The Portrayal of Women in Propaganda Posters During the Chinese Cultural Revolution
Yu Yang (Sally) Lin
(Art) History
Supervisor: Mrs. K. Puzio
Sir Winston Churchill Secondary
0227
May 2015
ii Abstract
China's Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (19661976) was a ten year sociopolitical movement that not only changed many social aspects of life but drew emphasis to a unique form of art visual propaganda. Cultural Revolution propaganda posters are visually impacting both in terms of colour use and composition, and convey strong political messages and nationalism. Due to these aspects, propaganda posters hold irreplaceable importance in the study of gender equality and the portrayal of women during the Cultural Revolution. The essay aims to analyze the message of the propaganda posters, and to what extent were they effective.
The essay is composed of four major components, including historical context, method, analysis and conclusion. 208 posters within the Cultural Revolution time frame were taken from collector websites in the randomized order they appeared. The posters were then analyzed for their portrayal of women in Cultural Revolution propaganda posters with the use of visual analysis, numerical analysis and historical evidence.
The analysis found three important connections between the female image and the Cultural
Revolution. Firstly, the existence of women in the Cultural Revolution posters was not about gender equality, but to serve the CCP’s socialist ideological campaigns and industrial production needs.
Secondly, this political drive behind the messages caused the portrayal of genders to become form of gender neutralization that favoured masculinization. Thirdly, the reduction genders inequality due to traditional confines prompted the loss of social diversity and exposed women to a new form of marginalization, where any aspects of femininity was ostracized.
Word Count: 250
ii Table of Contents
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………… 1
Method Defined………………………………………………………………………………. 25
Analysis………………………………………………………………………………………. 57
Numerical Analysis……………………………………………………………………………711
Visual Analysis……………………………………………………………………………… 1121
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………... 2122
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………….2324
Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………. 2543
iii Introduction
Upon its establishment in 1949, The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) had the goal of
thought reform and justified propaganda as protection for the “ideological lapses” of the
proletariat.1 The use of propaganda allowed the CCP to “integrate [an] ideology into everyday
life through aggressive information campaigns,” which included behaviour correction,
indoctrination of values, dissemination of policies, and regulation of gender identity and
sexuality.2 Prior to 1966, the Propaganda department, under the Central Committee, took these
policies and spread it through other administrations such as the Ministry of Culture, the Youth
League, and the Women’s Federation, which would then be distributed amongst the people.3 The
Cultural Revolution was launched in 1966 and ended in 1976 with Mao Zedong’s death,
followed by the arrest of his wife Jiang Qing. Mao had said that the revolution was “absolutely
necessary and most timely for consolidating the dictatorship of the proletariat, preventing
capitalist restoration and building socialism.”4 In other words, it was driven by Mao’s fear that
the party had become impure, that capitalism was infiltrating the inner parts of the party. He
aimed to purge all that were becoming bureaucratic, revisionists, and lacking motivation for the
revolution. The Cultural Revolution forced the intelligentsia to go back to the countrysides to
perform manual labour along with farmers, and it demanded the end of class struggles.
A result of the Cultural Revolution was its severe obstruction of industrial and
agricultural production nationwide due to redirection of human resources towards ideological
campaigns rather than production. Consequently, the demand for workers increased substantially.
1 Stefan Landsberger, Chinese Propaganda Posters: from revolution to modernization (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1995), 30. 2 Yue Yin, “Cultural changes as reflected in portrayals of women and gender in Chinese magazines published in three eras” (master’s thesis, Iowa State University, 2010), 5. 3 Landsberger, Chinese Propaganda Posters, 30. 4 Mao Zedong, “Report to the Ninth National Congress of the Communist Party of China” in Important Documents on the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in China, ed. Lin Piao (Peking, Foreign Languages Press, 1970).
1 The CCP turned to women as a source of labour supply, and encouraged women to break old
traditions and enter society as workers. To achieve integration of female workers in society, it
required thought reform of the general populace’s mindset regarding women as professionals in
the workforce. The “Cultural Revolution group” led by Jiang Qing replaced the Propaganda
department in 1966, and it widely exploited the use of propaganda posters in order to make these
changes.5 Propaganda posters were a popular method because they are deemed by party officials
as “easily-understood visual information that spelled out the desired behaviour”.6 As a result,
these posters were distributed everywhere within every level of administration. This essay aims
to decipher the message of gender equality in the propaganda posters of China’s Cultural
Revolution (1966-1976) and to what extent were these messages effective. Through the selection
of diverse ranges of data, with analysis and historical evidence, the essay hopes to fill in research
gaps of gender equality during the Chinese Cultural Revolution and draw attention to the
significant role propaganda posters played in gender equality.
Method Defined
In Pingree, Hawkins, Butler and Paisley’s Journal of Communication: A Scale for Sexism,
they described the 5 different levels of gender portrayal of females in the media.7 Women in
level 1 are decorative objects for marketing, victims, or sexual items.8 Level 2 speaks of women
5 “Circular of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (May 16, 1966)” in Important Documents on the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in China (Peking, Foreign Languages Press, 1970), 108. 6 Landsberger, Chinese Propaganda Posters, 29. 7 Huang Hai Hong, 黄海红, “cong meijie nvxing xingxiang chuanbo shijiao kan wenge shiqi haobao zhongde nvxing xingxiang” 从媒介女性形象传播视角看文革时期海报中的女性形象 [Looking at the Female Image during the Cultural Revolution’s Propaganda Posters from the Perspective of Media’s Portrayal of the Female Image], Dongnan Chuanbo 东南传播 Southeast Communication no. 8 (2009): 96. 8 Lorie N. Bonham, “Gender Images and Power in Magazine Advertisements: The Consciousness Scale Revisited” (Communications MA Theses, Georgia State University, 2005), 2.
2 who occupy a traditional role in society: as mothers, nurses, etc.9 Level 3’s are professional
women in the family setting, ultimately indicating that a woman's place is still at home.10 Level 4
is where men and women are equal.11 Level 5 depicts women as various individuals with their own unique characteristics.12
This consciousness scale was originally published in 1976.13 The scale was created
several years after the start of the second-wave feminism, which deviated from its predecessor by
drawing attention to cultural and social oppression rather than exclusive focus on political
equality. Similarly, certain movements in Mao’s China also aimed to promote gender equality
and women’s integration into society. Although the consciousness scale examines the differences
between women in reality and media portrayals of women in the western world, it can be applied
to this analysis after readjustments of scope because it holds no political bias, and exists in an era
where feminist movements began to emerge globally.
The CCP had purged Confucian principles, but ironically, it held on to the Confucian
belief of the “perfectibility of people”.14 This belief formed the basis of the propaganda method.
The CCP favoured the use of models in propaganda “as a means to bring about social or
attitudinal change”.15 It is believed that by delineating both desired behaviour and unorthodox
conduct, these models will prompt self-improvement and assist in achieving higher levels of
human perfection by process of emulation.16
9 Ibid. 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid., 3. 13 Ibid., 2. 14 Landsberger, Chinese Propaganda Posters, 24. 15 Ibid., 26. 16Ibid., 26, 27.
3 The selected images for analysis are taken from two different websites - Landsberg17 and
Maopost18. All posters between May 1966 and October 1976 were taken from Landsberg.19 From
Maopost, the first 10 webpages of posters during 1960s were taken, and the first 5 webpages of
posters during 1970s.20 There were more posters within the time frame for 1970s, thus the
reduced number of pages.
With both the consciousness scale and model method in mind, the categorical frames
were adjusted for the analysis. The posters to be analyzed are divided into three gender-based
categories of ‘men only’, ‘women only’, and ‘men and women’. The focus of this analysis is on
women, therefore posters that are ‘men only’ are left in its gender-based category. ‘Men and
women’ is further divided into compositional-subcategories of ‘background’, ‘foreground’, and
‘featured’. Women in ‘background’ means they are not the focus, are either barely identifiable as
women or are used to frame the main visual object. In ‘foreground’, men and women share the
spotlight of the visual attention. ‘Featured’ shows women as the main character with other men
or women as background. The compositional-subcategory of ‘featured’, along with the gender
based-category of ‘women only’ are both divided into five more identity-subcategories based on
the consciousness scale by Pingree et. al.21 There is ‘family’, ‘traditional’, ‘technical’,
‘unidentified’, and ‘individual’. ‘Family’ is based on level 1, ‘Traditional’ is level 2 and level 3 combined together, a quick sweep through the collected posters did not differentiate the two.
Level 4 is ‘technical’, meaning women in the type of profession that is usually for men. Level
5’s ‘individual’ portrays specific women models with identification of name and unique
17 Chinese Posters, accessed September 4, 2014, http://chineseposters.net 18 Maopost.com - Chinese Propaganda Posters, accessed September 8, 2014, http://maopost.com 19 See Appendix: Selected posters from Chinese Posters and Maopost 20 See Appendix: Selected posters from Chinese Posters and Maopost 21 Bonham, “Consciousness Scale Revisited”, 2.
4 characteristics. ‘Unidentified’ is a new category to accommodate for posters that did not show
enough context to place it in any other category.
This paper also identifies four key symbols and five stylistic elements. These symbols
and elements help analyze the message of the posters. ‘Leader’ is where there are portrayals of
Mao, other significant people in power, or communist leaders like Karl Marx. ‘Antagonists’ are
people that are criticized, which include Confucius, the Gang of Four, and Lin Biao. Another key
element is the ‘little red book’ that contains Mao’s quotations, symbolic for Maoism. The last
items are the ‘red scarves’ or ‘armbands’. The armbands identified someone as a Red Guard.22
And the red scarves identified children as Young Pioneers.23 Lastly, the identification of stylistic
elements include a main slogan, and a subtitle/definition. Posters have main slogans in order to
explain events or methods, and subtitle exists for further clarity. In terms of colours, they are
categorized as mainly red, black & red, and coloured.
Analysis
In order to fully address the research question, there needs to be understanding of where
the message came from. Propaganda Posters in China were made by many different artists, but
are only printed through a publisher. The two most popular publishers were the Shanghai
People’s Publishing House and the People’s Publishing House, both of them nationalized.24 In article 87 of the 1954 Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, it reads “Citizens of the
People’s Republic of China enjoy freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly,
22 “Chairman Mao Receives Red Guards and Revolutionary Teachers and Students”, Peking Review, Vol. 9, No. 37, ed. Marxist.org, September 9, 1966, https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/peking-review/1966/PR1966-37g.htm. 23 Erik Eckholm, “After 50 years, China Youth Remain Mao’s Pioneers”, The New York Times, September 26, 1999, http://www.nytimes.com/1999/09/26/world/after-50-years-china-youth-remain-mao-s-pioneers.html. 24 Data acquired from personally conducted analysis.
5 freedom of association, freedom of procession and freedom of demonstration… ”25 Though in
1956, a turn of events proved the constitution an empty promise. The Hundred Flowers
Campaign was a period of time where Chairman Mao encouraged the people to speak out about their opinions and give constructive criticism.26 By 1957, criticisms became increasingly vicious and were directed towards Mao and the CCP.27 The campaign took a sharp turn and transformed into an anti-rightist purge to suppress those who criticized the state.28 Following the Hundred
Flowers Campaign and purge, the regime tightened censorship.29
In 1975, at what was thought to be half way through the Cultural Revolution, the
Constitution was updated. Article 12 and 28 best illustrate the new censorship policy. In Article
28, it states “Citizens enjoy freedom of speech, correspondence, the press, assembly, association, procession, demonstration and the freedom to strike. [… ]”30 Yet in the same constitution,
Article 12 states “[… ] Culture and education, literature and art, physical education, health work and scientific research work must all serve proletarian politics, serve the workers, peasants and soldiers, and be combined with productive labour.”31 The conflicting articles ultimately describe a state in which citizens “enjoy [a] freedom” that is limited by “proletarian politics". With the limitation of freedom on "culture and education, literature and art", the miscellaneous artists of the propaganda posters thus had no choice in the message of the artwork, it had to serve purpose of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution and party ideologies. The values of these posters are that they carry the message of the party, and its limitations are a truthful reflection of the
25 “Constitution of the People’s Republic of China 1954”, Chapter III Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens, Article 87 (Peking, Foreign Languages Press 1954), 49. 26 Gilbert King, “The Silence that Preceded China’s Great Leap into Famine”, Smithsonian.com, September 26, 2012, http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-silence-that-preceded-chinas-great-leap-into-famine- 51898077/?no-ist. 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid. 29 Ibid. 30 “Constitution of the People’s Republic of China 1975”, Article 12, (Peking, Foreign Languages Press, 1975), 16. 31 Ibid., Article 28.
6 people’s public and private lives. The two most important differences between the 1954 constitution and the 1975 constitution is the is the newly introduced communist jargon, and the omission of executive power roles.32 These allows us to draw inferences that the ambiguity of executive power was required for the Party Central Committee to exercise its power when it sees fit, be it for censorship or other policies.33
Numerical Analysis
Upon completing numerical analysis, it seems that the propagated gender equality during the Cultural Revolution was not women’s rights or gender equality, but gender masculinization.
It was not the liberation of women, it was for the revolution. Mao had developed his own thoughts based on that of Engels, who said "[...] The emancipation of women becomes possible only when women are enabled to take part in production on a large, social scale, and when domestic duties require their attention only to a minor degree.”34 This idea is supported by numerical data as presented in the Table 1 (p8).
32 Jerome Alan Cohen, “China's Changing Constitution” (Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business, Northwestern University of Law Scholarly Commons, 1979), 68, 76. 33 Ibid., 76. 34 Friedrich Engels, ed., New Women in New China, (Peking, People’s Republic of China: Foreign Languages Press, 1972), 4. Friedrich Engels is a German who co-authored of the Communist Manifesto (1848) with Karl Marx, outlining the marxist theory.
7 Table 1. Gender Count in Propaganda Posters35
Gender-based Category Compositional-Subcategory Identity-Subcategory Frequency Men only 62 Women and Men Background 44 Foreground 46 Featured Family 4 Traditional 4 Technical 9 Undefined 0 Individual 0 Women Only Family 1 Traditional 6 Technical 12 Undefined 5 Individual 0
In the table, under ‘featured’ and ‘women only’, the number of women in ‘technical’ far outnumbers number of women in the other identity-subcategories. This represents the masses of women entering the workforce and taking up jobs that men would traditionally do. Although women seem to be more empowered than ever, equality has yet to be reached.
35 Table 1. Gender Count in Propaganda Posters, data of personally conducted analysis.
8 Figure 1. Gender Count (Percentage)36
Figure 1 helps illustrate this imbalance. Firstly, the fact that 55.4% of all posters featured men and women indicates that most of the time, there is equal representation in numbers of both genders. The ‘men only’ category’s more than doubled the ‘women only’ category, with 32.1% versus 12.4%, which demonstrates that although there is some equal representation of both genders; the men are preferred over women when posters only portray one gender.
Table 2. Gender Count of Individual in Identity Category37 Category Frequency Individual men 10 Individual Women 0
Secondly, according to the 1954 Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, Article
91 states that women have “equal rights with men in all areas of political, economical, cultural,
36 Figure 1. Gender Count (Percentage), data of personally conducted analysis. 37 Table 2. Gender Count of Individual in Identity Category, data of personally conducted analysis.
9 social and domestic life.”38 Numerical statistics from table 2 (above) contradicts the constitution.
Out of 208 posters, men had 10 posters in ‘individual’, whereas women had none. The 10:0 ratio also corresponds to the communist practice of model emulation having preference for men. Other than preference for masculinity, the following tables helps identify the CCP’s real objectives.
Table 3. Frequency Table of Symbols39
Symbols Frequency Leader 34 Antagonist 12 Little Red Book 79 Red Sleeve/Scarf 42
In the table above, symbols show the significance of Mao Zedong Thought. 37% of the posters had the little red book, it is the most important item that represents Mao.40 My father, Lin
Zhiming, who was one of the last of the youth generation who were sent to the countryside to work by the revolution, compared its importance to that of the Bible in Christian Communities, he said that if he went to school without it, the teacher would send him back home to get it.41The red sleeves or red scarves represent the red guard or children who will become them. Antagonists or Villains are also frequent in the posters because the revolution was designed to criticize and purge non-socialists.
38 “Constitution of the People’s Republic of China 1954”, Article 91. 39 Table 3. Frequency Table of Symbols, data of personally conducted analysis 40 percentage calculated from personal conducted analysis’ Table 2. 41 Lin Zhiming, personal interview over phone with author, September 4, 2014.
10 Table 4. Frequency Table of Elements42
Elements Frequency Main Title 191 Subtitle 37 Red 12 Red/Black 29 Colour 164
Under elements, 191 have main titles or slogans. These phrases outlines the direct message, and assure that nothing is up for interpretation. It indicates that the posters are visual aid for the slogan, rather than a creative piece of work with a title. The 164 posters that are in colour make up 80% of all the posters. Red and red/black collectively only take up 20% of all.
According to Russell Hill and Robert Barton of the University of Durham, the colour red represents aggression and anger.43 These feelings that contain powerful outburst was desirable during the revolution, hence the colour use. Although images with colour do not arouse aggression, it paints the idea of a perfect, harmonious world. The choices of colours are used to guide the proletariat's emotional response, and assist the slogans in communicating their message.
Visual Analysis
The inclusion of women in propaganda posters was necessary for two reasons. The slogan of “women hold up half the sky” made the presence of women in posters irreplaceable.44
The second being in order to show the entire country involved in the revolutionary movements,
42 Table 4. Frequency Table of Elements, data of personally conducted analysis. 43 John Roach, “In Sports, Red is Winning Colour, Study Says”, National Geographic, May 18, 2005, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/05/0518_050518_redsports.html 44 Yihong Jin 金一虹, “ ‘铁姑娘’:再思考 - 中国文化革命期间的社会性别与劳动” [“Rethink: ‘Iron Maiden’ - Gender and Work in Society during the Chinese Cultural Revolution”], (南京师范大学金陵女子学院 - Nanjing University Jinling Women’s College, 2006), 7.
11 both men and women must be present. Yet more often than not, this portrayal of women is weak in accuracy of advocating for women’s rights, and it is mutilated to suit political purposes. In regard of different aspects of life - economical/work, political, and social - two images will be analyzed for the female image in each category.
The economical situations are best described in the work of the proletariat. Women all over China joined the workforce in factories and mills; they became commune leaders and formed parts of the militia, positions previously unavailable to women.45
Figure 2. The world is chock-full of new growth in the spring, and women are shouldering their half of the heavens46
45 Ibid., 14. 46 The World is Chock-full of New Growth in the Spring, and Women are Shouldering Their Half of the Heavens, 1976, Maopost.com Chinese Propaganda Posters, accessed September 27, 2014, http://www.maopost.com:8000/wcat=mao&wlan=en&wreq=posterpage&posterid=0119- 001M&srcname=c_women&selected=11&total=165&srcreq=http:%2F%2Fwww.maopost.com:8000%2Fwcat=mao %26wlan=en%26wreq=postercat%26catref=c_women%26displistindex=1
12 In the poster above, these women outline a few stylistic elements that were shared by most women in the propaganda posters. First, they all have a round face, happy smile, large eyes and thick brows. Secondly, they have uniformly short cropped hair. Thirdly, they always carry work tools, one girl in the image also drives a tractor. Fourthly, they all sport unisex clothing, and thus have lack of feminine curves.
These distinctly new characteristics are the visually symbolic of the “iron maiden”. The
“iron maiden” were heroines unique to the Cultural Revolution Era.47 Girls who had the desirable traits, underwent attitudinal changes, and now consequently carried the party ideologies were developed into visual representations48. As a result of these models and the need to define a recognizable image of a hero, traditionally distinct characteristics of women - a defined waist, wide hips, and long hair - have melted away by process of masculinization. Iron maidens were competitive women who were passionate about the revolution, and were just as strong as men in the workforce, if not better.
As demonstrated in the poster below, women take on a new role of hard labour work that is increasingly technical. These girls beam with positivity at their ability to stand in the front of the blast and to pave the way through a steep mountain. Interestingly, despite the ratio of men to women being 1:7, the man is placed taller than all the girls and seems to hold the position of a leader over the team of women.
47Jin, [“Rethink: ‘Iron Maiden’”], 2. 48 Landsberger, Chinese Propaganda Posters, 29.
13 Figure 3. New Dynamiters49
While it is undeniably true that women are for more empowered in their career options than before, Jin from Nanjing University, argues that it is still a form of masculinization, identifying that in many cases it is the replacement of male workers by female workers in field of work that are neither traditional nor advanced enough to be technical.50 Supported by the image of the New dynamiters where girls take up technical work, but are not leaders. She expresses that this mindset has not created equality between men and women, but the competition to be stronger in all fields of work. This motivation to win from the women’s side is fueled by past oppression and misogyny. Contradictingly, a female educated youth that left to work on farms
49 New Dynamiters 0017-001M, 1974, 55x75 cm, Maopost, accessed September 9, 2014, http://www.maopost.com:8000/wcat=mao&wlan=en&wreq=posterpage&posterid=0017- 001M&srcname=c_worker&selected=4&total=112&srcreq=http:%2F%2Fwww.maopost.com:8000%2Fwcat=mao %26wlan=en%26wreq=postercat%26catref=c_worker%26displistindex=1 50 Jin, [“Rethink: ‘Iron Maiden’”], 3.
14 felt she “... was free from social expectations of the roles of wife and mother…. [and ]never
worried about being seen as unfeminine for surpassing men in our job performance.”51 It is
important to note that the girl was unmarried and did not have concerns with family life.
These two posters depict the feeling that hard work results in good life. The parties
ideologies paved way for women to demonstrate their strength, but it also encouraged
competition. In an interview with a past iron maiden Yin Zhu, she described herself doing heavy
labour and carrying 120kg of carpets or other products, and then proceeded to give birth to her
child the next day.52 What sounds like a heroic story of dedication and patriarchal love, is also
the negative effects of the revolutionary ideologies. It assumed that women did not have
menstrual cycles, criticized and ostracized any hint of traditional values pr feminine
characteristics.53 The Cultural Revolution made men the ideal model of gender equality to serve
its purposes of economic improvement.
Jamie Burnett identifies that what Jin has previously stated to be advancements in
women’s social status, that regardless of the revolution, many social norms were reluctant to be
let go.54 The strong belief that “women are the foot soldiers and men are the generals” was put
aside as the demand for female workers increased.55 Yet when the other economic or political
aspects of the state are threatened, women’s rights are put off and “always secondary to that of
the nation”.56 Regardless of negativity or positivity, the posters played an effective role in
changing the perspective of women in the workforce, where many of them held technical jobs. It
51 Enaemaehkiw Túpac Keshena, “The Cultural Revolution & The Struggle to Liberate Women”, bermudaradical (blog), December 14, 2014, http://bermudaradical.wordpress.com/2012/03/03/the-cultural-revolution-the-struggle- to-liberate-women/ 52 Jin, [“Rethink: ‘Iron Maiden’”], 12. 53 Yin, “Cultural changes reflected in Chinese magazines”, 20. 54 Jamie Burnett, “Women’s Employment Rights in China: Creating Harmony for Women in the Workplace”, Indiana Journal for Legal Studies, Volume 35, Issue 17, Article 8 (2010): 294. 55 Ibid., 294. 56 Yin, “Cultural changes reflected in Chinese magazines”, 21.
15 also contributed to the understanding that women should work just as much as men but still receive less pay.
Figure 4. Posters showing measures against atomic, chemical and bacteriological warfare57
In the political front, even in posters of ‘men and women’ in the foreground category, there is unequal representation where the men:women ratio is 3:1, as shown by the poster above.
Of the woman portrayed, we see a young girl with short hair. She shares the same determined, strong facial features and revolutionary pose as the men. Other aspects of femininity are unrepresented. Although feminine characteristics lost, many women took advantage of the liberation. Recall Engels belief of integration of women in the workforce to achieve equality, the
57 Posters showing measures against atomic, chemical and bacteriological warfare BG E13/670 (Landsberger collection), 1971, 53x76 cm, General Department of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (中国人民解放军总参 谋部), Chinese Posters, acccessed on September 4, 2014, http://chineseposters.net/posters/e13-670.php
16 revolution is the cause for the number of female red guards spiking, these young women were permitted to act with confidence that had never before been allowed.58
Figure 5. To go on a thousand 'li' march to temper a red heart59
In the poster above, where the proletariat are on a march to demonstrate their love and passion for the country, there is one girl in the foreground with two other men. She is portrayed as a leader of the long train of marchers. The size of her thighs are the same as her male
58 Jin, [“Rethink: ‘Iron Maiden’”], 10. 59 Shanghai No. 3 glass household utensil factory rev. committee pol. prop. group, Xuhui district residential building and repair company No. 3 construction brigade rev. committee pol. prop. group collective work (上海玻璃器皿三 厂, 徐汇区房屋修建公司第三工程队革委会政宣组供稿), To go on a thousand 'li' march to temper a red heart BG E13/708 (Landsberger collection), 1971, 53x77 cm, Shanghai renmin chubanshe (上海人民出版社), Chinese Posters, accessed September 4, 2014, http://chineseposters.net/gallery/e13-708.php
17 counterparts, her figure equally confident and her gait resembles that of other members in her row. If the shirt was not a stereotypical girl colour, she could have been easily mistaken as a man.
Jin states that slogans like ‘men and women are the same’, are enforcing male gender stereotypes on women not just politically, economically, but also socially.60 To test the validity of this statement, a poster is examined from the first category of ‘family’, which makes up 0.02% of the total posters.61
Figure 6. For Revolution’s sake, Marry Late and Practice Family Planning62
60 Jin, [“Rethink: ‘Iron Maiden’”], 16. 61 Percentage calculated from personally conducted analysis. 62 For Revolution’s Sake, Marry late and Practice Family Planning 0035-001M, 1975, 55x75 cm, From Maopost, http://www.maopost.com:8000/wcat=mao&wlan=en&wreq=posterpage&posterid=0035- 001M&srcname=c_civic&selected=4&total=75&srcreq=http:%2F%2Fwww.maopost.com:8000%2Fwcat=mao%26 wlan=en%26wreq=postercat%26catref=c_civic%26displistindex=1
18 In figure 6, there is the perceived existence of a family. Many other posters that involve families resemble this in message and composition. The little girl holds a book that reads “yu wen” for Language Arts, she sports both the red scarf and the red arm band. The mother character of the poster wields a pickaxe. The father figure holds a wrench and has a bayonet strapped to his back. Both females in this image are well covered with short hair. The mother has thick eyebrows, large eyes and a wide smile. This image of a family contrasts greatly with our common perception of a family; which often includes hugging or holding a child, but not weaponry or agriculture tools. The slogan calls for late marriage and “family planning”, in other words, birth control. This was part of the birth control campaign that aimed to control China’s population size, but also free up women to take part in revolutionary causes.63 This details visual evidence to support Jin’s concept of masculinization. It is true that not all women want to have a family, but there are also many that do. The revolution has again oppressed traditional women roles.
In figure 7, it is set late at night where one young woman is writing things down from the little red book, another girl who is cleaning takes interest in her work. The girl who takes interest models someone who is keen in the pursuit of knowledge, the other is a diligent worker who lives up to the poster title, “never stop trying to improve service”. it shows how the CCP’s policies of work infiltrate private life after work.
63 Keshena, “The Struggle to Liberate Women”.
19 Figure 7. Never Stop Trying to Improve Service64
What propaganda did not change is the social stigma of women being conservative. Since late marriage was enforced, a girl’s purity or virginity was prized and public displays of affection or any romantic contact were frowned upon.65 Ping Fu is a woman who was separated from her slightly-bourgeois family and sent to the countryside under the red guard to be “brainwashed, starved, tortured and gang raped, [she then became] a factory worker […] without proper
64 Never Stop Trying to Improve Service 0032-001M, 1976, 55x75 cm, From Maopost, http://www.maopost.com:8000/wcat=mao&wlan=en&wreq=posterpage&posterid=0032- 001M&srcname=c_women&selected=4&total=165&srcreq=http:%2F%2Fwww.maopost.com:8000%2Fwcat=ma o%26wlan=en%26wreq=postercat%26catref=c_women%26displistindex=1 65 Yin, “Cultural changes reflected in Chinese magazines”, 20.
20 schooling.”66 Rather than receiving help she was ostracized by her peers and bullied for her rape,
getting called “broken shoe”, meaning a ruined woman. Ping Fu’s bitter life is an example of the
CCP’s violent and faulty antics of sending women to work in order to establish gender equality.
Conclusion
The ten year long Cultural Revolution was a period of thought reform to consolidate
maoist communist ideologies. Much of the reform was done with propaganda posters through
attitudinal, behavioural, and thought modeling. As a result of these reforms, the female body
image and consciousness became victims to an utopian political fantasy. The image of women
during the Cultural Revolution’s propaganda posters took on political symbolism by portraying
euphemised scenarios of collectivised revolution and maoist communist moral.
The propaganda poster’s ‘gender equality’ was not gender equality in its truest sense.
Under the socialist belief that equality needed to be achieved by inclusion of all people in the
workforce, the definition of gender equality changed into a form of gender neutralization that
favoured masculinization. This so-called equality disregarded gender and age, and forced people
to actively engage in revolution and construction. The role of women and their existence in
posters was merely the representation of a social class in order to call the Cultural Revolution a
‘national revolution’. Thus, women lost any sense of individualism and their only appeal is to
show off revolutionary ideologies.
The effects of these posters in real life had both positive and negative consequences. The
constant exposure to the propaganda posters empowered women in leaving their traditional posts
as family caretakers to become part of the industrialization movement, and to take on “double
66 Jenna Goudreau, “One Woman’s Journey from China’s Cultural Revolution to Top American Tech Entrepreneur”, Forbes, January 23, 2013, http://www.forbes.com/sites/jennagoudreau/2013/01/23/one-womans-journey-from- chinese-labor-camp-to-top-american-tech-entrepreneur/
21 shifts”. But this act of liberation also limited women. It oppressed women’s values of family and femininity, and ostracized those who did not fit under the rigid socialist ideologies.
Word Count: 3993
22 Bibliography
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Burnett, Jamie. “Women’s Employment Rights in China: Creating Harmony for Women in the Workplace”. Indiana Journal for Legal Studies, Volume 35, Issue 17, Article, 2010.
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Chinese Posters. accessed September 4, 2014. http://chineseposters.net
Cohen, Jerome Alan. “China's Changing Constitution” Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business, Northwestern University of Law Scholarly Commons, 1979.
Goudreau, Jenna. “One Woman’s Journey from China’s Cultural Revolution to Top American Tech Entrepreneur”. Forbes, January 23, 2013.http://www.forbes.com/sites/jenna goudreau/2013/01/23/one-womans-journey-from-chinese-labor-camp-to-top-american- tech-entrepreneur/.
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Huang, Hai Hong, 黄海红. “cong meijie nvxing xingxiang chuanbo shijiao kan wenge shiqi haobao zhongde nvxing xingxiang” 从媒介女性形象传播视角看文革时期海报中的女 性形象 [Looking at the Female Image during the Cultural Revolution’s Propaganda Posters from the Perspective of Media’s Portrayal of the Female Image]. Dongnan Chuanbo 东南传播 Southeast Communication no. 8 (2009).
Important Documents on the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in China. Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1970.
Jin, Yihong. “ ‘铁姑娘’:再思考 - 中国文化革命期间的社会性别与劳动” [Rethink: ‘Iron Maiden’ - Gender and Work in Society during the Chinese Cultural Revolution]. 南京师 范大学金陵女子学院 - Nanjing University Jinling Women’s College, 2006.
Keshena, Enaemaehkiw Túpac. “The Cultural Revolution & The Struggle to Liberate Women”,
23 bermudaradical (blog). December 14, 2014. http://bermudaradical.wordpress.com /2012/03/03/the-cultural-revolution-the-struggle-to-liberate-women/.
King, Gilbert. “The Silence that Preceded China’s Great Leap into Famine”. Smithsonian.com, September 26, 2012. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-silence-that-preceded- chinas-great-leap-into-famine-51898077/?no-ist.
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Maopost.com - Chinese Propaganda Posters. accessed September 8, 2014. http://maopost.com.
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Roach, John. “In Sports, Red is Winning Colour, Study Says”. National Geographic, May 18, 2015. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/05/0518_050518_redsports.html.
Yin, Yue. “Cultural changes as reflected in portrayals of women and gender in Chinese magazines published in three eras”. Master’s thesis, Iowa State University, 2010.
24 APPENDIX: Selected Posters from Chinese Posters67 and Maopost68 TITLE YEAR CALL # PUBLISHER ARTIST SIZE 1 Criticize the old world and 1966 BG E15/699 Shanghai renmin Propaganda Poster Group 108x7 build a new world with (Landsberger meishu chubanshe Shanghai renmin meishu 7 cm Mao Zedong Thought as a collection) chubanshe weapon 2 Hold high the great red 1966- BG E13/764 Shanghai renmin Revolutionary Rebel 53x74. banner of Mao Zedong to 1967 (Landsberger meishu chubanshe Command of the Shanghai 5 cm wage the Great Proletarian collection) Publishing System; Cultural Revolution to the Revolutionary Rebel end - Revolution is no Committee of the Shanghai crime, to rebel is justified People's Fine Arts Publishing House 3 Hold high the great red 1967 BG E13/719 Shanghai renmin Unknown 76x banner of Mao Zedong (Landsberger meishu chubanshe 50.5 Thought - thoroughly collection) cm smash the rotting counterrevolutionary revisionist line in literature and the arts 4 The 3 July and 24 July 1968 BG E13/856 Unknown Unknown 105.5 proclamations are (Landsberger x75.5 Chairman Mao's great collection) cm strategic plans! Unite with forces that can be united with to strike surely, accurately and relentlessly at the handful of class enemies 5 Scatter the old world, build 1967 BG D29/184 Unknown Unknown 37x26 a new world (IISH cm collection) 6 There is irrefutable 1967 PC-1967- Unknown Red Flag Commune of the 78.5x evidence that the rotten 009 (Private "Shanghai Art Department" of 55 cm heads of the United collection) the Worker-Peasant-Soldier Departments plotted to Film Studio, Red Flag Corps instigate a "Second of the "Publishing Shanghai Riot"! They Department" of the Shanghai cannot get away with it! Municipal Print Technology Research Office
67 Chinese Posters, accessed September 4, 2014, http://chineseposters.net 68 Maopost.com - Chinese Propaganda Posters, accessed September 8, 2014, http://maopost.com
25 7 Red Rebels unite! 1967 PC-1967- Unknown Jilin LuYi great revolutionary 78x54. 016 (Private rebel army a.o. (吉林鲁艺革 5 cm collection) 命造反大军等)
8 The mobilization of 1967 PC-1967- Jilin renmin Jilin Lu Yi Great 76x53. revolutionary peasants is 024 (Private chubanshe (吉林人 Revolutionary Rebel Army (吉 5 cm excellent! collection) 民出版社) 林鲁艺革命造反大军)
9 The masses of the United 1967 PC-196b- Unknown "Shanghai Art Headquarters" 78.5x5 Headquarters have been 015 (Private workers-peasant-soldiers 4 cm hoodwinked and are collection) movie studio Red Flag without crime, it is Commune, "Print glorious to turn one's Headquarters" Shanghai weapon around and strike! Municipal print technology research institute red soldier corps 10 Struggle Meeting 1967 PC-1967-013 United Committee United Committee of 78.5x5 (Private of Revolutionary Revolutionary Rebels to 4 cm collection) Rebels to Smash Smash the Rotten Ministry of the Rotten Ministry Culture (革命造反派砸烂文 of Culture 化部联合委员会)
11 Resolutely uncover "1 1967 PC-1967-015 United Committee United Committee of the Lu 78x53 June", massacre the (Private of the Lu Xun Art Xun Art Academy, Mao cm murderers of the East collection) Academy, Mao Zedong Thought Red Guard Workers Sports Academy! Zedong Thought Battle Corps of the North East Red Guard Battle Workers University (鲁迅美术 Corps of the North East Workers 学院联委会，东北工学院毛 University 泽东思想红卫兵战斗团)
12 Stop the armed struggle at 1967 PC-1967- Qingdao Municipal Qingdao Municipal General 76x53. once! 017 (Private General Command Command of the 5 cm collection) of the Revolutionary Trade Unions Revolutionary (青岛市革命职工总司令部) Trade Unions (青
岛市革命职工总
司令部)
13 Chairman Mao teaches us: 1967 PC-196b- Revolutionary Revolutionary Rebel 77x53 It is up to us to organize 002 (Private Rebel Command of Command of the Shanghai cm the people… collection) the Shanghai Publishing system, Publishing system, Revolutionary Rebel Revolutionary Committee of the Shanghai Rebel Committee renmin meishu chubanshe
26 of the Shanghai renmin meishu chubanshe 14 The world is yours, as well 1968 PC-1968- Renmin meishu Beijing Film Academy 52.5x7 as ours, but in the last 003 (Private chubanshe (人民美 Jinggangshan Commune (北京 7.5 cm analysis, it is yours… collection) 术出版社) 电影学院井冈山公社)
15 The Chinese people have 1970 PC-1970- l- Shanghaishi Shanghai no. Three printing 77x10 high aspirations 001 (Private Chuban Gemingzu and dyeing mill - 6 cm collection) Revolutionary committee political propaganda group 16 The Chinese people have 1970 PC-1970- l- Hubei renmin Art Creation Group of 77.5x1 high aspirations 003 (Private chubanshe (湖北人 Workers Constructing the No. 07.5 collection) 4 Blast Furnace at WuGang cm 民出版社) (Wuhan Steel) (建设武钢四号
烤炉工人美术创作组)
17 Win honor for our great 1970 BG G1/244 Central Industrial Central Industrial Arts College 106x7 leader Chairman Mao, (IISH Arts College (中央 (中央工艺美术学院) 7 cm bring credit to our socialist collection) motherland 工艺美术学院)
18 At home 1973 BG E15/684 Shanghai renmin Chen Jiren (陈纪仁) 77x10 (Landsberger chubanshe (上海人 6 cm collection) 民出版社)
19 The Great Proletarian 1973 BG E13/793 Renmin meishu Hou Yimin (候一民), Deng 53x56. Cultural Revolution must (Landsberger chubanshe (人民美 5 cm be waged to the end collection) Shu (邓树), Jin Shangyi (靳尚 术出版社) 谊), Zhan Jianjun (詹建俊),
Luo Gongliu (罗工柳), Yuan
Hao (袁浩), Yang Lin'gui (杨 林桂)
20 The situation is gratifying 1974 BG E13/825 Renmin meishu Yan Guiming (阎贵明) 77x63 (Landsberger chubanshe (人民美 cm collection) 术出版社)
21 Four not-having-to-bend 1976 BG E15/103 Shanghai renmin Nanhui District Spare Time 77x53 scrolls (1, 2) (Landsberger chubanshe (上海人 Art Group (南汇县业余美术 cm collection) 民出版社) 创作组)
22 Four not-having-to-bend 1976 BG E15/104 Shanghai renmin Nanhui District Spare Time 77x53 scrolls (3, 4) (Landsberger chubanshe (上海人 Art Group (南汇县业余美术 cm collection)
27 民出版社) 创作组)
23 Our brigade leader 1976 BG E15/93 Shanghai renmin Guo Zhiming (郭志明) 53.5x7 (Landsberger chubanshe (上海人 7 cm collection) 民出版社)
24 A new scene in 1976 BG E15/132 Shanghai renmin Cao Ziqiang (曹自强) 54x77 Xiangyangyuan (Landsberger chubanshe (上海人 cm collection) 民出版社)
25 Bombard the capitalist 1976 BG E15/125 Shanghai renmin Cultural Revolution Collective 54x78 headquarters (Landsberger chubanshe (上海人 Painting Creative Group (文化 cm collection) 民出版社) 大革命组画创作组)
26 One Hundred Clowns - 1967 BG E13/812 Propaganda Unknown 77.5x5 Drag out the counter (Landsberger Troupe of the Mao 4.5 cm revolutionary revisionist collection) Zedong-ism Red elements and expose them! Guards of the Politics and Law Commune of the Institute of Political Science and Law, Beijing 27 A host of demons 1967 BG E15/816 Tianjin tiyu Unknown 80x54 (Landsberger chubanshe (天津体 cm collection) 育出版社)
28 Band of clowns - Ferret 1967 BG PC- Xi'an District Unknown 77.5x5 out the counter- 1967-014 Northwest 3 cm revolutionary reactionary (Private University General elements and expose them collection) Department Red to the masses! Guard Revolutionary Rebel General Command, Propaganda Department of Cultural Revolution Preparatory Committee of Northwest University, Revolutionary Unified
28 Headquarters of the Revolutionary Rebels of State-run Factory 544 29 Thoroughly expose 1966 BG E15/179 Unknown Hohhot Revolutionary Rebel 53x75 Ulanfu's anti-Party clique (Landsberger Liaison Headquarters Fine cm collection) Arts Group (呼和浩特革命造
反联络总部美术组)
30 A Crowd of Clowns 1967 BG E39/563 Red Guards. Weng Rulan (翁如蘭) 54x77. (IISH Capital 5 cm collection) Department no. 1
31 The New Socialist Things 1976 BG G2/54 Jiangsu renmin Cheng Lizhi (成励志) 103x7 are fine (Landsberger chubanshe (江苏人 5.5 cm collection) 民出版社)
32 Protect the great results of 1974 BG E15/32 Sichuan renmin Jian Chongming (简崇明), 77x53. the Great Cultural (Landsberger chubanshe (四川人 5 cm Revolution collection) Zhang Mingsheng (张明生) 民出版社)
33 To go on a thousand 'li' 1971 BG E13/708 Shanghai renmin Shanghai No. 3 glass 53x77 march to temper a red (Landsberger chubanshe (上海人 household utensil factory rev. cm heart collection) committee pol. prop. group, 民出版社) Xuhui district residential building and repair company No. 3 construction brigade rev. committee pol. prop. group collective work 34 Long live the Paris 1971 BG E13/569 Shanghai renmin Revolutionary Committee of 77x10 Commune; (Landsberger meishu chubanshe the Shanghai Drama College 6 cm Commemorating the collection) (上海人民美术出 (上海戏剧学院革委会供稿) centenary of the Paris Commune 版社) 35 Warmly welcome another 1967 BG G2/7 Shanghai People's Unknown 109x7 great victory of Mao (Landsberger Commune (上海人 8.5 cm Zedong Thought - the birth collection) of the Shanghai People's 民公社) Commune
36 Revolutionary Committees 1976 BG E15/110 Renmin meishu Lin Kanghua (林康华); Chen 53x77 are good (Landsberger chubanshe (人民美 cm collection) Yuqiang (陈聿强); Zhang 术出版社) Gufeng (张鼓峰); Zhang
Huaijiang (张怀江)
37 Resolutely protect the 1976 BG E15/562 Unknown Conference of Representatives 78x54
29 policy of the revolutionary (Landsberger of Revolutionary cm three-in-one combination! collection) Organizations of Jinnan Region (晋南区革命组织代表
会议)
38 Warmly hail the formation 1966- BG E13/761 China Film Unknown 52.5x7 of the revolutionary 1967 (Landsberger Production and 1 cm committee of Beijing collection) Projection Company (中国电
影发行放映公司)
39 Firmly uphold and defend 1967 BG E13/712 Shanghai Unknown 76x53 Chairman Mao's correct (Landsberger Revolutionary cm policy of the "Three-in-one collection) Committee (上海 combination", all power must return to the 革命委员会) Shanghai revolutionary committee 40 Warmly celebrate the 1968 BG E13/776 Unknown Unknown 76x53 formation of the (Landsberger cm revolutionary committee of collection) the Foreign Languages Training School of Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province 41 Warmly welcome the 1967 BG E15/420 Unknown Unknown 53x75 establishment of the (Landsberger cm revolutionary committee of collection) the Shanghai East-is-Red diesel locomotive factory! 42 Going to live and work in a 1969 BG G2/50 Liaoningsheng Unknown 78x10 production team to wage (Landsberger xinhua shudian (辽 7 cm revolution collection) 宁省新华书店)
43 Develop the spirit to wage 1975 BG E13/811 Shanxi renmin Wang Dexing (王德兴) 78x54 bitter struggle (Landsberger chubanshe (山西人 cm collection) 民美术出版社)
44 The university takes care 1976 BG E13/832 Renmin chubanshe Hong Tao (洪涛), Worker- 75.5x5 of our mountain village (Landsberger 3 cm (人民出版社) Peasant-Soldier student of the collection) revolutionary literature and art department of Peking Normal University 45 Advance courageously 1971 BG E13/625 Renmin meishu Museum of the Chinese 53x76. along the glorious road of (Landsberger Revolutionary Army collective 5 cm
30 Chairman Mao's "7 May collection) chubanshe (人民美 work (中国人民革命军事博 instructions 术出版社) 物馆供稿)
46 Walk the road of the May 1976 BG E13/914 Renmin meishu Peasant Propaganda Painting 77x53 7 Cadre Schools to (Landsberger chubanshe (人民美 Study Group of Jinxian, cm persevere in continuing the collection) Liaoning Province, Liu revolution 术出版社) Zhangshun collective work 47 The glory of going up the 1974 BG E13/642 Unknown Unknown 77x53 mountains, going down to (Landsberger cm the countryside-presented collection) to the Revolutionary Committee of Tianjin
48 Temper one's red heart on 1973 BG E15/567 Shanghai renmin Shang Xuanbin (尚宣斌) 106x7 the road of the 7 May (Landsberger chubanshe (上海人 7 cm (cadre schools), call forth collection) all one's vigor to wage 民出版社) revolution 49 To villages we go, to the 1970 BG E16/331 Shanghaishi Unknown 77x53 borders we go, to places in (IISH gemingzu (上海市 cm the fatherland where we collection) are most needed we go 革命组) 50 Educated youth must go to 1969 BG E15/35 Sichuan renmin Revolutionary Committee of 54x77 the countryside to receive (Landsberger chubanshe (四川人 Sichuan Art Academy (四川美 cm re-education from the Poor collection) and Lower-Middle 民出版社) 术学院革命委员会供稿) peasants!
51 Spring breeze in Yangliu 1975 BG E15/178 Renmin meishu Zhou Shuqiao (周树桥) 54x78 (Landsberger chubanshe (人民美 cm collection) 术出版社)
52 Give a warm send-off to 1975 BG G2/43 Shanghai renmin Shi Fuguo (施福国); Wang 106x7 educated youth who go up (Landsberger chubanshe (上海人 7 cm the mountains and down to collection) Youjun (汪幼军) the villages to wage 民出版社) revolution 53 Posters showing measures 1971 BG E13/670 Unknown General Department of the 53x76 against atomic, chemical (Landsberger Chinese People's Liberation cm and bacteriological warfare collection) Army 54 Untitled (last sheet) 1971 BG E13/699 Unknown General Department of the 53x76 (Landsberger Chinese People's Liberation cm collection) Army 55 Deepen the criticism of Lin 1975 BG E13/339 Renmin meishu Lüda Cultural Palace, Zhou 53x77 (Biao) and Confucius, (Landsberger chubanshe (人民美 Jianzhi collective work (旅大 cm
31 energetically increase collection) 术出版社) 市文化艺术馆，周建志供稿) industrial production
56 Fight the people's battle of 1974 BG E13/955 Renmin meishu Zhang Ruji (张汝济), Wang 77x53. criticizing Lin Biao and (Landsberger chubanshe (人民美 5 cm Confucius well collection) Jue (王角) 术出版社)
57 Relentlessly criticize 1974 BG E13/799 Shanghai renmin Unknown 106x7 China's Confucius of today (Landsberger chubanshe (上海人 6.5 cm and Lin Biao collection) 民出版社)
58 Ruthlessly criticize Lin 1974 BG E15/698 Shaanxi renmin Wang Xijing (王西京), Xi'an 108x7 Biao's "resurrection of the (Landsberger chubanshe (陕西人 7 cm self, restoration of the collection) Ribaoshe collective work (西 民出版社) rites", resolutely follow the 安日报社供稿) road of socialism! 59 The historical struggle of 1974 BG E13/784 Hebei renmin Hebei People's Publishing 76.5x5 the working people against (Landsberger chubanshe (河北人 House (河北人民出版社) 3 cm Confucius/Confucianism collection) (first sheet) 民出版社)
60 Criticize the reactionary 1974 BG E13/851 Tianjin renmin Che Yongren (车永仁), Yu 53x77 thought of Lin Biao and (Landsberger meishu chubanshe cm Huali (于华鲤) Confucius, firmly walk collection) (天津人民美术出 with the workers and peasants on the road of 版社) unity
61 Study Lu Xun's 1973 BG E13/595 Renmin meishu Chen Yaoyi (陈尧伊) 77x10 revolutionary spirit to (Landsberger chubanshe (人民美 5.5 c become a pathbreaker in collection) criticizing Lin Biao and 术出版社) Confucius 62 Starting the criticism of 1975 BG E13/847 Tianjin renmin 76.5x5 "Shuihu" (Landsberger meishu chubanshe 3 cm collection) (天津人民美术出
版社) Unknown
63 Thoroughly criticize the 1976 BG E15/363 Shanghai renmin Feng Zhengjian (冯正建) 54x77 capitulationist clique (Landsberger chubanshe (上海人 cm collection) 民出版社)
64 Study well and grasp the 1975 BG E13/619 Renmin meishu Lu Juding (路巨鼎) 77x10 theory of the dictatorship (Landsberger chubanshe (人民美 6 cm of the proletariat collection) 术出版社)
65 Create powerful Marxist 1975 BG E13/562 Renmin meishu Dalian High Pressure Valve 77x10
32 theoretical troops in the (Landsberger chubanshe (人民美 Factory, Zhu Yeqing collective 6 cm midst of battle collection) work (大连高压阀门厂，朱 术出版社) 也青供稿)
66 Earnestly study the theory 1976 BG E15/642 Hebei renmin Li Naizhou (李乃宙) 77x53 of the dictatorship of the (Landsberger chubanshe (河北人 cm proletariat collection) 民出版社)
67 Carry on the struggle to the 1976 BG E13/839 Hunan renmin Gui Runnian (桂润年) 53x76 end to strike against the (Landsberger chubanshe (湖南人 cm right deviationist wind of collection) reversing verdicts 民出版社)
68 Deepen the criticism of 1976 BG E13/967 Guangdong renmin Wu Qizhong (伍启中) 76.5x5 Deng Xiaoping, strike (Landsberger chubanshe (广东人 1 cm against the right collection) deviationist wind of 民出版社) reversing verdicts
69 Wage the struggle against 1976 BG E15/130 Sichuan renmin Du Xianqing (杜显清) 77x54 the right-deviationist wind (Landsberger chubanshe (四川人 cm of reversing verdicts to the collection) end! 民出版社)
70 Completely finish the 1976 BG E13/786 Tianjin renmin Li Dongsheng (李东升), Sun 53x76 struggle of (Landsberger meishu chubanshe cm Jianping (孙建平) counterattacking the collection) (天津人民美术出 Rightist deviation of reversing verdicts 版社) 71 Deepen the criticism of 1976 BG E15/301 Tianjin renmin Tianjin People's Fine Arts 77x53 Deng's earthquake relief (Landsberger meishu chubanshe Publishing House collective cm work collection) (天津人民美术出 work (天津人民美术出版社)
版社)
72 The all conquering 55x75 People's Liberation Army 1968 0077-001M Unknown Unknown cm 73 We respectfully wish great leader Chairman Mao long 55x75 life 1967 0100-001M Unknown Unknown cm 74 Permanent revolution for life, read Chairman Mao's 55x75 book for life 1966 0127-001M Unknown Unknown cm 75 55x75 Sister-in-law chooses a pen 1966 0131-001M Unknown Unknown cm 76 Iron horses in wind and 55x75 snow 1966 0139-001M Unknown Unknown cm
33 77 Chairman Mao and his trusted fellow soldier, Comrade Lin Biao, review the ranks of the massive 55x75 Cultural Revolution Army 1968 0179-001M Unknown Unknown cm 78 Long live the great Chinese Communist Party! Long live the great leader, Chairman Mao! Enthusiastically celebrate the successful convening of the 9th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party. 75x10 1969 0186-001L Unknown Unknown 5 cm 79 Long live Chairman Mao's victorious revolutionary line of the rule of the 75x10 proletariat. 1969 0203-001L Unknown Unknown 5 cm 80 75x10 We must liberate Taiwan! 1969 0205-001L Unknown Unknown 5 cm 81 Bravely follow the great leader chairman Mao 75x10 forward. 1969 0227-001L Unknown Unknown 5 cm 82 We not only excel at destroying the old world, we excel at building a new 51x76 one. 1967 0244-001M Unknown Unknown cm 83 Lei Feng, the Great 77x53 Warrior. 1966 0249-001M Unknown Unknown cm 84 Shanghai Great World 77x53 Entertainment Center. 1966 0250-001M Unknown Unknown cm 85 If the enemy sharpens his knife, we shall sharpen 54x77 ours. 1969 0269-001M Unknown Unknown cm 86 Warmly hail the successful opening of The Autumn 1967 China Export 50x78 Commodities Fair! 1967 0272-001M Unknown Unknown cm 87 Let the new socialist arts 35x38 occupy every stage. 1967 0280-001S Unknown Unknown cm 88 Firmly respond to Chairman Mao's call to 77x10 support the revolutionary 1969 0321-001L Unknown Unknown 7 cm
34 cause in the hinterlands! 89 77x53 Follow the Dazhai road. 1966 0335-001M Unknown Unknown cm 90 Hail the triumphant birth of the Liuzhou Steel Factory Revolutionary 78x54 Committee! 1968 0373-001M Unknown Unknown cm 91 53x77 Cotton doctor. 1966 0377-001M Unknown Unknown cm 92 When navigating the sea depend on the helmsman, and when carrying out revolution depend on Mao 54x77 Zedong Thought. 1969 0447-001M Unknown Unknown cm 93 Strive for a greater wheat harvest. Turn wheat flour into a staple food 78x54 ingredient. 1968 0462-001M Unknown Unknown cm 94 Our Motherland's territory 54x77 shall not be violated! 1969 0493-001M Unknown Unknown cm 95 Battle against the forces of nature. Combat drought to 77x53 ensure grain harvests. 1966 0494-001M Unknown Unknown cm 96 Our most beloved leader Chairman Mao meets revolutionary teachers and students of the masses at 77x53 Tiananmen Gate Tower. 1966 0502-001M Unknown Unknown cm 97 Everyone is trying to be she who holds the red 77x53 banner aloft. 1967 0508-001M Unknown Unknown cm 98 Closely follow Chairman Mao's strategic plans, and set in motion a new upsurge of great 78x55 revolutionary criticism. 1967 0526-001M Unknown Unknown cm 99 Hail the triumphant birth of the Revolutionary Committee of the Yi Ma Mining Affairs Bureau, 77x54 Jianan Branch. 1967 0531-001M Unknown Unknown cm 100 With our Motherland in our hearts, open your eyes 78x53 to the world. 1966 0557-001M Unknown Unknown cm
35 101 Serve the people wholeheartedly by fostering the spirit of hard 54x78 labor. 1966 0608-001M Unknown Unknown cm 102 All proletarians of the world, oppressed peoples and ethnic minorities rise 39x10 together and unite! 1966 0641-001L Unknown Unknown 6 cm 103 Learn from Comrade Wang Jie and be a 76x52 revolutionary successor. 1966 0671-001M Unknown Unknown cm 104 The intellectuals must integrate with workers, 77x53 peasants and soldiers. 1968 0419-001M Unknown Unknown cm 105 Long live the triumphant 54x77 People's War! 1966 0426-001M Unknown Unknown cm 106 The Junior Red Soldiers respectfully wish Chairman Mao a long life. Commemorating the 2nd anniversary of Chairman Mao's first review of the Red Guards on August 13, 53.5x3 1968. 1968 0714-001S Unknown Unknown 9 cm 107 Remember August 18 1966 forever. The revolutionary hearts of the Red Guards shall burn eternally. Commemorating the 2nd anniversary of Chairman Mao's first review of the Red Guards 53x38 on August 13, 1968. 1968 0715-001S Unknown Unknown cm 108 Reinvigorate the military prowess of the Red Guards, and sweep away 39x53 bad elements of all types. 1968 0716-001S Unknown Unknown cm 109 The Junior Red Guards will closely follow our revolutionary commander 54x38 forever. 1968 0717-001S Unknown Unknown cm 110 Carry forward our excellent revolutionary traditions and learn the 77x53 ways of arduous struggle. 1968 0732-001M Unknown Unknown cm
36 111 Courageously advance forward guided by the red flag of Mao Zedong 53x72 Thought! 1966 0783-001M Unknown Unknown cm 112 Strive for a greater harvest and support national 77x53 construction. 1966 0790-001M Unknown Unknown cm 113 Waste not. Be thrifty in 76x53 running business. 1966 0811-001M Unknown Unknown cm 114 Resolutely annihilate the invaders. If imperialists or socialist imperialists insist on forcing a war upon the Chinese people, we will take them on right to the 54x75 very end! 1969 0825-001M Unknown Unknown cm 115 Learn from Comrade Jiao Yulu who always maintains the natural character of working 76x54 people. 1966 0826-001M Unknown Unknown cm 116 Warmly celebrate the establishment of the Worker's Representative Committee, Jiangxi 54x78 Province. 1966 0829-001M Unknown Unknown cm 117 Commemorate the 10th anniversary of the Great Proletarian Cultural 54x77 Revolution! 1966 0832-001M Unknown Unknown cm 118 Warmly celebrate the establishment of the Revolutionary Committee 39x55 in Yichun County. 1966 0836-001S Unknown Unknown cm 119 Seven hundred million Mainland Chinese vow to be a powerful backup force for our patriotic compatriots in Hong Kong 53x76 and Kowloon. 1966 0857-001M Unknown Unknown cm 120 Warmly celebrate the establishment of the Workers Representative Committee in Yichun 37x53 Special Zone. 1966 0889-001S Unknown Unknown cm
37 121 Warmly hail the establishment of Xiamen 78x54 Revolutionary Committee. 1966 0916-001M Unknown Unknown cm 122 To navigate on the high seas, one needs a helmsman. To carry out revolution, one needs Mao 31x67 Zedong Thought. 1969 0928-001S Unknown Unknown cm 123 Learn from Comrade Mao Zedong's good student, 76x53 Comrade Jiao Yulu. 1966 0929-001M Unknown Unknown cm 124 Learn from Cai Yongxiang, the Communist warrior who devoted himself wholeheartedly to the 76x52 public interest. 1967 0934-001M Unknown Unknown cm 125 Unite and strive for a 53x77 greater victory! 1969 0935-001M Unknown Unknown cm 126 For the sake of the revolution, try to surpass advanced practices wherever they are 78x53 implemented worldwide. 1966 0942-001M Unknown Unknown cm 127 Long live Chairman Mao, our great tutor, great leader, great commander- in- chief and great 53x39 helmsman. 1966 0958-001S Unknown Unknown cm 128 Pledge to defend our great socialist motherland to the 54x77 death 1969 0974-001M Unknown Unknown cm 129 Our soldiers and civilians are united like one soul. We shall see: Who in this 77x53 world can defeat us? 1966 0997-001M Unknown Unknown cm 130 Studying and working in the field cultivates both 77x53 crops and people. 1966 1061-001M Unknown Unknown cm 131 Long live invincible Mao 77x53 Zedong Thought! 1967 1070-001M Unknown Unknown cm 132 Make sure that we closely steer toward the main 76x53 direction of struggle. 1967 1088-001M Unknown Unknown cm
38 133 Do good environmental sanitation work, and keep the city looking neat and 55x75 clean. 1975 0002-001M Unknown Unknown cm 134 May your friendship 55x75 spread all over the world. 1974 0005-001M Unknown Unknown cm 135 Poster for popularizing 55x75 aerial defense know-how. 1975 0006-001M Unknown Unknown cm 136 Let's make the best plan, let's build well, let's make 55x75 Chairman Mao satisfied. 1972 0008-001M Unknown Unknown cm 137 Hold aloft the glorious banner of the "Angang Constitution" to gain a greater victory in industrial 55x75 production. 1970 0009-001M Unknown Unknown cm 138 May all asians come together, drive the US 55x75 aggressor out of asia. 1975 0011-001M Unknown Unknown cm 139 Kill the bastard Chen Zai- Dao as a sacrifice to the 55x75 souls of our brave martyrs. 1975 0012-001M Unknown Unknown cm 140 Learn from Pan Dongzi how to be a good child of 55x75 the Communist Party. 1975 0015-001M Unknown Unknown cm 141 New dynamiters 1974 0017-001M Unknown Unknown 142 Seedling at Jin gang - where Chairman Mao 55x75 founded the first Soviets. 1976 0018-001M Unknown Unknown cm 143 55x75 Long live Chairman Mao. 1971 0020-001M Unknown Unknown cm 144 Innovative workers improve industrial 55x75 production. 1975 0021-001M Unknown Unknown cm 145 Be alert to protect our country, be ready to annihilate any aggressors 55x75 at any moment. 1970 0023-001M Unknown Unknown cm 146 Propaganda poster: "The Three Defenses" - Against atomic, chemical and 55x75 biological warfare. 1975 0024-001M Unknown Unknown cm 147 Long live the great 1971 0025-001M Unknown Unknown 55x75
39 Chinese People's cm Liberation Army. 148 Unite for an even greater 55x75 victory. 1975 0027-001M Unknown Unknown cm 149 Heighten vigilance to 55x75 protect our Motherland. 1970 0029-001M Unknown Unknown cm 150 Develop sporting activities in the military to safeguard 55x75 our socialist motherland. 1975 0030-001M Unknown Unknown cm 151 Never stop trying to 55x75 improve service. 1976 0032-001M Unknown Unknown cm 152 55x75 Exhibitions are good. 1972 0033-001M Unknown Unknown cm 153 Take the classroom into 55x75 the fields 1975 0034-001M Unknown Unknown cm 154 For the revolution's sake, marry late and practice 55x75 family planning. 1975 0035-001M Unknown Unknown cm 155 Sing revolutionary war songs with fervor, and 55x75 move forward in victory. 1970 0036-001M Unknown Unknown cm 156 Shift the emphasis on medical treatment work to 55x75 the countryside. 1975 0037-001M Unknown Unknown cm 157 From now on we have to 55x75 prepare. 1970 0038-001M Unknown Unknown cm 158 Times have changed. Girls 55x75 and boys are equals now. 1975 0039-001M Unknown Unknown cm 159 Be alert, strengthen combat 55x75 readiness. 1971 0041-001M Unknown Unknown cm 160 Go forward through great difficulties following 55x75 Chairman Mao. 1975 0042-001M Unknown Unknown cm 161 55x75 Peasant artist. 1974 0043-001M Unknown Unknown cm 162 55x75 The rising sun 1971 0044-001M Unknown Unknown cm 163 55x75 Red detachment of women. 1975 0045-001M Unknown Unknown cm 164 Don't trash your worn out leather shoes - recycle 55x75 them into fertilizer. 1975 0046-001M Unknown Unknown cm
40 165 Practice combat skills with 55x75 all your energy. 1972 0047-001M Unknown Unknown cm 166 Support the army, love the 55x75 people. 1970 0048-001M Unknown Unknown cm 167 Strengthen the union of the army and the people, be ready to annihilate 55x75 aggressors at any time. 1970 0049-001M Unknown Unknown cm 168 55x75 We must liberate Taiwan 1972 0050-001M Unknown Unknown cm 169 Serve the people with all 55x75 my heart 1975 0051-001M Unknown Unknown cm 170 Both people's postman and party's spokesman 53x77 1976 0052-001M Unknown Unknown cm 171 Imperialism and all reactionaries are paper tigers. Revisionism is just 55x75 a paper tiger too. 1971 0054-001M Unknown Unknown cm 172 Push patriotic sanitation 55x75 work to new heights. 1973 0055-001M Unknown Unknown cm 173 Anti-aircraft and combat 55x75 training. 1971 0056-001M Unknown Unknown cm 174 55x75 Love the people. 1972 0059-001M Unknown Unknown cm 175 When I grow up I want to be a commune member 55x75 too. 1976 0062-001M Unknown Unknown cm 176 Lei Feng, Chairman Mao's 55x75 fine soldier. 1975 0063-001M Unknown Unknown cm 177 Save money, make more effort to realize the Four 55x75 Modernizations. 1975 0064-001M Unknown Unknown cm 178 That's the kind of person 75x53 one should strive to be. 1973 0065-001M Unknown Unknown cm 179 Growing up amidst class 55x75 struggle 1975 0068-001M Unknown Unknown cm 180 55x75 Happy voyage 1971 0071-001M Unknown Unknown cm 181 Perseverance is the most 55x75 precious. 1974 0073-001M Unknown Unknown cm 182 Vigorously promote 1975 0074-001M Unknown Unknown 55x75
41 patriotic sanitary activities. cm 183 Salute the fighters of the Xisha Islands in the South 55x75 China Sea 1975 0075-001M Unknown Unknown cm 184 The sun shines brightly 55x75 over the pasture. 1972 0076-001M Unknown Unknown cm 185 Camping in the rough trains our patriotic spirits to follow Chairman Mao 55x75 forever. 1971 0078-001M Unknown Unknown cm 186 Propaganda poster: "The Three Defenses" - Against atomic, chemical and biological warfare. 55x75 1975 0079-001M Unknown Unknown cm 187 For revolution's sake, marry late and practice 55x75 family planning. 1975 0080-001M Unknown Unknown cm 188 For revolution's sake, marry late and practice 55x75 family planning. (2) 1975 0081-001M Unknown Unknown cm 189 For the sake of the revolution, implement 55x75 family planning. 1975 0082-001M Unknown Unknown cm 190 There are many benefits to 55x75 family planning. 1975 0083-001M Unknown Unknown cm 191 For the sake of the revolution, implement 55x75 family planning. （2） 1975 0084-001M Unknown Unknown cm 192 A communist should be an advanced member of the 55x75 proletariat. 1971 0085-001M Unknown Unknown cm 193 Advance socialist consciousness, practice 55x75 combat training. 1973 0087-001M Unknown Unknown cm 194 When the military and the people are as one, who under the sky the world 55x75 can defeat us? 1975 0095-001M Unknown Unknown cm 195 Carry out revolutionary literary and artistic activities, consolidate 55x75 socialist ideology and 1974 0097-001M Unknown Unknown cm
42 culture. 196 Pass the Iron Man spirit on 55x75 to future generations. 1974 0098-001M Unknown Unknown cm 197 Dong Cunrui sacrificing himself to bomb enemy 55x75 pillbox. 1975 0102-001M Unknown Unknown cm 198 Making harvesting grounds 55x75 into a battleground. 1975 0103-001M Unknown Unknown cm 199 Cheers for the grand victory of Chairman Mao's 55x75 revolutionary line. 1975 0105-001M Unknown Unknown cm 200 Chairman Mao is the red 55x75 sun in our hearts. 1975 0105-001M Unknown Unknown cm 201 55x75 Hero Huang Jiguang. 1973 0107-001M Unknown Unknown cm 202 Party satisfied, Army 55x75 satisfied, People satisfied. 1975 0108-001M Unknown Unknown cm 203 55x75 Back from long voyage. 1975 0111-001M Unknown Unknown cm 204 The world is chock-full of new growth in the spring, and women are shouldering their half of 55x75 the heavens. 1976 0119-001M Unknown Unknown cm 205 Newcomer in a mountain 55x75 village. 1975 0120-001M Unknown Unknown cm 206 Critique capitalism, act as 55x75 a socialist. 1976 0094-001M Unknown Unknown cm
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