Workplace ® Visions No. 3 | 2006 Exploring the Future of Work

Women and work

n Labor force participation and wage rates are changing for both men and women.

n Women are surpassing men in educational attainment.

n The labor force participation rate of women may influence future skills shortages.

n Organizations could increasingly focus retention efforts on highly skilled women.  | Workplace Visions asthe main reason they have dropped “discouragementover job prospects” muchmore likely than women to cite ing.This may be one reason men are growthshifted away from manufactur otherindustrialized countries as job inmale employment also occurred in 12%since 1950, and similar drops States,male employment declined by manufacturingsector. In the United beendisplaced by the decline in the formerblue-collar workers who have droppedout of the labor market are numberof male workers who have example,many believe that alarge toaffect men more than women. For changesin the economy that seem inmale employment to structural mistsattribute much of the decline femaleemployment. However, econo alsobe contributing to the decline in lasthalf of the 20 declinein male employment over the Manyof the same factors that led to a rates wageandparticipation Changinglaborforce aimedat women. aminediversity and retention policies HRleaders in some industries to reex educatedand skilled women, have led pingout of the labor force were highly withevidence that many of those drop ticipationin the United States, along ofwomen’s declining labor force par consumerbehavior. Recently, reports averagefamily income, productivity and influencingeconomic factors such as theeconomy over the past 30 years, ofthe most important forces shaping berof women in the workplace as one omistscredit the increase in the num significantfor much longer. Many econ bothpaid and unpaid work have been women’seconomic contributions in paidworkforce for many decades, and womenhave been amajor ofpart the Inmost industrialized countries, th century could now ------

outof the workforce (see Table 1). Source: Bureau of LaborStatistics Bureau Source: wastion problems, notascertained. for nonparticipation aswellasmall numberforwhichreason andtransporta aschildcare ***Includes thosewhodidnotactivelylookfor workinthepriorfourweeksforsuchreasons things tooyoungorold, andothertypesofdiscrimination. no workisavailable,**Includes thosewhobelieve couldnotfindwork,schoolingortraining, employer lack necessary notasked ifthey want whoare *Includes somepersons ajob. In schoolortraining Family responsibilities Discouragement over jobprospects** looking Reason notcurrently Available towork now Not available towork now Did notsearchforwork inprevious year Want ajob* Do notwantajobnow Total notinlaborforce Table1 employmentrates in the second half of paidjobs. The upward trend of female ofworking-age women today have U.S.workforce and around two-thirds womenmake up almost half of the Stateswere in paid work, whereas now working-agewomen in the United slightly.In 1950, only one-third of 2000and has since begun to decline U.S.workforce reached its peak in Thepercentage of women in the Female laborforce participation mentin order to get more education. andan increase in delayed employ ofindividuals reaching retirement age partiallythe result of agreater number maleand female employment are also generallyagree that declines in both agreater effect on men, economists changesin the economy may have had Thoughthese kinds of structural Ill healthordisability Other*** | Persons Not in the LaborForcethePersonsbyin DesireNot and Availabilityand Workfor(2005) (in huad) (in thousands) 76, 762 71,777 - 1,545 2,841 4,985 total 217 159 436 599 119 614 examinationfrom asocial and cultural forcehas been subject to much more women’sparticipation in the work context,the downward trend in discussedmainly within an economic forceparticipation, which has been employmentrates declined steadily. throughoutthe 1990s even as male ratescontinued to show upward growth onereason that female employment growthof the service sector may be rapidlyexpanding service sector. The Asia.Many of these jobs were in the inthe emerging economies of East indeveloping countries, particularly manyindustrialized countries and the20 mentlevels. Based on tiesare influencing women’s employ rearingand other caring responsibili tionshas been to what extent child perspective.One of the key ques Unlikethe decline in men’s labor th century also occurred across huad) (in thousands) 26,926 29,119 1,173 2,193 men 118 260 789 231 311 36 64 U.S.Current thousands) 44,851 47,643 women 1,668 2,792 176 756 368 123 302 99 55 - -

- - - Workplace Visions |  ------Female labor force participation participation force labor Female omies could have widespread social social widespread have could omies creating implications, economic and reducing and markets consumer new levels. poverty Wages influence may that factor Another force labor female and male both aver in changes is rates participation East Asian economies, there are now now are there economies, Asian East than average higher women—a 83 countries wealthiest the of that even average. OECD the in represented export in true particularly be may This countries in sectors manufacturing esti are women where China like of 80% to up for account to mated rate employment the Because jobs. with correlated positively is women of surpris not is it rates, poverty lower developing the led has Asia that ing the over poverty reducing in world develop to addition In decade. last female of rates low with countries ing employment, formal and education coun of number a small also are there rates education female where tries female while high comparatively are Shifts low. remains employment paid work the in women of levels higher to econ developing of types both in force bringing more women into the labor labor the into women more bringing may countries OECD many market, percentage a greater shift to attempt full-time to part-time from women of employment. the in factor a critical be only not will countries, industrialized of economies in important more even be may it but of rates high with countries developing impact positive its of because poverty example, For GDP. and productivity on increase the that believe economists for accounts employment female in economic global of portion a major emerging the in particularly growth, 100 every For Asia. of economies emerging the in workforce the in men - - - rates of rates lowest For many industrialized countries, countries, industrialized many For and offset the loss of workers due to due workers of loss the offset and work aging an and declines population at aimed policies to addition In force. and paid parental leave, in addition to addition in leave, parental paid and factors economic and social broader the levels, education female as such the in women married of proportion children of number average population, conditions. market labor overall and may policies employment future the increasing further at aimed be workforce the in women of number rates productivity improve to primarily the greatest influence on exempt work exempt on influence greatest the work of hours 40-plus averaging ers data, OECD the to According week. per probably factors other of a number in differences overall the for account rates participation force labor female These countries. industrialized across flex to related issues policy include arrangements, time working of ibility relative earners second of taxation subsidies childcare earners, single to hours than men, especially when when especially men, than hours OECD available. not is work part-time of incidence highest the with countries have to tend work part-time in women workforce the in women of rates higher and factors, other for controlling when OECD the among is States United the the with countries issue This work. part-time in women to importance particular of be may of lack the as women educated highly have may jobs part-time of availability nations. One theory is that the United United the that is theory One nations. in growth for room less has States already it because employment female women’s highest the of one has OECD the across rates employment the that is theory Another countries. the of some averages States United which hours, working annual highest for ceiling dropout a lower create could women because employment women’s working paid weekly fewer average compared with other industrialized industrialized other with compared ------data, it does appear appear does it data, Globally, employment among work among employment Globally, Though women are still much more more much still are women Though ing theories as to why declines may may declines why to as theories ing States United the in occurring be countries that showed a decrease in a decrease showed that countries between women for rates employment differ are There 2004. and 2000 OECD countries between 1981 and and 1981 between countries OECD with along States, United The 2001. OECD two only of one was Japan, ing-age women rose in almost all all almost in rose women ing-age and family income, aging, disability disability aging, income, family and to than attainment educational and rates. fertility relating to women in the workforce, workforce, in the to women relating be paid therefore may attention more as work availability such to factors and the United States, where female female where States, United the and In highest. are rates employment trends future potential determining women tend to have more children in children more to have tend women as Sweden such countries OECD the countries with higher female employ female higher with countries studies several In fact, rates. ment to be true: opposite the shown have fertility and labor force participa force labor and fertility do not women that means This tion. in industrialized children fewer have Organisation for Economic Co-opera Economic for Organisation (OECD)—there Development and tion between correlation is no negative within the wealthiest and most indus most and wealthiest the within the by monitored countries trialized when looking at fertility rates and rates at fertility looking when internationally, employment female least that—at found have researchers likely than men to cite family respon family to cite men than likely dropping for reason as their sibilities 1), Table (see force labor of the out care for children in greater numbers numbers greater in children for care 1990s. the in than do not indicate that women are opting opting are women that indicate not do to specifically market labor the of out mothers but has no effect on working working on effect no has but mothers from data However, fathers. of hours (BLS) Statistics Labor of Bureau the Population Survey Population influ child youngest the of age the that by worked hours of number the ences  | Workplace Visions forextended time periods during the oftheworkforce orworkfewer hours sincemore women than menopt out futurewages. Economists argue that reasonhasanongoing influence on forextended periods oftime forany thatdropping outofthe labor force particularlyimportant. Studies show resultasa ofchildrearing may be Theimpact ofchanging workpatterns professionsandthe use ofovertime. behindthegap, including choice of factorsother than discrimination mistsargue that there aremany arenotalways easy toisolate—econo wagegapbetween women andmen week.Thereasons forthe continuing womenworking 35hoursormore per themedian earnings ofallmen and gapisbased comparisonona of andisonly slowly closing. Thewage betweenwomen andmen remains femaleearnings, thewage gap sameage category. employmentrates, particularly in the standards,influencing overall female asecond income to maintain living ing,even more families may need the44-and-under age group decreas thereal median income of men in overallfamily income also grew. With femalelabor force participation for wagesincreased, the importance of 1970s(see Figure 1). As women’s wagesincreased steadily since the femalelabor force participation. islargely the result of the growth in thereal median income of families Economistsbelieve that the rise in risein the median income of families. somewhatobscured by the overall (seeTable 2). This decline has been under35, have seen asteady decline underthe age of 44, and particularly Bureau,wages of male workers workers.According to the U.S. Census agewages for both male and female Inspite ofgreater reliance on Incomparison to men, women’s - - Income Earne Table2 “motherhoodpenalty” and, conversely, thenon-father male applicants. If this $6,000more in salary to them than to werefathers and offered an average of applicantswho indicated that they studywere more likely to hire male reverseoccurred: participants in the womenwith men. They found that the carriedout the same study replacing wasamother. The researchers then notthey indicated that the applicant salaryoffers depending on whether or inmajor differences in hire rate and werefunctionally equivalent resulted 2005found that applicant profiles that child.ACornell University study in childrendecline with each additional withoutand that wages for women with vulnerableto discrimination than those withchildren may be much more arealso some indications that women thanmen to ask for increases. There wagesand may therefore be less likely hensiveabout negotiating for higher suggestthat women are more appre thanmen who do so. Some studies highersalary are less likely to be hired thatwomen whoto negotiatetry for a wagediscrimination. Studies show ofthe wage gap is attributable to believethat between 10% and 30% takingtime outofthe workforce. depressioninearnings resultasa of arelikely toexperience anongoing toparental status, more women inghoursdonot positively correlate childbearingyearsand men’s work U.S.Source: FederalReserve CensusBureau; 55-64 45-54 35-44 Under 35 A ge of Inaddition to these factors, experts | Changes in Male IncomeMaleChangesin 17-97 ofF Income ofMen(1970-1997) da ChangeinRealMedianIncome Change inRealMedian -10.6% - -19% 4.7% 5.6% - careers.Some experts believe that becomeparents at some stage in their sincemost employees do eventually byother nondiscriminatory factors, wagegap that cannot be explained theymay account for much of the “fatherhoodbonus” are widespread, seemsalmost certain to influence the laborforce participation. But one trend determiningfuture trends in female onewill be the most important in terns,it is difficult to establish which influencingwomen’s employment pat Becausethere are so many factors Educationrates mentsavings. workto supplement insufficient retire menas more women may need to olderwomen in comparison with older toincreases in employment rates for savingsfor women, which may lead incomesalso result in lower retirement required.Employment gaps and lower childrenor other family members is togive up work when caring for nerin acouple may be most likely Forexample, the lower-earning part participationrates for both genders. workingpatterns and labor force terminfluence on income levels, womenand men could have along- wage“motherhood penalties.” subjectto the aftereffects of previous womenare the least likely to be wagegap widens with age, as younger thismay also be one reason that the Ongoingwage differentials between amilies (1995-2004) 30.8% 23.2% 5.5% 4.4%

- - - Workplace Visions |  - - 2010

2000 1990 and career progression differences differences and progression career men and women will shrink between in educational along with differences few are Though predict attainment. ing that women will overtake men in positions earnings and management in some the near to term, medium industry experts more anticipate efforts and retain aimed at attracting ing where women women in industries proportion a of represent significant for the labor pool. Strategies skilled 2003 and 2012. With almost all of of all almost With 2012. and 2003 degree college a requiring jobs these of majority the obtaining women and make could women degrees, college in particularly forward, strides major college for demand where sectors highest. is graduates shortagesskills Future educational improved Women’s since the especially performance, on the has attention focused 1990s, role of in women the workforce and on impact the future their potential in The issues central these economy. are the to extent projections which to women will participate continue in the and market labor if wage 1980 - 1970 1960 Men Median Income of Full-Time, Year-Round Workers Workers Year-Round of Income Median Full-Time, (1955-2001) Women | | 1950 There are many theories as to to as theories many are There 45,000 40,000 35,000 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics However, according to BLS projections, projections, BLS to according However, occupations related and professional be will degrees advanced requiring with growth, job fastest of areas the created jobs new 600,000 than more between annually categories these in Figure 1 men, though up until now women’s women’s now until up though men, translated not have education in gains income average in gains major into a to According men. with compared for Institute the from report 2004 with women Research, Policy Women’s slightly only earn degrees graduate school high a only with men than more with compared diploma—$41,995 bache a with women And $40,822. than less earn actually degree lor’s diploma. school high a only with men why women may be outperforming outperforming be may women why educational of range the across men point experts Education attainment. vary widely differences these that out and race income, family on depending gender greatest the that and ethnicity low- among be to appear differences may factor Another families. income a has education college a that be for benefit economic greater much for have to appears it than women - - - - - ed ed r , have also found that that found also have , Men are also less likely to complete complete to likely less also are Men Women are now outperforming men men outperforming now are Women grams by 10.2 million to 7.4 million. million. 7.4 to million 10.2 by grams By 2011, it is projected that women women that projected is it 2011, By under both in men outnumber will pro degree graduate and graduate and around 50% of all doctoral doctoral all of 50% around and degrees. It is estimated that in the 2005- the in that estimated is It obtained women year school 2006 degrees master’s of 60% around lor’s degrees than men every year year every men than degrees lor’s master’s more and 1982 since 1986. since degrees college students compared with with compared students college 1970. in 43% bache more earned have Women compared with 85% of men. men. of 85% with compared U.S. of 58% up make now Women In the 25-to-29 age group, 88% of 88% group, age 25-to-29 the In school high completed have women      engaged in their studies than their their than studies in their engaged counterparts. male 2005 National Survey of Student Survey of Student 2005 National Engagement more are students college U.S. female girls reporting higher expectations expectations higher reporting girls than occupations future their toward as the such studies, Recent boys. differences in gender expectations expectations in gender differences with to careers, it comes when tion, the OECD 2000 Programme for Programme 2000 OECD the tion, Assessment Student International uncove of 43 countries survey women are now more likely than young young than likely more now are women from degrees first obtain to men In addi institutions.” university-level when women moved ahead of men men of ahead moved women when attain educational their of terms in young countries, OECD most In ment. to the most recent OECD education education OECD recent most the to decade the was 1990s “the statistics, and average lower grades than women. women. than grades lower average and other in similar are trends Education According countries. industrialized their degrees within four or five years years five or four within degrees their n n n n n n n n at almost every level education: of every level at almost n future of female employment: women’s women’s employment: female of future performance. educational  | Workplace Visions thatthis would cause nurses toleave increasedstress and93% believed nursingshortages were catalysta for that98%ofnurses surveyed said that publishedin sionresultasa ofburnout: studya causesnurses toleave theprofes alsoevidence that theshortage itself ataround thesame time. There is supplycould occur ifmany RNsretire thatsignificanta drop-off inlabor RNsisincreasing, which could mean nursingprofession, theaverage ageof Withfewer individuals entering the itsslowest rate inover twodecades. totalpopulation ofRNsgrowing at nursingschool enrollments andthe includeslow growth inthenumber of projectedfuture nursing shortages Thereasons forthe current and stateswill have nursing shortages. dictingthat by theyear 2020, 44 andServicesAdministration ispre caresector. TheHealth Resources ofallnew jobs created inthehealth RNpositions will account fortwo-fifths nurseswill beneeded by 2014 and BLSprojections, more than 1.2million isthenursing profession. According to goodexample ofthis “perfect storm” expandingthepool ofnew workers. A increaseddemand anddifficulty in olderfemale workers toretirement, combinationofa oftheloss of severelabor shortagesresult asa amongthefirst tobeexperiencing Female-dominatedindustries are and professions Female-dominated industries available,gies offshoring.assuch alternativeandlaborsourcing strate arrangementsbillableashours)such time-based sector work (particularly sector,organizationwork withinthe the inwomencomparedmen ofto skillsshortages,of proportion ity the likelydifferseverdependingtheto on retainingrecruitingandwomenare NursingEconomics found - - - - theprofession. Thetrends inthenurs Source: SHRM2006 online survey Source: Finance Education Table3 studieshave shown that though outoftheworkforce. However, other threewhite female MBAholders was wasnotworking, around oneout of onlyoneout of20white male MBAs andanother study showed that while uatesended upinfull-time careers; showedthat only 38%ofwomen grad ofHarvardBusiness School graduates graduatesleft theworkforce; surveya showedthat around 57%ofwomen 1981Stanford University graduates atesofelite universities: surveyaof allyinvolved surveys offemale gradu 3).Evidence ofthis trend hasgener fessionalservicesectors (see Table earningfields inthefinance andpro oftheworkforce, particularly inhigh- andhigh-achieving women opting out paidtothetrend ofhighly educated Recentlymore attention hasbeen highly skilledwomen The “opt-out”trendfor couldbeself-perpetuating. shortagesreach criticala level, they ingprofession indicate that once labor

Services Health Professional services Other Manufacturing Wholesale/retail trade Government High-tech

DemographicsofHighly Skilled/Highly Educated Employees HRProfessionals AreMost Concerned About Retaining (b Veterans 94 (b orn befoe1964) b oomers 14% 36% 24% 21% 18% 29% 23% 14% 21% 22% and Baby - - orn - Generations - - X after 1964) 56% 36% 30% 39% 29% 17% 39% 29% 45% 59% and Y high-achievingwomen employees. resultoftheloss ofhighly educated/ concernedabout “braina drain” asa keyindustries that areincreasingly arebeing supported by employers in thistrend. Many ofthese studies policiesandpractices might reverse ingtheworkforce andwhat kinds of highlyeducated women may beleav togethermore information about why pictureandare attempting topiece studiesmay notrepresent thewhole studytheissue believe these kinds of wereworking. Many academics who malecounterparts, thevast majority tobeoutofthe workforce than their wereroughly three times more likely womenwith professional degrees maystand intheway ofthem reenter oftheworkforce andwhat barriers whyhigh-achieving women opted out ReviewBusinessHarvard SylviaHewlett andCarolyn Luce inthe forceandfamously highlighted by Centerofa forWork-Life Policy task SachsandLehman Brothers aspart soredby ErnstYoung,& Goldman Forexample, 2004a survey, spon W general responsibilities omen at home n women IN with caring 27% 13% 18% 14% 14% 12% 4% 9% 9% 0% ,explored 30% 22% 12% 13% 18% 8% 9% 6% 6% 5%

- - - Workplace Visions | 

- - - - - SHRM ReportBenefitsSurvey SHRM Even though some flexible work flexible some though Even There may be many reasons why why reasons be many may There port caregivers. However, the most most the However, port caregivers. recent do employers many that indicates (see of benefits types these offer not 4). Table sharing, as job such practices, ing years, few past in the declined have these offering for case business the financial loss, with those out for three three for out those with loss, financial of an average losing years or more power. earning of their 37% for retaining Strategies female educated highly employees strate considering are Employers reduced-hour as more such gies time and flexibility time greater jobs, as workday the during autonomy retention to improve ways potential employ female educated of highly business in the Companies ees. are sectors financial service and alumni starting increasingly also for specifically designed programs time to work after returning women so many with Clearly, away. spent of caring as a out result opting women organizations some responsibilities, to sup programs considering are did a poor job of engaging the highly highly the of engaging job a did poor left. who women skilled move the find women skilled highly discourag workplace the into back progression to career Penalties ing. labor a of the short out even time for the Though significant. often are force of out spent of time period average in the women the for workforce the years 2.2 brief—around was study women for years 1.2 only and overall financial sector—the business in the an 18% with severe, were penalties a and overall power of earning loss business in the women for loss 28% away period the longer The sector. the greater the workforce, the from 3% 5% 5% 4% 57% 45% 35% 19% 18% 25% 23% 22% 22% 27% 26% 26% 19% 20% 13% 14% 14% 32%

— 1% 4% 3% 6% 6% 56% 33% 19% 19% 25% 19% 20% 27% 26% 21% 37% 18% 18% 11% 11% 30% — — — — — 2% 4% 2% 4% 9% 57% 34% 19% 17% 28% 21% 19% 28% 39% 21% 36% 24% — — — — — 2% 3% 3% 3% 7% 55% 31% 17% 22% 29% 18% 18% 29% 39% 20% 34% 23% — — — — — — — 3% 5% 2% 6% 9% 64% 33% 23% 24% 19% 20% 30% 21% 37% 23% (93%) of women who were currently currently were who of women (93%) careers their from “off-ramped” many but to work, to return wanted no Almost difficult. it extremely found to return wished study in the women left had they companies to work in the business in the none and overall (5% employers that indication sector)—an study found that the vast majority majority vast the that found study — — — — — — — — — 1% 4% 5% 5% 59% 32% 26% 16% 20% 24% 19% 14% 27% 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

D

C

D

D

C D

A A

E

B Family-Friendly Benefits (by Year) (by Benefits Family-Friendly | | benefits category. Prior to 2005, parental FMLA and eldercare leave above and beyond FMLA leave above and beyond Prior to 2005, benefits category. were not separated according to federal or state FMLA. In 2002, parental FMLA and eldercare leave above and beyond FMLA were leave above and beyond included in the leave In 2002, Prior to 2003, paid family leave was described as paid family leave (FMLA does not require leave to be paid) in 2002 and paid family leave was Prior to 2003, paid family leave (other than FMLA) in 2000 and 2001. Prior to 2002, telecommuting was not separated according to full-time or part-time status, and in 2006, telecommuting not separated according and in 2006, to full-time or part-time telecommuting was status, Prior to 2002, added. on an ad-hoc basis was   family leave above required not separated according to federal or state FMLA. FMLA leave was Prior to 2003,  In 2002, subsidized eldercare and paid eldercare In 2002, were combined to subsidized or paid eldercare. Source: 2006 Benefits Survey SHRM Report E was combined with another benefit. A dash (—) indicates that this particularwas not asked about or benefit Note: C D Subsidize cost of eldercare A B Eldercare leave above and beyond state FMLA and beyond above Eldercare leave Eldercare leave above and beyond federal FMLA and beyond above Eldercare leave Parental leave above and beyond state FMLA and beyond above leave Parental on a full-time basis Telecommuting Parental leave above and beyond federal FMLA and beyond above leave Parental Family leave above required state FMLA leave above leave Family Paid family leave Paid required federal FMLA leave above leave Family Telecommuting on an ad-hoc basis Telecommuting Table 4 Table Flextime called “sandwich generation”). The generation”). “sandwich called for elderly or other relatives (this was was (this relatives or other elderly for so- in the true of women particularly work voluntarily at some point in their in their point at some work voluntarily 24% parenting, with Along careers. to care out opted had women of the ing. The survey of highly educated educated of highly survey The ing. of mothers 43% that found women leave did overall of women 37% and Compressed workweek Compressed workweek sharing Job Lactation program/designated area Lactation program/designated Childcare referral service in emergency Bring child to work Eldercare referral service on a part-time basis Telecommuting Company-supported childcare center Company-supported Emergency eldercare Emergency On-site childcare center Emergency/sick childcare Emergency/sick  | Workplace Visions concernedabout work/life balance GenerationsandareXYmuch more studiesindicate that younger menin shapedwomen’s careers. Some thosethat, uptonow, have mainly inglybeshaped by forces similar to men’sworking patterns will increas statusorgender. toallworkers regardless ofparental choicesrather than being available areseen asearned through lifestyle workforce,especially ifsuch benefits mothersmay create tension within the flexibleworkbenefits solely toworking mentexpertsargue that relegating mothers.Inaddition, some employ panaceaforthe problems ofworking work,sopart-time workmay notbea qualityoflife than those infull-time theirdomestic arrangements and timeareactually less satisfied with havefound that women working part aspotential solutions, some studies orpart-time workareoften viewed highest.However, while reduced hours concernabout retaining women is tiallygrow stronger insectors where typesofarrangements could poten Society forHumanResourceManagement, through contacting experts inthefieldand through contactingexperts Workplace Visions affecting thehumanresourceprofession. Thisraises theissue ofwhether conducting extensiveliteraturereviews. Tel: (800)283-7476, (703) 548-3440, Material forthenewsletter isgathered discussion onnew issuesandtrends and thelaw tostimulatethoughtand technology, politicsandgovernment, in society, economics, scienceand Published fourtimesayearby the Alexandria, VA 22314-3499, USA Designer: ShirleyE.M.Raybuck Designer: Internet: www.shrm.org/trendsInternet: SHRM ResearchDepartment. Reprints by only. permission Author: JenniferSchramm Author: Questions andcomments should be referred tothe should bereferred E-Mail: [email protected] Fax: (703)535-6432 1800 Duke Street Copyright 2006. exploresdevelopments

- - -

thanmeninprevious generations, forces.Though some reflect differ social,demographic andeconomic participationarenumbera ofcomplex inwomen’s andmen’s labor force ofeldercare. Behind thedifferences caregivers,particularly inthecase areincreasingly becoming primary whileother research shows that men Jaumotte,F. (2003). Fegley,S.(2006). NationalCenter forEducation Statistics. (2006). Lopez-Claros,A., Zahidi,& S.(2005). Lewin,T. (2006, July 9).Atcolleges, women areleaving meninthe dust. InstituteforWomen’s Policy Research forthe Business andProfessional Women’s Foundation. Hewlett,S., Luce,& C.(2005, March). Off-ramps andon-ramps: keeping talented women ontheroad Henderson,N.(2006, July 7).Whither thewomen? Gardner,M.(2003, February19). Whenpart-time a job equals full-time work. Engelhardt,H., Prskawetz,& A.(2004, October 28). Onthechanging correlation between fertility and Doesgender equality spur growth? (2005, October). Chen,M., Vanek, J., Lund, F., Heintz, J., Jhabvala, R., Bonner,& C.(2005). Anderson,J.(2006, August 6).Wall Street’s women faceforkinthe aroad. Aloi,D. (2005, August 4).Mothers face disadvantages ingetting hired Cornell study says. Uchitelle, L., Leonhardt,& D. (2006, July 31). Mennot working andnot wanting just any job. TheBusiness andProfessional Women’s Foundation. (2005, July). Stone,P., Lovejoy,& M.(2004, November). Fast-track women andthe “choice” tostay home. Shellenbarger,S.(2006, February9). Employers step upeffortstolure stay-at-home mothers back to Schramm,J.(2006). Sahadi,J.(2005, October 3).Want more pay? Some disturbing news. Rose,S., Hartmann,& H.(2004). Porter,E., O’Donnel,& M.(2006, August 6).Facing middle agewith nodegree andnowife. OrganisationforEconomic Co-operation andDevelopment. (2003). AmericanAssociation ofColleges ofNursing. (2006, June 14). Aaronson,S., Fallick, B., Figura, A., Pingle, J., Wascher,& W. (2006, March). guideA towomenomics. (2006, April 15). References Retrievedfrom Service. News University New YorkNew Times women. ing Science Social and Political of Academy American the of Annals work. Management. from YorkTimes from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2006/2006072.pd Retrievedfrom www.oecd.org/dataoecd/12/39/34562935.pd countries OECDin determinants other and (2004). tosuccess. Monitor. Management. femaleemployment over space andtime. NewYork: United Nations Development Fund forWomen. BoardofGovernors oftheFederal ReserveSystem]. Retrieved from BrookingsSpring 2006 Panel onEconomic Activity by theDivision ofResearch andStatistics, supply labor potential for implications its and participation force labor in www.iwpr.or www.oecd.or Wall Street Journal WallStreet Working women speak out. speak womenWorking . Retrieved from SHRM 2006 benefits survey report. survey benefits 2006 SHRM Harvard Business Review Business Harvard Labour force participation of women: empirical evidence on the role of policy policy of role the on evidence empirical women: of participation force Labour http://gendergap.harvardbusinessonline.or www.aacn.nche.ed SHRM workplace forecast workplace SHRM . g g Retrieved from . www.bpwfoundation.or Still a man’s labor market: the long term earnings gap. earnings term long the man’smarket: a labor Still Women’s empowerment: measuring the global gender gap gender global the measuring Women’sempowerment: u - Retrieved from The Economist. The . www.news.cornell.ed . Alexandria,. VA: Society forHuman Resource European Journal of Population. of Journal European [OECD Economic Studies, No.37]. Retrieved from The condition of education 2006. education of condition The f

Washington Post Washington OECD Observer OECD f bothwomen allypay offinbetter retention rates for femaleemployees arelikely toeventu putinto holding ontohigh-performing professionalsandtheir organizations itcould mean that theeffortsHR begintoconverge forboth genders, similarissues. Ifmore ofthese issues encesofexperience, many involve Alexandria, VA: Society forHuman Resource g www.bpwusa.or Nursing shortage fact sheet. fact shortage Nursing g 101 facts on the status of work of status the on101 facts u Education at a glance aat Education . . . and CNNMoney.com g The New YorkNew Times The www.brookings.ed Women work and poverty. poverty. andwork Women men. The recent decline decline recent The The New YorkNew Times The Christian Science Science Christian [Presented tothe Retrieved from . Retrieved . Retrieved. Cornell Cornell

The New New The u The The . The The 06-0550 . . - -