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The basically refers to the Muslim powerful kingdom; therefore, he decided rulers who ruled through Delhi. This basically to conquer a part of Central Asia. came into existence after Mohammed Ghori captured Delhi after defeating Prithviraj. After  In order to make his large and powerful Prithviraj was captured, the Delhi Sultanate went army, Mahmud had needed a huge into the hands of one of Ghori's generals known as property; hence, he decided to attack Qutub-ud-din Aibak. During the end of the 12th India to rob Indian wealth (to accomplish century, he established a series of rulers and this his great ambition). dynasty was called as the slave dynasty since the rulers had been military slaves. Read more about  The first raid of Mahmud began in A.D. the history of the Delhi sultanate in India. 1,000. In a short period of twenty-five years, Mahmud made seventeen raids. The extent of Delhi sultanate was till Bengal in the Meanwhile, he fought battles in Central east and Deccan in the south. Even such a big Asia and in Afghanistan as well. sultanate faced constant threats from the North  Between A.D. 1,010 and 1025, Mahmud West and was also under pressure from internal attacked only on the temple towns in politics within independent nobles. There was northern India, as he had heard that there instability and unrest in the kingdom as there five were much gold and jewelry kept in the dynasties that rose and fell which includes Slave big temples in India. dynasty, Khilji dynasty, Tughlaq dynasty, Sayyid dynasty and Lodhi dynasty. It was under the Khilji  One of these attacks, which is frequently dynasty that most of South India was conquered. mentioned while discussing Medieval The territory was never fixed and depended upon History, was the destruction of the the ability of the ruler as to how much was he able Somnath temple located in western India. to conquer and control.  In 1,030, Mahmud died and the people of The effectiveness of a ruler during this time northern India get relieved. Though depended entirely upon his ability to conquer the Mahmud was destructor for the Indians, places that fell near military highways and trade but in his own country, he was a builder routes, collect land tax for revenue of the state of a beautiful mosque and a large library. and have firm authority over military and state governors. Agriculture and its related activities  Mahmud was the patron of the famous were the main source of livelihood in the kingdom Persian poet, Firdausi, who wrote the epic but due to continued political unrest and poem ‘Shah Namah.’ instability, thepeasants suffered greatly. During this time, Persian language developed to a great  Mahmud sent the Central Asian scholar extent at the places where power was Alberuni to India, who lived here for many concentrated. years and had written his experience, describing the country and the condition of the people. Mahmud of Ghazni  Ghazni was a small kingdom in Afghanistan, which was founded by a Muhammad Ghori Turkish nobleman in the tenth century.  Muhammad Ghori was the ruler of the One of its successors, namely Mahmud Ghor kingdom, a small kingdom of wanted to make Ghazni into a big and Afghanistan. He was the supreme ruler of Ghurid Empire.

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 Ghori was more ambitious than Mahmud, established in the northern India, as he was not only interested in robbing namely Delhi Sultanate. wealth of India, but also intended in conquering northern India and adding it  Over a period of time, the Sultans of Delhi to his kingdom. extended their control up to Bengal in the east and Sind in the west.  Since Punjab had already been a part of the Ghazni kingdom; therefore, it made  During the Sultanate period, there was the easier to Ghori to plan India campaign. problem of the local Indian rulers who had been conquered. Sultans had taken  Muhammad's most important campaign in territories of some rulers and some others India was against the Chauhan ruler, were allowed to keep it. Prithviraj III. In 1191, Prithviraj defeated Ghori; this battle is popularly known as  The rulers who were allowed to keep their the ‘first battle of Tarain.’ territories paid a sum of money as a tribute and agreed to help the Sultan with  In 1192, Muhammad Ghori defeated military support when required. Prithviraj in the second battle of Tarin. The defeat of Prithviraj opened the Delhi  Sultanate had also problems from the area to Muhammad and he began to north-west, for example, the rulers of establish his power. Afghanistan were quiet, but the Mongol people of Central Asia, led by Chenghiz  In 1206, Ghori was murdered and his Khan, made fresh conquests. kingdom in northern India was left in the control of his general Qutb-ud-din Aibak.  The Sultan Iltutmish had faced the administrative problems. However, when  After Muhammad Ghori’s death, slave he died, his daughter Raziya became the sultans were ruled India. sultan and she had to face the problems.

 After Iltutmish, the next important Sultans was Balban, a strong and iron-willed The Slave Sultans (AD. 1206-1290) Sultan. He was more successful in solving  Mamluks were the earliest rulers of the the problems than his predecessors. He Delhi Sultanate. They are also known as defended the Sultanate from the attacks the Slave Kings because many of them of the Mongols. were either slaves or were the sons of slaves and became Sultans.  Balban fought against the local rulers who troubled him. His biggest problem was the  The first of the slave kings was Qutb-ud- nobles who had become very powerful din Aibak, who was the general of and were threatening the position of the Muhammad Ghori. After the death of Sultan. Slowly but firmly, Balban broke Ghori, Qutb-ud-din stayed in India and their power and finally the position of the established his kingdom. Sultan became all-important.

 The ruler of Ghazni tried to annex the  Balban’s success was integrated into his territory held by Qutb-ud-din, but he strategic administrative policy. He failed. When lltutmish succeeded Qutbud- successfully changed the organization of din as Sultan, a separate kingdom was

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the army and curbed the revolt of the  The prices of goods were also closely nobles. controlled so that everyone could afford to pay the price demanded as well as no  Balban encouraged people to do the one could make a large profit. ‘sijdah’ in his presence. Sijdah means, people had to kneel and touch the ground  Alauddin Khilji made a new policy i.e. he with their forehead in salutation to him ordered a new assessment of the (Balban). cultivated land and the revenue. First, the land under cultivation (of his kingdom)  Sijdah, horrified the orthodox Muslims. was measured. And the revenue of these According to Muslims belief, “all men are lands was assessed on the basis of the equal, and therefore, no one should do measurement. the sijdah before anyone else except God.”  Alauddin Khilji campaigned against the kingdoms of and . He tried  Khilji dynasty came after Mamluks and to establish his control over Rajasthan by ruled until A. D. 1320. capturing the famous forts of Ranthambhor and Chittor.

 Under the command of Malik Kafur, Ala- Khilji Dynasty (1290 – 1320) ud-din sent a large army towards the  In 1,290, the Slave Sultans were succeeded south with the intention to conquer the by a new dynasty, known as Khiljis. Jalal peninsula as well as obtain money and ud din Firuz Khilji was the founder of Khilji wealth. dynasty.  Malik Kafur plundered in all directions and  Alauddin Khilji, who was the nephew and collected a large amount of gold from the son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din was one of the various kingdoms of the south, including most ambitious and powerful sultans of the Yadavas (of Devagiri), Khilji dynasty. He wanted to conquer the the Kakatiyas (of Warangal), and world (to become second Alexander). the Hoyasalas (of Dvarasamudra).

 Alauddin Khilji, when became sultan, gave  The defeated rulers were allowed to keep presents (of gold) to the citizens. At the their throne provided they paid a tribute. same time, he also contended that he was Malik Kafur also conquered the city of a strong and powerful ruler and hence, he Madurai. By the time, no north Indian would deal severely with anyone who ruler attempted to penetrate so far in the showed signs of disloyalty. south India.

 Alauddin Khilji raised the land taxes on the  In 1,315, Aladdin Khilji died. After his wealthier people of the Doab (the fertile death, there was a chaotic situation for area between the Ganga and Yamuna the succession. Ambitious Malik Kafur rivers). Further, he strictly monitored the made himself as sultan, but lacked revenue, which the nobles got from their support from Muslim amirs and hence, he land and hence, did not allow them to was killed only after few months. keep anything, which was not their due.  By 1,320, three more Khilji successors assumed power, but no one sustained

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rather killed brutally. Likewise, a new  The moving of the capital was, however, dynasty namely Tughlaq was founded. not successful, as it was too far from northern India, and hence, the Sultan  Tughlaq dynasty came after the Khilji could not keep a watch on the northern dynasty and ruled from A.D. 1320 to 1413. frontiers. Therefore, Muhammad returned the capital back to Delhi.

 Muhammad decided to issue 'token' coins Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 – 1413) on brass and copper, which could be  In 1,320, Ghazi Malik became the king exchanged for silver coins from the under the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq. treasury. This scheme would have Likewise, the ‘Tughlaq’ dynasty began. worked, if he had monitored it carefully and allowed strictly only to the Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq government body to issue token coins.  Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-51), the But it did not happen rather many people eldest son and successor of Ghiyath al-Din started making brass and copper ‘tokens’ Tughlaq, was one of the most ambitious and the Sultan, therefore, had no control and powerful Sultans of Tughlaq dynasty. over the finances. The token coins had to be withdrawn.  Ibn Battutah, the North African Arab traveler, came India during Muhammad-  Unfortunately, Muhammad’s many bin-Tughlaq’s period and he had written administrative policies failed; hence, the detailed description of the gradually he lost the support not only of Muhammad’s kingdom. the people, but also many of the nobles and the ulema.  Muhammad was a man of ideals who attempted as far as possible, to rule on  The ulema were the scholars of Islamic the principles of reason. He was a great learning who were generally orthodox in knowledgeable mathematician and a their outlook. logician. Firoz Shah Tughlaq  Muhammad increased the taxes of the  In March, 1351, Muhammad died. After peasants (especially who were from the his death, his cousin Firoz Shah came to Doab area). However, a famine in the the throne who ruled till 1388. Doab region made condition worse.  Firoz realized that one of the reasons for  As a result of famine, the people refused the failure of Muhammad was that he did to pay the extra taxes and rose in not have the support of the nobles. rebellion; therefore, finally, the Sultan Therefore, Firoz first established a friendly had to cancel his order. relation with them and made them happy by giving them, grants or revenue.  Muhammad also moved the capital from Delhi to Devagiri (which he renamed  Firoz, further, allowed the Daulatabad). As per his strategic plan, orthodox ulema to influence state policy Daulatabad (located nearby modern in certain matters. Thus Firoz improved Aurangabad in ) was a better his relationship with the powerful groups place for controlling the Deccan.

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at the court; however, in spite of all these,  Khizr Khan had taken Delhi from Daulat the power of the Sultan decreased. Khan Lodi and founded Sayyid dynasty in 1414. Sayyid dynasty ruled Delhi until  In the meantime, the governors of certain 1451. provinces, including and Bengal, had rebelled against the Sultanate. Firoz tried  In 1421, Khizr Khan died, hence, his son to control them, but was not very Mubarrak Khan succeeded. Mubarrak successful. Khan represented himself as ‘Muizz-ud- Din Mubarak Shah’ on his coins.  Firoz was interested in improving the general welfare of his subjects. He  Mubarrak Khan ruled till 1434 and he was improved parts of the kingdom by starting succeeded by his nephew Muhammad new irrigation schemes. The Yamuna Shah. ruled till 1445. Canal was one of his schemes.  Muhammad succeeded by Ala-ud-din  Firoz also established a few new towns, Alam Sham, who ruled till 1451. In 1451, such as Ferozpur, Ferozabad, Hissar- Bahlul Lodi became the Sultan and Firoza, and Jaunpur. founded the Lodi dynasty.

 Firoz also constructed many educational  Lodi Dynasty came after Sayyid dynasty centers and hospitals. He was interested and ruled until A.D. 1526. in the ancient culture of India. Firoz order to translate a number of books into Persian and Arabic languages. Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526)  Firoz also owned two of the pillars of the  Lodi dynasty was originally from Afghan emperor Ashoka and one of them was who ruled Delhi Sultanate for about 75 placed on the roof of his palace. years.

 In September 1388, Firoz died, after which Bahlul Lodi there was a civil war among his  Bahlul Lodi, who founded the dynasty and descendants. Because of the political ruled Delhi from 1451 to 1489. After his instability, the governors of many death in 1489, his second son Sikandar provinces became independent kings and Lodi succeeded the throne. finally only a small area around Delhi remained in the hands of the Tughluq Sikandar Lodi Sultans.  Sikandar Lodi took the title of Sikandar Shah. It was Sikandar Lodi who founded city in 1504 and moved capital from Sayyid Dynasty (1413 – 1451) Delhi to Agra.  By 1413, the Tughlaq dynasty ended completely and local governor occupied  Sikandar Lodi, further, abolished the corn Delhi and given way to Sayyid Dynasty. duties and patronized trade and commerce in his kingdom.  In 1398, , the Turkish chief invaded India and robbed Indian wealth. While Ibrahim Lodi returning back, he appointed Khizr  After Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi (the Khan as the governor of Delhi. youngest son of Sikandar Lodi) became

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sultan. Ibrahim Lodi was the last ruler of  As the power of the Sultanate gradually Lodi dynasty who ruled from 1517 to declined, the number of new kingdoms 1526. arose in different parts of the subcontinent. Most of them began as  Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by in provinces of the Sultanate, but later 1526, in the and became independent province. from now established.

Lodi Administration  The Lodi kings tried to consolidate the Sultanate and attempted to curb the power of rebellious governor.

 Sikandar Lodi who ruled from 1489-1517, controlled the Ganges valley up to

western Bengal.

 Sikandar Lodi moved capital from Delhi to Agra, as he felt that he could control his kingdom better from A gra. He also tried to strengthen the loyalty of the people by various measures of public welfare. Rise of Empire

The Nobles Maharaj (Shivaji  During the sultanate period, the nobles Bhosale) was the founder of strong Maratha played a powerful role. Sometimes, they Empire in the west part of India in 17th Century. even influenced state policy and Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (Shivaji Shahaji sometimes (as governors), they revolted Bhosale) was born in the of , near and became independent rulers or else from city Junner ( District), in the year 1630 usurped the throne of Delhi. (19th February’ 1630). His mother Bhosale named him Shivaji in the honor of goddess Shivai  Many of these nobles were Turkish or Devi. Chhatrapati Shivaji was devoted to his Afghani, who had settled in India. mother Jijabai Bhosale, who was extreme  Some of the nobles were men who came religious. This kind of environment had put deep to India only in search of their fortune and impact on Shivaji maharaj. worked for the Sultan. Expansion of Empire and Battles of Shivaji

 After Ala-ud-din Khilji, Indian Muslims and  In the 1659 Adilshah sent Afzalkhan with Hindus were also appointed as officers the army of 75000 soldiers to destroy (nobles). Shivaji with his empire. Chhatrapati Shivaji killed Afzal Khan with full diplomatically.  The Sultan followed the earlier system of He signaled his troops to start the great granting the revenue from a piece of land assault on the Adilshahi Sultanate. or a village to the (noble) officer instead  Shivaji defeated Kaltalf Khan, a sardar of of paying them salary. Shahista Khan in the Battle of Umberkhind with few soldiers (Mavale).

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 Aurangjeb sent his maternal uncle Shahista Revenue Administration Khan with powerful army over 1,50,000 on request of Badibegum Sahiba, Adishahi T he assessment of revenue was made after a sultanate. In the April 1663Chhatrapati careful survey and classification of the lands Shivaji personally made surprise attack on according to their quality and yield. The share of Shahista Khan in the LalMahal Pune. the state was fixed at two-fifths of the gross  Chhatrapati Shivaji sacked ,the produce. The cultivator was given the option of wealthy city of mughal empire in 1664. paying either in cash or kind. Surat was the financial capital of mughal& Besides the land revenue, Shivaji had other trading centre. sources of income, of which the most important  Chhatrapati Shivaji agreed to give 23 forts were the and sardeshmukhi. The chauth and Rs. 4,00,000/- hone, to let his son amounted to one-fourth of the standard revenue become Mughal Sardar and assessment of the place, while the sardeshmukhi ready to meet with Aurangjeb in the treaty was an additional levy of 10 per cent demanded of Purander between Chhatrapati Shivaji from areas outside his kingdom because he and Mirza Raje Jaisingh on behalf of claimed to be the hereditary sardeshmukh (chief Mughal. headman) of the entire Maratha country. These  Chhatrapati Shivaji gained lot of province taxes were levied on those living outside Maratha till jinji in Karnataka after coronation in the kingdom as a safeguard (a kind of protection period of 1677-1678. money) against Shivaji's forces plundering or  Aurangjeb invited Chhatrapati Shivaji to raiding their territory. Agra on occasion of his 50th birth anniversary. However, in the court on 1666 Marathas Consolidation and Northward Aurangjeb made in stand behind military Expansion commanders of his court.Shivaji got angry

and he refused gift which offered by Aurangjeb and stormed out of the court. Mughal Empire (1526 A.D.-1857 He was house arrested by Aurangjeb A.D.) .Chhatrapati Shivaji made supreme plan and succeed to escape from Agra. Babur-

Ashtpradhans of Shivaji His actual name was Zahiruddin Mohammed, son of Omar Sheikh Mirza, the king of Ferghana in It was dministrative and advisory council set up by Afghanistan. His ambition was to conquer the Indian Shivaji which contributed to his Samarkand, the seat of Timur. In 1527 A.D., Babur successful military attacks on the Muslim Mughal defeated in the battle of Kanwa. In the Empire and to the good government of the battle of (1528 A.D.), Babur defeated territory over which he established his rule. Mediniroy. In the battle of Gogra in 1529 A.D., Babur defeated Mohd Lodi, brother of Ibrahim  - Prime Minister Lodi and conquered Bengal. Babur wrote his  Amatya- Finance Department memories in Turkish language. It was called Tuzak-  Sachiv- Home Secretary i-Babari or babarnamah.  Sumant- Foreign Secretary  Nyayadheesh- Judicial Magistarate  Senapati- Commander In chief (1530 A.D.- 1555 A.D.)  Panditrao- relifious matters  Mantri- Day to day activities

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Humayun means ‘the most fortunate’. In 1537 was a great pragmatist. He was the first A.D., he conquered Gujarat. His arch enemy was Muslim ruler to realize that without the help of sher shah. Humayun defeated in the the ’s, no permanent empire could be set battle of Chausa in 1540 A.D. and for the second up in India. In January, 1562 when the Akbar was time in the battle of bilgram (1540 A.D.). The going to to visit the holy shrine of Saint mughals lost delhi in the battle of bilgram for the Chishti, he accepted the submission of Raja first time. Humayun took shelter in the court of Bharmal of Amber and welcomed a matrimonial Rana Prasad of Amarkot. In 1545 A.D., humayun alliance with that Kachhwaha ruling family and on defeated sikandar shah of the suri dynasty in the his return from Ajmer Akbar married with his battle of sarhind and got back delhi. He fell from daughter on 6th February, 1562. his personal library at dinpanah and died. Bharmal with his son Bhagwant Das and grandson Man Singh accompanied the Emperor to Aagra where he was given a command of 5,000 and his Akbar (1556 A.D.- 1605 A.D.) son and grandson were granted commissions in ( October 1556 A.D.) was the imperial army. fought between Akbar and . Hemu took the The Rajput policy of Akbar was wise and title of ‘Raja Vikramajeet’. Akbar was declared the statesman like. He succeeded in bringing the emperor of Hindustan at Kalanoor in sind without majority of the Rajput kingdoms under his being coronated by his tutor Bairam Khan. The authority. What is more important, Akbar was able mughals got back delhi in the second battle of to enlist the support of the in fighting his Panipat by killing Hemu.upto 1562 A.D., the wars. government was called ‘Purdah government’ as maham anaga bagum, the first wife of Humayun , But it would be a mistake to suppose that Akbar’s and bairam khan managed Rajput policy was wholly successful. It was not. He the administration. was unable to break the power and pride of Mewar. It was not till ’s time that Mewar Akbar,s conquests- concluded terms with the Mughals. Even then the In 1562 A.D., Rani durgavati of godwana was Mughal Emperor had to concede to the ruler of defeated. Mewar, a status of special honour and privilege.

In 1564 A.D., Baz bahadur of malwa was defeated. Akbar,s Religious policy-

In 1570 A.D., Dawood khan of Bengal was killed. In 1562 A.D., Akbar banned force conversion.

In 1572 A.D., Muzaffar shah of Gujarat was In 1563 A.D. the pilgrim tax on Hindus was defeated. abolished.

In 1585 A.D, Akbar conquered Kashmir defeated In 1564 A.D. JIzia tax was abolished. Md. Padshah. In 1575 A.D. Akbar constructed Ibadatkhana at In 1600 A.D., Rani chand bibi of Amhmednagar for religious discourses and was defeated bt Abul Fazl who sent by Akbar. this discussions to be conducted every Thursday. was the last conquest of Akbar. Akbar invited father monsuratte and father Akbar,s Rajput policy- Aquinois to speak on Christianity, Pt. Puroshottam on Hinduism, jainasena suri on Jainism and Raza on parsi religion.

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In 1579 A.D., he issued his famous decree of Mir-i-Askan was in charge of the military offences. infallibility called mahazir or Mahzarnama.

It was drafted by sheikh Mubarak. With he decree, Akbar became Mir-i-Adil (chief interpretor of Jahangir (1605 A.D.- 1628 A.D.) konan). In 1582 A.D. akbar founded a new faith His pet name was Sheikh baba. He hung the ‘bell called Din-iillahi. It was also called tauhid-i-illahi of justice’ in . He executed his son meaning universal faith. Its main theme sul-i-khul khusrau and also the fifth guru Arjun Dev for interpreted as ‘peace and harmony’ was supporting him. Mehr-un-nisa begum was given introduced for the first time by abdul latif, the the tilte of ‘Noorjahan’and she became popular as teacher of akbar. din-i-illahi was openly criticized padshah begum. She founded her own group by raja bhagwan das. called junta consisting of herself, her father Mirza Revenue Administration: Ghiaz Beg (itamad-ud-daula)and her brother Asaf khan. Akbar initially followed Sher Shah, revenue systems, particularly the Zabt system. Raja Todal Khurram (shahjahan) made Rana Amar singh of Mal was made the Revenue Minister of Akbar and Mewar accept Mughal suzerainty in1615 A.D. was known as Diwan-i-Ashraf. Todar Mal In 1616 A.D. Khurram conquered Ahmadnagar and introduced ‘Bandobast’, a revenue assessment was given the title ‘Shahjahan’. system classified into four categories: In 1622 A.D.,Persians occupied Kandahar and the Polaj (best tract), Parauti (second best), Checher rd Mughals lost Kandahar forever. Jahangir died at (3 grade) and Banjar (least fertile). On the basis and was buried at Shahdra near Lahore. of the average produce for the last 10 years, the category of land was decided and accordingly tax Shahjahan (1628 A.D – 1658 A.D) was levied. Dastur-ul-Amal was the price list for every area’s agricultural commodities. Akbar  In 1629 A.D., Gujrat and Deccan famine appointed supervisors for revenue collection resulted in the loss of man and material. called karoris at paraganah level.  In 1630 A.D., Portuguese in Hoogly revolted and were driven away from Hoogly by Kasim Khan, Governor of Bengal.  In 1631 A.D., Mumtaz died. Military Administration (Mansabdari System)

The Mansabdari system was the unique administration system under the Mughals. Though Civil War- It was fought between , the introduced by Babur, it was perfected by Akbar. eldest son of Shahjahan and , the third the mansabdars were the civil servants selected son. Begum jahan Ara supported dara and Roshan on merit. They discharged civil, military, and Ara supported Aurangzeb. The secular dara judicial functions on behalf of the state/Emperor followed Qadri Sufi Order and translated and were given land called Jagirs. The highest rank Upanishads into Persian whereas Aurangzeb in Mansabdari of above 5000 was conferred by followed Naqsh Bandi order. Akbar on raja man singh nd Azizuddin Kuka (11,000 sawars). Aurangzeb and his alliance with the fourth son Murad defeated the imperial armies commanded Mir-i-Atish was in charge of artillery. by dara and raja Jaswant singh in the battle of varmat and samugarh in 1658 A.D. shahjahan was Mir-i-Bahari was in charge of navy.

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Medieval History and Culture Booster 2018 imprisoned on the charges of misusing public the Buland Darwaja is about 41 m high and is money. He died in 1665 A.D. perhaps the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, Aurangzeb defeated dara for the third time in the , Birbal’s House and other buildings battle of deorai , performed coronation twice and at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and came to power with the title ‘Alamgir’ meaning Indian elements. ‘king of the world’. Jahangir

During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum Aurangzeb (1658 A.D. -1707 A.D.) was constructed at Sikandra near Agra. He built After coming to the power, Aurangzeb brought the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daula which was about many changes. built entirely of marble.

 He abolished the ‘kalimas’ (inscribing Shahjahan quranic verses on coins). Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the  Mohitisib, the royal censor officer was Mughals. He used marble extensively. Decorative entrusted with the responsibility of design in inlay work, (called pietra duro) beautiful enforcing Koran. arches and minarets were the features of his  The customs duties were fixed at 2.5% for buildings. The and Jama Masjid of Delhi Muslims and 5% for Hindus. and above all the are some of the  In 1669 A.D.he order for the destruction of buildings built by Shahjahan. The Taj Mahal, the temples.h The Kashi Vishwanath temple tomb of Shahjahan’s wife, is built in marble and and Keshavraya twmple in were reflects all the architectural features that were the prominent ones to be destroyed. developed during the Mughal period. It has a  In 1679 A.D.Jizia was reimposed. central dome, four elegant minarats, gateway,  He abolished both, vocal and instrument inlay work and gardens surrounding the main music. He also restrained court astrologer building. and historians; banned celebration of Diwali and Persian Navaroz festival. The Mughal style of architecture had a profound influence on the buildings of the later period. The buildings showed a strong influence of the ancient Indian style and had courtyards and pillars. For the Akbar first time in the architecture of this style living The advent of the Mughals brought a new era in beings- elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds architecture. The synthesis of style which began were sculptured in the brackets. earlier reached its zenith during this time. The Mughal Paintings architecture of Mughal style started during Akbar’s rule. The first building of this rule was The art of textual illustration got a new look under Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. In this magnificent the Mughals. Akbar and his successors brought building red stone was used. It has a main gateway revolutionary changes to painting and sensual and the tomb is placed in the midst of a garden. illustrations. From this period book illumination or Many consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal. individual miniatures replaced wall painting as the Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The most vital form of art. Emperor Akbar patronised Bulund Darwaza reflects the grandeur of the artists from Kashmir and Gujarat; Humayun mighty Mughal empire. This building was made brought two Persian painters to his court. For the following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. The Arch of first time painters’ names were recorded in

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Medieval History and Culture Booster 2018 inscriptions. Some great painters of this period Commerce seems to have penetrated the village were Abd-us-Samad Dasawanth and Basawan. economy to a great extent, since peasants needed to sell their crops in order to pay their taxes. There Beautiful illustrations are found on the pages of was little left them with which to buy any goods and Akbarnama. Within a few years an on the market. Even so, commerce must have integrated and dynamic style resulted from the intensified the already existing differences due to synthesis of Persian and Indian style and the the unequal possession of agricultural and independent style of was pastoral goods (seed, ploughs and cattle). The developed. Between 1562 and 1577 a series of peasants were usually divided among castes. Even nearly 1400 cloth paintings were produced the administration recognized caste hierarchy by representing the new style and were placed in the varying the revenue rates according to caste, as imperial studio. Akbar also encouraged the art of documents from Rajasthan especially show. making portraits. By and large, artisans were in the same position as The art of painting reached its climax during the peasants: they were technically’free’, but hemmed period of Jahangir who himself was a great painter around by many constraints. Though some and connoisseur of art. Artists began to use artisans were bound to render customary services vibrant colours such as peacock blue and red and as village servants, most could sell their wares in were able to give three dimensional effects to the market. The need for advances, however, paintings. Mansur, Bishan Das and Manohar were often forced them to deal only with particular the most gifted painters of Jahangir’s time. merchants, brokers or other middlemen. A small Mansur had made an outstanding portrait of the number worked in the workshops (karkh ana s) of artist Abul Hasan and specialised in paintings of nobles and merchants. birds and animals. Merchants formed a numerous and fairly well- Though was more interested in protected class in the Mughal empire. This class architectural splendours, his eldest son Dara was also quite heterogeneous in composition. Shikoh patronised painting like his gradfather. He There were, on the one hand, the large bands of preferred depicting natural elements like plants the banjara s (transporters of goods in bulk), who and animals in his painting. However withdrawal travelled with pack oxen over enormous distances; of royal patronage to painting under Aurangzeb on the other, there were specialist bankers (sarraf led to the dispersal of artists to different places in s), brokers (dallal s) and insurers (the business of the country. bıma, or insurance, being usually carried on by Economic Condition during Mughal Period sarraf s). Some of them, at the ports, also owned and operated ships. The village was the unit around which peasant society revolved. It was also the real unit of assessment of the state’s revenue demand, which was distributed among villagers by the headman (muqaddam or kalantar ) and the village Persian and Greek invasion: Persian invasion; accountant ( patwar ı). It thus had a financial pool, Alexander, the Great and his legacy. from which not only tax payments but also minor common expenses (kharch-i dih) were met. This seems to have formed the basic factor behind the celebrated, but often elusive, Indian village community.

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India has a varied culture and traditions, many of slackened only after Alexander’s invasion on them have been influenced by the foreign culture. India India being a prosperous and rich country with great civilisation, it attracted the empires from long and many civilisations like Persian and Effects of Persian Invasion Macedonian have invaded India for riches and few settled back while others left country with gold and diamonds. In all the great invasions of Ancient . Impetus to Indo Iranian commerce & trade, India Persian and Greek which finally became the ground for Alexander’s invasion are the major ones. . Use of Kharoshti script bought by Iranian gain popularity in N-W India & some inscription of Ashoka (250 BC) are written in this language

(derived from Aramaic script, written from right to left)

. Influence of Persian art in India, Particularly monolithic pillars , & sculptures found on them Iranian (Persian) & Macedonian (Greek) Invasion along with inscriptions

Persian Invasion (550 BC)- Alexander’s Invasion (327 BC)

. Contemporary to reign of Bimbisara, Persian attacked N-W front of India & After 2 centuries of Persian invasion, Alexander continued to rise in N-E & Central-north in India from Macedonia invaded India. Alexander conquered minor Asia along with Iraq & Iran and . In N-W front of India, several small provinces from Iran he marched into India like Kamboja, Gandhara & Madra did not have a political unity & continuously fought with . Alexander conquered whole of Persia by each other defeating Darius 3 in battle of Arabela (330 BC).

. Archaemadian ruler of Iran, Cyprus took . Herodotus, Father of history, wrote that advantage of this political disunity & invaded fabulous wealth of India attracted Alexander & west front of India. moreover his interest in Geographical enquiry . All Indian tribes west of Indus River submitted & love of natural history urged him to invade to him including Gandhar India

. Darius 1, Grandson of Cyprus conquered Indus . Alexander believed that on eastern side of valley as a whole & annexed Punjab & (N India lies continuation of the sea & hence by W India) conquering India, he would conquer eastern boundary of the world . Xerxes, Successor of Darius, employed Indian infantry & cavalry in war against Greece but got . After conquest of Iran, he marched into India defeated & hence could not move forward in through Khyber pass 327 BC & crossed Indus in India. However, control of Persians over India 326 BC.

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. Ambhi, the ruler of taxila readily submitted to him but Porus whose kingdom lay between Jhelum & Chenab refused to submit to Effect of Alexander’s Invasion Alexander

. 1st contact b/w Europe & India paved the way for increased trade & commerce . Encouraged political unification of India under Mauryas

Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum)

Alexander the Great : Some Key Points . Although Porus had a vast army & fought bravely, but he lost to Alexander

. Alexander, impressed by the bravery of Indian Alexander's campaigns greatly increased contacts prince reinstated him to his throne and made and trade between the East and West, and vast him his ally. areas to the east were significantly exposed to . Then he advanced as far as river Beas, he Greek civilization and influence. Successor states wanted to move further but war weary, remained dominant for the next 300 years during diseased, Hot weather of India & 10 year of the Hellenistic period. continuous fighting led to the refusal of Greek soldiers to move further (Refusal also came because of the enormous power of Over the course of his conquests, Alexander Nandas of Magadha). founded some 20 cities that bore his name, and . Hence, Alexander divided his conquered these cities became centers of culture and territories into 3 Parts & placed them under diversity. The most famous of these cities is 3 Greek governors. Egypt's Mediterranean port of Alexandria.

Hellenization refers to the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest.

Alexander's death was sudden and his empire disintegrated into a 40-year period of war and chaos in 321 BCE. The Hellenistic world eventually settled into four stable power blocks: the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the east, the Kingdom of Pergamon in Asia Minor, and Macedon.

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jostling for position that took place when a clan leader (raja) died meant that Rajput politics were Rajputas fluid and prevented the formation of a coherent Rajput is a caste from the Indian subcontinent. Rajput empire. The first major Rajput kingdom was The term Rajput covers various patrilineal clans the Sisodia-ruled kingdom of Mewar. However, historically associated with warriorhood: several the term "Rajput" has also been used as an clans claim Rajput status, although not all claims anachronistic designation for the earlier Hindu are universally accepted. The term "Rajput" dynasties that succeeded the Gurjara-Pratiharas, acquired its present meaning only in the 16th such as the Chahamanas (of Shakambhari, Nadol century, although it is also anachronistically used and Jalor), the Tomaras, the Chaulukyas, the to describe the earlier lineages that emerged in Paramaras, the Gahadavalas, and the Chandelas. northern India from 6th century onwards. In the These dynasties confronted the Ghaznavid and 11th century, the term "rajaputra" appeared as a Ghurid invaders during the 11th and 12th non-hereditary designation for royal officials. centuries. Although the Rajput identity did not Gradually, the Rajputs emerged as a social class exist at this time, these lineages were classified as comprising people from a variety of ethnic and aristocratic Rajput clans in the later times. Chittor geographical backgrounds. During the 16th and Fort, built by a dynasty of Sisodia Rajputs, is one of 17th centuries, the membership of this class the largest forts in India. In the 15th century, the became largely hereditary, although new claims to Muslim sultans of Malwa and Gujarat put a joint Rajput status continued to be made in the later effort to overcome the Mewar ruler Rana Kumbha centuries. Several Rajput-ruled kingdoms played a but both the sultans were defeated. Subsequently, significant role in many regions of central and in 1518 the Rajput Mewar Kingdom under Rana northern India until the 20th century. Sanga achieved a major victory over Sultan of Delhi Sultanate and afterwards Scholarly opinions differ on when the term Rajput Rana's influence extended up to the striking acquired hereditary connotations and came to distance of Pilia Khar in Agra. Accordingly, Rana denote a clan-based community. Historian Sanga came to be the most distinguished Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya, based on his analysis indigenous contender for supremacy but was of inscriptions (primarily from Rajasthan), believed defeated by the Mughal invader Babur at Battle of that by the 12th century, the term "rajaputra" was Khanwa in 1527. From as early as the 16th associated with fortified settlements, kin-based century, Purbiya Rajput soldiers from the eastern landholding, and other features that later became regions of Bihar and Awadh, were recruited as indicative of the Rajput status. According to mercenaries for Rajputs in the west, particularly in Chattopadhyaya, the title acquired "an element of the Malwa region. heredity" from c. 1300. A later study by of 11th- 14th century inscriptions from western and Mughal period central India, by Michael B. Bednar, concludes that Akbar's policy (Akbar - Shah Jahan) the designations such as "rajaputra", "thakkura" and "rauta" were not necessarily hereditary during After the mid-16th century, many Rajput rulers this period. formed close relationships with the and served them in different capacities Rajput kingdoms It was due to the support of the Rajputs that Akbar The Rajput kingdoms were disparate: loyalty to a was able to lay the foundations of the Mughal clan was more important than allegiance to the empire in India. Some Rajput nobles gave away wider Rajput social grouping, meaning that one their daughters in marriage to Mughal emperors clan would fight another. This and the internecine and princes for political motives. For example,

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Akbar accomplished 40 marriages for him, his sons nineteenth century as being a not particularly and grandsons, out of which 17 were Rajput- reliable commentator. Jason Freitag, his only Mughal alliances. Akbar's successors as Mogul significant biographer, has said that Tod is emperors, his son Jahangir and grandson Shah "manifestly biased". Jahan had Rajput mothers.The ruling Sisodia Rajput family of Mewar made it a point of honour The Rajput practices of female infanticide and sati not to engage in matrimonial relationships with (widow immolation) were other matters of Mughals and thus claimed to stand apart from concern to the British. It was believed that the those Rajput clans who did so. Rajputs were the primary adherents to these practices, which the considered savage and which provided the initial impetus for British ethnographic studies of the subcontinent that Aurangzeb's policy eventually manifested itself as a much wider Akbar's diplomatic policy regarding the Rajputs exercise in social engineering. was later damaged by the intolerant rules introduced by his great-grandson Aurangzeb. A prominent example of these rules included the re- Rise of imposition of Jaziya, which had been abolished by Akbar. However,despite imposition of Jaziya Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (Shivaji Shahaji Aurangzeb's army had a high proportion of Rajput Bhosale) was the founder of strong Maratha officers in the upper ranks of the imperial army Empire in the west part of India in 17th Century. and they were all exempted from paying Jaziya Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (Shivaji Shahaji The Rajputs then revolted against the Mughal Bhosale) was born in the fort of Shivneri, near empire. Aurangzeb's conflicts with the Rajputs, from city Junner (), in the year 1630 which commenced in the early 1680s, henceforth (19th February’ 1630). His mother Jijabai Bhosale became a contributing factor towards the named him Shivaji in the honor of goddess Shivai downfall of the Mughal empire. In the 18th Devi. Chhatrapati Shivaji was devoted to his century, the Rajputs came under influence of the mother Jijabai Bhosale, who was extreme Maratha empire. By the late 18th century, the religious. This kind of environment had put deep Rajput rulers begin negotiations with the East impact on Shivaji maharaj. India Company and by 1818 all the Rajput states had formed an alliance with the company. Expansion of Empire and Battles of Shivaji

British colonial period  In the 1659 Adilshah sent Afzalkhan with the army of 75000 soldiers to destroy The medieval bardic chronicles (kavya and Shivaji with his empire. Chhatrapati Shivaji masnavi) glorified the Rajput past, presenting killed Afzal Khan with full diplomatically. warriorhood and honour as Rajput ideals. This He signaled his troops to start the great later became the basis of the British assault on the Adilshahi Sultanate. reconstruction of the Rajput history and the  Shivaji defeated Kaltalf Khan, a sardar of nationalist interpretations of Rajputs' struggles Shahista Khan in the Battle of Umberkhind with the Muslim invaders. James Tod, a British with few soldiers (Mavale). colonial official, was impressed by the military  Aurangjeb sent his maternal uncle Shahista qualities of the Rajputs but is today considered to Khan with powerful army over 1,50,000 on have been unusually enamoured of them. request of Badibegum Sahiba, Adishahi Although the group venerate him to this day, he is sultanate. In the April 1663Chhatrapati viewed by many historians since the late

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Shivaji personally made surprise attack on T he assessment of revenue was made after a Shahista Khan in the LalMahal Pune. careful survey and classification of the lands  Chhatrapati Shivaji sacked surat ,the according to their quality and yield. The share of wealthy city of mughal empire in 1664. the state was fixed at two-fifths of the gross Surat was the financial capital of mughal& produce. The cultivator was given the option of trading centre. paying either in cash or kind.  Chhatrapati Shivaji agreed to give 23 forts and Rs. 4,00,000/- hone, to let his son Besides the land revenue, Shivaji had other Sambhaji become Mughal Sardar and sources of income, of which the most important ready to meet with Aurangjeb in the treaty were the chauth and sardeshmukhi. The chauth of Purander between Chhatrapati Shivaji amounted to one-fourth of the standard revenue and Mirza Raje Jaisingh on behalf of assessment of the place, while the sardeshmukhi Mughal. was an additional levy of 10 per cent demanded from areas outside his kingdom because he  Chhatrapati Shivaji gained lot of province claimed to be the hereditary sardeshmukh (chief till jinji in Karnataka after coronation in the headman) of the entire Maratha country. These period of 1677-1678. taxes were levied on those living outside Maratha  Aurangjeb invited Chhatrapati Shivaji to kingdom as a safeguard (a kind of protection Agra on occasion of his 50th birth money) against Shivaji's forces plundering or anniversary. However, in the court on 1666 raiding their territory. Aurangjeb made in stand behind military commanders of his court.Shivaji got angry Marathas Consolidation and Northward and he refused gift which offered by Expansion Aurangjeb and stormed out of the court. He was house arrested by Aurangjeb Age of .Chhatrapati Shivaji made supreme plan and succeed to escape from Agra. With Balaji Vishwanath in charge of the Maratha Ashtpradhans of Shivaji military and Kanhoji in charge of the Marathas It was dministrative and advisory council set up by Navy. This agreement set the course for Balaji the Indian Shivaji which contributed to his Viswanatha's rise as a Peshwa during his successful military attacks on the Muslim Mughal subsequent visit to Delhi with an army of 12,000 Empire and to the good government of the Marathas. During this visit to Delhi, on an territory over which he established his rule. invitation from the Syed brothers in their struggle with the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyyar, the  Peshwa- Prime Minister Maratha forces led by Balaji Viswanath clashed  Amatya- Finance Department with the forces of Mughal Emperor and defeated  Sachiv- Home Secretary them. This was the first Maratha victory over the  Sumant- Foreign Secretary Mughals in Delhi. This event marks the asendency  Nyayadheesh- Judicial Magistarate of the Marathas in Delhi an asendency that was to  Senapati- Commander In chief last for almost a century till they were supplanted  Panditrao- relifious matters by the British in 1803.  Mantri- Day to day activities The Peshwas - Baji Rao, Balaji Baji Rao, Madha Revenue Administration Rao After Shahu, the de facto executive power passed into the hands of the hereditary Prime Ministers

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Medieval History and Culture Booster 2018 the Peshwas. Balaji Viawanath Bhatt was withdrew from the alliance. The Marathas succeeded by his son Baji Rao the first. Baji Rao consequently marched upto Panipat, but instead was a very able and ambitious soldier and he was of continuing their attacks to completely defeat the one who consolidated Maratha power in the partly defeated Abdali and Najib Khan, they . stayed put at Panipat, blocking the way of the Afghans back to Afghanistan. Seeing their way Baji Rao died at a relativey young age of 40 in the back to their homeland blocked, the Afghans now year 1740. His was succeeded by his son Balaji Baji became restless. They in turn, decided to block the Rao. Balaji Baji Rao played a tragic role in Maratha way of the Marathas back into the Deccan. history and the fissiparous tendencies he let loose This stand-off continued for one whole year from ultimately let to the downfall of the Maratha the 14th of January 1760 up to the 14th of January empire. 1761. This led to the fall in the morale of the His first mistake was to go back on the agreement stranded Marathas and ultimatley led to their between his grandfather Balaji Viswanath Bhatt defeat at Panipat. and according to which the Peshwa was to have no direct control over the Maratha The Afghans with Najib Khan meanwhile also Navy. He attacked the his own navy and weakened recaptured Delhi and Kunjpura. On the decisive one arm of the Maratha might. day of 14th January 1761 (Makar Sankranti), the During his rule, North India was invaded by Ahmed Marathas decided to break-through the Afghan Shah Abdali first in 1756. Balaji Baji Rao then sent blockade and re-enter Deccan. The disastrous his brother Raghunath Rao along with Malharrao battle saw about one hundred thousand Maratha to defeat Abdali. Raghunath rao not only troops being slaughtered in a matter of eight defeated Abdali but chased him up to the Khyber hours. But the Afghans too suffered heavy losses pass till Attock in Paktoonistan. . and decided enough was enough and went back to This success of Raghunath Rao aroused the Afghanistan never to return to India. jealousy of Balaji Baji Rao's wife , who The defeat of the Marathas and the withdrawal of started conspiring against Raghunath Rao to the Afghans created a power vacuum in North undermine his influence. This led to corresponding India in the period 1761-1790. It was this vacuum jealousy from who was Ragunath Rao's that was filled up by the rising British power. But wife. The unfortunate fallout of this court intrigue more of this later. ws to end in the disastrous 3rd battle of Panipat in 1761. The The 3rd Battle of Panipat When Abdali launched his second invasion in 1759 The Bahmani kingdom came into existence in the Marathas who after their successes in 1756 1347AD. Alauddin Hasan, an Afghan, founded the had been hibernating in Maharashtra and Central Sultanate after revolted against the Bin Tuglaq, India again woke up and in alliance with the Jat sultan of Delhi. He ruled it under the title of King of Bharatpur formed an alliance. Bahaman Shah. He was also known as Hasan This alliance led by Shrimant Sadshiv Rao Bhau Gangu, as he had risen in the servise of a Brahmin, and Shrimant Vishwas Rao (the Peshwa Shrimant named Gangu. He is believed to have traced his Balaji Baji Rao's son) won spectacular victories and descent from a half mythical hero of Iran, Bahman captured Delhi and Kunjapura (where the Afghan Shah. But Persian writer Ferishta writes that the treasury and armoury was located). Here the word Bahman Shah was meant to be a tribute to alliance developed cracks due to the Maratha his Brahman patron. In any case, it is from this title insistence on not allowing the Jats to loot Delhi. that the kingdom was called the Bahman Shahis. This ultimately split the alliance and Suraj Mal

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They clashed with Vijaynagar empire for a very died in 1397 A.D. , but none of his sons could rule long time. The areas of disputes were in the successfully for any length of time and eventually Tunbhadra doab, in the Krishna-Godavari delta the throne was seized by Firoz, a grandson of and in the Marathawada country. Alauddin Bahman Shah who assumed the title “Taj ud-din Firuz Shah”. Alauddin Bahman Shah was a powerful ruler. He was an empire builder and through incessant warfare extended his domain from Daulatabad in Taj ud-din Firuz Shah was a valiant ruler and the west to Bhongir in the east. He was a good and inflicted humiliating defeat on the armies of efficient administrator and divided his kingdom Vijayanagar kingdom twice and compelled the into four provinces namely Gulbarg, Daulatabad, king to pay tribute to him. However, towards the Berar and Bidar. Each of these provinces was end of his reign he was terribly defeated by the placed under a governor who maintained an army Vijayanagar king’s army at Pangul and lost much and made appointments in all civil and military of his territory. He was a great builder and posts under him. constructed his capital Gulbarg in a beautiful manner..

Alauddin Bahman Shah (Hasan) died in 1358 but before his death he established peace and Ahmed Shah succeded Firuz Shah and transferred prosperity in his kingdom. his capital from Gulbarg to Bidar in about 1425 A.D. The new capital-city, Bidar, was at a much higher level (about 3,000 feet) than Gulbarga. It Muhammad Shah I: The successor of Bahman Shah had a better climate in the rainy season and much (Hasan), Muhammad Shah I ruled from 1358 to closer to Warangal. He also carried a horrible war 1375 A.D. There was constant clashes between the against Vijayanagar Kingdom to avenge the losses Bahmani Sultanate and the Vijayanagar Empire. sustained by the Bahmanis. Vijayanagar was Muhammad Shah I systematize his government besiezed by Bahmani troops and finally the King of properly and thoroughly but had to fight with the Vijaynagar had to conclude peace by paying a long rivals kingdom of Vijayanagar and huge war indemnity. He also annexed Warangal, Warangal throughout his reign. He defeated the Malwa and made an unsuccessful attempt to rulers of these kingdoms and made them to pay annex Gujarat, however he took control of Konkan. huge war indemnity. He was not a learned man but he encouraged education and learning. He patronized the great Mujahid Shah: Mujahid Shah succeded the throne poet Shaikh Azari. Another celebrated poet was after his father’s death and waged wars with Maulana Sharfuddin Mazandarani. During his Vijayanagar Kingdom. In spite of besieging the reign, there was a endless conflict between the country he failed to retain it and hence a peace Deccan nobles with their allies on one side and the was concluded between him and the king of foreign nobles composed of the Turks, the Arabs, Vijayanagar Empire. the Persians and the Mughals on the other.

Muhammad Shah II was the passionate lover of The most famous personality of Bidar period of the peace and learning. His reign was a peaceful one Bahmani sultanate was Mahmud Gawan, who and as such he could constructed mosques, free served under several sultans as prime minister and schools for orphans and also invited the scholars general from 1461 to 1481. The kingdom reached from all parts of the Asia. But the intrigues of his its climax under the leadership of Mahmud two sons Ghiyas-ud-din and Shams-ud-din Gawan. He remained loyal to the Bahaman Daud had antagonized his last days and thus he kingdom. He was also a learned man and

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Medieval History and Culture Booster 2018 possessed a great knowledge of mathematics. He the Sunni form of Islam but remained tolerant of made grants to construct a college at Bidar which other religions, including Christianity. The has influence of Persian style of architecture. He increasing weakness of the dynasty paved way for was a successful military commander and waged Mughal encroachment and the successful revolt of many successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa the Maratha king Shivaji, who killed the Bijapur and the sea pirates in the Arabian sea. He general Afzal Khan. The dynasty contributed to a successfully conquered Konkan, Goa and Krishna- great length to tradition of culture and artistic Godavari delta. Thus he extended the Bahmani patronage whose architectural remains are to be Sultanate in the whole of south India. seen in the capital city of Bijapur. Ahmadnagar and Golconda maintained their independence and finally came into alliance with Bijapur in the great He was a great administrator who brought about struggle against Vijayanagar. Ahmadnagar also many reforms in every department of the conquered Berar before losing it to Mughals. Sultanate. He devided the kingdom into eight Embroiled in constant wars on the Deccan, Bijapur provinces or tarrafs. Each tarraf was goveroned by lost Goa to the Portuguese in 1510 and was unable a tarrafdar. The salary could be paid in cash or to conquere this port again. However, after all the assigning a jagir. Those who were paid by means joined their hands to destroy of jagir were allowed expences for the collection of Vijayanagar empire in 1565, but they could not land revenues. He also laid many internal reforms retain much powerfull after the horrible battle. to increase the control of Sultan over the nobles Subsequently the Deccan sultanates succumbed to and provinces and royal officers were appointed in the Great Mughals: Ahmadnagar, being the every province for this purpose. Most of the forts northernmost, was annexed first; Bijapur and were under the command of these officers. Golconda survived for some time, but were finally Allowances were reduced to the nobles who skiped vanquished by Aurangzeb in 1686–87 by their responsibility. This step was disliked by the Aurengzeb. nobles and they organised a plot against Gawan. They convinced the Sultan to punish him with The Bahmanis were passionate of art and death penalty. After the execution of Gawan, the architecture and patronized many styles from Bahmani kingdom began to fall. A series of weak around the world. Hasan Gangu constructed many rulers succeded the throne and during this period building such as Jama Masjid and Bala . The the governors of the four most important greates military commander and administrater of provinces declared their independence from him the Bahmanis, Gawan, built the well-known one after another: Bijapur (1489), Ahmadnagar Madarasa in 1472, which has three storeys, a and Berar (1491), Bidar (1492) and Golconda lecture hall, a library, a mosque, and residential (1512). Though the Bahmani sultans ruled from houses. They built a few forts on strategic Bidar until 1527, but they were mere puppets in locations in the Sultanate such as , the hands of the real rulers of Bidar, the Barid , Parendah fort, Raichur fort etc. Shahis, who used them so as to put pressure on They were also influenced by the style of the Delhi the other usurpers of Bahmani rule. Sultanate in the field of art and craft. The Bahmani rulers kindly patronized art, science, learning Bijapur was the most powerful kingdom among during their rule. The Bahmani court was the the Deccani Sultanates. Soon it annexed Bidar. centre of poets, scholars and artists from various The greatest period of was parts of the world. Art critics and historians of during the reign of Ibrāhīm ʿĀdil Shah II (1579– architecture observed the influence of the military 1626), who expanded the frontier as far south architecture of Europe and civil architecture of as Mysore. He was an efficient administrator and Persia. generous patron of the arts. He returned to

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The Persian architects’ hand and skill is very “Gaisu Daraz”. People also called him Khwaja perceptible in the Jamil Masjid of Gulbarga. The Banda Nawaz Gaisu Daraaz. Khaja Sahib had a Chand Minar of Daultabad and the Madarsa at kind hearted nature of taking care and comfort of Bidar also reflect Persian style of architecture. The the people. He used to distribute whatever was capital cities of Gulbarga and Bidar were the presented to him to needy and poor persons centres of the civil architecture of the Bahmanis. immediately and for this reason his teacher Nasir Uddin Chirag Dehlavi awarded him the title’ Gesu The royal tombs of Gulbarga fall into two patterns, Daraz’. Single tombs and Double tombs. Single tombs comprised of simple square chambers, crowned When Sultan Muhammad-bin Tughlaq transferred with and comer turrets and roofed by his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devgiri), a single dome. The whole standing is on a low many scholars, theologians, and mystics went square plinth while the double tombs are merely along with the masses. This led to spread of duplicate of the single ones. The Bahmani Sufism in south India. architecture has its own anomalies like square arches of its cloisters.

During the period, there were many Sufi orders Introduction prevailed such as Sufis of the Chisti, Qadiri and  In the fourteenth century, the disintegration of Shattari orders. Ali Adil Shah loved to hold the Mongol empire led Timur to unite Iran and discussions with Hindu and Muslim saints and was Turan under one rule. Timur's empire was spread called a Sufi. Bidar was one of the most important from the lower Volga to the river Indus, including centres of the Qadiri order. Sheikh Sirajuddin Iran, Junaidi was the first Sufi who received the royal honour. The famous Chisti saint of Delhi, Syed  Asia Minor (modern Turkey), Trans-Oxiana, Muhammad Gesu Daraz migrated to Gulbarga in Afghanistan, and some part of Punjab. AD 1402-03 and Sultan Firuz granted a number of villages for the maintenance of Khanquah of Gesu  In 1404, Timur died and Shahrukh Mirza, his Daraz. Khaja Gaisu Daraz was a murid (disciple) of grandson, succeeded his empire. the noted Sufi saint of Delhi, Hazrat Nasiruddin  Timur gave patronage to arts and letters and he Chiragh Dehlavi. After the death of Chiragh Dehlavi, Gaisu Daraz took the resposibility of the promoted Samarqand and Herat as the cultural successor (khalifa). He then moved to Daulatabad centers of West Asia. in 1398 AD, due to the attack of Timur on Delhi. He  During the second half of the fifteenth century, spread the Chishti Order to South India. At the the power of Timurids declined, largely because of request of Bahamani Sultan, Firuz Shah, he finally the Timurid practice of partitioning of the empire. settled down in Gulbarga. Gaisu Daraz was born to Syed Muhammad Hussaini in Delhi in 1321. At the  The various Timund territories that developed age of four, his family shifted to Daulatabad in during his time, were kept fighting and backbiting Deccan. to each other. Their conflicting acts gave an He travelled various places such as Delhi, Mewath, opportunity to two new powers to come to the Gwalior, Chander, Aircha, Chatra, Chanderi, forefront: Miandhar, Baroda, Khambayat and Gulbarga. He took his last breath in Gulbarga in the year a) The Uzbeks: In the north, the Uzbeks thrust into November 1422. He was one of the greatest sufi Trans-Oxiana. Though the Uzbeks had become saint of India and the fame earned him the title Muslims, but Timurids looked them down because

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Medieval History and Culture Booster 2018 they (Timurids) considered them to be uncultured Once, there was a bitter sectarian conflict barbarians. between the Shias and the Sunnis in Iran and Turan; however, in such a condition, Babur’s court b) Safavid Dynasty: In the west (i.e. Iran), the was free from theological and sectarian conflicts. Safavid dynasty appeared. They were descended from an order of saints who traced their ancestry to the Prophet. Sanga a jihad and assumed the title of ‘ghazi’ after  Safavids dynasty promoted the Shi’ite sect the victory, but the reasons were noticeably among the Muslims, and persecuted to all those political. who were not ready to accept the Shia views.

 The Uzbeks, on the other hand, were Sunnis. languages, and is regarded as one of the most Thus, the political conflict between these two famous writers in the Turkish language (which was elements was estranged on the basis of sectarian his mother tongue). views. r’s famous memoirs, the Tuzuk-i-Baburi is  The power of the Ottoman Turks had escalated considered as one of the classics of world in the west of Iran and they wanted to rule literature. His other popular works are masnavi Eastern Europe as well as Iran and Iraq. and the Turkish translation of a well-known Sufi work.

Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur flora and fauna of India in considerable details.

Mughalistan (present day Uzbekistan). which was to be based on:

a) The strength and prestige of the Crown; two of the most legendary warriors of Asia namely Changez, and Timur. b) The absence of religious and sectarian bigotry; and himself to his begs by his personal qualities. He was always prepared to c) The careful fostering of culture and the fine share the hardships with his soldiers. arts.

precedent and a direction for his successors was a good and cheerful companion. At the same time, he was a strict disciplinarian and a hard  In 1494, Babur, at the young age of merely 14, taskmaster. succeeded to Farghana. Farghana was a small state in Trans-Oxiana.  Shaibani Khan, the Uzbek chief, defeated Babur employees, and was prepared to excuse many of and conquered Samarqand. their faults as long as they were not disloyal.  In 1504, Babur conquered Kabul; at that time, Kabul was under the rule of the infant heir of was not prejudiced or led by the religious divines. Ulugh Begh.

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 Almost 15 years, Babur struggled hard and kept requirements of his army; in fact, in some of the attempting to re-conquest his homeland from the border territories, the expense on controlling the Uzbeks. He approached the ruler of Herat (who armies and administration was greater than the was also his uncle) for the help, but he did not income". receive any positive response.  Babur was also always remained apprehensive  Shaibani Khan defeated Herat, which led to a about an Uzbek attack on his territory Kabul, and direct conflict between the Uzbeks and the hence, considered India to be a safe place of Safavids because Safavids was also claiming Herat refuge, as well as a suitable base for operations and its surrounding area, namely Khorasan. against the Uzbeks.

 In the battle of 1510, Shaibani Khan defeated  By the time, the political scenario of north-west and killed by Kasim Khan. India was much suitable for Babur's entry (into India).  By taking the help of Iranian power, Babur attempted to recover Samarqand. As a result of  In 1517, Sikandar Lodi had died and Ibrahim Lodi this, the Iranian generals wanted to treat Babur as (his son) had succeeded him. the governor of an Iran rather than as an independent ruler.  Ibrahim Lodi was an ambitious emperor whose  After the massive defeat, the Uzbeks swiftly efforts to build a large centralized empire had recovered; resultantly, Babur had been alarmed the Afghan chief as well as the Rajputs. overthrown again from Samarqand and he had to return back to Kabul.  Daulat Khan Lodi was one of the most powerful chiefs of his time. Though, he was the governor of  Shah Ismail (Shah of Iran) was defeated in a Punjab, but he was almost an Independent ruler. battle by the Ottoman sultan; the changes in geo- political scenario forced Babur to move towards  Daulat Khan wanted to conciliate with Ibrahim India. Lodi; therefore, he sent his son to his (Ibrahim’s) court to pay homage. However, he was also  Once Babur said that from the time he won intended to strengthen his power by annexing the Kabul (i.e. in 1504) to his victory of Panipat, he had frontier tracts of Bhira. never ceased to think of the conquest of Hindustan.  In 1518-19, Babur seized the powerful fort of Bhira and sent letters as well as verbal messages  Timur, the ancestor of Babur, had carried away a to Ibrahim Lodi and Daulat Khan. Babur asked vast treasure along with many skilful artisans from them for the cession of all those areas, which had India. The artisans helped Timur to consolidate his belonged to the Turks. Asian empire and beautify the capital. They (the artisans) also helped Timur to annex some areas of  Daulat Khan detained Babur's envoy at Lahore, Punjab. neither granted him audience nor allowed him to go and meet Ibrahim Lodi. Daulat Khan expelled Babur’s agent from Bhira. Reasons of India Conquest  Once again in 1520-21, Babur crossed the Indus,  Abul Fazl, the contemporary historian said that and easily clutched Bhira and Sialkot (popular as "Babur ruled over Badakhshan, Qandhar, and the twin gateways to Hindustan) and then, Lahore Kabul which did not yield sufficient income for the was also surrendered to him.

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used it for the first time in his attack on the Bhira  After capturing Bhira and Sialkot, Babur planned fortress. to proceed further, but because of the revolt in Qandhar, he returned back.  Ibrahim Lodi met Babur at Panipat with the force estimated at 100,000 men and 1,000 elephants.  Babur recaptured Qandhar after almost one and half years. His political stability again encouraged  Babur had crossed the Indus with a force of him to move towards India. merely 12,000; however, in India, a large number of Hindustani nobles and soldiers joined Babur in  Daulat Khan sent Dilawar Khan (his son) to Punjab. In spite of Indian army support, Babur's Babur’s court and invited Babur to come India. army was numerically inferior. Daulat Khan suggested Babur to replace Ibrahim Lodi, as he (Ibrahim Lodi) was a tyrant ruler.  Babur made a master plan and strengthened his position. He ordered one of his army wings to rest  Rana Sanga (Rana of Mewar), most likely at the in the city of Panipat, which had a large number of same time, also sent a message to Babur inviting houses. Further, he protected another wing by him to attack India. Two embassies from the means of a ditch filled with branches of trees. powerful kingdom convinced Babur to conquest India again. number of cans, to act as a defending wall.  In 1525, when Babur was in , he Between two carts, breastworks were erected so received a message that Daulat Khan Lodi had that soldiers could rest their guns and fire. changed the sides.  Babur used the Ottoman (Rumi) device  Daulat Khan had collected an army of 30,000- technique, which had been used by the Ottomans 40,000 men and ousted Babur's soldiers from in their well-known battle against Shah Ismail of Sialkot, and tried to advance towards Lahore. Iran. However, as Babur came, Daulat Khan’s army ran away; resultantly, Daulat Khan got surrendered  Babur had also invited two Ottoman master- and was pardoned. Babur became the ruler of gunners namely Ustad Ali and Mustafa. Punjab.  Ibrahim Lodi, however, with huge army men, could not assume the strongly defended position Major Battles of Babur.

First Battle of Panipat  Ibrahim Lodi had apparently expected Babur to fight a mobile mode of warfare, which was  On 20th April 1526, the First Battle of Panipat, common with the Central Asians. was fought between Babur and the Ibrahim Lodi Empire (ruler of Delhi). The battle took place in  Babur's gunners used their guns strategically north India (Panipat) and marked as the beginning with good effect from the front; however, Babur of the Mughal Empire. gave a large part of the credit of his victory to his bowmen.  The first battle of Panipat was one of the earliest battles in which gunpowder firearms and field  After the seven or eight days fight, Ibrahim Lodi artillery were used. However, Babur said that he realized Babur’s strong position. Further, Lodi’s

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Medieval History and Culture Booster 2018 forces were also hesitant to fight with Babur’s Rana Sanga escaped from the battle field. Later modern technological warfare. he (Rana) wanted to renew the conflict with Babur, but he was poisoned by his own nobles.  Ibrahim Lodi battled to the last with a group of 5,000 to 6,000 forces, but he (Lodi) had been killed  The strengthened Babur's in the battle field. position in the Delhi-Agra region. Later, Babur conquered the chain of forts including Gwalior,  It is estimated that more than 15,000 men (of Dholpur, east of Agra, etc. Lodi kingdom) were killed in the first battle of Panipat.  Babur also conquered Alwar from Hasan Khan Mewati and Chanderi (Malwa) from Medini Rai. Chanderi was captured after killing almost all the Battle of Khanwa Rajput defenders men and their women performed (it was the custom of self- immolation of queens and royal female of the fought near the village of Khanwa (about 60 km Rajput kingdoms). west of Agra). It was fought between the first Mughal Emperor Babur and Rajput ruler Rana Sanga. The Afghans

 The Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga, was the great threat for Babur to establish a strong Mughal domination of the Afghan chiefs had submitted empire in the Indo-Gangetic Valley, as Sanga their allegiance to Babur, but internally planned to planned to expel Babur from India or else confined throw it off at any time. him at Punjab.  Nusrat Shah, the ruler of Bengal, who had  Babur had an authentic reason to accuse Rana married a daughter of Ibrahim Lodi, had supported Sanga i.e. of breach of an agreement. In fact, the Afghan sardars. Sanga invited him (Babur) to India with a promise to fight with him against Ibrahim Lodi, but he  The Afghans had ousted the Mughal officials in (Rana) refused. eastern Uttar Pradesh and reached up to Kanauj many times, but their major weakness was the  The battle of Khanwa was aggressively fought. As lack of a competent leader. Babur reported, Sanga had more than 200,000 men including 10,000 Afghan cavalrymen, supported with an equal force fielded by Hasan (Mahmud Lodi) was a brother of Ibrahim Lodi and Khan Mewati. also had fought against Babur at Khanwa. The Afghan leaders welcomed him as their ruler, and  Babur’s strategy, in the battle ground, was highly congregated strength under his leadership. technical; he ordered his soldiers (who had been sheltering behind their tripods) to attack in the  The Afghans, under Mahmud Lodi’s leadership, center. Thus Sanga's forces were hemmed in, and was a great threat for Babur, which he (Babur) finally defeated. could not ignore. At the beginning of 1529, Babur left Agra for the east and he faced the combined forces of the Afghans and Nusrat Shah of Bengal at the crossing of the Ghagra River.

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o The Afghans had not been subdued entirely;  While Babur was fighting with the Afghans (in hence, they were cultivating the hope of expelling the east), he received a message i.e. crisis the Mughals from India. situation in Central Asia. Thus Babur decided to conclude the war with an agreement with the o When Humayun ascended the throne at Agra, Afghans. He made a vague claim for the suzerainty the Mughal Empire included Kabul and Qandhar; over Bihar, and left the large parts in the Afghan’s however, there was loose control over hands. Badakhshan (beyond the Hindukush Mountains).

 On 26 December, 1530, when Babur was o Kabul and Qandhar were under the charge of returning to Kabul (Afghanistan) died near Lahore. Kamran, Humayun's younger brother. Kamran was not satisfied with these poverty-stricken areas therefore, he marched towards Lahore and , and occupied them.

accepted his brother’s autocratic act, as he was not interested in starting a civil war. However, Kamran accepted the suzerainty of Humayun, and promised to help him whenever it required.

ng powers of Afghans in the Humayun’s Conquest east and Bahadur Shah (ruler of Gujarat) in the west were becoming problems that Humayun had to suppress. -1556), Humayun had faced many adverse conditions; however, he did not lose his patience rather Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh, but in 1532, fought with courage. Humayun had defeated the Afghan forces.

Babur (his father) in December 1530 at the young Chunar (from the Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri). age of 23.

-matured death, could the land and the river route resting between Agra not consolidate his empire; therefore, Humayun, and the east; Chunar was popular as the gateway when became the ruler, he had to struggle with of eastern India. various problems.

Major Problems known as Sher Khan) persuaded Humayun to get permission to retain possession of the fort and he promised to be loyal to the Mughals. Sher Shah also sent one of his sons to Humayun court as a o The administration systems of Mughal Empire hostage. Humayun was in haste to return back to were weak and the finances were unjustifiable. Agra; therefore, he accepted Sher Shah’s offer.

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between Chittoor and Mandu. Likewise, Humayun age of Humayun had strengthened himself enough cut off Bahadur Shah from Malwa. to threaten him (Humayun) in the north.

one in 1526, Bahadur Shah had surrender. It became possible because Bahadur overrun and conquered Malwa and then moved Shah had fine artillery, which was commanded by towards Rajasthan and besieged Chittor and soon Rumi Khan, an Ottoman master gunner. abridged the Rajput defenders to sore straits.

Mughals and he left his fortified camp and widow of Rana Sanga), sent a rakhi (a thread that escaped to Mandu to Champaner, then to normally sister gives her brother and in return Ahmadabad and finally to Kathiawar. Thus the rich brother promises to protect her) to Humayun provinces of Malwa and Gujarat, as well as the seeking his help and Humayun courteously huge treasure boarded by the Gujarat rulers at responded. Mandu and Champaner, came into the hands of Humayun.

Bahadur Shah made an agreement with the Rana Sanga and left the fort in his (Rana Sanga’s) hands; Empire) was gone with his death, as he died while however, he (Bahadur Shah) extracted a large fighting with the Portuguese. indemnity in cash and kind.

Sher Shah’s Upsurge building a new city nearby Delhi, and he named it as Dinpanah. February 1535 and February 1537), gave an Dinpanah were built to impress opportunity to Sher Shah to strengthened his friends and foes alike. Another intention was, power and position. Dinpanah could also serve as a second capital, in case, Agra was threatened by the Gujarat ruler Bahadur Shah (who already had conquered Ajmer acknowledge loyalty to the Mughals, but steadily and overrun eastern Rajasthan. he planned to expel the Mughals from India.

Bahadur Shah invested Chittoor and simultaneously, he supplied arms and men to as he (Bahadur Shah) had helped him with heavy Tatar Khan (Tatar Khan was a cousin of Ibrahim subsidies, which enabled him to recruit and Lodi), to invade Agra with a force of 40,000 men. maintain a large and competent army including 1,200 elephants.

Afghan forces run away, as the Mughal forces arrived. Tatar Khan was defeated, and he was Sher Khan and captured Chunar and then he killed. invaded Bengal for the second time, and seized Gaur (the capital of Bengal). invaded Malwa. He advanced forward slowly and cautiously, and covered a position midway proposal to Humayun that he would surrender

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Bihar and pay an annual tribute of ten lakhs of dinars if he was allowed to retain Bengal. Humayun planned back to Agra, leaving a small However, Humayun was not in a mood to leave garrison behind. In spite of having a series of Bengal to Sher Khan. problems such as the rainy season, discontent in the nobility, and the constant harrying attacks of the Afghans, Humayun managed to get his army manufactures, and a center for foreign trade. back to Chausa near Buxar, without any serious Secondly, the ruler of Bengal who had reached loss. Humayun's camp in a wounded condition, informed that resistance to Sher Khan was still continued. Lahore to suppress Hindal’s rebellion at Agra. But Kamran, though not disloyal, made no attempt to send any help to Humayun. Sher Shah, Humayun rejected Sher Khan's proposal and decided a campaign to Bengal. Soon after, the Bengal ruler submitted to his wounds; Humayun crossed to the eastern bank of the therefore, Humayun had to undertake the Bengal Karmnasa River and gave full opportunity to the campaign all alone. Afghan horsemen encamped there. It was the great mistake of Humayun that reflected not only a bad political sense, but also a bad generalship as beneficial, but rather was the prelude to the well. disaster, which overtook his army at Chausa after a year. surreptitiously; however, Humayun, somehow managed to escape from the battle field. He swam With a master plan, he let Humayun campaign across the river with the help of a water-carrier. Bengal so that he might disrupt Humayun's Sher Shah robbed Humayun’s treasures. In this communications with Agra and bottle him up in war, about 7,000 Mughal soldiers and many Bengal. prominent nobles were killed.

establish law and order. But this did not solve any the fullest unity among the Timurid princes and of his problems. On the other hand, Humayun’s the nobles could have saved Humayun. situation was further made worse by his younger brother, Handal, as he attempted to crown himself le-hardened force of 10,000 of Agra. However, because of Sher Khan's master Mughals under his command at Agra. But he had plans, Humayun was totally cut off from all news not come forward to help Humayun, probably, he and supplies from Agra. had lost confidence in Humayun's leadership. On the other hand, Humayun was not ready to assign the command of the armies to Kamran, as he could misuse it to store power for himself. The Humayun’s Downfall confusions between the two brothers grew till Kamran decided to return back to Lahore with his Humayun’s Difficulties army.

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was no match against Sher Shah. However, in May o Though Humayun was a competent general and 1540, the battle of Kanauj was bitterly contested. politician, his two mistakes i.e. ill-conceived Both the younger brothers of Humayun namely Bengal campaign and wrong interpretation of Sher Askari and Hindal, fought courageously, but to no Shah’s proposal made him lose. avail.

experienced from rich to rag and again from rag to empire and he became a prince without a rich. kingdom; Kabul and Qandhar remaining under Kamran. Sher Shah, now became the sole n 1555, after the break-up of the Sher Shah’s powerful ruler of north India. empire, Humayun again recovered Delhi; however, he did not live long to enjoy his victory. neighboring countries for the next two and a half years, planning various schemes to regain his of the library building in his fort at Delhi. kingdom. But hardly anyone was ready to help him. Surprisingly, his own brothers were against ayun was built by the orders of him, and even had tried to kill or imprison him. Akbar (son of Humayun) and Humayun's first wife Nevertheless, Humayun faced all these trials and (Bega Begum). And, the tomb was designed by tribulations with great fortitude and courage. The Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, a Persian architect appointed downfall period of Humayun reflected the best by Bega Begum. part of his character.

years after the death of Humayun) and completed reached at the court of the Iranian king. In 1545, in 1572. The total cost spent in the building (of with the help of Iranian king, Humayun recaptured tomb) was 1.5 million rupees (at the time). Qandhar and Kabul.

Reasons of Humayun’s Downfall Humayun's failure were: Sher Shah o Humayun’s inability to understand the nature of the Afghan power and Sher Shah’s deceptive trick. the age of 67. His original name was Farid and his o The presence of large numbers of Afghan tribes father was a jagirdar at Jaunpur. across the north India and their nature of getting united under a capable leader (like Sher Shah). and remained actively involved in the affairs of his o Without getting the support of the local rulers father’s jagir. Because of this, he learned rich and zamindars, the Mughals were bound to administrative knowledge and experience. remain numerically inferior. ent, as he never let o The differences of Humayun with his brothers, any opportunity to go in vain. The defeat and and his alleged faults of character. death of Ibrahim Lodi and the misunderstanding in

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Afghan affairs let Sher Shah emerge as the most important Afghan sardars (of that time). and severely injured Sher Shah; the incident took, ive Sher Shah’s life. quality, Sher Shah became as the right hand of the ruler of Bihar. Sher Shah was succeeded by Islam Shah (his second son), who ruled till 1553. adorned him the title of ‘Sher Khan.’ but most of his energies were lost in controlling the rebels raised by his brothers. Besides, rebels of which had come into existence (in north India) tribal feuds also pulled Islam Shah’s attention. since the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

civil war among his successors. The civil war to the Indus River (excluding Kashmir). In the west, created a vacuum that ultimately provided an he conquered Malwa, and almost the entire opportunity to Humayun to recover empire of Rajasthan. India.

Maldeo, the ruler of Marwar, ascended the , and gaddi (kingdom) in 1532, and in a short span of recovered Delhi and Agra. time, took the control of whole of western and northern Rajasthan. He further expanded his Sher Shah’s Work territories during Humayun's conflict with Sher Shah. rulers of north India who had done a number of developmental works (along with well-planned killed after a courageous resistance. His sons, administrative works). His works can be studied Das and Bhim, took shelter at the court of under the following heads: Sher Shah. Administrative Works

Samel (located between Ajmer and ). -established law and order across While invading different jagirs of Rajasthan, Sher the length and breadth of his empire. Shah had taken the great precautions; at every step, he would throw up entrenchments to guard against a surprise attack. justice, as he used to say, "Justice is the most excellent of religious rites, and it is approved alike by the king of infidels and of the faithful". and conquered Ajmer and Jodhpur, forced Maldeo into the desert. they were high nobles, men of his own tribe or r Shah near relations. overran almost the entire Rajasthan. His last campaign was against Kalmjar; it was a strong fort Qazis were appointed at different places for and the key to Bundelkhand. justice, but as before, the village panchayats and

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Medieval History and Culture Booster 2018 zamindars also dealt with civil and criminal cases at the local level. the people to treat merchants and travelers well and not to harm them in any way.

refused to pay land revenue or disobeyed the orders of the government. i.e. "If a merchant should die in your country it is a perfidy to lay hands on his property." Economic & Development Works

the local village headmen and zamindars promotion of trade and commerce and also the responsible for any loss that the merchant improvement of communications in his kingdom. suffered on the roads.

Grand Trunk Road, from the river Indus in the headmen and/or the zamindars had to produce west to Sonargaon in Bengal. them, or to trace the haunts of the thieves or highway robbers, failing which they had to undergo the punishment meant for the thieves Chittoor, noticeably linking up with the road to the and robbers. Gujarat seaports.

sarai; some of them responsible), but the same law (discussed in the are still existing, which reflect how strong these immediate above point) was applied in cases of sarai were. murders on the roads.

sarai developed into qasbas (market-towns) where order in the picturesque language i.e. "a decrepit peasants flocked to sell their produce. old woman might place a basketful of gold ornaments on her head and go on a journey, and sarai have been called as no thief or robber would come near her for fear of "the arteries of the empire." These development the punishment which Sher Shah inflicted." works strengthened and fasten the trade and commerce in the country. growth of commerce and handicrafts. paid only at two places: the goods produced in Bengal or imported from outside paid customs made an attempt to fix standard weights and duty at the border of Bengal and Bihar at Sikrigali measures across his empire. and goods coming, from West and Central Asia paid custom duty at the Indus. No one was allowed to levy custom duty at roads, ferries, or At that time, Multan was one of the central points town. The duty was paid a second time at the time for the caravans going to West and Central Asia. of sale.

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a number of sarai at a distance of every two kos himself to the affairs of the state from early (about eight km) on all the major roads. morning to late at night. He also toured the country regularly to know the condition of the sarai was a fortified lodging or inn where people. travelers could pass the night and also keep their goods in safe custody. in his hands, has later become a source of weakness, and its harmful effects became Muslims were provided in the sarai. Brahmanas apparent when a masterful sovereign (like him) were appointed for providing bed and food to the ceased to sit on the throne. Hindu travelers, and grains for their horses.

Tarikh-i- on the guess work, or by dividing the crops in the Sher Shahi’ or history of Sher Shah) says, "It was a fields, or on the threshing floor rather Sher Shah rule in the sarai that whoever entered there, insisted on measurement of the sown land. received provision suitable to his rank, and food and litter for his cattle, from the government." ray) was drawn up, laying down the state's share of the different types of crops. This could then be converted into villages around the sarai, and the land was set cash on the basis of the prevailing market rates in apart in these villages for the expenses of the different areas. Normally, the share of the state sarai. was one-third of the produce.

Administrative Division know how much they had to pay to the state only after sowing the crops. pargana. The pargana was under the charge of the shiqdar, who looked after law and order and general cultivated, and the amount each peasant had to administration, and the munsif or amil looked pay was written down on a paper called patta and after the collection of Land revenue. each peasant was informed of it.

pargana, there was the shiq or sarkar under the charge of the shiqdar-i-shiqdran and a peasants anything extra. The rates which the munsif-i-munsifan. members of the measuring party were to get for their work were laid down. and the local languages (Hindavi). natural calamities, a cess at the rate of two and d the central half seers per bigha was also levied. machinery of administration, which had been developed during the Sultanate period. Most likely, Sher Shah did not favor leaving too much the peasantry, as he used to say, "The cultivators authority in the hands of ministers. are blameless, they submit to those in power, and if I oppress them they will abandon their villages,

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administer his vast empire. He dispensed with tribal levies under tribal chiefs, and recruited soldiers directly after verifying their character.

recorded as: o 150,000 cavalry; Akbar the Great o 25,000 infantry armed with matchlocks or bows; o 5,000 elephants; and rulers, was born at Amarkot. o A park of artillery. Humayun) captured young Akbar. Kamran treated the child well; however, Akbar was re-united with of his empire; besides, a strong garrison was his parents after the capture of Qandhar. posted in each of them.

commanding operations against the Afghan of the Yamuna River near Delhi. The sole survivor rebels. of this city is the Old Fort () and the fine mosque within it. Kalanaur at the age of merely thirteen years and four months. Malik Muhammad Jaisi (who had written Padmavat in ) was the patron of Sher Shah’s reign. strong beyond Agra, and were reorganizing their forces under the leadership of Hemu. Religious Views

h did not, however, initiate any new Sur, the defeated Afghan ruler, was forced to liberal policies. Jizyah continued to be collected loiter in the Siwalik Hills. from the Hindus.

loyal and favorite officer of Humayun, became the the Afghans. wakil (advocate) of the kingdom and received the title of ‘khan.i.khanan;’ . He united the Mughal forces.

serious for Akbar. Further, the area from Chunar

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Medieval History and Culture Booster 2018 to the border of Bengal was under the domination during this period, he kept the nobility fully under of Adil Shah, a nephew of Sher Shah. control.

mpire were career as a superintendent of the market, but extended from Kabul (in the north) to Jaunpur (in soon promoted under Adil Shah. Surprisingly, the east) and Ajmer (in the west). Hemu had not lost a single one of the twenty-two battles in which he had fought. efforts were made to conquer Ranthambhor and wazir, gave Malwa. the title of ‘Vikramajit,’ and entrusted him with the task to expel the Mughals. Bairam Khan’s Downfall

Second Battle of Panipat approaching the age of maturity. On the other hand, Bairam Khan became arrogant and had offended many 50,000 cavalry, 500 elephants and a strong park of powerful persons and nobles of Mughal court (as artillery marched towards Delhi. he held supreme power). Many of the nobles complained to Akbar that Bairam Khan was a Shia, -contested battle, Hemu defeated the and that he was appointing his own supporters Mughals near Delhi and captured the city. But and Shias to high offices, while neglecting the old Bairam Khan took an energetic and smart step to nobles. meet the critical situation. Bairam Khan strengthened his army marched towards Delhi before Hemu could have time to consolidate his serious in themselves, but he (Bairam Khan) position again. became egoistical, and hence failed to realize that Akbar was growing up. In fact, there was friction on a petty matter, which made Akbar realize that Mughals (led by Bairam Khan) and the Afghan he could not leave the state affairs in someone forces (led by Hemu), took place once again at else's hands for any more. Panipat.

ed by a cleverly. He left Agra on the pretext of hunting, Mughal force, the tide of battle was in favor of and came Delhi. From Delhi, Akbar issued a Hemu. Meanwhile, an arrow hit in the eye of farman (summon) dismissed Bairam Khan from his Hemu and he fainted. Hemu was arrested and office, and ordered all the nobles to come and executed. Akbar had virtually reconquered his submit to him personally. empire. farman made Bairam Khan realize that Akbar wanted to take power in his own hands; so, had been supported by a group of nobles. he was prepared to submit, but his opponents were keen to ruin him. They heaped humiliation Bairam Khan’s Conquest upon him until he was goaded to rebel.

the Mughal Empire for almost next four years and six months. Finally, Bairam Khan was forced to

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Medieval History and Culture Booster 2018 submit in Akbar’s court; Akbar received him to make Jaunpur his capital till he had rooted cordially, and gave him the option of serving at the them out. court (anywhere), or retiring to Mecca. - brother, Mirza Hakim, who had seized control of way to Mecca, he was assassinated at Patan near Kabul, advanced into Punjab, and besieged Ahmadabad by an Afghan who bore him a Lahore. As a result of this, the Uzbek rebels personal grudge. formally proclaimed him as their ruler.

brought to Akbar at Agra. Akbar married Bairam Akbar had to face since Hemu's . Khan's widow (who was also his cousin), and However, Akbar's bravery and a certain amount of brought up the child as his own son. luck enabled him to triumph.

Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and held some of the forced Mirza Hakim to retire. Meanwhile, the most significant offices and commands in the rebellion of the Mirza’s was crushed, the Mirzas Mughal Empire. fled to Malwa and thence to Gujarat.

iram Khan's rebellion, some groups and individuals in the nobility became politically Lahore. Crossing the river Yamuna nearby active. The group included Akbar's foster-mother, Allahabad (at the peak of the rainy season), Akbar Maham Anaga, and her relatives. However, surprised the rebels led by the Uzbek nobles and Maham Anaga soon withdrew from politics. completely routed them out.

an impetuous young man. He assumed independent likewise, their protracted rebellion came to an airs when he had been sent to command an end. expedition against Malwa. He claimed the post of the wazir, and when this was not accepted, he stabbed the acting wazir in his office. His Expansion of Mughal Empire tyrannical act enraged Akbar. In 1561, Adham Khan had been thrown down from the parapet of being the fort and he died. ruled by a young prince, Baz Bahadur. Baz Bahadur’s accomplishments were a mastery of music and poetry. Besides, the romantic story of his full authority, the Uzbeks formed a powerful Baz Bahadur and Rani Rupmati is also very famous. group. They held important positions in eastern Rani Rupmati is known in history because of her Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Malwa. beauty.

se of Baz Bahadur’s interest in music and Uzbeks rebelled many times, forced Akbar to take poetry, Mandu (Baz Bahadur’s capital) had the field against them. Every time Akbar was become a celebrated center for music. The army, induced to pardon them. However, 1565 rebel however, had been neglected by Baz Bahadur. exasperated Akbar at such a level that he vowed

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was led by Adham Khan, son of Akbar's foster- with both guns and bow & arrow. She fought mother, Maham Anaga. Baz Bahadur was badly many successful battles against her neighbors, defeated (in the battle of Sarangpur) and the including Baz Bahadur of Malwa. Mughals took valuable assets, including Rupmati. However, she refused to go with Adham Khan and preferred to commit suicide. moved towards Garh-Katanga with 10,000 cavalries. Some of the semi-independent rulers of ham Khan ruled with Garha-Katanga found it an opportune moment to cruelties, because of this, there was a reaction throw off the Gond supremacy. against the Mughals, which supported Baz Bahadur to recover Malwa. nobles rather left with a small force. She fought bravely but defeated. Once finding that she lost Malwa (led by Abdullah Khan). Baz Bahadur the battle and was in danger of being captured, defeated again and he had to flee west. He took she stabbed herself to death. shelter with the Rana of Mewar.

despotic; however, when Akbar had dealt with the another, Baz Bahadur, finally approached to rebellion of the Uzbek nobles, he forced Asaf Khan Akbar's court and was enrolled as a Mughal to expel his illegal games. mansabdar. Likewise, the extensive territory of Malwa came under Mughal rule. -Katanga to Chandra Shah, the younger son of Sangram Shah and took ten forts to round off the kingdom of Kingdom of Garh-Katanga Malwa.

Gujarat Expedition the kingdom of Garh-Katanga. The kingdom of Garh-Katanga included the Narmada valley and the northern portions of present . Chittoor, Ranthambhor, Jodhpur, etc.), Akbar advanced towards Ahmadabad via Ajmer; -Katanga consisted of a however, Ahmadabad surrendered without a number of Gond and Rajput principalities. fight.

Shah), ruler of Garh-Katanga married his eldest attention towards the Mirzas who held Broach, son Dalpati Shah with Rani Durgawati (daughter of Baroda, and Surat (regions of Gujarat). famous Rajput Chandel Emperor Keerat Rai of Mahoba) and strengthened his position. sea for the first time at Cambay, he rode on it in a boat. the princess Durgavati became a widow. But she made her minor son king and ruled with great courage. defeating Gujarat, a fresh rebel broke out all over Gujarat. Immediately after hearing the news,

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Akbar moved out of Agra and traversed across zabti system, originally, is associated with Rajasthan in merely nine days. Raja Todar Mal (one of the nobles of Akbar), therefore, sometimes, it is called as Todar Mal's ached bandobast. Ahmadabad. In this journey, which normally took six weeks, only 3,000 soldiers were accompanied with Akbar. But with only 3,000 soldiers, Akbar time. He first served on Sher Shah’s court, but overcame the 20,000 rebellions. later joined Akbar.

zabti system, a number of other systems ruler) in Bihar and executed him on the spot. of assessment were also introduced by Akbar. The Likewise, ended the last Afghan kingdom from most common and, perhaps the oldest one was northern India. ‘batai’ or ‘ghalla-bakshi.’

Akbar’s Administrative System batai system, the produce was divided between the peasants and the state in a fixed proportion. administrative system, he did not find it that much beneficial hence he had started his own administrative system. zabti and batai under certain conditions. However, such a choice was given when the crops had been ruined by natural calamity. expedition, Akbar paid personal attention to the land revenue system. Officials called as ‘karoris’ batai system, the peasants were given the were appointed throughout the north India. choice of paying in cash or in kind, though the Karoris were responsible for the collection of a state preferred cash. crore of dams (i.e. Rs. 250,000). s such as cotton, indigo, oil- seeds, sugarcane, etc., the state demand was the dahsala; under this system, the average customarily in cash. Therefore, these crops were produce of different crops along with the average called as cash-crops. prices prevailing over the last ten (dah) years were calculated. However, the state demand was stated in cash. This was done by converting the state (particularly in Bengal) in Akbar's time was nasaq. share into money on the basis of a schedule of average prices over the past ten years. st likely (but not confirmed), under the nasaq system, a rough calculation was made on the basis of the past revenue receipts paid by the peasants. system (known as the zabti system) covering from This system required no actual measurement, Lahore to Allahabad, including Malwa and Gujarat. however, the area was ascertained from the records. zabti system, the shown area was measured by means of the bamboos attached which remained under cultivation with iron rings. almost every year was called ‘polaj.’

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mansabdar was ‘parati’ (fallow). Cess on Parati land was at the full expected to maintain a corps of elephants, camels, (polaj) rate when it was cultivated. mules, and carts, which were necessary for the transport of the army. o to three years was called ‘chachar,’ and if longer than that, mansabdars were paid very it was known as ‘banjar.’ handsomely; in fact, their salaries were probably the highest in the world at the time. good, middling, and bad. Though one-third of the average produce mansabdar, holding the rank of: was the state demand, it varied according to the productivity of the land, the method of o 100 zat, received a monthly salary of Rs. assessment, etc. 500/month;

o 1,000 zat received Rs. 4,400/month; and extension of cultivation; therefore, he offered taccavi (loans) to the peasants for seeds, o 5,000 zat received Rs. 30,000/month. equipment, animals, etc. Akbar made policy to recover the loans in easy installments. income tax. Army

(bandukchi), sappers, and miners were also encouraged the mansabdari system. “Mansab” is recruited in the contingents. an Arabic word, which means ‘rank’ or ‘position.’ Administrative Units mansabdari system, every officer was assigned a rank (mansab). The lowest rank was 10, Subhah, the and the highest was 5,000 for the nobles; pargana, and the sarkar as his major however, towards the end of the reign, it was administrative units. raised to 7,000. Princes of the blood received higher mansabs. Subhah was the top most administrative unit, which was further sub-divided into Sarkar. Sarkar mansabs (ranks) were categorized as: (equivalent to district) was constituted of certain number of parganas and pargana was the o Zat collective administrative unit of a few villages. o Sawar subhah was subedar.

zat’ means personal. It fixed the sarkar were the faujdar personal status of a person, and also his salary. and the amalguzar.

sawar’ rank indicated the number of faujdar was in-charge of law and order, and cavalrymen (sawars) a person was required to the amalguzar was responsible for the assessment maintain. and collection of the land revenue.

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mir bakhshi was also the head of the jagir, khalsa and inam. Income from khalsa villages intelligence and information agencies of the went directly to the royal exchequer. empire. Intelligence officers and news reporters (waqia-navis) were posted in all regions of the Inam lands were those property, which were empire and their reports were presented to the given to learned and religious men. emperor’s court through the mir bakhshi.

Jagir lands were allotted to the nobles and mir saman was the third important officer of members of the Royal family including the queens. Mughal Empire. He was in-charge of the imperial household, including the supply of all the Amalguzar was assigned to exercise a provisions and articles for the use of the inmates general supervision over all types of lands for the of the harem or the female apartments. purpose of imperial rules and regulations and the assessment and collection of land revenue uniformly. qazi. This post was sometimes clubbed with that of the chief sadr who was responsible for all charitable and religious endowments. administration on the basis of the division of power among various departments. as to the ministers, Akbar judiciously divided his wazir, time. The day started with the emperor's the chief adviser of the ruler, was very important, appearance at the jharoka of the palace where but Akbar reduced the responsibilities of wazir by large numbers of people used to assemble daily to creating separate departments. have a glimpse of the ruler, and to present petitions to him if required so. ar assigned wazir as head of the revenue department. Thus, he was no longer the principal Akbar’s Provinces adviser to the ruler, but an expert in revenue affairs (only). However, to emphasize on wazir’s importance, Akbar generally used the title of subas (provinces) namely: diwan or diwan-i-ala (in preference to the title wazir). o Bengal

diwan was held responsible for all income o Bihar and expenditure, and held control over khalisa, jagir and inam lands. o Allahabad

o Awadh as the mir bakhshi. It was the mir bakhshi (and not the diwan) who was considered as the head of the o Agra nobility. o Delhi mansabs or for the promotions, etc., were made o Lahore to the emperor through the mir bakhshi. o Multan

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o Kabul as Raja Birbal was one of the most trustworthy nobles of Akbar’s court. o Ajmer Ibadat o Malwa and Khana (or the Hall of Prayer) at his new capital, Fatehpur Sikri (nearby Agra), which Akbar kept o Gujarat open for all religious people including Christians, Hindus, Zoroastrians, Jains, and even atheists. consisted of a governor (subadar), a diwan, a bakhshi, a sadr, a qazi, and a Ibadta Khana horrified many waqia-navis. theologians, and various rumors spread i.e. Akbar about to forsake Islam. However, Akbar was less Integration of States successful in his effort to find a meeting place between the votaries of different religions in his territory. and, in some cases, by giving important jobs, including service at the court and in the army, to Ibadat Khana had not led to a the Hindus, Akbar successfully attempted to better understanding among the different integrate all religious people. religions, but rather lead to bitterness, as the representatives of each religion criticized the other and tried to prove that their religion was Chaitanya, Kabir, and Nanak, (resided in different superior to others. In 1582, by understanding the parts of the country) emphasized on the essential conflicting situation, Akbar withdrawn the debates unity of Islam and Hinduism. in the Ibadat Khana.

coming into power, was to abolish the jizyah (tax), philosophers) to explain the doctrines of which the non-Muslims were required to pay in a Hinduism. He also invited Maharji Rana to explain Muslim state. the doctrines of Zoroastrianism.

-tax on bathing Christian religion, Akbar also at holy places such as Prayag, Banaras, etc. met with some Portuguese priests, he sent an Further, Akbar abolished the practice of forcibly embassy to Goa, requesting them to send learned converting prisoners of war to Islam. missionaries to his court. Two Portuguese saints namely Aquaviva and Monserrate came and remained at Akbar’s court for almost three years. attempted to gather a band of intellectual people with liberal ideas at his court. Abul Fazl and his brother Faizi were the most recognized scholars of Jain saint of Kathiawar, he also spent a couple of that time. However, both of them were years at Akbar’s court. persecuted by the mullahs for having sympathy with Mahdawi ideas. -ul-Qadir Bada'uni (an Indo-Persian historian and translator) asserted that as a result of knowing different religious views, Akbar gradually turned away from the Islam and set up a new

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Medieval History and Culture Booster 2018 religion, which was compounded many existing religions. However, there is very little evidence to prove that Akbar intended or actually and musicians, as his court was infused with promulgated a new religion of such kind. famous and scholar people, more popularly known as the ‘navaratna.’ so called new path was “tauhid-i-ilahi.” The literal meaning of tauhid-i-ilahi is “Divine Monotheism.” essentially secular, liberal, and a promoter of cultural integration. It was enlightened with social Pabos’ (or kissing the floor and cultural matters. before the sovereign), a ceremony which was previously reserved for God. Foreign Power

sulh- kul’ (or peace and harmony) among different power of the Portuguese, as they had been religions in other ways as well. He set up a big interfering the pilgrim traffic (to Mecca), not translation department for translating works in sparing even the royal ladies. Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc., into Persian. Most likely, it was the time when the Quran was also translated for the first time. the proselytizing activities, which Akbar disliked. Akbar apparently felt that the coordination and Social Reforms pooling of the resources of the Deccani states under Mughal supervision would check, if not eliminate, the Portuguese danger. educational reforms. He stopped sati (the burning of a widow), unless she herself, of her own free will, determinedly desired it. Further, Akbar made a strict rule that widows of tender age who had not shared the bed with their husbands were not to be burnt at all. Akbar also legalized Widow Remarriage.

Jahangir

(having two wives at the same time) unless the Emperor Jahangir strengthened the Mughal first wife was barren. Empire in India after his father Akbar. Jahangir was born on 31st August, 1569 and was named nd Nuruddin Salim Jahangir. Nuruddin has been 16 for boys. derived from Arabic which means "light of faith". Jahangir is a Persian word which means "world conqueror". Jahangir was an able administrator who had a penchant for the finer things in life. He was not a brutal warrior but a learned politician. emphasizing more on moral education and Read this short biography to know the life history mathematics, and on secular subjects including of Mughal Emperor Jehangir. agriculture, geometry, astronomy, rules of government, logic, history, etc. Jahangir received the best education that was

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Medieval History and Culture Booster 2018 available at that time. His father Akbar was very magnificent and a refined artistic sense, specially particular that his son received the best education for architecture. Shah Jahan (1592-1666) was the that was available in the kingdom. At the age of fifth ruler of the Mughal Empire in India. He four he was taught Turkish, Urdu, Persian, Arabic, became ruler in 1628. At his succession he Arithmetic, Geography, History, Sciences, etc. At a executed all the male Mughal collterals , the very young age, he was given the rank of a descendants of his brothers and uncles, although Mansabdar of ten thousand, which is the highest at that time they had little political significance. rank in military after the Emperor. At the mere age During his reign, the Mughals reached their golden of twelve, he commanded a regiment age, with vaults crammed with treasures and with independently in the Kabul campaign. architecture in magnificent style. He was in a special sense the architectural director of the day Emperor Jahangir married many times and the and there seems to be little doubt that the great girls were from very high-class noble families of buildings of his reign, the Taj Mahal, the Delhi the Mughals and Rajputs. A Rajput princess known Fort, and Jama Masjid, and the reconstruction of as Jagat Gosain was his favorite and she gave birth the Agra Fort, would not have been what they are to Shah Jahan, Jahangir's successor. He also without his personal inspiration and direction. married the famous Noor Jahan, who was the widow of Sher Afghan. Noor Jahan was supposed Shah Jahan is best remembered for the perfectly to be unparalleled in beauty and intelligence. This proportioned Taj Mahal, an immense tomb of was the reason why Jahangir was attracted white marble built for his wife in Agra, India. towards her. She proved to be the driving force These and other buildings still stand as examples behind Jahangir and made him strengthen the of Mughal glory. His romantic love for Mumtaz empire. Mahal (his wife) did not hesitate to expose Mumtaz to the rigours of travel in all states of Jahangir loved fine arts and encouraged the health so that she died at the age of 39 after giving growth the poetry, paintings, dance, music, etc. birth to her fourteenth child. The dynasty began He was also a good writer and loved nature. He its decline because too much money was spent on penned down his life and his experiences in the luxuries and too much effort was wasted in war. form of an autobiography named Tuzk-e-Jahangiri. Shah Jahan's reign was a troubled one, and one of He was a collector of paintings and many of them his sons took his throne by force. are still preserved in a museum. He was famous for his "Chain of Justice", which was a golden Taj Mahal chain attached to some bells outside his palace. Anyone in despair could pull the chain and go in Taj Mahal is one of the most beautiful and costly for a personal hearing from the emperor himself. tombs in the world. The Indian ruler Shah Jahan Jahangir died in the year 1627 and was buried in a ordered it built in memory of his favourite wife, magnificent tomb at a place called Shahdra, Mumtaz Mahal, who died in 1629. The tomb located in present day Pakistan. stands near the city of Agra, in northern India, on the south bank of the Jumna River. About 20,000 workers were employed in its construction, Shah Jahan completed after some 20 years by about 1650.

Shah Jahan was a man of greater mark, though According to tradition, the Taj Mahal was designed less attractive than Jahangir, in spite of his obvious by a Turkish architect. It is made of white marble faults. Shah Jahan was a man of great executive and rests on a platform of red sandstone. At each ability, to which he added a love for the corner of the platform stands a slender minaret

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(prayer tower). Each tower is 40.5 metres high. The building itself is almost 57 metres square. A The new emperor, Aurangzeb, was a strict Muslim. dome covers the centre of the building. To begin with, he followed the policy of making peace with the non-Muslim peoples he conquered It is over 21 metres in diameter and 36.5 metres and bringing them into the imperial service. But high. Passages from the Muslim holy book, the the policy broke down, and in the latter part of his Quran, decorate the outside along with inlaid reign, Aurangzeb imposed a much stricter form of floral patterns. A central room contains two Islamic rule. In 1679, he reintroduced the jiziya, a cenotaphs (monuments). Visitors can see the poll tax on non-Muslims. Militarily, Aurangzeb set monuments through a carved alabaster screen. out to protect his northern borders and subdue The bodies of Shah Jahan and his wife lie in a vault the independent Muslim kingdoms in the Deccan below. The tomb stands in a garden. and south India. By 1690, the whole of the Indian subcontinent lay within the Mughal Empire.

Aurangzeb Aurangzeb won swift political and military success, through his abilities as a soldier and politician. But Aurangzeb (1618-1707), was an emperor who his conquests brought him great trouble toward ruled what is now India and Pakistan from 1658 the end of his reign. The wars were expensive and until his death. During his reign as monarch of the the military officers were rewarded for their Mughal Empire, he conquered several states in service by the grant of new jagirs. The jagir- southern India. holders taxed the peasants mercilessly, causing many to flee from the villages. Much land was left Aurangzeb, a devout Muslim, tried to make all his uncultivated as a result. people follow the doctrines of Islam, the Muslim religion. He differed from Akbar in consciously Aurangzeb's reign was troubled by developments tolerating Hindus rather than treating them as in west and south India. As early as the 1660's, equals. He placed special taxes on Hindus and Shivaji, a Hindu chief of western India, had built up destroyed Hindu temples and images, such as the a strong private army and begun to raid Mughal destruction of Kashi Vishwanath temple and towns and cities. He captured and sacked the erection of a mosque in its place. Aurangzeb also great port of Surat. Shivaji's followers, known as destroyed many works of art because he feared the Marathas, were very good cavalry fighters. that they might be worshipped as idols. They took all the strong fortresses from the Mughal governors. Aurangzeb had to fight the Aurangzeb was born in Dohad, near Ahmadabad. Marathas, and many other local chiefs in the In a struggle for the throne, Aurangzeb murdered south, who were constantly rebelling against his three other brothers, including the crown Mughal rule and trying to reestablish their prince Dara Shukoh, and deposed Shah Jahan, the independence. reigning emperor, to seize the throne for himself. Shah Jahan died a prisoner in the fortress of Agra. Aurangzeb's reign was one of the longest in the The Last Mughals history of the Mughal dynasty. His rebellion and The visible decline of the empire can be dated acts of cruelty toward his family at first aroused from 1712, the year of the death of Bahadur Shah public horror and dislike. Yet there was no law 1. But it remained an apparently imposing recognized in Islamic states to nominate a legal institution until the I750s, and few thought its successor to the king. The succession was often doom inevitable before then. The first stage in the settled by wars and by murders. process was succession wars which left a puppet

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Medieval History and Culture Booster 2018 in the hands of kingmakers. The kingmakers empire as a Muslim state instead of an Indian overreached themselves when the third choice state with Islam as the state religion. Which proved a clever youth who disposed of them in alienated Hindus to such an extent that they had the course of two Years. no desire of allowing Mughal empire to continue. Martial groups like the Sikhs and the Jats were This youth was Muhammad Shah, who reigned for encouraged to open revolt. And the Marathas with twenty-nine years until 1748. The twenties saw their invincibility and Guerrilla warfare had all the the next stage when the empire was virtually capabilities to ruin the Mughals and form another divided into two. Asaf Jah, Nizam-ul-mulk, baulked empire. in his reforming intentions as chief minister in Delhi, went back to his Deccan provinces and became the virtually independent ruler of the Nadir Shah southern half of the Mughal empire with as its capital. Aurangzeb's death had created a void in the Mughal empire which none of his successors were The empire bad crushed the Sikhs in 1716, but it able to fill. Frequent struggles for throne and found itself helpless against the Marathas. In 1738 betrayal of ministers had resulted in the the Marathas plundered the suburbs of Delhi and weakening of the empire. Nadir Shah, who from dictated a peace which divided the two halves of being a chief of dacoits had become the king of the empire by the cession of the province of Persia, saw the weak empire as an opportunity. Malwa. In 1739 came the humiliation of the Persian King Nadir Shah's invasion. Neglect, In 1738, Nadir Shah proceeded to invade India. ineptitude, divided counsels, and treachery led to The excuse for the invasion being that the Mughal military debacle at Karnal, the occupation of Delhi, emperor Muhammad Shah had insulted the massacre, and wholesale plunder. Nevertheless, Persian envoy at the royal court of Delhi. He when Nadir Shah's back was turned, with the overran the western frontiers of Mughal empire Peacock Throne in his train, the empire seemed to capturing Ghazni, Kabul and Lahore in 1739. When recover and even repelled the first of the Afghan Nadir Shah crossed Khyber pass the Governor of incursions in 1748. With Muhammad Shah's death Punjab requested the Mughal empire to reinforce the collapse began. A civil war between rival the defences in Punjab, but the then Mughal ministers left a headlong and ruthless youth in emperor Muhammad Shah turned a deaf ear power, who murdered two emperors and called in towards his genuine request. the Marathas before vanishing into obscurity. The south was already the Nizam's domain. Kabul was Soon Nadir Shah stormed Punjab, Muhammad lost to Nadir Shah in 1739. Sindh and fertile Shah realizing the danger asked Khan Dauran and Gujarat with Surat went in 1750, prosperous Oudh Nizam-ul-Mulk to lead the Mughal forces against in 1754, and the martial Punjab to the Afghans in Nadir Shah. But the two declined, so ultimately the same year. Bengal still sent tribute but was Muhammad Shah decided to lead the forces virtually independent. himself. The two forces met at Karnal, but soon the Mughal forces were encircled and defeated. The cause of this collapse is usually put down to The Saadat Khan was taken the effeteness of the emperors. This was certainly prisoner and Khan Dauran was seriously wounded. one cause since personality was one of the main imperial pillars. But it was not the only cause or The defeat of the Mughal army created confusion necessarily the vital one. Another important in their ranks. The Nizam played the role of reason was Aurangzeb's policy of treating the mediator and persuaded Nadir Shah to return to

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Persia on receiving 20 million rupees. Mughal times between 1748 and 1767 and plundered emperor pleased with Nizam conferred him the Delhi. title of 'Amir-Ul-Umra' and also appointed him the Prime Minister. Jealous Saadat Khan approached Nadir Khan and told him that he should not get satisfied with such a paltry sum which even a provincial governor can give him. This had an electrifying effect on the Persian ruler and the grandeur of Delhi flashed before his eyes. Andhra Pradesh- Contribution of Qutubshahis to Telugu language and Literature- Art-Architecture- Triumphant Nadir Shah entered Delhi along with Monuments:- the humbled Mughal Emperor. The keys of the Delhi fort and treasure had already been surrendered. An amount was also settled with The Qutb Shahi dynasty held sway over the Nadir Shah as a condition for his return. But a Andhra country for about two hundred years from rumour spread that Nadir Shah has been killed. the early part of the 16th century to the end of the Riots were sparked off in Delhi in which few 17th century. Sultan Quli Qutb Shah, the founder Persian soldiers were killed. As Nadir Shah heard of the dynasty, served the Bahmanis faithfully and of this he straightaway rode into the city, in the was appointed governor of Telangana in A.D.1496. city he saw the corpses of Persian soldiers lying on He declared independence after the death of his the streets. Near the Sunhari masjid of patron king, Mahmud Shah, in A.D.1518. During Roshnuddola, some people hurled stones at him his 50-year rule, Sultan Quli extended his kingdom also a stray bullet killed a Persian soldier. He was upto Machilipatnam. He was murdered by his enraged, he ordered a general massacre at all third son, Jamsheed, who succeeded Sultan Quli. those localities where the bodies of Persian Jamsheed reigned for seven years till A.D.1550 but soldiers were found. Consequently on 11th of remained maligned by all for his patricidal crime. march 1739 citizens of Delhi were plundered and His youngest brother, Ibrahim, who was hardly slaughtered, some historians say that nearly 0.2 thirteen at the time of his father’s assassination, million people were killed. fled to Vijayanagar and took refuge there. It afforded him a training ground and he learned the Nadir Shah on his return after plundering and art of administration. slaughtering Delhites for 57 days, took with him the famous 'Peacock throne' built by Shahjahan After Jamsheed’s death in A.D.1550, Ibrahim and the legendary 'Koh-i-noor' along with 600 returned to Golconda and ascended the throne. million rupees worth of jewellery, gold worth 10 Ibrahim Qutb Shah, who was known as million rupees and coins worth 6 million rupees. Malkibharam in the Andhra country, was the real His total collection of booty was worth 700 million architect of the Golconda kingdom. He ruled the rupees and also took care to include in his train kingdom for 30 years from A.D.1550 to A.D.1580. 100 elephants, 7000 craftsmen, 100 stone-cutters He organised the central and provincial and 200 carpenters. governments and brought them into close contact. He also introduced an efficient intelligence service Nadir Shah's invasion did a irreparable damage to which kept him informed on all affairs. The the Mughal empire. Mughal provinces across the kingdom was made safe for travel and trade. Indus were seceded to the Persians. Later on Ibrahim had also many works of public utility to inspired by the antics of Nadir Shah his successor his credit. He dug lakes and tanks and laid out Ahmad Shah Abdali too invaded India several towns and gardens. He also encouraged local language Telugu and patronised Telugu scholars

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Medieval History and Culture Booster 2018 and poets like, Telaganarya and Gangadhara who The monuments of the Qutb Shahi period dedicated their works to him. represent different building typologies; Golconda is a fortified citadel and an early capital city of the The next period of forty years led by Ibrahim’s son Qutb Shahi dynasty. It is an ensemble of military and grandson was an era of peace and prosperity. structures, ramparts, gates, bastions, armoury; Muhammad Quli, son of Ibrahim, was a great religious structures such as mosques, temples; writer and a builder. The city of Hyderabad was residential structures such as palaces; water laid in A.D.1591 with magnificent buildings, systems such as canals, fountains and landscaped straight roads and other civic amenities. gardens.

The Deccani architecture, is a combination of Tombs is the one that belongs to the Qutub Shahi Persian, Hindu and Pathan styles. They mostly dynasty founder, Sultan Quli Qutub-ul-Mulk. He borrowed heavily from Hindu style of architecture. built his tomb himself and was the longest The Bala Hissar gate of the is overseer of the architectural project. The Qutub remarkable for the figures and emblems of Hindu Shahi Tombs were planned and built by numerous mythology. monarchs who ruled the city and the state during The citadel of Hyderabad, the Charminar is the the 18th century. Lying two kilometers from the most remarkable of all the Qutb Shahi Golconda Fort, the Qutub Shahi Tombs are built to monuments. It is one of the magnificent structures Persian, Hindu and Pathani styles of architecture in India. The Charminar is a massive arch built by The socio-cultural life of the people during the rule Mohammed Quli Qutab Shah, in 1591 to of the Qutb Shahis was marked by a spirit of commemorate the end of the plague in the city. broad-mindedness and catholicity based on The symbol of the city, the Charminar, is an sharing and adopting of mutual traditions and impressive square monument with four customs. minaretsThe monument is a magnificent square edifice of granite, built upon four grand arches Golconda Fort, Qutb Shahi Tombs and Charminar facing North, South, East and West. These arches are the landmarks that symbolize the Qutb Shahi support two floors of rooms and gallery of Dynasty. Golconda Fort lies 11 km to the west of archways. At each corner of the square structure city of Hyderabad, while the Qutb Shahi tombs are is a minaret rising to a height of 24 meters, making a further kilometre north-west of the Fort. the building nearly 54 meters tall. It is these four Charminar is located in the heart of the old city of (char) minarets (minar) that give the building, its Hyderabad. name 'Charminar'. Each minar stands on a lotus- leaf base, a special recurrent motif in Qutub Shahi Even though not located within the same complex, buildings. these three monuments together represent the earliest Qutb Shahi layer of Hyderabad's history These monuments are a product of the same and belong to the Qutb Shahi dynasty that ruled period; technology, skills and innovations, which the region from 1518 A.D. to 1687 A.D. Qutb Shahi developed during the rule of Qutb Shahi Dynasty. Islamic Sultanate was one of the five prominent They are great markers of the grandeur of the dynasties that emerged in the Deccan following Qutb Shahi Period (1518-1687 A.D.) and even the downfall of the Bahmani Dynasty in 1518 A.D. today continue to dominate the cityscape of Seven rulers of the Dynasty ruled for 170 years modern day Hyderabad and successfully resisted the Mughal attack till 1687 A.D. It was the last kingdom to be absorbed Tughlaq Dynasty : Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, , Firoz in the expanding Mughal Empire. Shah Tughlaq

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agriculture. His twin object was to increase land under cultivation and improve economic condition of the cultivators. The state demand of Tughlaq Dynasty revenue was fixed between one-fifth and one- third of the produce.

He ordered the revenue to be increased only Third of the five dynasties that ruled Delhi, the gradually and in no case could increase beyond Tughluq Dynasty was, perhaps, one of the one- eleventh to one-tenth. The privileges of the strongest of the Delhi Sultanates.The Tughlaqs previous Hindu rulers were restored. The practice were basically of Turkish origin and the family was of measurement and survey of land was essentially Muslim. Around the year 1321, Ghazi abandoned. The measures of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq ascended the throne and was given the succeeded and the area under cultivation title Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq. The Tughlaq dynasty increased and the condition of the farmers was able to withhold its rule due to their strong improved. allies like the Turks, Afghans and the Muslim warriors of south Asia. Ghiyas-ud-din continued the system of dagh and chehra instituted by Alauddin. However the

market regulations were also abandoned under GHIYAS-UD-DIN TUGHLAQ (1320-1325) him He insisted on paying the army better to increase its efficiency. He was successful in increasing the strength of the army. Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq was the founder of the

Tughlaq dynasty in India. His real name was Ghazi Malik and he ruled from 1320 - 1325. He was the one who founded the city of Tughlaqabad outside Delhi. He waged a gruesome battle against Mohammed bin Tughlaq Khusrao Khan, who killed the last Khilji ruler. His successful defence against the Mongols made him an able ruler and the founder of a dynasty in India. One of the most controversial rulers in India, He conquered many areas including eastern Mohammed bin Tughlaq was the successor of portion of Bengal, a huge territory Ghazi Tughlaq. The empire was spread and his rule grew. He was a brilliant person who had full Ghiyas-uddin restored order everywhere. By 1324, command over mathematics and medicine. Yet, he the Sultanate's power reached up to Madurai. was considered crazy by those who were there in Ghiyas-ud-din died in 1325, after a fall from a his court. He was known to mete out very cruel high-raised pavilion. Historians opine that his and brutal punishments to people who were death was due to sabotage arranged by his son, found guilty of even small mistakes. He shifted his Juna Khan. capital from Delhi to a place in the outskirts He resumed the grants that were revoked and known as Daulatabad which harmed his allowed them to enjoy their privileges. Ghiyas-ud- reputation amongst policy makers. din succeeded in getting the support of the nobles and the people through these measures. Firuz Shah Tughlaq(1351-1388) Ghiyas-ud-din attempted to improve the finances of the state and perused a policy to encourage

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Firuz Shah Tughlaq was the successor of AsH wrote noteworthy historical works in his Mohammed Bin Tughlaq. Firuz Shah was a caring reign. ruler unlike Mohammed bin Tughlaq. He made sure that people in his kingdom were happy and heard out their problems patiently. However, he Firuz Shah himself authored the Fatuhat-i-Firuz was not militarily strong and could not sustain any Shahi. He got several Sanskrit works translated sort of external attacks or aggression. Firuz Shah into Persian. Firuz is also credited with organising breathed his last in the year 1388 and after that the institution of slavery into a system. He took the Tughlaq dynasty faded away in no time. special care to maintain and educate the slaves, and utilise their services as soldiers, bodyguards and artisans. Firuz was born in 1309. He was Muhammad's cousin. Firuz was at Thatta when Muh~mmad-bin- Firuz declared his principle of levying taxes strictly Tughlaq breathed his last in 1351. He was chosen according to the Shariat. As such, he insisted on the Sultan by the nobles. the payment of jaziya by all non-Muslims. He was the first Muslim sultan to strictly impose jaziya on Firuz was of a merciful and pious disposition, and the brahmans who had so far been allowed to he preferred peace to the glories of conquest. He escape the tax. Surprisingly for a man of was a true friend of the peasants and he cancelled humanitarian actions, Firuz was intolerant towards the loans which had been advanced by his nonMuslims especially in his later years; within predecessor. He reduced taxation to the limits the Muslim community, Firuz accepted only the prescribed by the Quran. Agriculture was devel- Sunnis not the Shias or Ismailis. He is reported to oped by the reclamation of waste lands and by have demolished Hindu temples. He is also providing irrigation facilities. Firuz mitigated the supposed to have publicly burnt a brahman for severity of the criminal law by abolishing torture preaching to Muslims. He got the painted murals and mutilation as forms of punishment. His other in his own palaces erased. measures included the establishment of a charitable department in Delhi (diwan-i-khairat). Firuz Tughlaq is largely held responsible for the downfall of the Tughlaq dynasty. His revival of the Firuz re-introduced the system of jagirs or grant of jagir system and establishment of a slave system land with its revenue to his military officers in lieu proved ruinous for the kingdom. On top of this, of cash salaries. He decreed hereditary succession his intolerant religious policy alienated the Hindus to iqta. and Shias. His death was followed by succession wars and only a small area around Delhi remained with the Tughlaqs. Firuz Tughlaq was an enthusiastic builder and is famous for his enlightened public works. He built a TIMUR'S INVASION (1398-99) Amir Timur or new capital at Delhi and named it Firuzabad. Its Timurlane was a mighty conqueror of Central Asia. ruins are the Kotla Firuz Shah. He also founded the His capital was at Samarqand. He invaded India in cities of Hissar, Fatehabad, Firuzpur and Jaunpur. 1398 during the reign of Mahmud Tughlaq. He Firuz Tughlaq constructed the Yamuna canal to occupied Delhi on December 18, 1398 and supply water to the cities of Firuzpur and Hissar. remained there for 15 days. Delhi was sacked and He built the Kali Masjid and Lal Gumbad. He had plundered. The Tughlaq empire could never two of Asoka's pillars brought to Delhi; one from recover from such a terrible blow and came to an Khizrabad and the other from Meerut. Barani and end in 1412.

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