Women’s Contributions to the Workforce: Are New Measures Needed?

Martha S. Farrar and Fred A. Vogel

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Traditionally, the penetration of women into the workforce has been measured by comparing the percentage by work category of women versus men or by comparing their mean or median incomes. This paper reviews current indicators that quantify gender-related differences and suggests the need for additional measures to determine why these differences exist.

KEY WORDS: gender differences, gender measures, workforce statistic, gender statistics ______

1 INTRODUCTION1 need for additional measures to determine why these differences exist. Traditionally, the penetration of women into the workforce has been measured by 2 EXAMPLES OF CURRENT comparing the percentage by work category METHODS of women versus men or by comparing their mean or median incomes. Do these Only 9.2 percent of the members of the traditional measurements provide International Statistical Institute (ISI) are appropriate indicators to describe women’s women (Carlson 1999). Before reaching contributions to the workforce? For any conclusions about this, one should try to instance, to measure women’s contributions measure the percentage of women that are to the workforce, should there be more “eligible or qualified” to become ISI gender indicators in the national accounts? members. Over 15 percent of the ISI section To ensure the best government policy membership is female. If the percent of decisions on economic matters, accurate women in ISI sections is taken as a rough measures are essential. Perhaps the best estimate of the percent qualified for policy decisions may only be possible if consideration as an ISI member, then supporting gender statistics are available. women are indeed not properly represented. Participation rates do not adequately For the United States, membership of the measure women’s contribution to workplace American Statistical Association (ASA) efficiencies, so how should we measure might also represent a pool of people women’s contributions to demonstrate what eligible for membership in the ISI. If the women add to a job situation? This paper number of ASA members reporting their reviews current indicators that quantify gender is representative of the total gender-related differences and suggests the membership, then 24 percent are women. Carlson indicates that only 9.9 percent of ISI members from the U.S. are women, again perhaps indicating a lack of 1This paper was presented at the International Statistical Institute, Seoul, Korea, 2001. The authors are with the representation of women in ISI. Other National Agricultural Statistics Service. Fred Vogel is measurements to investigate may include Deputy Administrator for Program and Products. Martha Farrar is chief of the Data Collection Branch.

1 the percent of articles in statistical journals Nations has added “Home Production of that are submitted or written by women. Goods for Home Consumption” as an economic activity similar to activities The monthly Labor Review (1999) reported required to produce goods for market. Such that women only earned 76 percent of men’s information is needed to formulate policies earnings in 1998, but that the gap between to improve living conditions and economic them was closing. The report also indicated opportunities in rural areas. Women and that education levels for men and women girls are also the major providers of unpaid were about the same. The earnings services including the care of children, the difference was attributed to the choice of sick and the elderly. The Food and occupation. Women were more often found Agriculture Organization of the United to be teachers, nurses, and so forth, while Nations (FAO) suggests the use of “time- men were more often engineers or computer use” studies, where individuals record all scientists. What is not known is whether time worked, as the best tool for measuring women are discouraged to seek college such activities. degrees that would lead to higher paying jobs or if there are other reasons why they Developing economies often exhibit a are less likely to enter such professions. For disparity in levels of education between men example, the authors wonder, do women and women. It is interesting to note that the choose professions that are more tolerant of First National Agricultural Census in China part-time work or those that require only (1999) was designed to obtain gender moderate training for re-entry into the related information about farm and rural workforce after a period of being absent? households. For example, the census Why do female-dominated professions obtained a count of the number of persons command lower salaries than male- aged 7 years and over engaged in economic dominated professions? Are there barriers activities by sex, educational level, and at either level? How is this determined and region. The results showed that the split measured? between the number of males and females engaged in economic activities was 52.5 and Issues with women’s contributions to the 47.5 percent, respectively. However, 20.5 workforce may differ in developing percent of the females were illiterate or countries. Much of the rural sector in semi-illiterate compared to 9.5 percent of developing economies lives in poverty. the males. This information should be Agricultural statistics often fail to include invaluable for policy makers as they pursue variables required to understand rural ways to develop the rural economies. What economies, thus policy makers lack is not measured are the factors contributing appropriate information. The extent of to the gap. In subsistence economies, are women’s contribution to agricultural schools available to both sexes? If so, are production is often not measured because some family members excluded from much of it is unpaid labor, which tends to be educational opportunities because their labor excluded from national accounts. In is needed to produce food for home subsistence economies, for example, women consumption? Are the excluded family do much of the work to produce food and members more likely to be women? How goods for home consumption. The would a family’s ability to feed itself be Statistical Commission of the United

2 affected if public policy required a · Education levels of all household minimum level of education for everyone? members by age and sex. Information should also be collected A major concern of all countries, including to measure reasons why individual developing countries is whether its people family members have an education have adequate food and nutrition. The U.S. below a certain level. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Census Bureau joined in an effort to · Employment activity for every measure food security in the U.S. by adding household member and income a supplement to the monthly current received. For those not working, population survey. The results showed 12 categorical data should also be percent of the U.S. population and 12 obtained to describe reasons for not million households falling below nutrition having paid employment. standards. What this study did not show, but was learned from another study, was that · Economic contribution. The number single female heads of households are five of unpaid hours each family member times more likely to suffer from inadequate works to produce food and goods for nutrition. Thus, an important factor in home consumption should be combating malnutrition is to understand the obtained. The value of these items characteristics of the households where it produced should also be determined. exists. For example, if the family had to purchase these items, how much 3 MEASUREMENTS REQUIRED would the family have to spend, or how much would it have to pay In this paper, we discuss the need for tools someone else to do the labor? associated with three principal measurement needs: education, employment, and The three measures - education, economic contribution. Education is critical employment, and economic contribution - as those without it are increasingly at a are also important in developed economies, disadvantage. Measures of employment but may require different measures. The opportunities or lack thereof are needed as interaction between education and well as measures of underemployment. The employment needs to be considered full economic contribution of people to the although income levels between men and national accounts needs to be quantified. women differ even when education levels Suggested methods of obtaining gender are similar. Traditional employment and information include the use of surveys, education statistics only quantify the census, opinion polls, and focus groups situation; they do not explain the underlying among working women. The agricultural reasons. Data collection activities to census should be considered as a vehicle to measure employment should also attempt to obtain the necessary measures for rural measure under employment and associated areas, especially in developing economies reasons. with subsistence agriculture. Data items that could be included would measure these Education statistics by level of attainment quantities: and chosen field should be accompanied by reasons for the choices that were made.

3 Even more important would be to know address gender related inequities and ensure what the attainment and choices would have that women’s contribution to the workforce been by kind of barrier that prevented one is recognized. from that accomplishment. 4 REFERENCES Employment statistics by type of work and Carlson, Beverly (1999). Women in income level need to be combined with the Statistics: The Profession Speaks. above education statistics. In addition, the Economic Commission for Latin America employment statistics should be and the Caribbean. complemented with reasons for these choices to quantify reasons for under employment. Wilson and Billard (1999), Fellegi, Ivan (1999). Women’s pointed out that in academia, women spend Participation in Statistics Discussion. more time in rank before promotion than do Bulletin of the International Statistical men. An important additional measure Institute. would be a comparison of those with continuous service to those with a break in Food and Agricultural Organization of the service. Organizations need to analyze their United Nations (1999). Agricultural Census own situation or conduct attitudinal surveys. and Gender Considerations – Concepts and The analysis cited by Fellegi (1999) Methodology. FAO Bulletin. examined why women in Statistics Canada National Bureau of Statistics, People’s at some grade levels were “waiting longer” Republic of China (1999). Abstract of the for promotions to the next level. Their First National Agricultural Census in China. study showed fewer women were subjecting China Statistics Press. themselves to the formal competition process. This led Statistics Canada to make U.S. Department of Agriculture (1999). some significant changes to its competition Employee Survey on Disability Issues – process. In an corollary study, the USDA Employment and Service Delivery Results conducted a survey of all employees to learn at USDA. USDA Bulletin MP-1559. why those with disabilities worked at lower grade levels. A major finding of this study was the simple fact that employees with USDA, Economic Research Service (2000). disabilities were not aware of the resources Second Food Security Measurement and and services available to them that would Research Conference Volume I: enhance their work performance and Proceedings. Edited by Margaret S. careers. Andrews and Mark A. Prell. Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Report Data underlying the national income and Number 11-1. production accounts need to be disaggregated to measure the contributions U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor of men versus women. In summary, it is not Statistics (1999). Women in the Workforce. enough to quantify gender-related Monthly Labor Review. differences. We need to determine why these differences exist. Only then can policy makers take appropriate action to

4 Wilson, Susan R. and Billard, Lynne (1999). Women in Statistical Science: An Historical Perspective. Bulletin of the International Statistical Institute.

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