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Development, Culture and Gender in Korea: a Sociological Study of Female Office Employees in Chaebol

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Development, Culture and Gender in Korea: a Sociological Study of Female Office Employees in Chaebol Development, Culture and Gender in Korea: A Sociological Study of Female Office Employees in Chaebol Nan-Yeong PARK MATTHEWS The London School of Economics and Political Science A Thesis Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy (Sociology) March 2005 UMI Number: U199105 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U199105 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 British Library ot Fblitical and Econcm-ic Science th&s b s F %k-So ABSTRACT The broad objective of this thesis is to evaluate the impact of economic development on white-collar women by exploring gender relations at work in modem Korean chaebol offices, and also to assess the extent to which the cultural legacy of traditional (particularly Confucian) ideology has influenced contemporary corporate culture and women’s status and roles in it. For this purpose two hypotheses are tested: first, that national development, having generated women’s increased participation in paid work, has failed to integrate them fully into the process; second, that the national culture, with its strong Confucian tradition, has been a major obstacle to full integration by ‘legitimising’ and sustaining gender inequality. The structure employs both a macro and a micro perspective: the former offers an appreciation of the country’s cultural and socio-economic environment as it affects women in society and at work, while the latter encompasses a case study of employment policies and practices within chaebol offices in the late 1990s to probe the extent of sexual discrimination at work and to identify cultural influences on their gender relations. The theoretical framework for this research was initially based on Tiano’s theses of integration, marginalisation, andexploitation that were developed in relation to factory-working women in the development process. The research shows that while gendered employment practices and the male-centred work culture have clearly been assisted by the deep-rooted Confucian tradition, national development process and the growing influences of global economy do not necessarily suggest any apparent improvement in delivering gender equality. In addition, the onset of the Asian economic crisis in 1997 (one year into the research) was an opportunity to observe the ever-changing dynamics of the socio-cultural ideology and the fluctuating needs and practices of big business in a global market, as well as to test further theories on women’s labour participation, such as those relating to a ‘reserve army of the labour’. The study concluded that Korean women’s participation in chaebol white-collar employment most closely fits a marginalisation thesis, yet to be ‘modified’ to take account of the complexity of the country’s development process. Acknowledgements First, I would like to thank my mother, and the many other working women of different generations in Korea, whose aspiration, determination and struggle to combine successfully their career and family life has inspired me to undertake this research. Also, I am grateful to all those women, as well as men, who participated in the interviews, shared their experiences and contributed valuable information for my study, and without whom this research would not have been possible. My gratitude extends to those people in Korea whose kindness and help enabled me to secure access to chaebol and interviewees for the research in an environment where this would be almost impossible without personal contacts and assistance. These especially include Mr. Sohn Sang-Mo, Ms. Jang Da-Mi, Mr. Kim Dong-Ha, Mr. Han Chang-Gi, Dr. Kang Tae-Young, Ms. Park Ah-Jeong, Ms. Jo Jung-Ah. For emotional support and help I am deeply indebted to friends and family, in particular, Claudia Granados, Patrick Tomlin, Michael Hobart, Kim Chiang, Julia Soyke and my sister, Han-Young Park. I also offer my warm thanks to my supervisor, Dr. Leslie Sklair for his guidance, understanding, valuable advice and faith in both good and difficult times. Also to Dr. Gillian Dunne for her helpful comments. Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my husband, Stephen, without whose encouragement I would not have started this long, daunting journey, and without whose support, patience and love I would not have reached the destination. CONTENTS Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Abbreviations vii Glossary viii Chapter One: Introduction: ‘Flowers of the Office’? 1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 ‘Flowers of the Office’ 1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study 1.4 Background and Rationale of the Field Work 1.5 Structure of the Thesis 1.6 Methodology 1.7 Significance of the Study 1.8 Thesis Organisation Chapter Two: Theoretical Considerations for the Study of Women in Employment 41 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Women’s Labour Participation in Development Women in Development Women in Export-oriented Industries in Developing Countries Are Women Integrated in Development? 2.3 Women in White-collar Work White-collar Work Women in Offices 2.4 Conclusion Chapter Three: Korean Development and Women’s Labour Participation 77 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Economic Development in Korea: An Overview Korean Economy during the Post-War Period Korea in the 1990s 3.3 Female Labour Participation in Korean Development Background Female White-collar Office Employment 3.4 Conclusion iv Chapter Four: Culture and Gender Relations in Korea 109 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Traditional Korean Culture and Gender Relations The Confucian Tradition Historical Background Confucian Influences on Korean Women and Their Lifestyle 4.3 Modernisation and Other Recent Cultural Influences on Women 4.4 Gender Relations in Contemporary Korea 4.5 Conclusion Chapter Five: Chaebol: Employer and Workplace 145 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Introduction to Chaebol What Are They? Chaebol, the National Economy and Government Chaebol as White-collar Employer 5.3 Characteristics of Work Culture and Administrative Style in Chaebol Work Environment and Corporate Culture Inter-personal Relationships at Work Lifetime Employment and Loyalty Group-oriented Culture and Bonding 5.4 Conclusion Chapter Six: Employment Policies and Practices in Chaebol: 188 A Gender Perspective 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Recruitment: a) Recruitment Method b) Information Access c) Selection Process d) Job Allocation 6.3 Development: a) Staff Training b) Task Assignment c) Job Rotation and Transfers 6.4 Rewards: a) Performance Evaluation b) Remuneration and Promotion 6.5 Termination 6.6 Conclusion v Chapter Seven: An Analysis of Culture and Gender Relations at Work 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Evaluation of Female Employees by Superiors and Male Colleagues 7.3 Gender Segregation and Expected Gender Roles for Women at Work 7.4 Conclusion Chapter Eight: Women’s Work Experiences and the Outcome 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Women’s Experiences at Work: Reality and Adaptation a) Submission b) Resignation c) Resolute Perseverance 8.3 Female White-collar Employees in Chaebol: The Outcome An Overview o f Female White-collar Employment in Chaebol Are Women ‘Exploited’, ‘Integrated’ or ‘Marginalised’? Marginalisation of Women at Work 8.4 Conclusion Chapter Nine: Conclusions 9.1 Summary 9.2 Conclusions 9.3 Career Obstacles Faced by Women 9.4 Promoting Gender Awareness and Sensitivity 9.5 Outlook Appendices: 1. Codes and Profile of Interviewees and the Other Informants 2. Analysis of Employers and Interviewees 3. Interview Questions for Chaebol Employees References Abbreviations EOI Export-Oriented Industrialisation EPB Economic Planning Board GAD Gender and Development GDP Gross Domestic Product HR Human Resources HRM Human Resources Management KWDI Korean Women’s Development Institute IMF International Monetary Fund ILO International Labour Organisation (of the United Nations) ISI Import-Substitution Industrialisation IT Information Technology NIC Newly Industrialised Country OJT On-the-Job Training ROTC Reserve Officers Training Corps(hak-goon-dari) TNC Transnational Corporation WID Women in Development (or Women in International Development) Glossary Korean words that appear in the text once only, and are clearly defined there, are excluded from the glossary. bu-jang senior manager chaebol Korean conglomerate(s) cha-jang manager daeri ‘supervisor’ kongchae open recruitment kwa-jang junior/section manager insakokwa a regular assessment, evaluation, criticism and guidance on the performance ability and achievement of employees ju-im grade higher thansawon , lower than daeri sawon general staff yeon-bong-jeremuneration system, based more on ability and achievement than on age, educational qualification and work experience; individual salaries are based on a regular evaluation of work performance. yeon-kong-seo-yeol ranking by length of service Chapter One CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION: ‘Flowers of the Office’? 1.1 Introduction This study is an enquiry into the labour participation of female white-collar workers in large companies (chaebol1) in South Korea (hereafter Korea) in the context of the socio-economic development of the country. Using a case
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