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aberration analysis, 145 Cassegrain telescope, 161, 284, 336 absorption, 123 Cerro Paranal, 394 achromatic point-symmetric Chandra , 14 interferometer, 261 CHARA, 391–393 active control, 287 CHARA interferometer, 390 active optics, 282, 290 Chipman, Russell,164 adaptive optics, 282, 290 chromatic aberration, 53, 65 Airy diffraction pattern, 177, 226 chromatic anisoplanatism, 254 Airy ring, 177 circ function, 189 Alhacen, 2 circular aperture, 193 Alpha Aquilae, 227 circular polarization, 148 Alpha Canis Majoris, 227 circular polarization, left-handed, Alpha Centauri, 412 148 amplitude interferometry, 267 circular polarization, right-handed, analytic signal, 229 148 angular magnification, 43 CO2 laser local oscillator, 393 apodization, 206–207, 409, 414 coatings, 387 Archimedes, 2 CODE V, 82 area–solid-angle product, 106 coherence, 172, 227 array-of-points aperture, 194 coherence interferometer, 244, 256, artificial guide stars, 251 358 astigmatism and field curvature, 66, collinear transformation, 30 72 colored body, 119 astrometric interferometry, 385 coma, 66, 76, 92 astrometry, 382, 384, 395 comb function, 188 astronomical magnitudes, 129 complex amplitude, 172 astronomy, 382 compound reflections, 162 athermalization, 284, 286 computer-generated hologram atmospheric turbulence, 135 (CGH), 210 autocorrelation theorem, 192 conic sections, 54 concave mirror, 68 Babylonians, 1 concave-grating spectrometer, 216 baffling, 109 convolution, 368 Ball Aerospace, 202 convolution theorem, 192 baseline, 385 Copernicus, Nicolas,1 Bessel function, 177 Cornwell and McAlister, 385–386 Betelgeuse (α Ori), 248, 249 coronagraph, 405, 407 binary optics, 210 COSTAR, 202, 299 blackbody, 117 cross-correlation, 232 Born and Wolf, 159 cumulative wavefront error (WFE), Breckinridge, James, 228, 379 208 Breckinridge interferometer, 244, curvature of the medial surface, 97 266

419

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curvature of the Petzval surface, 97 exit pupil, 29 curvature of the sagittal surface, 97 , 384, 396 curvature of the tangential surface, 97 Fabry–Pérot (FP) interferometer, curvature sensing, 298 243 field curvature, 74 spacecraft, 373 field of view (FOV), 385 deconvolution, 368 field-angle errors, 336 defocus, 61, 69 final image plane, 38 deformable mirror (DM), 311 first-order color, 65 delta function, 188 Fizeau, Hippolyte, 227, 356, 358 depth of focus, 71 Fizeau telescope, 356, 377 detector full well, 364 F-number, 50 detectors, 386 focus diversity, 302 dielectric, 48 fold mirror, 49 dielectric materials, 20 Fourier transform, 238 dielectric overcoat, 161 Fourier transform spectrometer dielectrics and metals, 158 (FTS), 228, 231, 238 diffraction, 145, 227 Fourier transform spectroscopy, 207 diffraction gratings, 172, 210, 213 Fraunhofer, Joseph von, 45 dilution factor, 361 Fraunhofer approximation, 176 direct-vision spectroscope, 25 Fraunhofer diffraction pattern, 184 distortion, 66, 81, 90, 93 frequency coverage, 364 diversity phase, 302 Fresnel, Augustin-Jean, 210 Doppler, 396 Fresnel approximation, 175 double-star astronomy, 255 Fresnel lens, 210 dynamic range, 386 Fresnel zone plate, 211 Fried’s coherence parameter, 138 Eddington, Arthur, 248 fringe visibility, 234, 381 Egyptology, 225 fused silica, 5, 22 electromagnetic wave, 145 Elliott and Glass, 379 Galilean telescope, 2 elliptical polarization, 148 Galileo, 2 emissivity, 123 Gaus function, 190 encircled energy, 195, 208, 334 Gauss, Carl Frederick, 34, 273 entrance pupil, 29–30 Gaussian function, 195 Eratosthenes of Cyrene, 1 Gaussian noise model, 308 ESO Very Large Telescope Gaussian optics, 273 Interferometer (VLTI), 394 Gaussian pupil plane, 56 étendue, 103, 105, 214, 395 Gaussian-beam optics, 273 étendue and power, 128 Gemini, 5 , 2 Gemini North, 14 European Southern Observatory Gemini South, 14 (ESO), 5 generation-recombination noise, 205 European Extremely Large geometric aberrations, 53 Telescope (E-ELT), 314, 320

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geometric properties of radiation, image plane, 173 119 image quality, 172 geometric spot size, 75 image-plane mask, 411 geometrical aberration theory, 53 incoherent radiation, 225 geometrical optics, 15 index of refraction, 19 geometrical wavefront error (WFE), Infrared Spatial Interferometer (ISI), 57 269 Gerchberg, R. W., 299 influence functions, 296, 309 Gerchberg–Saxton phase retrieval, inner working angle, 411 299, 301, 304 intensity interferometer, 269 ghost image, 111 intensity reflectivity, 160 Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT), interference, 145 5, 14, 314 interferometer, 225 Giant Segmented Mirror Telescope interferometry, 227, 379 (GSMT), 320 invariant, 103, 104 Gonsalves, R. A., 305 inverse filter, 203 Goodman, Joseph W., 179 inverted image, 46 Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC), 5 graybody, 119 James Webb Space Telescope Greenwood frequency, 139 (JWST), 5, 320, 342 Grimaldi, Francesco, 171 Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), group velocity, 19 202 Jones calculus, 148 Hale, George Ellery, 5, 227, 379 half aperture, 193 K prism, 48 Hartmann, Johannes, 292 Keck telescopes, 5, 14, 249 Harvey, J. W., 227 Keeler, Edward, 5 Helmholtz invariant, 105 Kepler, Johannes, 1 heterodyne detection, 272 Keplerian telescope, 2, 3, 281 heterodyne interferometry, 267, 390 Kepler’s third law, 397 heterodyne spectrometers, 268 keystone petals, 328 HITRAN, 140 kinoforms, 210 Hobby Eberly Telescope (HET), 5, Kirchoff’s law, 126 320 Kitt Peak National Observatory, 252 holographic optical elements, 210 Kolmogorov, Andrey, 136 Kolmogorov spectrum, 138 homodyne interferometry, 390 Hooker telescope, 248, 379 Labeyrie, A., 252, 379 (HST), 9, invariant, 105 69, 202, 218, 299, 412 Lam and Goodman, 399 –Fresnel principle, 173– Lambertian radiator, 121 175 Lambertian source, 125

ICESAT telescope, 281 Large Binocular Telescope (LBT), image, 411 5, 14, 249, 320 image contrast, 108 Lick Observatory, 5 image formation, 145, 227, 250 Lippershey, Hans, 2

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Littrow, Joseph von, 215 Newton’s laws, 397 local phase gradients, 295 Nisenson and Papaliolios, 399 longitudinal chromatic aberration, nodal point, 35 90, 93 noise, 116, 205 Lowenstein, E. V., 228 nomenclature, 116 low-spatial-frequency errors, 209 nonredundant apertures, 349 Lyot, Bernard, 406 numerical aperture (NA), 50, 197

Mahajan, Virendra, 208 object plane, 173 Marechal criterion, 139 Offner, Abe, 217 marginal focus, 70, 72, 76 optical configurations, innovative, maximum-likelihood estimate, 307 387 Mayall Telescope, 252 optical constants, 160 McMath–Pierce Solar Telescope, optical metrology, 287, 358 228, 259 optical path difference (OPD), 229, mechanical structure, 285 282 medial focus, 76 optical testing, 270 meridional plane, 55 optical transfer function (OTF), 195, Mersenne telescope, 390 367 Michelson, Albert A., 227, 228 optical-fiber-fed spectrographs, 219 Michelson interferometer, 229 paraxial, 72 Michelson stellar interferometer paraxial approximation, 30–33, 181 (MSI), 228, 347, 377, 391 paraxial focus, 69 Michelson stellar interferometer paraxial image planes, 56 (MSI) fringes, 259 Parseval’s theorem, 192 microphonics, 205 Pease, E. G., 228 minimally redundant aperture, 355 penta prism, 48 minimum circle, 72 Peterson and Hinkle, 290 modulation transfer function (MTF), Petzval, Joseph, 74 195, 197, 334, 354 Petzval curvature, 74, 92 monochromatic aberration, 53 Petzval surface, 74 Mt. Wilson, 5, 394 phase closure, 352 Mueller matrices, 163–164 phase diversity, 305 Mueller matrix operator, 153 phase retrieval, 299, 302 multi-application curvature adaptive phase velocity, 19 optics (MACAO), 395 phase-retrieval algorithm, 304 multiple deformable mirrors, 251 phase wrapping, 304 multiple-telescope telescope (MTT), photon sieve telescope, 211 356 pinhole aperture, 193 mutual coherence function (MCF), plane-parallel plate aberrations, 85 233, 261, 263, 347 ’s law, 117 National Science Foundation (NSF), point spread function (PSF), 178, 14 200, 204 Newton, Sir Isaac, 4 Poisson-distributed noise, 366 Newtonian telescope, 4 polarization, 147

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polarization in interferometers, 236 Ritchey–Chrétien telescope, 320, polarization, source of, 154 325 polychromatic, 228 Roddier, C. and Roddier, F., 399 postdetection processing, 269 Ronchi ruling, 176 power spectrum, 136, 233, 238 root-mean-square (rms) wavefront probability density distribution, 265 error (WFE), 209 processed images, 365–365 Stone, 225 Ptolemy, 2 rotational shear interferometer, 244 pupil, 411 pupil amplitude, 305 sagittal field curvature, 92 pupil plane, 173 sagittal focus, 75 pupil shape, 363 Saxton, W. O., 299 pupil topography, 350, 361, 369 scalar diffraction, 15, 171 pupil-plane mask, 411 scattered light, 108 pyramid apodized aperture, 193 scene contrast, 363 Pyrex®, 5 Schmidt camera, 95 Schott glass, 23 quantum optics, 15 Schott noise, 205, 206 quasi-monochromatic, 233 Schott Optical Glass, 22 segmented primary mirror, 327 radial velocity, 397 Seidel aberrations, 61 radiance, 116, 120 Seidel optical aberration terms, 53 radiant exitance, 116 sensitivity, 385 radiant incidence, 116 sensitivity analysis, 285 radiant power, 115 sensitivity matrix, 309, 310, 313 radiation, unwanted, 108 sgn function, 187 radiometry, 15, 145 Shack–Hartmann sensor, 293, 298 random phase, 228 shift theorem, 191 random variable, 205 Shurcliff, W. A.,164 ray errors, 63 sign convention, 26 ray intercept, 78 signal and noise calculation, 124 Rayleigh, Lord, (J. W. Strutt), 172 signal photons and electrons, 363 Rayleigh backscatter, 314 signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR), 130, Rayleigh criterion, 71, 178 202, 235, 266, 347 rectangle function, 186 silver coatings, 161 reference image, 364 similarity theorem, 191 reference spherical wave, 54 sinc function, 186 reference wavefront, 53 single-telescope adaptive optics, 387 reflectance, 102, 235 (SDSS), reflectivity, 123 218 refractive index structure function, sodium layer, 314 137 Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, resolution, 195 409 reverted image, 46 corona, 406 Ribak, E., 399 Sommerfeld, Arnold, 172

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Space Interferometry Mission thermal (noise source), 205 (SIM), 398 thin lens, 87, 88 space-invariant transformation, 203 Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT), 5, sparse-aperture optical telescopes, 14, 314, 320 352 throughput, 103, 105, 214 sparse-aperture telescopes, 348, throughput and power, 128 350–351, 358 tilt, 61, 338 spatial interferometry, 267 tilt anisoplanatism, 254 speckle interferometry, 135, 251 tilt-compensated Fourier transform spectral bandwidth, 364 spectrometers, 240– 242 spectral radiant exitance, 116 time scales, 386 spectral radiant incidence, 116 titanium dioxide (TiO2), 126 spectral resolution, 386 tolerance analysis, 285 spectrometers, 215 tolerance chart, 84 spherical aberration, 66–67, 69, 92 tolerancing, 82 spherical aberration and coma, 90 topology, 393 , 14 Townes, C. H., 269 spot diagram, 64 transmittance, 101, 235 square aperture, 193 transverse chromatic aberration, 90, stationary in time, 232 93 statistical optics, 15 triangle function, 187 Stefan–Boltzmann law, 118 two-stage optics system, 281, 329 stellar atmospheres, 382 Twyman and Green, 231 Stellar Images (SI), 373 Twyman–Green spectrometer, 231 Stephan, S., 227 Stereo telescope, 281 unit telescope, 385, 387 unpolarized electric field, 228 Stokes vector, 150 stop shift, 91 van Cittert–Zernike theorem, 247 Strehl ratio, 139, 195, 208, 334 variable-curvature mirror (VCM), structural aberration coefficients, 93 395 superresolution, 202, 203 vector diffraction, 15 surface brightness, 406 vector waves, 146 surface normal arrangement, 311 vector theory, 171 surface parallel actuation, 313 (α Lyrae), 130, 259 surface parallel arrangement, 311 Very Large Telescope

tangential focus, 75 Interferometer (VLTI), 394 vignetting, 106 telecentric optical systems, 97 temporal mutual coherence function wave nature of light, 171 (MCF), 232 wavefront error (WFE), 54, 80, 209, temporal frequency correlation, 267 271, 283, 289, 309 temporal frequency interferometer, wavefront sensing and control 229 (WFSC), 9, 281, 289, 358 Terrestrial Planet Finder wavefront-corrector mirror, 334 Coronagraph (TPF-C), 407 white light, 372

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Wide-Field Planetary Camera Yerkes Observatory, 4 (WF/PC), 202, 321, 325 Young, Thomas, 171 Wiener, Norbert, 206 Young’s double-slit experiment, 225 Wiener deconvolution, 365 Wiener filter, 207, 368 ZEMAX, 82 WISE telescope, 281 Zernike polynomials, 54, 62, 209, 283 Zerodur®, 5

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Dr. Breckinridge earned his B.S. degree in physics from Case Institute of Technology, Cleveland, OH in 1961 and his M.S. (1970) and Ph.D. (1976) degrees in optical sciences from the College of Optical Sciences at the University of Arizona, where he was a student of Profs. R. Shack, R. Shannon, J. Stoner, and J. Burke. His dissertation was on the development of the rotational shear spatial interferometer with applications to problems in the astronomical sciences. After receiving his B.S. degree, Breckinridge was an astronomical research assistant at Lick Observatory for three years, collaborating with G. E. Kron on six color photometric standards and image tubes. He then worked for one year designing, building, and evaluating electron optics image intensifier and image converter tubes at Rauland Corp. in Chicago, IL. Dr. Breckinridge continued his astronomy career in the Solar Division at Kitt Peak National Observatory, Tucson, for 11 years, where he collaborated with K. Pierce and J. Brault, before moving to the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, CA in 1976. At JPL he was the instrument scientist for the ATMOS and the founding manager of the JPL Optics Section, which is responsible for the design, construction, and testing of of the space-flight optical systems built by JPL. In 1994, Dr. Breckinridge became the JPL program manager for Innovative Optical Systems. In 1999 he accepted an assignment to the National Science Foundation in Washington, D.C. to manage the Advanced Technologies and Instruments program for the Astronomical Sciences Division. He returned to JPL in 2003 to become the chief technologist for the NASA program. In 2010 he retired from JPL after 33 years of service. Dr. Breckinridge has taught the optical engineering class in the CALTECH Applied Physics and Aeronautics departments from 1983 to the present. He has more than 95 publications in astronomy, physical optics, spectroscopy, and image science. He was elected as the President of SPIE and to the governing board of the Council of Scientific Society Presidents. He is an elected fellow of the Optical Society of America, the Royal Astronomical Society of London, and SPIE, and a member of the American Astronomical Society and the International Astronomical Union. Breckinridge received SPIE’s 2003 George W. Goddard award. He also received eight NASA achievement awards and holds four patents, including a patent for the ATMOS successful space flight instrument. Dr. Breckinridge currently holds an academic appointment at CALTECH as a visiting associate and is an adjunct professor of optics at the College of Optical Sciences at the University of Arizona. His current research interests are optical systems for the characterization of exoplanets and topics in advanced optical system engineering and technology. He is a consultant in space optics systems and technology.

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