to Akbar, proceeded to Mecca. But on his powerful and posed way he was murdered by an Afghan. The family a great challenge. Yet of Bairam khan was brought to Delhi and his son he had a guardian and Abdur Rahim became one of the luminaries of Akbar (Museum of Arts, protector in Bairam Akbar’s court with the title Khan-e-Khanan. Khan. Los Angeles) Akbar’s Military Conquests (1556) Akbar laid the foundation for a great , the empire through his vast conquests. Malwa Hindu general was conquered in 1562 from Baz Bahadur of the displaced who was made a mansabdar in Akbar’s Afghan king Adil court. The Gondwana region of central India Shah, successor of was annexed after a fierce battle with Rani Sher Shah, induced Durgavati and her son Vir Narayan in 1564. the king to permit The ruler of Mewar, Rana Udai Singh, put him to lead the up a great fight before losing Chittor, which Afghan army was conquered by Akbar after a siege of six against the Mughals. months. Rana Udai Singh retreated to the Encouraged by hills. Yet his generals Jaimal and Patta carried the king, Hemu on their fight. Finally, the generals, along with first took Gwalior, 30,000 Rajputs were killed. Out of admiration expelling the The defeat of Hemu for the gallant Jaimal and Patta, Akbar Mughal governor. honoured them by erecting statues to their Then he marched on Agra and captured it without any resistance. Hemu’s generosity memory outside the chief gate of . helped him to overcome potential enemies The capture of Chittor was followed by the when he took Delhi. In November 1556 Akbar surrender of Rajput states like Ranthambhor, marched towards Delhi to meet the forces of Kalinjar, Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer. Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat. An After subordinating the regions of central arrow struck the eye of Hemu when the battle India, Akbar turned his attention to Gujarat, was likely to end in his favour. The leaderless a wealthy province renowned for its maritime Afghan army became demoralised and the commerce. Akbar conquered Gujarat from Mughal forces emerged victorious. Hemu was Muzaffar Shah in 1573. Gujarat became a captured and executed. This victory made launch pad for the annexation of Deccan. Akbar the sovereign of Agra and Delhi and After defeating Daud Khan, the Afghan ruler re-establish the Mughal empire. of Bihar and Bengal, both the provinces were Akbar and Bairam Khan annexed to the Mughal empire in 1576. As a conqueror Akbar triumphed all over Akbar defeated Mirza Hakim of Kabul North India. The first four years of Akbar’s rule with the help of Raja Man Singh and Bhagwan saw the expansion of the Mughal empire from Das. His conquest of Kashmir (1586) and Kabul to Jaunpur, including Gwalior and Ajmer, Sindh (1591) consolidated the empire in

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 204 29-02-2020 15:45:36 MUGHAL EMPIRE Kabul Kashmir UNDER AKBAR Lahore N Kandahar Multan WE Panipat S Delhi Agra Lucknow Ajmer Bihar Allahabad Patna Malwa Bengal Gujarat Gondwana Khandesh Diu Berar Orissa Ahmadnagar

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 205 29-02-2020 15:45:37 the northwest. After achieving the political were bestowed great honours in Akbar’s court. integration of North India Akbar turned his His Rajput policy secured the services of great attention to the Deccan. Akbar’s forces had warriors and administrators for the empire. Raja occupied Khandesh region in 1591. In 1596 Todar Mal, an expert in revenue affairs, rose to Berar was acquired from Chand Bibi, who, as the position of Diwan. Birbal was a favourite the regent of her nephew Muzaffar Shah, the companion of Akbar. Nizam Shahi ruler of Ahmednagar, valiantly Mewar and Marwar were the two Rajput defended Ahmednagar against the Mughal kingdoms that defied the Mughal Empire. After forces of Akbar. By 1600 parts of Ahmed Nagar the death of Rana Udai Singh, his son Rana had fallen into the hands of Mughal forces. Pratap Singh refused to acknowledge Akbar’s Akbar fell sick in September 1604 and died on suzerainty and continued to fight the Mughals 27 October 1605. till his death in 1597. The Rajput Policy in 1576 was the last pitched battle between the Mughal forces and Rana Pratap Singh. In Marwar Akbar took earnest efforts to win the (Jodhpur), the ruler Chandra Sen, son of Maldeo goodwill of the Hindus. He abolished the jizya Rathore, resisted the Mughals till his death in (poll tax) on non-Muslims and the tax on Hindu 1581, though his brothers fought on the side of pilgrims. The practice ofsati by Hindu widows the Mughals. Udai Singh, the brother of Chandra was also abolished. The practice of making Sen was made the ruler of Jodhpur by Akbar. slaves of war prisoners was also discontinued. Akbar’s capital was at Agra in the beginning. His conciliatory Rajput policy included Later he built a new city at . matrimonial alliances with Rajput princely Though a deserted city now, it still stands with its families, and according Rajput nobles high beautiful mosque and great Buland Darwaza and positions in the Mughal court. A tolerant many other buildings. religious policy ensured the cultural and emotional integration of the people. Even before Mansabdari System Akbar, many Muslim kings had married Rajput Akbar provided a systematic and princesses. But Akbar with his broadminded centralised system of administration which nature was instrumental in these matrimonial contributed to the success of the empire. alliances becoming a synthesising force between He introduced the Mansabdari system. The two different cultures as he maintained close nobles, civil and military officials combined relations with the families. into one single service with each officer Akbar had receiving the title of Mansabdar. Mansabdar married Harkha rank was divided into Zat and Sawar. The Bhai (also referred former determined the number of soldiers to as Jodha in each Mansabdar received ranging from 10 popular accounts), to 10,000. The latter determined the number the daughter of of horses under a Mansabdar. Each officer Raja Bhar Mal (also could rise from the lowest to the highest known as Bihari Mal) ranks. Promotions and demotions were made through additions or reductions of Mansabs. of Amber. He also Jodha Akbar married the Rajput princesses of Bikaner and The Mansabdari system diversified the ethnic Jaisalmer. Prince Salim who was born of Harkha base of his nobility. During Akbar’s early Bhai married the daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das. years the nobles were drawn exclusively Raja Man Singh, son of Bhagwan Das, became from Central Asians or Persians. But after the trusted general of Akbar. Even the Rajputs the introduction of the Mansabdari system, who chose not to have any matrimonial alliances the nobility encompassed Rajputs and

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 206 29-02-2020 15:45:37 Shaikhzadas (Indian Muslims). The salary of to ascertain the Truth. Because of the a Mansabdar was fixed in cash but was paid discussions he felt that behind the multiplicity by assigning him a jagir (an estate from which of names there was but one God. The exact he could collect money in lieu of his salary), word used by Akbar and Badauni to illustrate which was subjected to regular transfers. The the philosophy of Akbar is Tauhid-i-Ilahi rank of Mansabdar was not hereditary and namely Din Ilahi. Tauhid-i-Ilahi literally immediately after the death of a Mansabdar, meant divine monotheism. the jagir was resumed by the state. It can be considered a sufistic order but Akbar’s Religious Policy not a new religion. He had become a Pir (Sufi Guru) who enrolled Murids (Sufi disciples) who Akbar began his life as an orthodox would follow a set pattern of rules ascribed by Muslim but adopted an accommodative approach under the influence of Sufism. the Guru. Thousands of disciples enrolled as his Akbar was interested to learn about the disciples. Akbar’s intention was to establish a doctrines of all religions, and propagated state based on the concept of secular principles, a philosophy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace to all). equal toleration, and respect to all sections Badauni, a contemporary author, who did not irrespective of their religious beliefs. He set up a like Akbar’s inter-religious interests, accused big translation department for translating works him of forsaking Islam. Akbar had established in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc, into Persian. The an (1575), a hall of worship Ramayana, Mahabharata, the Atharva Veda, the in which initially Muslim clerics gathered Bible and the Quran were translated into Persian. to discuss spiritual issues. Later he invited The Din Ilahi ceased to exist after Akbar. Christians, Zoroastrians, Hindus, Jains and even atheists to discussions. 14.6 Jahangir (1605–1627) In 1582, he discontinued the debates in Akbar was succeeded by his son Salim with the Ibadat Khana as it led to bitterness among the title Nur-ud-din Jahangir. He was Akbar’s son different religions. However, he did not give by a Rajput wife. His ascension was challenged by up his attempt to know the Truth. Akbar his eldest son Prince Khusrau who staged a revolt discussed personally with the leading lights of with the blessings of Sikh Guru Arjun Dev. Prince different religions like Purushotam and Devi Khusrau was defeated, captured and blinded, (Hinduism), Meherji Rana (Zorastrianism), while Guru Arjun Dev was executed. Jahangir the Portugese Aquaviva and Monserrate also tamed the rebel Afghan Usman Khan in (Christianity) and Hira Vijaya Suri (Jainism) Bengal. Mewar, which had defied Akbar under

Malik Ambar Brought as a slave from Ethiopia to India, changed several hands before landing at the hands of the Prime Minister of Ahmad nagar named Chengiz Khan. Malik Ambar learnt about statecraft, military and administrative affairs from Chengiz Khan. After the death of Chengiz Khan his wife set Malik Ambar free. By dint of his hard work Malik rising through several ranks became the Military Commander and Regent of one of the south Indian Sultanates.

In the Deccan Muslims and Marathas had united to resist Mughal hegemony in their bid to preserve their distinct regional and political identity. Malik Ambar was the brain behind this move. Trained by Malik Ambar the Marathas became a force to reckon with after Malik’s death at the age of 78 on 14 May 1626.

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 207 29-02-2020 15:45:37 Rana Udai Singh and intrigues that prevailed because of Nur-Jahan, his son Rana Pratap led Prince Khurram to rebel against his father Singh, was brought to but due to the efforts of Mahabat Khan, a loyal terms by Jahangir after general of Jahangir, the rebellion could not be a military campaign fruitful. Prince Khurram had to retreat to the led by his son Prince Deccan. The intrigues of Nur-Jahan also made Khurram (later to Mahabat Khan to rise in revolt which was become Emperor effectively handled by Nur-Jahan. Mahabat Shah Jahan) against Khan also retreated to Deccan to join Prince Rana Amar Singh, Jahangir Khurram. Immediately after the death of the grandson of Rana Jahangir, Nur-Jahan wanted to crown her son- Udai Singh. They concluded a treaty whereby in-law Shahryar Khan but due to the efforts Rana Amar Singh could rule his kingdom after of Nur-Jahan’s brother and Prince Khurram’s accepting the suzerainty of Jahangir. In 1608 father-in-law Asaf Khan, Prince Khurram Ahmad Nagar in the Deccan had declared succeeded as the next Mughal emperor with independence under Malik Ambar. the title Shah-Jahan. Nur-Jahan, who ruled Several attempts by prince Khurram the empire for ten years, lost her power and to conquer Ahmad Nagar ended in failure. influence after Jahangir’s death in 1627. Prince Khurram had conquered the fort of Kangra after a siege of 14 months. Kandahar, 14.7 Shah Jahan conquered by Akbar from the Persians in (1627-1658) 1595, was retaken by the Persian King Shah When Shah Jahan ascended the throne in Abbas in 1622. Jahangir wanted to recapture Agra his position was secure and unchallenged. it. But he could not achieve it due to the rebellion of Prince Khurram. Jahangir’s reign Yet the affairs of the empire needed attention. The witnessed the visit of two Englishmen – Afghan Pir Lodi, with the title Khanjahan, who William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe. While had been governor of the southern provinces the former could not get the consent of the of the empire was hostile. Despite Shah Jahan’s Emperor for establishing an English factory in order transferring him from the government of India, the latter, sent as ambassador by King the Deccan, he aligned with Murtaza Nizam Shah James I, succeeded in securing permission to II, the Sultan of Ahmed-Nagar, and conspired establish a British factory at Surat. against Shah Jahan. As the situation turned serious, Shah Jahan proceeded to the Deccan in person. The newly appointed governor of the Deccan, Iradat Khan, who received the title Azam Khan led the imperial army and invaded the Balaghat. Seeing the devastation caused by the imperial troops, Murtaza changed his attitude towards Khanjahan. Khanjahan thereupon fled from Daulatabad into Malwa, but was pursued Sir Thomas Roe in Jahangir's court and finally slain. Peace thus having been restored in the Deccan, Shah Jahan left the Deccan after Jahangir was more interested in art and dividing it into four provinces: Ahmednagar with painting and gardens and flowers, than in Daulatabad; Khandesh; Berar; and Telengana. government. His Persian wife Mehrunnisa, The viceroyalty of the four provinces was renamed as Nur-Jahan by Jahangir, became the conferred by Shah Jahan on his son Aurangzeb, real power behind the throne. The political then eighteen years of age.

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 208 29-02-2020 15:45:37 The Portuguese had authority over Goa Deccan Sultanates under their viceroy. In Bengal they had their After flourishing for over a hundred years chief settlements in faraway Hugli. Shah Jahan the Bahmani kingdom, that covered much ordered the Mughal Governor of Bengal, to of Maharashtra and Andhra along with a drive out the Portuguese from their settlement portion of Karnataka, disintegrated and at Hugli. About 200 Portuguese at Hugli owned powerful nobles carved out new dominions nearly 600 Indian slaves. They had forced many at Golkonda (Qutb Shahs), Bijapur (Adil of them to be baptised into the Christian faith. Shahs), Berar (Imad Shahs), Bidar (Barid Moreover Portuguese gunners from Goa had Shahs) and Ahmad Nagar (Nizam Shahs), assisted the Bijapur forces against the Mughals. which go by the collective name of Deccan Though the Portuguese defended themselves Sultanates or Southern Sultanates. valiantly, they were easily defeated. In 1641, Shah Jahan’s Thus the Deccan was brought under the minister and father-in-law effective control of the Mughal empire during Asaf Khan died. Asaf Khan’s the reign of Shah Jahan. Ahmad Nagar, which sister and Shah Jahan’s old offered resistance to the Mughals, was annexed enemy , survived despite the efforts of Malik Ambar. Shah Jahan, until December 1645, but with the support of Mahabat Khan, subdued lived in retirement and the Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmad Nagar in never caused him trouble 1636. When the Shi’ite Qutub Shahi ruler of again. Nur Jahan Golkonda imprisoned his own minister Mir Jumla it was used as a pretext by Aurangzeb A contemporary of Louis XIV of France, to invade Golkonda. A treaty made the Qutub Shah Jahan ruled for thirty years. In his reign the Shahi ruler a vassal of the Mughal empire. famous Peacock Throne was made for the King. He built the by the side of the Yamuna In 1638 Shah Jahan made use of the at Agra. Europeans like Bernier (French physician political intrigues in the Persian empire and and traveller), Tavernier (French gem merchant annexed Kandahar, conquered by Akbar and and traveller), Mandelslo (German adventurer lost by Jahangir.

European Factories/Settlements during Mughal Rule Portuguese : In 1510, Albuquerque captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur and made it the capital of the Portuguese Empire in the East. Subsequently Daman, Salsette and Bombay on the west coast and at Santhome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on the east coast had become Portuguese settlements. Dutch: The Dutch set up factories at Masulipatam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Bimilipatam (1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsura (1653), Kasimbazar, Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, Nagapattinam (all in 1658) and Cochin (1663). Danes: Denmark also established trade settlements in India and their settlements were at Tranquebar in Tamilnadu (1620) and Serampore, their headquarters in Bengal. French: Surat (1668), Masulipatnam (1669), Pondicherry, a small village then (1673), Chandernagore in Bengal (1690). Later they acquired Mahe in the Malabar, Yanam in Coromandal (both in 1725) and Karaikal (1739). English: The Company first created a trading post in Surat (where a factory was built in 1612), and then secured Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690). Though the Company had many factories, Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras, and the Bombay Castle were the three major trade settlements of theEnglish.

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 209 29-02-2020 15:45:37 Taj Mahal: The Taj Mahal, is the epitome of , a blend of Indian, Persian and Islamic styles. It was built by the Shah Jahan to immortalize his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Mumtaz Mahal died in childbirth in 1631, after having been the emperor’s inseparable companion since their marriage in 1612. The plans for the complex have been attributed to various architects of the period, though the chief architect was Ustad Ahmad Lahawri, an Indian of Persian descent. The complex - main gateway, garden, Taj Mahal mosque and mausoleum (including its four minarets)-were conceived and designed as a unified entity. Building commenced in about 1632. More than 20,000 workers were employed from India, Persia, the Ottoman Empire and Europe to complete the mausoleum by about 1638–39; the adjunct buildings were finished by 1643, and decoration work continued until at least 1647.

and traveller), Peter Mundy (English Trader) and of all the competitors for the throne, Dara Manucci (Italian writer and traveller) visited India Shukoh, Shuja and Murad, in a war of during the reign of Shah Jahan and left behind succession. His reign of fifty years falls into detailed accounts of India. two equal parts. During the first twenty-five During the last days of Shah Jahan, there was years he resided in the north, chiefly at Delhi, a contest for the throne amongst his four sons. and personally occupied himself with the Dara Shukoh, the eldest, was the favourite of his affairs of northern India, leaving the Deccan father. He had been nominated as heir apparent, a in the hands of his viceroys. Around 1681 he fact resented by his brothers. Aurangzeb, the third was prompted by the rebellion of one of his son, was astute, determined and unscrupulous. sons, Prince Akbar, to go to the Deccan. He Dara, professed the Sunni religion, but was deeply never returned to Delhi, dying disappointed interested in Sufism. A war of succession broke at Ahmad Nagar in 1707. out between the four sons of Shah Jahan in which Aurangzeb conducted Aurangzeb emerged victorious. several military campaigns to extend the frontiers of the Dara Shukoh, who lost the battle for the Mughal empire. His wars in throne of Delhi to his brother Aurangzeb, the northwest and northeast was known as the Philosopher Prince. He drained the treasury. brought different cultures into dialogue and Already under his father, found a close connection between Hinduism the revenue of the crops had and Islam. He translated the Upanishads Aurangzeb been raised from a third from Sanskrit to Persian. to a half, and the extensive and the prolonged Aurangzeb imprisoned Shah Jahan and military campaigns he waged required him to crowned himself as the Mughal emperor. keep the peasantry heavily taxed. Aurangzeb Shah Jahan died broken hearted as a royal retained Shah Jahanabad as his capital, but after prisoner in January 1666 and was buried in some two decades the capital was shifted to the Taj Mahal next to his wife. wherever Aurangzeb would set up camp during his long military campaigns. 14.8 Aurangzeb (1658–1707) In the north there were three major Aurangzeb Alamgir (“World Conqueror”) uprisings against Aurangzeb. The Jats (Mathura ascended the throne in 1658 after getting rid district), the Satnamis (Haryana region), and

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 210 29-02-2020 15:45:38 the Sikhs rebelled against Aurangzeb. The Jat rebellious attitude of the Shia kingdoms of rebellion (1669), a constant feature even during Deccan like Golkonda and Bijapur and to the reign of Jahangir and Shah Jahan, was curtail the rebellious activities of his son crushed temporarily but they remained restive Akbar who had taken refuge in the Deccan. even after the death of Aurangzeb. The Satnamis Aurangzeb came to the Deccan in 1682 and revolt was crushed with the help local Hindu remained in the Deccan till his death in zamindars. The Sikh (The Punjab) rebellion 1707. The Adil Shahi ruler Sikkandar Adil erupted due to the political intrigues of Ram Shah of Bijapur resisted the different forces Rai, a claimant for the position of Sikh Guru, sent by Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb first sent his against the incumbent Guru Tegh Bahadur. son Azam Shah (1685) but to no avail. Then This finally ended with the execution of Guru he sent another son, Shah Alam to capture Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru. Bijapur. Though Bijapur Sultan, a Shia Aurangzeb’s decision that the jizya (poll Muslim, ably defended the fort, he lost in the tax) should be levied on Hindus of all classes end, because Aurangzeb himself entered the agitated the chiefs of Rajasthan, who had until battlefield and inspired his forces to fight to then served the empire faithfully. The death the finish. Golkonda was captured in 1687 of Jaswant Singh of Marwar brought about after defeating the ruler Abul Hasan. a succession issue. The Rajput queen Rani Against Marathas Hadi, wife of Raja Jaswant Singh, resented the The Marathas under were a threat move of Aurangzeb to install Indra Singh, a to Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb sent two of his great grandnephew of Jaswant Singh, a titular chief generals Shaista Khan and Jai Singh one after of the state. This led to a revolt with the help the other to capture Shivaji. Jai Singh captured of Rathor Rajputs, but was effectively put Shivaji and took him to Delhi but Shivaji down. The Rana of Mewar, Rana Raj Singh, managed to escape to the Deccan. Shivaji, resenting the interference of Aurangzeb in employing guerrilla tactics, defied the Mughal the affairs of Marwar rose in revolt and he forces till his death at the age of 53 in 1680. was supported by Prince Akbar, the rebellious Aurangzeb was severely tested by the Marathas son of Aurangzeb. However, the Rana could till his death in 1707 as the sons of Shivaji not match the Mughal forces and fought a continued the rebellion. The death of Aurangzeb guerrilla warfare till his death in 1680. In in 1707 marked a watershed in Indian history as 1681 Rana Jai Singh, the new Rana of Mewar, the Mughal empire virtually came to end even signed a peace treaty with Aurangzeb. though the weak successors of Aurangzeb held the throne the next 150 years. Aurangzeb’s Deccan Policy The Deccan policy of Aurangzeb was Aurangzeb against Others motivated by the policy of containing the Aurangzeb nursed a grudge against the growing influence of the Marathas, the Sikhs for having supported his brother and

Gol Gumbaz : Bijapur (modern Vijayapura) was the capital of the Adil Shahi dynasty during1480-1686. It is famous for its magnificent buildings and dargahs. Gol Gumbaz (round dome) is the mausoleum of the seventh ruler of the dynasty Mohammad Adil Shah (1627-1656). Mohammad Adi Shah commissioned the mausoleum in his lifetime. Built of dark grey basalt and decorated plaster, the exterior of Gol Gumbaz is simple but beautiful. On the four corners of the bare walls are four doomed octagonal towers. Each tower has seven storeys and each storey has several windows which give the structure a striking look. The dome is the second largest in the world after St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. The huge chamber of 135 ft each wall and 178 ft high contains an elevated platform on which five cenotaphs are placed. Those are of Muhammad Adil Shah, his wife Arus Bibi, a daughter, a grandson and his favourite mistress Rambha.

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 212 29-02-2020 15:45:38 principal rival to the throne, Dara Shukoh. 14.9 Mughal Society Guru Tegh Bahadur, was killed at Aurangzeb’s The population of India is estimated to command. Aurangzeb sent a formidable army have been around 15 crores in the 16th century under his son Akbar to subdue the rebellious and 20 crores in the 18th century. Large areas Rajput kings, but the emperor had not reckoned of land were under forest cover and the area with his son’s traitorous conduct. Akbar, had under cultivation would have been much less. declared himself the emperor, but was compelled As agriculture was the prime occupation of the to flee to the Deccan, where he enlisted the help society the village community was the chief of Shivaji’s son, Sambhaji. Aurangzeb decided to institution of social organisation. Though the take to the field himself, and eventually drove nature, composition and governance of village his own son into exile in Persia. Sambhaji was differed from place to place there were certain captured in 1689 and executed. The Sultanates similarities in the village administration. of Bijapur and Golkonda were also reduced to The Muqaddam, privileged headman of the utter submission. village, formed the Panch (Panchayat), an Towards the end of his reign, Aurangzeb’s administrative organ of the village. The Panch empire began to disintegrate and this process was responsible for collection and maintenance was accelerated in the years after his death, of accounts at the village level. The Panch when “successor states” came into existence. allotted the unoccupied lands of the village to The empire had become too large and unwieldy. artisans, menials and servants for their service Aurangzeb did not have enough trustworthy to the village. men at his command to manage the more far- The middle class consisted of small flung parts of the empire. Many of his political Mansabdars, petty shopkeepers, hakims appointees broke loose and declared themselves (doctors), musicians, artists, petty officials of independent. Aurangzeb’s preoccupation with Mughal administration. There was a salaried affairs in the Deccan prevented him from class, and received grants called Madad-i-Mash meeting political challenges emanating from from the Mughal emperor, local rulers and other parts of the empire. Shortly after the death zamindars. This section often became part of the of Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire ceased to be rural gentry and a link between the village and an effective force in the political life of India. the town. Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore, Aurangzeb re-imposed jizya. He also Ahmadabad, Dacca and Multan were important issued orders that new temples should not be cities of the empire which could be ranked along constructed; but the repair of old long-standing with contemporary European cities like London temples was permitted. These measures were and Paris. rooted not only in his religious faith but also due The inequality in the standard of life to political compulsions. As a staunch Muslim, amongst the privileged and the underprivileged Aurangzeb had discontinued the practise of classes was clear. Among the lower strata of levying abwab, a tax levied on the lands over and society, the men wore just a langota and the above the original rent, not sanctioned by Shariah. women a sari. Footwear was not common. The Likewise, the order on temples was also an older poor lived in houses made of mud and their one which in practice applied to places where he diet consisted of wheat chapatis with pulses had political adversaries. In areas where there was and vegetables. On the contrary the Mughal no political insubordination, Aurangzeb provided privileged class consisting of zamindars and endowments to build temples. It should be noted nobles led an ostentatious life. The nobles that during the reign of Aurangzeb the number of were Mansabdars who received jagirs or land Hindu officials increased when compared to the grants as payment according to their ranks. reign of Shah Jahan. The jagirdars were exploitative and oppressive

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 213 29-02-2020 15:45:38 Raja Man Singh Raja Birbal Todar Mal in nature. The nobles maintained a large train painters, musicians and singers of both Persian of servants, large stables of horses, elephants, and Indian origin. etc. The nobles lived in fine houses containing The caste system was a dominant institution gardens with fruit trees and running water. in the society. Castes at lower levels were subject They wore the finest of clothing. to much repression. Despite the popular Bhakti The Zamindars, members of dominant clans movement raising the banner of revolt against and castes with armed retainers, were a dominant discrimination, the deprived and disadvantaged class with privilege over lands of the peasants. classes, who were landless peasants, were subject Abul Fazal in his Ain-i-Akbari enlists the castes to forced labour. that were entitled to be zamindars. While mostly The Hindu women had only limited upper caste Hindus and Rajputs were zamindars, right of inheritance. Widow remarriage was in certain localities Muslim zamindars existed. not permitted among upper caste women. The zamindars had the right to evict the peasants, in default of payment of rent. Along with household activities the women were involved in spinning yarn and helped in In Mughal social structure, the nobles came agricultural operations. Mughal administration mostly from Central Asia and Iran. Afghans, discouraged the practise of sati that was Indian Muslims (shaikhzadas), Rajputs and prevalent among communities of the higher Marathas also obtained the status of nobility. It caste. Muslim brides were entitled to receive is estimated that during the reign of Akbar over mehr (money mandatorily paid by the groom) 15% of the nobility consisted of Rajputs. Raja at the time of marriage, and also had the right to Man Singh, Raja Todar Mal and Raja Birbal were inherit property, though it was not equal to the Rajput nobles of repute during Akbar. The Rajputs share of the male members of the family. appointed Kayasths and Khatris for various positions in government administration. Jahangir, 14.10 Economy Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb employed Marathas in their nobility. For example, Shaji, father of Shivaji, The Mughal economy was a forest- served Shah Jahan for some time. based agricultural economy. The forests There were continuous migrations from provided the raw materials for the craftsmen. Central Asia as there were better career Timber went to carpenters, wood carvers and prospects in India. These migrations led to the shipwrights, lacquerware makers; wild silk to enrichment of culture through assimilation reelers and weavers; charcoal to iron miners of diversity. Though the nobility was divided and metal smiths. Hence the relationship on ethnic lines they formed a composite class between manufacturing and the forest was promoting a syncretic culture by patronising very close.

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 214 29-02-2020 15:45:39 Different classes of the rural population of the royal family and nobility. The excess were involved in agriculture. Agriculture was production of the artisans was diverted the chief activity in the economy. Landless to the merchants and traders for local and agricultural labourers without right to distant markets. property formed almost a quarter of the Trade and Commerce population. Zamindars and village headmen possessed large tracts of land in which they The political integration of the country employed labourers and paid them in cash with efficient maintenance of law and order and kind. Well irrigation was the dominant ensured brisk trade and commerce. The mode of irrigation. surplus was carried to different parts of the country through rivers, and through the The Ain-i-Akbari lists the various crops roads on ox and camel drawn carts. Banjaras cultivated during the Rabi and Kharif seasons. were specialised traders who carried goods Tobacco and maize were introduced in the in a large bulk over long distances. Bengal seventeenth century. Chilli and groundnut was the chief exporting centre of rice, sugar, came later. Pineapple was introduced in the muslin, silk and food grains. The Coromandel sixteenth century. Grafted varieties of mango coast was reputed for its textile production. came to be developed by the Portuguese. Kashmiri shawls and carpets were distributed Potato, tomato and guava came later. Indigo from Lahore which was an important centre was another important commercial crop of handicraft production. The movement during the Mughal period. Sericulture of goods was facilitated by letters of credit underwent spectacular growth in Bengal to called hundi. The network of sarais enabled the extent that it became the chief supplier of the traders and merchants to travel to various silk to world trade. places. The traders came from all religious As the farmers were compelled to communities: Hindus, Muslims and Jains. pay land tax they had to sell the surplus in The Bohra Muslims of Gujarat, Marwaris of the market. The land tax was a share of the Rajasthan, Chettiars on Coromandel coast, actual produce and was a major source of and Muslims of Malabar were prominent revenue for the Mughal ruling class. The trading communities. administration determined the productivity Europeans controlled trade with the West of the land and assessed the tax based on Asia and European countries, and restricted the total measurement. Akbar promulgated the involvement of Indian traders. Moreover, the Zabt System (introduced by Todal Mal): the Mughal empire, despite its vast resources money revenue rates were now fixed on each and a huge army, was not a naval power. They unit of area according to the crops cultivated. did not realise that they were living in an era The schedules containing these rates for of expanding maritime trade. different localities applicable year after year were called dasturs. Europeans imported spices, indigo, Bengal silk, muslin, calico and chintz. In The urban economy was based on craft return, India obtained large quantities of industry. Cotton textile industry employed silver and gold. Mughal silver coinage fuelled large numbers of people as cotton carders, the demand for silver. spinners, dyers, printers and washers. Iron, copper, diamond mining and gun making 14.11 Religion were other chief occupations. Kharkhanas were workshops where expensive craft The Mughal period witnessed a continuing products were produced. The royal assertion of all the basic elements in puranic kharkhanas manufactured articles for the use traditions. Though it was difficult to speak

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 215 29-02-2020 15:45:39 of Hinduism as a single body of doctrine, in condemned image worship and rituals, and view of the countless faiths and innumerable the caste system. His popular poetry written customs and practices, having developed in in a simple language was spread orally across mutual interaction and expressed in a large part large parts of north India. in the same language (Sanskrit), the different An interesting aspect of the Bhakti sects of Hinduism yet shared the same idiom poets was that they came from lower castes and the same or similar deities. The sixteenth practising craft and service occupations. and seventeenth centuries were the centuries Kabir was a weaver, Ravidas, a worker in of Vaishnavism. Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas) hides, Sain, was a barber, and Dadu, a cotton a great proponent of Rama cult in his popular carder. The Satnami sect in Haryana credited verses of devotion portrayed Rama as a god its origin to Kabir and his teachings. While incarnate. The expression of bhakti was deeply Sanskrit and Persian were the languages of emotional as the object of bhakti (devotion) was administration and intellectual activity, the Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu. vernacular languages demonstrated their The Bhakti movement made great strides literary vitality. during this period. Poets and saints emerged from various parts of the country. They Sikhism were critical of rituals, and criticised the Sikhism originated as a popular caste system. Rather than using Sanskrit for monotheistic movement, and evolved into expressing their devotion, they employed the one of the recognised religions of the world. language of the common people. The radical Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of Sikhs, ideas, and the easy but catchy language often contained the sayings of Muslim saint Shaikh set to music made them popular among the Farid and of Bhakti poets such as Namdev, masses. Some of the major religious figures Kabir, Sain and Ravidas. Guru Nanak like Vallabhacharya and his son Vitthalnath believed in one God who was formless and propagated a religion of grace; and Surdas, omnipresent. He condemned image worship an adherent to this sect, wrote Sur-Saravali and religious rituals. He stressed ethical in the local language. Eknath and Tukaram conduct, kindness to all human beings and were Bhakti poets from Maharashtra. The condemned caste system. Dasakuta movement, a bhakti movement in Karnataka, popularised by Vyasaraya, turned Sufism out to be a lower class movement. India was a fertile soil for the prevalence The most important figure of the Bhakti of Sufism or Muslim mysticism that had movement was Kabir. Said to be a weaver, its origin in Iran. It was accepted by the Kabir propounded absolute monotheism, orthodox theologians as long as it fulfilled the obligations of the shariah. Sufism played a key role in creating religious harmony. Christianity Along with the European traders came the Christian missionaries like Roberto De Nobili, Francis Xavier. The early missionaries were Catholics. The first Lutheran missionaries under Danish patronage arrived in 1706 at Tranquebar and Ziegenbalg translated the New Testament of the Bible into Tamil in Kabir 1714, and soon the Old Testament as well.

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 216 29-02-2020 15:45:39 14.12 Science and Technology noted for the massive structures decorated with bulbous domes, splendorous minarets, The Madrasas continued to be concerned cupolas in the four corners, elaborate designs, principally with Muslim theology and its and pietra dura (pictorial mosaic work). The vast literature. In great learning centres like mosques built during the time of Babur and Varanasi, astrology was taught and there Humayun are not of much architectural was no institution in India, as noted by the significance. The Sur dynasty left behind a French traveller Bernier, to the standards of few spectacular specimens in the form of the colleges and universities in Europe. This made Purana Qila at Delhi, and the tombs of Sher the imparting of scientific subjects almost Shah and Islam Shah at Sasaram in Bihar. impossible. Attention was, however, given to The Purana Qila with a raised citadel and the mathematics and astronomy. Akbar’s court poet tombs on a terraced platform surrounded by Faizi translated Bhaskaracharya’s famous work large tanks were novel features. on mathematics, Lilavati. Despite the presence During Akbar’s reign, Humayun’s tomb of Europeans, there was no influence of them was enclosed with gardens and placed on a on the Indian society during the Mughal period. raised platform. Built by Indian artisans and The method of water-lift based on pin- designed by Persian architects it set a pattern drum gearing known as Persian wheel had been to be followed in the future. The Agra fort built introduced during Babur’s time. A complicated with red sandstone is a specimen where Rajput system of water lift by a series of gear-wheels architectural styles were also incorporated. The had been installed in Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar new capital city of Akbar Fatehpur Sikri enclosed was also credited with popularizing the device within its walls several inspiring buildings. The of cooling water using saltpetre. He is also the magnificent gateway to Fatehpur Sikri, the Buland first known person in the world to have devised Darwaza, built by Akbar with red sandstone and the ‘ship's camel’, a barge on which the ship is marble is considered to be a perfect architectural built to make it easier for the ship to be carried achievement. The mausoleum of Akbar at Sikandra to the sea. Some mechanical devices like the near Agra started by Akbar and completed by screw for tightening, manually driven belt-drill Jahangir includes some Buddhist architectural for cutting diamonds were in use. Agricultural elements. The tomb of Itimad-ud-daula, father of tools continued to be the same, made entirely Nurjahan, built by Jahangir was the first Mughal of wood. In metallurgy, the inability to produce building built completely with white marble. cast iron remained an obvious drawback. As Mughal architecture reached its apex Irfan Habib observed, ‘India’s backwardness in during the reign of Shah Jahan. The Taj Mahal is technology was obvious when the matchlock a marble structure on an elevated platform, the remained the most common weapon in Indian bulbous dome in the centre rising on a recessed armies. In Europe the flintlock had long gateway with four cupolas around the dome and come into use. Indians continued to use the with four free-standing minarets at each of its expensive bronze cannon, long after these had corners is a monument of universal fame. The become obsolete in Europe. This was because in Delhi, encompassed by magnificent of India’s inability to make cast iron even in the buildings like Diwan-i Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti seventeenth century.’ Mahal and Hira Mahal reflect the architectural Architecture skills of the times of Shah Jahan. The Moti Masjid inside the Agra Fort made exclusively of marble, Architectural progress the Jama Masjid in Delhi, with its lofty gateway, during the Mughals is a series of domes and tall and slender minarets landmark in world art. are the two significant mosques built by Shah Mughal buildings were Jahan. He also established a new township, Shah

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 217 29-02-2020 15:45:39 Buland Darwaza Fatehpur Sikri-Panch Mahal Red Fort jahanabad (present-day Old Delhi) where Red Daswant and Basawan were famous painters Fort and Jama Masjid are located. Aurangzeb’s of Akbar’s court. European painting was reign witnessed the construction of Badshahi introduced in Akbar’s court by Portuguese mosque in Lahore and the marble tomb of Rabia priests. During Jahangir’s time portrait ud daurani, known as Bibi-ka-maqbara (Tomb painting and the painting of animals had of the Lady) at Aurangabad. developed. Mansur was a great name in this The Shalimar Gardens of Jahangir and Shah field. The great Dutch painter Rembrandt was Jahan are showpieces of Indian horticulture. influenced by Mughal miniatures. While Shah Apart from the many massive structures, the Jahan continued the tradition of painting, Mughals contributed many civil works of public Aurangzeb’s indifference to painting led to utility, the greatest of them being the bridge over dispersal of the painters to different parts of the Gomati river at Jaunpur. The most impressive the country and thereby led to promotion of feat is the West Yamuna Canal which provided painting in the provinces. water to Delhi. Music and Dance Mughal architecture influenced even According to Ain-i-Akbari, Tansen of temple construction in different parts of Gwalior, credited with composing of many the country. The temple of Govind Dev at ragas, was patronised by Akbar along with Vrindavan near Mathura and Bir Singh’s 35 other musicians. Jahangir and Shah Jahan temple of Chaturbhuj at Orchchaa (Madhya were patrons of music. Though there is a Pradesh) display Mughal influence. popular misconception that Aurangzeb was Paintings against music, a large number of books on Indian classical music were written during The Mughals achieved international his regime. His queens, princes and nobles recognition in the field of painting. Mughal continued to patronise music. The later miniatures are an important part of the Mughal was instrumental museums of the world. Ancient Indian in inspiring important developments in the painting traditions kept alive in provinces field of music. Paintings in Babur Namah and like Malwa and Gujarat along with the central Padshah Namah depict woman dancing to the Asian influences created a deep impact in the accompaniment of musical instruments. world of painting. The masters of miniature painting, Abdu’s Samad and Mir Sayyid Literature Ali, who had come to India from Central Persian, Sanskrit and regional languages Asia along with Humayun inspired Indian developed during the Mughal rule. Persian was painters. The primary objective of painting the language of administration in Mughal Empire was to illustrate literary works. The Persian and the Deccan states. It influenced even the text of Mahabharata and Akbar Namah were Rajput states where Persian words were used in illustrated with paintings by various painters. administration. Abul Fazal patronised by Akbar

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 218 29-02-2020 15:45:39 Persian works in the form of Sanskrit translations. Akbar’s astronomer Nilakantha wrote the Tajika Neelakanthi, an astrological treatise. Shah Jahan’s court poet Jaganatha Panditha wrote the monumental Rasagangadhara. The greatest contribution in the field of literature during the Mughal rule was the development of Urdu as a common language of communication for people speaking different dialects. Regional languages acquired stability Abul Fazl presenting Akbarnama and maturity and some of the finest lyrical poetry compiled the history of Akbar in Akbar Nama was produced during this period. Abdur Rahim and described Mughal administration in his work Khan-e-Khanan composed Bhakti poetry with a Ain-i-Akbari. The Ain-i-Akbari is commendable blend of Persian ideas of life and human relations for its interest in science, statistics, geography and in the Brij form of Hindi. Tulsidas who wrote in culture. Akbar Namah was emulated by Abdul Awadhi, the Hindi dialect spoken in the eastern Hamid Lahori and Muhammad Waris in their Uttar Pradesh, was very popular for his devotional joint work Padshah Nama, a biography of Shah ideals. Marathi literature had an upsurge due to Jahan. Later Muhammad Kazim in his Alamgir the literary contribution of Eknath, Tukaram, Nama, a work on the reign of the first decade of Ramdas and Mukteshwar during this period. Aurangzeb, followed the same pattern. Babur’s Eknath questioned the superiority of Sanskrit over autobiography written in Chaghatai Turkish was other languages. The verses of Tukaram kindled translated into Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan-e- monotheism. Mukteshwar composed Ramayana Khanan. Dabistan is an impartial account of the and Mahabharata in literary Marathi. beliefs and works of different religions. Persian Krishnadevaraya, the Vijayanagar ruler, literature was enriched by translations of Sanskrit through his Amuktamalyada (an epic poem on works. The Mahabharata was translated under the Tamil woman poet, Andal) and his court Poet the supervision of Abul Faizi, brother of Abul Allasani Peddana with his Manu Charitra were Fazal and a court poet of Akbar. The translation the leading beacons of Telugu literature during of Upanishads this period. Malayalam which had separated by Dara Shukoh, from Tamil as a language received a separate entitled Sirr- literary identity during this period. Ramayana and I-Akbar (the Mahabharata were composed in Malayalam. In Great Secret), is Assamese language the tradition of Bhakti poetry a landmark. The was emulated by Shankara Deva who initiated Masnawis of Abul a new literary tradition. Assamese literary Faizi, Utbi and works were produced in the fields of astronomy, Naziri enriched arithmetic, and treatment of elephants and horses. Persian Poetry in Ramayana and Mahabharata were also retold Dara Shukoh India. in the Assamese language. The Chaitanya cult The Sanskrit works produced during the which portrayed the love of Krishna and Radha Mughal rule are impressive. Sanskrit literature of in poetic verses promoted Bengali literature. The this period is noted for the kavyas and historical Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs poetry. Rajavalipataka, a kavya, written by Prajna compiled by Guru Arjun Dev in which the verses bhatta which completed the history of Kashmir of the Sikh Gurus as well as Shaikh Farid and belonged to reign of Akbar. Graeco-Arabic other monotheists are a landmark in the evolution learning was transmitted to India through of Punjabi language.

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 219 29-02-2020 15:45:39 During this period Tamil literature was „„Akbar’s mansabdari system and inclusive dominated by Saivite and Vaishnavite literature. religious policy as well as consolidation of Kumaraguruparar, a great Saiva poet, is said to have Mughal rule through military conquests, visited Varanasi in the late seventeenth century. notably the second Battle of Panipat, are He composed important literary works such as dealt with. Meenakshiammai Pillai Tamil and Neethineri „„Jahangir’s lack of interest in governance Vilakkam. Thayumanavar wrote highly devotional and Nur Jahan functioning as defacto ruler verses with compassion for all humanity and are discussed. he formulated a sanmarga that tried to bridge „„Shah Jahan’s Taj Mahal, epitome of Mughal differences between the various Saivite sects. The architecture, and the war of succession Christian missionaries like Roberto de Nobili and fought among his three sons are elaborated. Constantine Joseph Beschi (Veeramamunivar) „„The constant wars between Mughals led by contributed much to Tamil language. Aurangzeb and Marathas represented by The empire the Mughals built at the national Shivaji along with Aurangzeb’s Rajput and level made an everlasting impact on India as they Deccan policies are related. knit the fragments into a single political unit, „„The salient features of Mughal society are well aided by an effective central administration. detailed. Multiple identities also got synthesized in the process leading to the evolution of a unique EXERCISE culture that is Indian. Q.R.Code Elsewhere in the World I. Choose the Akbar’s period, 1556 to 1605, Correct Answer was the period of great rulers. 1. Babur won the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 His nearest contemporary with the effective use of ______was Elizabeth of England. (a) Infantry (b) Cavalry Shakespeare was living (c) Artillery (d) Elephant corps around this time. Henry 2. Battle of Ghagra was the last battle fought by IV of France, first ruler of Abbas the Great Babur against______the Bourbon dynasty, and (a) Afghans (b) Rajputs Abbas the Great of Persia, the strongest ruler of (c) Turks (d) Marathas the Safavid dynasty, were ruling their kingdoms 3. ______won the Battle of Chausa due during his period. The revolt of the Netherlands to his superior political and military skills. against Spanish rule in Europe that commenced (a) Babur (b) Humayun during this period lasted for about eighty years (c) Sher khan (d) Akbar and ended in 1648. 4. ______is a land tenure system in SUMMARY which the collection of the revenue of an estate and the power of governing it were „„The four battles Babar fought to establish bestowed upon on official of the state. Mughal dynastic rule is described. (a) Jagirdari (b) Mahalwari „„Humayun’s difficulties because of his brothers and hostility of Afghans and (c) Zamindari (d) Mansabdari Bahadur Shah of Gujarat leading to the rise 5. The fiscal administration of Akbar was largely of Sur dynasty are explained. based on the methods of ------„„Rise of Sher Shah and his revenue and fiscal (a) Babur (b) Humayun measures are highlighted (c) Sher Shah (d) Ibrahim Lodi

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 220 29-02-2020 15:45:39 6. ______was executed by Jahangir for (c) The Battle of Haldighati (1576) was the instigating prince Khusrau to rebel. last pitched battle between the Mughal (a) Guru Arjan Dev forces and Rana Pratap Singh. (b) Guru Har Gobind (d) The Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of (c) Guru Tegh Bahadur the Sikhs, was compiled by Guru Arjun Dev. (d) Guru Har Rai 15. From the following statements, find out the 7. ______reimposed Jizya in his rule. correct answer (a) Akbar (b) Jahangir (i) The ferocious march of Rana Sanga (c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb with a formidable force confronted 8. ______is the first known person in the forces of Babur. the world to have devised the ‘ship’s camel’, a (ii) After the battle of Kanauj, Akbar barge on which a ship is built. became a prince without a kingdom. (a) Akbar (b) Shah Jahan (a) (i) is correct. (c) Sher Shah (d) Babur (b) (ii) is correct. 9. Tansen of ______was patronized by (c) (i) and (ii) are wrong. Akbar. (d) (i) and (ii) are correct. (a) Agra (b) Gwalior 16. From the following statements, find out the (c) Delhi (d) Mathura correct answer 10. Padshah Namah was a biography of (i) Sher Shah repaired the Grant Trunk ______Road from Indus in the west to (a) Babur (b) Humayun Sonargaon in Bengal. (c) Shah Jahan (d) Akbar (ii) Akbar laid the foundation for a great 11. ______was an astrological treatise. empire through his military conquests. (a) Tajikanilakanthi (b) Rasagangadhara (a) (i) is correct. (c) Manucharita (d) Rajavalipataka (b) (ii) is correct 12. Meenakshiammai Pillai Tamil was composed (c) (i) and (ii) are correct by ______. (d) (i) and (ii) are wrong (a) Thayumanavar (b) Kumaraguruparar 17. Assertion (A): Babur won the first Battle (c) Ramalinga Adigal (d) Sivappirakasar of Panipat. 13. Find out the incorrect statement Reason (R): Babur used artillery in the battle. (a) Taj Mahal is the epitome of Mughal architecture, a blend of Indian, Persian (a) A is correct; R is the correct explanation of A. and Islamic style. (b) A is wrong; R is correct. (b) The new capital city of Akbar, Agra, (c) A and R is wrong. enclosed within its wall several inspiring (d) A is correct ; R is not the correct buildings. explanation of A. (c) The Moti Masjid is made extensively of 18. Assertion (A): Towards the end of marble. Aurangzeb’s reign, the Mughal empire (d) The Purana Qila is a raised citadel. began to disintegrate. 14. Find out the incorrect statement Reason (R): Aurangzeb was friendly (a) The Zat determined the number of soldiers towards all Deccan rulers. each mansabdar received, ranging from 1 (a) A is correct; R is not the correct to 10000. explanation of A. (b) Sher Shah’s currency system became the (b) A is correct ; R is the correct explanation basis of the coinage under the British. of A.

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 221 29-02-2020 15:45:39 (c) A is wrong and R is correct. 7. Kharkhanas (d) A is correct but R is wrong. 8. Kabir 19. Which of the following pairs is wrongly 9. Abul Fazal matched. 10. Sufism (a) Bhaskaracharya - Neethineri Vilakkam IV. Answer the following in detail (b) Amuktamalyada - Krishnadevaraya 1. “Sher Shah was the forerunner of Akbar (c) Jagannatha Panditha - Rasagangadhara in revenue administration” – Explain. (d) Allasani Peddana - Manucharita 2. Explain how Akbar’s religious policy 20. Match the following was different from the religious policy of (A) Abul Fazal - 1. Aurangzeb Aurangzeb. (B) Jama Masjid - 2. Akbar 3. How did Aurangzeb’s Deccan policy ruin (C) - 3. Sher Shah the Mughal empire? (D) Purana Qila - 4. Shah Jahan 4. Analyze Mughal society in terms of its (a) 2, 4, 1, 3 (b) 3, 2, 1, 4 economy, trade and commerce. 5. Attempt an essay on the splendour of (c) 3, 1, 4, 2 (d) 1, 3, 2, 4 Mughal architecture. II. Write Brief Answers Activity 1. What prompted Babur to invade India? 1. On the outline map of India, mark the 2. How did Akbar deal with Bairam Khan? following a) extent of Akbar’s empire b) 3. Write a short note on extent of Aurangazeb’s empire. a) William Hawkins b) Sir Thomas Roe 2. Prepare a timeline of Mughal period. 4. Nur Jahan was the power behind the throne 3. Arrange for a debate on “the disintegration during Jahangir’s reign – Explain. of the Mughal kingdom led to the 5. Which is called the epitome of Mughal establishment of European powers in India”. architecture? Explain its structure. Assignments 6. What were the three major uprisings against 1. Preparing an album by collecting pictures Aurangzeb in the North? related to Mughal architecture. 7. Write a note on a) Sikhism b) Sufism. 2. Making a model of Taj Mahal 8. How did the Bhakti Saints become popular 3. Attempting a brief account of important among the masses? battles fought by Mughals during the 9. Describe the development of Tamil language course of their rule, along with pictures and literature during the Mughal period. from instagram. 10. “The Mughals achieved international recognition in the field of painting” – REFERENCE BOOKS Elucidate. 1. Abraham Eraly, Emperors of the Peacock III. Write Short Answers Throne: The Saga of The Great Mughals, Penguin Books, New Delhi, 1997. 1. “Humayun stumbled out of his life as he stumbled through it” – Explain. 2. Irfan Habib, Medieval India, The Story of a Civilization, National Book Trust, New 2. What do you know of Din-i-llahi ? Delhi, 2007. 3. The siege of Chittor by Akbar. 3. Stanely Lane-Poole, Medieval India under 4. The Mansabdari system of Akbar. Mohammedan Rule (AD 712-1764), Delhi, 5. European factories established during the 1963. Mughal rule. 4. Satish Chandra, Medieval India, NCERT, 6. Dara Shukoh New Delhi,

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 222 29-02-2020 15:45:39 5. Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, 2. https://www.britannica.com/topic/ Orient BlackSwan, New Delhi, 2007 Mughal-dynasty 6. R. Sathianathaier, A Political and Cultural 3. www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/ History of India, Vol. II. Madras, 1980. PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab99 4. www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/ INTERNET RESOURCES Mughal_Empire 5. https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/ 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_ History/Mughals/mughals.html Empire 6. www.ncert.nic.in/NCERTS/l/gess104.pdf GLOSSARY

ingenuity inventiveness, cleverness ꯁ鏍鎿埂ர்믈 forsaking abandoning கைힿடப㞪ட்தற்垾க intrigue secret planning of something illicit, plotting 毂폍母殿, ச鎿 鏁ர�ோகத்னமான, ந믍ꮿக்க traitorous disloyal, backstabbing ம�ோச믍 செ뿍垿ற emanating originate, derive, emerge வெ쾿வ쏁垿ன் shipwright ship builder கப㞪쯍 கட翁பவர lacqueware articles that have a decorative lacquer coating மர ஆபரணப ப�ொ쏁쿍 reeler one who winds something on a reel 殿ட்鏍鎿쯍 ꏂ쯍 ꏂற㞪வர கற்பொ잿 믂ல믍 இய柍埁믍 flintlock an old fashioned type of gun fired by a spark from a flint 鏁ப்பா垿 a small dome, on the top of a larger dome, adorning a cupolas க�ோꯁர வ羿வக 埁ힿமாட믍 roof or ceiling

Sources for the Study of Mughal Empire

S.No Name of the Author Work Language Content 1. Babur Tuzuk I Baburi Turkish Autobiography of Babur 2. Mirza Muhammad Haider Tarikh I Rashidi Persian History of Mughals of Central (Cousin of emperor Babur) Asia 3. Gulbadan Begum Daughter Humayun Namah Persian History of Humayun of Babur 4. Abbas Khan Sarwani Tarikh I Sher Shahi Persian Describes the contest between Humayun and Sher Shah 5. Rizaqullah Mushtaqi Waqiat I Mushtaqi Persian Elaborates on Sher Shah and Islam Shah 6. Firishta (in the service of Tarikh I Firishta Persian History of Muhammedan Power Bijapur Sultan Aadil Shah II) in India till 1612. 7. Abul Fazal Akbar Namah Persian History of Mughals with special emphasis on Akbar 8. Abul Fazal Ain I Akbari Persian Administration of Akbar 9. Khwaja Nizamuddin Tabaqat I Akbari Persian Deals with Mughals up to Ahmad Akbar. 10. Abdul Qadir Badauni Muntakhab-Ut- Persian General History of Muslims (Member of Akbar’s Court Tawarikh 11. Jahangir Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri Persian Autobiography 12. Mutamid Khan Iqbal Namah Persian Description of the Mughals 13. Abdul Hamid Lahori Padshah Namah Persian Describes first ten years of reign of Sha Jahan.

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XI History - Lesson 14.indd 223 29-02-2020 15:45:40 ICT CORNER

The Mughal Empire

Let us create the timeline of Mughal Empire.

Procedure Step 1 Type the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page. Step 2 Organize the timeline by clicking ‘Time, Date, Event’. Then type ‘your name’ and ‘project name’’, Click the ‘START’ button. Step 3 Click the timeline (centre line) a window will open. Type the ‘Label’, ‘Short description’, ‘Full description’, and ‘choose image’ of the king. Then click the ‘ ’ button. Step 4 Similarly create for other rulers. Click the ‘Finish’ button. Step 5 Save ‘final’ in the location that you need.

Step4Step3Step2Step1

URL: http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/interactives/timeline_2/

Pictures are indicative only

* if browser requires allow Flash Player or Java Script.

224 Th e Mughal Empire

XI History - Lesson 14.indd 224 29-02-2020 15:45:40