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(U ebruber 0iibcntm itit, Jg» Hochfeld has been a common Mennonite village name in South Russia, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Mexico, and Paraguay. The Hoch feld described by Peter U. Schmidt is one three miles to the north of the Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church in Marion County, Kansas, where the author grew up as a child. Here he experienced the brief but unique experiment of the transplantation of Russian Mennonite land and community patterns to the Kansas prairie. He recalls the long immigrant house where the congregation first worshipped. We are grateful to Peter U. Schmidt’s son, Richard, for translating and editing the paper his father read in 1957. Harvey Dyck, who described in the September 1979 issue of Men nonite Life the dramatic 1929 story of the Mennonite mass move ment to Moscow, recaptures for us the “last hurrah” of Russian Men- nonitism—the Mennonite colonies in Russia in 1911. We see a Men nonite society midway between the revolutions of 1905 and 1917, a society full of pride but here and there premonitions of pathological forces. Those who have read Barbara Tuchman’s The Proud Tower, a portrait of Europe on the eve of World War I, will sense a parallel story. Mennonites from Chortitza settled in 1894-97 on 67,500 acres in Orenburg province on the Ural River in Eastern European Russia. In 1895 they were joined by Mennonites from the Molotschna. Dr. Cornelius Krahn has brought to our attention this article by a Rus sian scholar. He observes that “the number of Russian scholars de voting themselves to the study of religion in general and the Refor mation and Anabaptism in particular is increasing both in Russia as well as East Germany.” He points out that the Orenburg settle ment “was not evacuated during World War II as was the case of the Mennonite colonies in the Ukraine. Consequently the Orenberg communities preserved more of the traditional characteristics of the Mennonites than those who were dispersed over the southeastern parts of Asiatic Russia.” This appears to be an objective picture of Russian Mennonitism by an atheist scholar. One senses the limita tions and frustrations of “evangelical” Marxist materialism in cop ing with this intractable community of Mennonites. We are grateful to Diether Goetz Lichdi for sharing with us an account which is painful to tell: the Mennonite experience in Nazi Germany. He and Hans-Juergen Goertz have made a significant contribution in handling with sensitivity and honesty information which many would prefer to forget. This may be an instructive case study for Mennonites in other times and places who have been con fronted with complex and difficult ethical decisions and have not al ways chosen the narrow road. —The Editor March 1981 Vol. 36 No. 1 LIFE Editor The Beginning of Hochfeld Village and Robert Kreider the Alexanderwohl Church 4 P. U. Schmidt Front and Back Cover translated by Richard- H. Schmidt Advertisements from Friedenstimme, Rus sian Mennonite periodical from pre-World W ar I. Mid Point Between Revolutions: Photo Credits the Russian Mennonite World of 1911 9 The three posters, pp. 24, 28, and 30 are from Denis Judd, Posters from World W ar II, St. Martin’s Press. 1973. All other Harvey L. Dyck photographs are from the Mennonite Li brary and archives. The Orenburg Mennonites, 1972: A Soviet Description 19 N. I. IVinykh MENNONITE LIFE is an illustrated quar terly magazine published in March, June, Septem ber and December by Bethel Col lege, North Newton, Kansas. Second Class postage paid at Newton, Kansas 67114. The Story of Nazism and its SUBSCRIPTION RATES: One year, $6.00; Two years, $10.00 (U.S. funds) Reception by German Mennonites 24 ISSN 0025-9365 Diether Goetz Lichdi ülltr ijnrbfriii HtUarp 7 8 7 4 TPccfton 20, iA(e>uio HJaucnb/n'/i '((ftu'a)i tyfim i/y, >xJ{ ♦ N -=£ PETER Peter Unruh 46 A UNRUH 5A. CORNELIUS Cornelius Voth 69 A VOTH 7% A. PETER SCHMIDT Peter Schmidt, Sr. 69 A SR. 7’AA. PETER SCHMIDT ! JR. 5A. Peter Schmidt, Jr. 46 A CORNELIUS RICHERT 5A. DAVID Cornelius Richert 46 A - - VOTH 5A. JACOB David Voth 46 A SCHMIDT 5A T ra '1 d' \0 Jacob Schmidt 46 A P 4 MENNONITE LIFE The Beginning of Hochfeld Village and the Alexanderwohl Church by Peter U. Schmidt .4 paper read, by Peter U. Schmidt stitious. At any rate, she bought the Why the village acquired the at the first Altenfest ('senior citizen cradle and her child didn’t die. At name Hochfeld I do not know. It is gathering) in the Alexanderwohl age 83, this child is still living. told that when driving to Marion Church, May 19, 1957. Translated But eventually the women will be and coming to the hill, two and a f rom the German by P. U. Schmidt’s right. In time I will die. half miles west of the town, one son, Richard. As the time for departure came, could easily see the seven houses. my parents laid little Peter into the Section 20 was divided according to I was born in the Alexanderwohl cradle. Father told me how with a the Russian pattern. Each family Village of the Molotschna colony in shoulder strap fastened to each end had a five acre farmyard except South Russia on December 30, 1873, of the cradle he carried me to Grandfather and Cornelius Voth Julian calendar (January 10, 1874, America. The detachable rockers who had I 1/» acres each. Between Gregorian calendar). My parents, were placed under the bedding at each farmyard were two mulberry Mr. and Mrs. Peter II. Schmidt, the bottom of the cradle. The cradle hedges and on the west side—one still not having their own house is today in a glass case in the Kauff hedge the full length of the village. hold, lived in the summer room of man Museum of Bethel College, West of this hedge was a road from my grandparents, Peter Schmidt. In North Newton. The grandparents the south to the north end of the planning the emigration, the big had an adopted daughter only a few village, then a road west through question was, “How to get little years older than I who told me she the entire section. Joining the Peter to America.” Since the jour always carefully watched over me. north-south village road each had ney had been long in planning, a 46 acres, except Grandfather and certain Hildebrand family had had The Hochfeld Village Cornelius Voth who each had 69 a small willow-basket cradle custom- The Hochfeld village on Section acres. Each field was a strip run made for their infant. When the 20, Menno Township, Marion Coun ning east-west through the entire child died, father’s sister, wife of ty, Kansas, was settled by the fol section. Then to the north of the minister Heinrich Richert, bought lowing families. As one drives north east-west road at the north end of the cradle for her little David. on Highway 15 and comes to where the village each had two north-south When that child also died and my the hedge begins, the first building strips of 141/2 acres, except Grand parents considered buying the site or farmyard, was Jacob father and Cornelius Voth who had cradle, the women of the village pro Schmidt, then David Voth, then 213/i acre strips. First each had one tested, saying, “Don’t lay your child Cornelius Richert. Then on the hill strip, then a second time each one into that cradle. He will also die!” was our place, next to the grand strip, so arranged that all had the Mother must not have been super- parents, Peter Schmidt, then Cor same distance to their land. nelius Voth and last Peter Unruh. Each had a deed to a quarter sec Each had 160 acres except Grand tion of land (except Peter Schmidt father and Cornelius Voth who each Sr. and Cornelius Voth who each had an extra 80 acres. The cows had an extra 80), but he didn’t live Left, map platted by J. A. Duerksen were communally pastured on Sec on his quarter. This resulted in from information by Peter U. tion 21 by a herd-boy—on foot, not Schmidt. Kaw Indian trail by James complications when paying taxes. Misner, Marion Co. Engineer, 1980 horseback. The boy made the round America simply isn’t Russia. Then 1969, and confirmed by Orlando in the village, each family keeping in the year 1880 or 1881 the land Richert, grandson of Cornelius him in board as many days as they was redistributed. Some houses had Richert. had cows. to be moved around. David Voth MARCH, 1981 5 and Peter Unruh moved over the heads overlapping in the middle was father’s and Uncle David’s. Sack line in Section 21, and my parents arranged in a circle. Two horses holding was really as one says, “a moved to the north end. Jacob were hitched to the threshing stone man’s job,” if it was hot and dusty Schmidt sold to Cornelius Richert and a boy placed on one horse. The while threshing oats and sacks filled and Cornelius Voth moved his house men stood by with forks to pitch rapidly. The empty sack had to be some miles north to a half section.1 the straw to the side as soon as the held just right as soon as the full Those who had to move around each grain was threshed out, then swept sack had been taken away. As a received $200 and five year use- the grain to the middle. New bun thresherman I then could eat with rights to the orchards they had dles were placed on the floor and the the hired men and I felt quite im planted. I have never heard that process repeated. One wonders how portant. there ever was any contention over many bushels per day they may Our first horses had been bought the re-distribution of the land, even have been able to thresh.'1 If a horse in Topeka. They were an unmatched when one person asked for 5 2/3 started lifting its tail then a hur team; one was a small fox, the other acres, that is 2 5/6 acres each from ried halt was made and a pail or a big brown one. I do not know that two, because his land was not as shovel held under to catch the dung we ever had draft oxen. How soon good as theirs. so it would not fall into the wheat. we had our two cows or where they The coming of the small horse were from I don’t know. Farming Methods—Harvesting power driven threshing machines Father’s first farm implements and Threshing improved matters a great deal. Vil were a hand plow and a wooden har My father told how the first lages or groups of neighbors owned row which he probably made him spring he bought five acres of green such machines together. They also self. It was perhaps sixteen feet wheat in the field from one of the helped each other out. I’m won wide. I recall that Father and Old Mennonites in Spring Valley.2 dering how much such an out Grandpa did much farmwork to Many others bought green wheat in fit may have cost.5 I remember that gether and I imagine they owned the field from English homestead Grandpa Unrau had a shed thatched implements, such as their first grain ers. Some even rented land the sec with slough grass in back of the drill and binder together. Whether ond year because they still did not orchard in which he kept the thresh they sowed wheat by hand during have plowed fields. ing machine. the first years I don’t know. I re My first recollection is how when In time small steam-driven call that oats was sowed by hand I was three years old Mother sowed threshing machines came in. A and then harrowed under. vegetables in her garden and said man from Marion threshed in Hoch to me, “This row of carrots is for feld and nearby areas with an up School and Christmas Grandpa Unrau who will come from right-boiler engine. The engine was My first school memories are Russia.” I also recall how after self-propelled and could pull the from the year 1881.7 Whether there Grandpa had arrived I helped pull machine, but it had no steering sys was a Christmas tree in our school carrots and got dirt into my eyes tem ; horses were hitched to a before that I cannot say. But that and ran out of the garden crying. tongue to guide it. In case the was my first school year and the I have only vague memory of water-man was not handy with his first Christmas tree I ever saw. I how the first harvesting machines horses when the machine needed to gazed at that tree with highest re worked. Ours stood in back of be placed differently, then a couple spect. It was home-made, with Grandpa’s hedge.3 It resembled the of harvest hands would take hold branches fastened to a tinfoil-wrap reaper in the Kauffman Museum. of the tongue and guide. Later big ped stem. Pictures and stick candy After the wire-tying self-binders ger engines and bigger machines were hung in the branches. We came in, things began to go a lot came into use. were permitted to walk by the tree better than with the first ones On the side where the grain came and say which picture we’d like to where all bundles had to be tied by out of the machine, a depression have, plus something else and our hand. was dug into the ground so the Wunsch-heft (Christmas recitation When cutting oats, intended for tally box with a bushel would have pamphlet). In those days we learned chopped fodder instead of thresh room. On one side of the box was a Christmas and New Year recita ing, the binder apparatus was taken contrivance that counted each bushel tions which we recited to parents off and a platform attachment put as it was slid by. The grain was all and grandparents on Christmas on for two men to stand on at a put in sacks, always three bushels morning. The older school pupils table and bind the straw by hand, per sack.6 had to copy these recitations in then the bundles were dropped to Before we had granaries the pamphlets called Wunsch-heft in the ground. grain was carried in these sacks to German. I still have all eight of I clearly remember threshing the second floor of the barn or mine, also those of my wife from with the threshing-stone. The house and if more room was needed the Greenfield School. I preserve threshing floor was prepared near then into the living room. these pamphlets carefully. the bundle stacks by removing all I may have been fourteen years In my time it was still customary weeds and packing the soil hard. old when I began holding the sack for children to set plates on the Then a double row of bundles, with when threshing at our place, Grand table on Christmas Eve before go- 6 MENNONITE LIFE injf to bed. At night while we slept A General Explanatory Report farmsteads and a list of all 90 fami Santa Claus (“Christmas-Man” in The Santa Fe Railroad Company ly names of the 1874 immigrants. Plattdeutsch) would place presents offered Elder Jacob Buller two sec In the next three years many more on the plates. Today children no tions of land as an award for set came, but after that only a few. longer believe in Santa Claus. tling his congregation on their land. The church cemetery was opened He wanted to decline the gift but in 1887. The first grave marker Church Minister Heinrich Richert said, shows the year 1887 and the third My first church memories are of “Take it, we have so many poor peo shows February, 1888.14 ple in the congregation to whom we a long building and a drive through Villages had their cemetery at can divide the land.” And so Elder a deep creek to get there.8 In those one end of the row of farmsteads. Buller accepted Section 7, of West days we did not yet have Sunday Farmers who didn’t live in villages Branch W y2 of Section 33 and S1/- School; children were seldom taken had their private burial place where- of Section 35 of Menno Township to church. At first we stayed at the ever suitable, at the edge of the grandparents where usually some from the Santa Fe Railroad Co.11 garden by the hedge or in the cor The following families settled on one stayed at home. Later as we ner of the farm. The farms came Section 7: Beginning from the grew older we also stayed at home into strange hands, gardens and north, David Balzer, Heinrich Som alone. hedges are no more. Even burial merfeld, Heinrich Goertz, Johann Which year the immigrant houses places at the ends of villages have Thiessen, Johann Klassen, Jacob were moved to the corner where the been plowed up. Many farmers don’t Schulz, Peter Wedel, Franz Goertz, church now stands I don’t know. know at all that someone is buried Widow David Buller and Widow One was placed in a north-south di on their place. When I drew the David Goertz. On Section 35: Cor rection and half of the other was map for the October 1949 Mennonite nelius Koehn. These were of the attached as a east-west wing to the Life I discovered some 35 such first group of 1874. Later others middle on the east side.9 Of the burial places. There may be more. were given land by the congrega other half they made a house for the tion. Each received a 40 acre tract The reason why the church didn’t Kirchen-Vater as the janitor was and we may assume that they have a cemetery from the start then called. bought additional land. probably is because funerals in The interior arrangement was ex those days were not public in the tremely simple. In the southeast church; they were conducted pri corner of the east-west wing was Church Building vately in the homes. Relatives whom the Ohvi-stiibchen (minister’s In 1888 the immigrant house one wanted to attend were invited room). In the northeast corner was church was razed and a new church by letter. Presumably this is how the room for the mothers with in built. In 1928 the church was ex the custom was in Russia. It has fants. The remainder of the east- tensively remodeled and added to as happened that a person wanted very west wing had benches like the it now stands.12 The immigrant much to attend the funeral of a north-south part. The pulpit was in house lumber was built into this friend of his youth but couldn’t go the middle by the west wall.10 I church wherever usable as rough- because he wasn’t invited. It has al cannot describe how the pulpit look board and sheathing as we observed so happened that a name was writ ed. North of the pulpit was a north- during the remodeling. And the ten so indistinctly that the letter south bench for the ministers and church as it now stands has much arrived at the wrong house and the to the south was a bench for the of the immigrant house lumber in family went to the funeral. Then song leaders. The inside walls were its structure. the host lady would say, “We lined with upright floor boards and haven’t invited you.” the outside was covered with un Church Practices With this I have described my re painted twelve-inch boards. There As long as Jacob Buller was Elder collections of incidents that I ex was a door at the north and another all the brotherhood meetings were perienced and circumstances that at the south end and an aisle along conducted in Plattdeutsch.13 Here is occurred in Hochfeld and in our the middle. The outer ends of the how the Elder election of Peter congregation. Others may have had benches were fastened down on 2 x Balzer was conducted. Elder Buller, other experiences. 4’s nailed to the wall. At the aisle the older ministers, and the dea they rested on short upright boards cons sat in the ministers’ room. One NOTES nailed to 2 x 4’s running along the at a time we all went through the Richard II. Schmidt side of the aisle. This is how all room and said whom we wanted as l At this point memory played a trick on Daddy. Cornelius Voth stayed in his church pews were—simple plank Elder. The door was always closed place until he turned the farm over to his benches without backs. Early comers behind each one until he had voiced son-in-law, Peter P. Schmidt. Voth then moved into a small retirement house di and certain others seated them his vote. rectly across the road to the east. After selves at the wall so as to enjoy a Voth's death this small house was sold to On May 18, 1924, we celebrated C. C. Franz and moved two miles north. back rest. Consequently one would the 50th Jubilee of our immigration (Correction by Marie (Schmidt) Schroeder who grew up in the next house south.) see people seated one per bench clear and on October 9, 1949, the 75th an 21 recall Father saying that the pur to the far back. Women sat on the niversary festival. The October 1949 chase was from the minister of the Spring Valley Church. Charles Diener, retired north and men on the south end. Mennonite Life has a map of the minister, said Bishop Daniel Brundage MARCH, 1981 7 was the minister in 1874. 11 It is a well-known and commonly be ;s Step-grandfather Peter Schmidt Sr. lieved oral tradition that Eider Buller was I By flail, a man could thresh 7 bushels persuaded to accept two sections of land a day, by stone about 23. from the Santa Fe R. R. Company, and 5 The cost is unknown. It is assumed by hold it in trust for the church. Yet the one authority that a horsepower machine Marion County Register of Deeds book, No. could thresh about 150 to 200 bushels per 12 page 592, names Heinrich Unruh and day. Another authority places the figure wife Anna and Heinrich Richert and wife a t 25 to 35 bushels per hour. Helena as co-recipients of all of Section c I have a two-bushel sack of that time, 33 and all of Section 35 of Menno Town inscribed in old German Gothic letters ship from the Santa Fe R. R. Company. “Abraham Schmidt Hochfeld.” I'll cheer Why doesn’t Elder Buller’s name appear fully forgive Daddy if at age 14, towards here? I assume that our modest Elder evening, that sack appeared to him as said, “Brethren, since you insist upon it, holding three bushels. go ahead and accept the land but leave me • End of Mexican Civil War 7 Tiie I-Iochfeld School stood on the south out of it!" At this time Alexanderwohl was not incorporated and no one had the side of the road, % mile west of the south authority to sign legal papers in the name • Coronation of King George V east corner of the I-Iochfeld Village. of the church. So the Unruh and Minister H The Immigrant Houses originally stood Richert couples cosigned the Deed and 150 feet east and 300 feet (more or less) faithfully held the land in trust for the • Kaiser asserts Germany’s “Place north of the middle of Sec. 33. Menno church. Township, Marion County, by the Chis In 1926, our retired Elder H. Banman in the Sun” holm Trail (Texas Road as our people call wrote in the Bundesbote Kalendar concern ed it). This information is from Ben ing this church land, “Certain quarters Wedel Jr. who plowed around the well were sold and the money used for church • Stolypin, Russian Premier, assas opening for a number of years before it purposes. And so, we have been able to finally was filled in. finance in part building the Boarding Hall sinated. I can find no recorded date when the (in 1907) at the Goessel Preparatory School Immigrant House of worship was relocated with money received from the sale of one to the corner. So I state 1880 as the ap of the last 40's." • Turkish-Italian War; Italy ac proximate. or hypothetical date, midway I cannot ask the old settlers, they are quires Libya between the arrival of the immigrants and all gone and I am unable to answer for the building of the church in 1886. Inter the discrepancy between the records of the estingly. in my search. I found the fol Register of Deeds that the two sections • Manchu dynasty falls in China; lowing four examples of how the building were all of 33 and all of 35, Menno, and was brought to the corner. Father P. U. Schlmdt's statement that it Chinese Republic proclaimed; Sun EXAMPLE 1. Cornelius Frey published was all of Sec. 7 West Branch and the in Der Bethesda Herald, Nov. 15, 1941: WVj of 33 and SVj of 35, Menno. I assume Yat-sen elected president. The Alexanderwohl meeting place was the that all over the settlement many lived on old Immigrant House, two of which were land to which they didn’t hold the Deed built northeast of where the church now and that much land was swapped around • Winston Churchill appointed stands and brought to the present church like it was in the Hochfeld Village. First Lord of the Admiralty location after the temporary residents had I wonder how long the “Poor Village,” moved to their land. As a house of wor with 40 acres per household, as stated by ship the Immigrant House had a wing to H. Banman. lasted on Sec. 7 W.B. before • Ty Cobb batting champion with the east. these families could move onto their own EXAMPLE 2. M inister C. C. Wedel, pub larger farms. The records of the Register .422 lished in Dev Herald, April 3, 1941: The of Deeds are unclear to me on this. I won two Immigrant Houses were torn down at der how many held a valid deed to their the original site and a more conveniently 40. Again, I’d like to ask the old settlers • First transcontinental U.S. air located T-shaped structure was erected at a lot of questions. the corner where the church now stands. flight, 82 hours EXAMPLE 3. Retired Elder Heinrich 12 Building the church in 1886 cost the Banman: The Santa Fe Railroad gave the congregation 36,000, and it was paid for Immigrant Houses to the congregation and before dedication. The remodeling cost in • Raol Amundsen reaches South later they were used up (verbaut) in one 1928 was 530,431.56 with an indebtedness building for the purpose of worship. of 512,264.16 at dedication. Pole EXAMPLE 4. Father P. U. Schmidt's Ki Father P. U. Schmidt said Brother oral statement: One of the Immigrant hood meetings were conducted in an in Houses was sawed in half and moved to formal manner with no regard for parlia • Parliament Act reduces power of the corner. One section was placed in a mentary rules and no keeping of records. House of Lords north-south direction as the main building, Elder Buller would simply say, “The and the other was placed as an east-west Ohms (ministers and deacons bore the af wing to the center on the east side, mak fectionate title ‘Ohms’: ’Uncles’ in • Richard Strauss: “Der Rosen ing a T-shaped structure at the location Deutsch) and I have decided we would do where the church now stands. thus-and-so. Brethren what do you say to kavalier” I am more inclined to believe father’s this?” The silence that followed was ac oral statement that the north-south part cepted as consent. Elder Buller would then was half of one building, that is 100 feet, go on to the next point of consideration, • Irving Berlin: “Alexander’s Rag instead of one whole 200-foot building, as and say, “The Ohms and I have decided the written statement implies. ------No doubt, E lder P eter Balzer time Band” One day while I was helping Ted Nikkei was elected by voice-vote because at that Sr. re-shingle his hen house, I remarked time many men in Alexanderwohl were that the thickness of the rafters and illiterate. • Nobel Prize for Chemistry: sheathing boards was over-size. Ted an 14 The first grave in the Alexanderwohl Marie Curie swered that this was Immigrant House Cemetery is that of Heinrich Sommerfeld, lumber that his father had bought when father of the great Mennonite inventor. he built up the place. Presumably this The inscription on his marker is “Heinrich was from the second Immigrant House In Sommerfeld 1815-1887.” The church ceme • Rutherford formulates theory of which some poor and latecomers lived tery record book states the death date as atomic structure for four years before they built their own 25 January 1888. homes. Some of the 1874 immigrants, on Interestingly, the first grave in the Goes the other hand, lived only three weeks in sel Cemetery is that of the son, Heinrich • Charles F. Kettering develops the barrack-like Immigrant House. Did Sommerfeld, who invented the automatic they erect some sort of primitive tempo train coupler and the foot-lift for the first electric self-starter. rary shelter on their newly bought land John Deere plow, and held many other or did Contractor C. B. Ruth of Halstead patents. , , have their houses far enough under con The second grave is unmarked. The • Bobby Jones wins his first golf struction so soon? cemetery record states, “Elizabeth Regehr in Today the pulpit stands on the spot Wedel, died 31 January 1888.” The third title where the old pulpit stood in the 1886 grave is that of my wife Katharina Ber structure, and to the best of our knowl gen’s grandmother, Anna (Voth) Goertz, edge where the pulpit stood in the Immi died 1 February 1888, and the fourth is • German gunboat Panther arrives grant House of Worship. God grant that that of my grandmother, Anna (Schmidt) Agadir, Morocco; creates inter we may also stand on the rock of the Unruh, died 11 Marcli 1888. Our grand faith of our forefathers. mothers rest side-by-side. national tension. 8 MENNONITE LIFE Mid Point between Revolutions: the Russian Mennonite World of 1911 by Harvey L. Dyck Harvey L. Dyck is a native of nonitism merely a picture album Ukrainian Stundism and Baptism. Clearbrook, British Columbia. He is “legacy to be remembered” by its Friesen’s readers in 1911 were Professor of History at the Uni biological and confessional kin, or is able to fill many of these lacunae versity of Toronto and a member it deserving of more serious his themselves, something, however, of the Toronto United Mennonite torical and theological reflection? not possible for their present-day Church. A person with such questions who counterparts. Regrettably, the edi turns to P. M. Friesen’s recently tors of the English translation, in The contemporary English-lan translated The Mennonite Brother failing to provide an informative guage reader encounters great bar hood in Russia (17S9-1910) is un introduction to P. M. Friesen’s phys riers of time and culture in trying likely to be satisfied. Friesen’s ical and moral worlds, are likely to to comprehend the complex world of study, originally published in 1911, have their “fervent hope” dashed Russian Mennonitism in the years is an historiographical landmark that the project would “stimulate immediately preceding World War and has enduring value as a source and sustain a sense of historical I. Coffee-table photographic albums of Russian Mennonite religious dis awareness of the ‘acts and monu of the Russian Mennonite experi sent and thought. It is also, alas, ments’ which have shaped” the lives ence, such as those edited by Walter time-bound in its perceptions and of Russian Mennonites. One fears, Quiring or Gerhard Lohrenz, offer appeal and seriously deficient as a on the contrary, that the general tantalizing glimpses into this world. general history. Although scattered reader may well conclude in frustra The modern reader sees stylized through its 1065 pages of text and tion, that the subject is best left to family groupings, symetrieal, treed sources are references to most the antiquarian. steppe villages with well-worked facets of Mennonite life, they are The year 1911 saw the Russian fields, stately orchards and wood- not unified in a well-defined picture. Empire awash with peaceful change lots, trim homesteads, substantial The chief problem is Friesen’s and is a convenient point at which churches, schools and other public organizing concept. His pious as to take the measure of pre-revolu buildings, prosperous landed estates sumption that historic change stem tionary Russian Mennonitism. The and expanding farm implement fac med mainly from conflict between community for which Friesen wrote tories. All, however, bear mute wit forces of moral decay and moral re was a tiny ethnic and religious mi ness to the parts of a stubbornly newal within Russian Mennonitism nority of some 100,000 persons in a elusive reality. The thoughtful read itself, led him to downplay or ignore vast multinational empire of 134 er must ask, is this portrait of un other potent internal and external million. In 1911 that Empire cele ruffled well-being and contentment forces. He thus gave little promi brated the fiftieth anniversary of accurate and complete? What was nence to the very foundations of the freeing of the serfs, and re the relationship of the Russian Mennonite community and prosperi membered poignantly the assassina Mennonites to the natural environ ty—economics, politics and admin tion of Tsar Alexander II exactly ment? What of their communal life, istration—and was almost silent three decades earlier. The year 1911 social and confessional divisions, about the larger regional and im stood equidistant between the revo poverty, or relations with the frac perial contexts; these omissions lutions of 1905 and 1917 and was a tious, changing and unstable Im leave many developments, including time of relative tranquility. The perial Russian World? What anxie Friesen’s exaggerated monarchism, new parliament, the Duma, after ties, self-images, or hopes for the largely unexplained. Moreover, be stormy beginnings had settled into future, he might ask, animated cause Mennonite religious proselyt- uneasy routine; agriculture was in members of this society in the flush ism among the Orthodox threaten the throes of reform; illiteracy was of their communal and material suc ed to provoke the hostility of Rus systematically being eradicated; cess and on the threshold of a sian nationalists, Friesen simply de population pressures were being re sweeping revolution that would end leted references to the catalysing lieved through colonization of the for them in emigration, exile or role which Mennonite example and West Siberian frontier; industry death ? Finally he may well wonder, evangelism had played in the ori had entered a period of rapid and is pre-revolutionary Russian Men gins and growth of Russian and sustained growth; and the Empire MARCH, 1981 9 abroad and along its distant bor- «F lers was at peace. Yet the overall prognosis remain- 1 sd unclear. Historians have studied | this era in detail and remain un- '*! certain whether pre-war Russia was ■; moving toward political and social stability or revolution. Signs of promise were matched by those of peril. Industrial upsurge was start ing to provoke unrest among raw factory recruits from the villages who were coming under the influ ence of seasoned revolutionaries; the state’s intervention in peasant institutions and land-holding was halting and provocative; and a wave of student strikes and the dismissal of hundreds of university faculty in Moscow foreshadowed trouble. At the same time, religious and ethnic minorities, which constituted fully half of Russia’s population, were nettled by the sharp Russian nationalist and Orthodox bias of much legislation. The international situation as it affected Russia’s vital interests was unsettled, and in the Duma, relations between gov ernment and bureaucracy, on one side, and liberal and moderate con servative constitutionalist groups, on the other, seemed headed for deadlock. Dramatizing the uncer tainties in 1911, and aggravating them was the death by assassination in September of Russia’s only dis tinguished statesman in the pre war decade, the man who had or chestrated Russia’s recovery from the 1905 disaster, and guided its ad vance since, Prime Minister P. A. Stolypin. Within this setting of a bouyant economy and terrible uncertainties, much of Russian Mennonite life revolved about three central tasks: wresting a living from the often dry prairie loam while adapting to changing markets and agricultural techniques; sustaining and consoli dating a range of established inter nal religious and communal insti tutions under conditions of wide spread modernization; and generat ing effective strategies which would Left, scenes from South Russian Mennonite communities, circa 1911. The threshing scene is from the vil lage of Blumenort. MENNONITE LTFE command wide community support and meet the daunting challenges of rapid external political and social change. By 1911 Mennonites were scat tered over about ten European and Siberian steppe provinces. Small congregations were to be found in several smaller provincial and re gional cities in the south, such as Ekaterinoslav, Alexandrovsk and Berdiansk. Numerous Mennonite families had established themselves on individual homesteads and large landed estates. In a handful of vil lages Mennonites, under the impact of growing large-scale milling and farm implement industries, were be coming urbanites in jobs and spirit. But the bulk of Russian Menno nites lived in 350 to 400 rural vil lages grouped in consolidated settle ments ranging in size from several to more than 50 villages each. Older settlements of the Black Sea plain, where Mennonite leader ship and industry still centered, were linked to one another and to newer settlements in the Caucusus footlands and on the Trans-Yolgan and Siberian steppes by a network of intensive communications. A com mon pattern of labour, schooling, local administration alternative ser vice and worship was its basis. Men nonite society was fully literate and so a stream of letters among kin and friends, family visits, year books of community life, religious publications and an informed and well-edited press knitted together this universe of common roots, ac complishments and fears. Mennonite leaders monitored out side developments through the read ing of national and regional Rus sian papers and persons in many villages subscribed either to the na tional German daily, Die St. Peters burger Zeitung, or the important regional Die Odessacr Zeitung. Both reported from the colonies, often citing Mennonite economic, mutual aid, or educational initiatives as worthy examples for other Germans Upper right, the town council of Halbstadt, c. 1910; the photographs, middle and lower right, are scenes from the forestry alternative ser vice camps, Wladimirow, c. 1913. MARCH, 1981 to follow. Yet the twice-weekly Men- over an immense area, from Cen damaging winds. In 1911, the ele nonite newspapers—unlike their tral Ukraine in the West to virgin ments of climate conspired to pro North American ethnic press coun Siberian lands in the East and from duce a fairly cheerless crop year. terparts- -were Russian Mennonit- the transition zone between prairie Harvest ranged from middling in tile ism's chief' window on the world and forest in the North to the Black core Black Sea and the new Siberian and Empire and, equally, were mir Sea coastlands and Caucusus foot- settlements to total failure in the rors of its communal life. The brisk lands in the South. But all Menno Caucusus and the trans-Volgan set and sober Der Botschafter and more nites—villagers, farmsteaders, es tlements of UFA, Samara, New Sa pietistical Die Friedenstimme, with tate owners and those engaged in mara and Orenburg. At season’s end circulation of from 3,000 to 5,000, grain milling or farm machinery the Friedensstimme was moved to faithfully recorded the debate and manufacturing—were equally de reiterate a hard truth. Technology, resolution of most national and pendent on the largesse of the it editorialized, could offset only communal matters of public con steppe environment. Their past cor minimally the vagaries of climate: cern. Developments in the scattered porate success in mastering dry “Despite the artifices and sciences settlements, entertainingly describ steppe cultivation through the in of the century it is not yet possible ed by lay correspondents, were cen novations of deep plowing, summer for people to alter wind and weath tral items in a press brimming with fallowing and the introduction of er, rain and sunshine, frost and weather and market reports and fea various field systems had won them heat. And on such, after all, do the tures on agriculture, business, accolades as Russia’s premier agri blessings of a good crop principally health, religion and current social culturalists. For them successful depend. Crop yields, in turn, deter issues. Stimulating letters and in tillage was thus a source of liveli mine the weal of the merchant and quiry sections, book review columns hood as well as a status, self-worth the factory owner, of the artisan and literary and agricultural feuille- and self-confidence. Agriculture's and the factory worker.” tons rounded off a solid diet of re imperious demands also helped shape Unprecedented extremes of cold ports and commentary, set, it should Mennonite village layouts, communi and heat marked the year 1911 be noted, within the strict limits ty institutions and habits of co throughout Russia and occasioned allowed by Mennonite morality and operation. The latter was visible in an atmosphere of gloom. In the religious orthodoxy. communal granaries, which existed South, in the Black Sea area, Christ The core of Russian Mennonite in every village as cushions against mas 1910 had been quite mild, with life in 1911 was still the agricul crop failures. scarcely enough snow for sledding. tural economy and the stern de Granaries stood also as mute wit Mid-January, however, had turned mands of the crop cycle—plowing, ness to a natural climate of extreme bitterly cold. Heavy snows blanket harrowing, seeding and harvesting continentality with low and uncer ed the region to its extreme Cri —set much of its rhythm. As men tain precipitation, extremes in tem mean coast and temperatures had tioned, Mennonites were spread perature and unpredictable and slid to record lows of minus 35 de- Bclow, letterhead of the Mennonite-owned farm machinery factory in Alexandrovsk, on the Dnieper River between the Molotschna and Chortitz settlements. X o p t m i I, A IQ [-0A3 12 MENNONITE LTFE grees Celsius. The unexampled deep drought and, finally, a second bout In most settlements, it came as im freeze had lasted almost a month. with the rust fungi. A harvest of proved rail communications which In the Crimean foothills and moun ten bushels, remarkable under the speeded their valuable agricultural tains large numbers of sheep, goats, conditions, provided the Terekers at and industrial products to markets birds and other wildlife froze to least with subsistanee and seed. and facilitated business trips and death; prices of fuel doubled in the A simpler scenario of unrelieved family visits across the empire. In towns and in some Tatar villages tropical heat from May until well the Molochna, for example, Menno fruit trees were felled and fences into July was the common experi nites appeared as principals in the broken down for fuel. But in the ence of the settlements of Ufa, Sa founding of the Tokmak Railroad, Mennonite villages on the southern mara, New Samara and Orenburg. a regional rail company with a con steppe the hard winter was less tax It resulted in total crop failure, the cession to link their area to the ing. The deep snows protected the worst ever recorded in the colonies. Azov ports in the South. Simul winter grain from serious damage The narrative is a familiar one. taneously, Mennonite business in and even made possible visiting Hopes kindled by favorable spring terests in Khortitsa were instrumen from village to village on sleighs rains had been short-lived. After tal in improving rail communica that were able, as a village scribe Pentecost the virtual absence of tions among their own villages and wrote, “merrily to race across the precipitation and intense heat coupl implement factories and between steppelands.” And in February the ed with scorching winds had plung them and the main Crimea-Ekate- melting of the deep snows filled ed villages into despair. Several vil rinoslav-St. Petersburg line. They ponds and provided ample moisture lages had gathered to pray for rain cheerfully noted that only 31 hours for the fields. in June. From wishing for a mid now separated Khortitsa officials But the promises of early spring dling crop expectations had sunk. and businessmen from the Imperial were not to be realized. March was Perhaps a poor crop could still be Residence: “The old disappears, overcast and cool and seeding in the salvaged, or at least bread and seed. times change and new life blossoms South was not finished until mid- In the end, there was no grain har on our tracks. Let us now exploit April. A dry period in April and vest at all save the pitiful pickings these connections and travel oppor early May led to spotty germina from the rethreshing of year-old tunities to a degree that the rails tion, but soft soaking rains toward straw. As the intense June heat glow as witness to the fact that we the end of that month sent villagers’ shrivelled grain stocks, local prices deserve a modern communications hopes rising again, only to be de for wheat and hay inched up and system.” flated in June by extreme drought then soared while meat prices fell A similarly bouyant psychology accompanied by dessicating winds to ruinous levels. Villagers, driven underlay other technological ad from the southeast. Crop yields tal to trimming their herds, shipped vances: the installation of new post lied in August showed only a bit caravan loads of cattle to distant offices and phone systems in sever more than half of what the previous markets in the Black Sea area. al settlements; the paving of Khor good year had brought. Yet such Rains when they finally descended titsa’s main street leading to the disappointing results, it bears men in August brought only marginal county hospital; the expansion and tioning, where not calamitous for relief: green feed, sparse pasture, rationalization of money services Mennonites in the Black Sea region half-mature potatoes and a few through the founding of several given their solid economy and large vegetables. The consequence for the credit unions and banks; and the reserves of grain and capital ac settlements varied. The prosperous appearance in some villages of eye cumulated in more bountiful years. settlements of Samara, New Sa catching and dust-raising German- These reserves, moreover, enabled mara and Ufa tightened belts and built motor cars. A prosaic notice them to help their less fortunate planned for the next year. But the proclaimed the arrival of the motor co-religionists in the Trans-Volgan struggling colony of Orenburg, with ized age: “Found, Sunday 5 Novem and Caucusus steppe settlements, its eleven year history of marginal ber. An axle nut of a Opel car. where the year ended on a critical yields, faced a critical future. “Ac Owner may claim.” Johann Cornies’ note. cording to human understanding,” parental village, Orlov, Molochna, Since 1901, when landless Menno a news report from an Orenburg which styled itself somewhat of a nites from the Black Sea had set village concluded in mid-June, “there pace-setter of modernity, announced tled in seventeen villages along the is no way to escape ruin.” During the purchase of an x-ray machine Terek River, they had experienced the succeeding half year this crisis for the local hospital with a typical only misfortune, a pattern which would put Mennonite mutual aid to flourish: “We proceed under the continued unbroken into 1911. A a hard test. sun of progress---- How would the harsh and snowless winter, damag On turning the pages of the 1911 heart of our old Cornies leap for ing to the winter grain, was fol press the reader observes a society, joy were he able to witness such lowed by a dry spring with poor despite the poor crop, enjoying the enormous cultural progress in his germination and an attack of rust. benefits of technology and celebrat beloved Orlow.” Job-like trials continued in early ing its triumphs, though not unre In keeping with Cornies’ legacy summer with heavy infestations of servedly. Modernity penetrated the as modernizing pioneer of the South the dreaded Hessian flies, then Mennonite world in varied guises. Ukrainian steppe, agriculture was MARCH, 1981 13 clearly the main Mennonite arena and Mennonite prowess in horse by great change. The spurt-like de in which secular progress was visi breeding was annually recognized velopment of harvesting technology ble. Advertisements by prominent in regional competitions. As for new provided benchmarks of progress. A Mennonite implement manufacturers crops and innovative tillage meth scant half century earlier, Russian such as Heinrich D. Neufeld, K. ods, they were widely popularized Mennonites had gaped at the pro Hildebrand’s Sons and Priess, Lepp through feature articles and agri ductivity of the newly invented and Wallman and others captured cultural supplements in the Men- threshing stone, a “mighty epoch- the upbeat mood, offering custo nonites press as well as in a new making, step forward.” “The stone mers a wide range of advanced German language journal, Der will long continue to roll in Russia,” plows, cultivators, seed drills, mow Landwirt, which was distributed the article predicted. “But I know ers, binders, threshers, fanning throughout the Russian-German of only one that is still in use in mills and oil presses, often in stiff community and contributed to regu our village. The machines have sup competition against local dealers for larly by Mennonites. planted them.” And now the elec- international giants like Elworty or The sensation of the year, how thresher: “If only our ancestors International Harvester. The elec ever, was undoubtedly the introduc knew.” trical firm of Heinrich Epp, Eka- tion of four electric motor-driven Electric threshers were symbols, terinoslav, and H. H. Hamm’s Halb- threshers in the Molochna area. the article indicated, of a rural stadt dealership for the German Their compactness and astonishing Mennonite context being transform Otto-Deutzer motors trumpetted the efficiency promoted anonymous re ed beyond recognition by electric electric motor as the technology of flections entitled “Never Before” in lights, running water, sewing ma the future. Moreover, pure-bred the Friedensstimme, which have chines, centrifuges and a panoply poultry and cattle-breeding stock symptomatic worth in the picture of widely used field implements. “of the best foreign derivation” they provide of the mingling of “Were grandfather (or greatgrand were available from local producers wonderment and uneasiness evoked father) to rise from his gkave and '— ------. ©ejBflSbebiltgungen: burdj bit 'Jorjepoft: 1 iSftiiipliU' Mbl. 2.76, 2 — 9 (SgcnipUirc a Mbt. 2.50, 10— 25 (§jr«uiplarc a Mbl. 2.35. - Surd) bit ÄronSpoft: I lS>;cmpliu Mill, il. --, 2 -9 iSjcmplim n Mbl. 2,75, JO -25 (Sj;tiii|)l.uc a 3lbl. 2.60. -MJT Slnftelfleu flit bi« brtimnl u«p>uU«uc jJelUjcik bull I.Wnl lollop., jcb«. lucilw Dial loibop. '-tfci urbjian ttuf träum Mubatl. 14 MENNONITE LIFE compare such cultural progress with mation such as electric lighting, kind was also suspected in a spec that old world of less than a cen water, paved streets and improved tacular fire on the Island of tury ago, in which he had laboured policing services. The Schönwiese Khortitsa. “It was frightening to as best he could, he too would be elite spurned such advances through see,” a witness from the island re stupified with wonder.” But before disciplined rear-guard action. Un ported. “It was as though we were departing for heaven, the author compromising village assembly reso encircled by fire ... as if the whole fantasized, the envoy of time past lutions were passed and the promi village were burning.” Flames had might well pose an anxious query nent village industrialists Johann first appeared in a windmill domi (while recognizing that all villages Lepp and Jacob Niebuhr sent to nating one end of the village, then from the Crimea to Siberia were St. Petersburg to lobby members of in Abraham Klassen’s straw pile at not at the same high technical the Council of Ministers, a task al the other. Finally, strawstaeks along level): so undertaken by Hermann Berg a low overlooking hilltop flickered mann, a wealthy Mennonite estate and burst into flame. The night You have become very clever and owner and Duma representative. was windless and the fires were ex arc rich in possessions, under Faced finally with the inevitable tinguished with minimal loss, but standing and needs. But tell me, and amidst noisy dispute in the are all landowners and their fami uneasiness remained. The unanswer lies bound for the Golden City? Do Alexandrovsk and Mennonite press, ed question was, were the arsonists all of you in the village love one Schönwiese negotiated the best Mennonite vandals or Ukrainians another with unfeigned love? How terms it could and mourned its fate. from nearby villages and how se do you conduct yourselves at vil An Imperial decree of August 7 cure was property for the future? lage assemblies? Or has culture confirmed Schönwiese’s absorption. and progress made you only clever A population of 100,000 has its Der Botschafter lamented: “The without making you better? share of accidental deaths. Most beautiful meadow, which for 114 accidents reported in 1911 still years lay picturesquely along the Modernity, with its shrinking of triggered ritualized community route of the southern rail line is distances, administrative centraliza grief and stereotyped warnings lost now and for evermore. And al tion, population rise, social disor against carelessness. Typical were though it is located at the same ganization, mobility and urban the cases of two young Froese boys spot it does in reality no longer growth, also had a underside, which who broke through the spring ice evoked more than general disquiet, exist.” of a creek while skating and drown however. In 1911, the saga of the The sense of growing vulner ed, of a young high school student incorporation of the village of ability, and diminished intimacy who accidentally killed himself Schönwiese into the Dnieper city of and control contained in these words while cleaning his rifle, of a factory Alexandrovsk (Zaporozhe today) let was likewise reflected in modern worker, A. Goosen, who fatally Russian Mennonites experience the forms which accidents and crimes wounded his wife, a mother of hurt of lost identity that accom were beginning to assume a part, young children, under like circum panies urbanization. Schönwiese too, of the worrisome underside of stances, and of a miller who was was located hard on Alexandrovsk’s the new age. To be sure, misfor crushed to death between a belt southern edge and directly across tunes, such as fires, and accidents and a pulley. Especially sorrowful the Dnieper river from the rest of and petty thefts, still took tradi was the death in a newly founded the Khortitsa settlement. As a boom tional form. They were unfortunate, Siberian village of Suse Wiens, an ing centre of Mennonite milling and even tragic, but familiar and hence infant of two, who tripped into a farm implement industries, it was reassuring. Farm buildings rather vat of boiling water within sight a natural extension of Alexandrovsk than homes tended to feature in of her horrified mother. and had, in 1905, shared its tu stories of fires. Thus in a Molochna Mennonites in 1911 were, how multuous fate as revolutionary de village a widow Friesen watched ever, less certain of how to respond monstrations spilled into its streets helplessly as a summer wind-driven to incidents of violence and crime. and factories spreading fear and fire swept through her machine In the villages, to be sure, cattle disruption. , shed and barn and destroyed her and horse rustling and petty thiev For six years Alexandrovsk city threshing machine, at a loss of ery was rare and easily controlled fathers eyed Schönwiese’s strategic 5,000 rubles. Similarly, a certain by the almost universally instituted aged Jacob Unrau’s shed, bam and location and great wealth. It stood, paid night watchman. Furthermore, they said, in the path of their hay and straw stacks as well as his peer pressure, publicly applied, set natural development, enjoyed bene beef cow were the victims of fire close limits to much Mennonite fits without sharing costs and would while he was away on a family wrong-doing. For example, when itself reap advantages from amalga- visit. two Mennonites ran off without Somewhat mysteriously, a fire paying a Russian peasant for driv which consumed the flour mill of ing them from the train station to A. P. Rogalsky in the Russian vil their village an anonymous letter Left, masthead af the Friedenstim lage of Svobadnoie was reported to appeared in the Botschafter. Their me, South Russian Mennonite peri have been set by N. Koselskaia, his names would be published, it warn odical, 1910. cook. Arson of a more worrisome ed, if they refused to make restitu- MARCII, 1981 15 tion. Several village brawls ended Yet to contemporaries the trends and banditry seemed on the rise. In in the courts. One that had drawn here were not quite clear. On the 1911, Ekaterinoslav recorded in blood aroused editorial comment: one hand, mass revolutionary vio creases over the preceding year in “For Shame! Our youth is now in lence was continuing to ebb from the number of break ins, robberies, volved in affairs with knives. Bru its crest of 1905-1906, to judge by arsons, murders and attempted mur tality assumes ever more crasser the barometer of May Day peace. ders and Berdianslc and Alexan- forms to the point... where it is A story datelined Schönwiese noted drovsk showed similar trends. necessary to ask, what can we offer that the industrializing city of Alex- Armed holdups of the greatest our youth after they have left school androvsk had spent that day in variety were common, did not spare to keep them off the streets and to church for picnicking under a clear Mennonites and bred an atmosphere prevent such brutalization?” sky. For the first time in a decade of uneasiness. In Berdiansk, for in Lawlessness and violence from May Day had thus passed without stance, thieves broke into the home outside the community was, natu becoming a feared spectre of only of a Dr. A. Pankratz, who had only rally, less amenable to such reme “murder, arson, and Jew-baiting.” recently moved his practice from I dies and hence more disquieting. At the same time, however, crime the villages into the city, and stole ) 4 ♦ tScfjimebccifcntc 0parfje 5S SJcftcS auälättbiidje« {J-nbrifat emf m $lu$incid)iictc6 unb biütjicö ilBovoucfrfjct* & ^lificiiieur 81. ft. Si »3 = S r t l t f c = E E = S£cd)nifri)cS © urea it SClcyitubromSF, am DnjfJjr ?11 5*S ijt p i Im kit tu 50 AHiiirttiiieu an unb mein: eje.pm sUnrair,ajliuu} bon reiöliften it. Jtoflntanfcbtäflc oaf SBunfdj ! : mil 40 .Wilt'd = = = 85 pro Xijfjalim- imb bei- Weil .pv\en miiiu.F ;!injer. 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A3egen angepaßt finb. -- S)en Canbioivtcn unb ^iU;lenbefiCevn empfehle „Stein» tnütylen", toclclrt niemals aufgefcßärft gu merben f>raud)en „ASaljcnftüfylc'' — mit 2, 4 unb 6 c. 'Balgen. ’SDtetjlfidjter — für fleine unb große ^üfjten. ASafcßmafc^ltten — Spftem Strauß. '2t t> c e f f e : 118 H. M, fonoBKOBa H-kh; Bepn^HCWb, TaBp. ry6. » i CJi *1A WÄ*4 Soil. i. cdfrofder, P atronen, S ta rk SHnnim! Vcidiicr I'mun ! * —— 'JJultrtr, - '.'IcJifiCrfi nnjn.1;! vuübßabt, laurien, Ükfliirmr Hiciiii;init-i! empfiehlt 3}r ot & pink (*'nirfl Iiiii ii tin! 'JhiliiiiT l;ioo! HMD vI'lii liiiiu iisi,I,nii'ii, uvipvii in grofjci: fiubioaljl: 'JSicPtn'iifautov iiciinM. - ►- j ii m 11 i d) f 9itcfclä A £ ob fell, ^agbfltiiicii, Storfljollll (rCl'U'Ci'ClU. iHctiolncr, ^aifbarlifel. * «4 aV vtj Afe A»4 A»4 A?4 A>4 A»4 »?» jfe Vi Vi VfV ilA ijS /JA »1* /ft /*% <1* v~a.V^^>: iJf-v vly'■xfy Svfy Afey'ijy •f •lllMKU (ivilnblidj §flniä»)iat|ifd)c ?lpotfjcfi- in klimloiu illuftrierte** Sprtiälifun, »ffe. IWI rlert felgenbel 93ud in heutfdjtr Spraye (4 Xelle): i'b bicö burdj ein „ÄMHr Eeitfaben ber fcsiaifopatfjie für Srtenfdjen unb itere". h ll"b ungeljinberte ItjvilMfl $ r t ll 40 Äo}}., (auc$ >n ^oftm arkn). ®ine tingelpenbe Darlegung kefl fomöo^at^Uc^«« $tilberfa$tenl b.' ffirtoacblenenu. Rinberi ; ebenfo über »ntoenbung $om3t>bat$iifd;er Heilmittel für Wotorc bei (frlranlungen ber Faultiere. SerfenMt unter Kac$na$me ^»tnöopaibif^c ftauiapogiele*: ftctS auf Sager bei mit 12 Wittetn 2.SR6I. 40 flop.; nit 16 Wittein 8 KM.; mit 24 Wittein 4 KM. cfntcriitoölaw». 80 Rob.; m it 30 W ittein 8 3,61.; mit 40 W ittein 8 Kbl. unb teurer. h ©onto. Ufa. iermunn Aufeld, Win, ®eiftü$en uitb gestern bebrutenber 9t«b«tt. Stbreffe: rop. Xapi.Kom., HHKiuaencica« luoma.vi. -V 26, an aiiTCKa, : -ftalbftabt, ®ouD. 'iauricu. IIpoBnBOpy CTpyÖ'ii'HCKOHy. 804 18 MENNONITE LIFE The Orenburg Mennonites, 1972: A Soviet Description by N. I. Il’inykh N. I. Il’inykh, a member of the conglomeration of religious organi Mennonite settlements lived self- Department of History and Theory zations in the oblast. The field party contained lives with their own form of Atheism of Moscow University, paid special attention to the organ of social order, daily routine, and based on a 1972 field study. The ization, ideology, and functioning of traditions. This distinctive feature English title of the article which the sect. The sociological studies appeared in the Fall 1972 issue of of the German villages of Orenburg Soviet Sociology was “Peculiarities conducted in the Mennonite congre persists in some measure to this of the Organization and Activity of gations permitted the field party to day. In order for atheist training Mennonite Congregations.” make concrete recommendations to be effective, it is necessary to for improving atheist work among choose forms and methods of work Mennonite sectarians. that take into consideration the ma Among the religious groups The weakening of atheist activity terial conditions of life, the ethnic whose ideology and activity have during the war and early postwar background, age, sex, and other been inadequately dealt with in our years made it possible for the lead features of members of religious literature is the Mennonite sect, ers of the Mennonite sect to direct communities. which is widespread among the Ger the perfectly natural striving for There is a certain correlation a- man population in a number of re national unity of the Germans in mong the material status, daily life, gions [oöfos£] in our country (Kaz the USSR into the channel of re and religious beliefs of the popula akh SSR, Altai Krai, Orenburg, ligion. During that period, the Men tion, but this correlation is not Tomsk, and other oblasts). nonite sect became a special form direct. It is mediated by ideological The present article is written on of expression of the nationalism attitudes and views that have es the basis of data obtained by an that was aroused among a part of tablished themselves in the immedi expedition sent by the Department the German population. It is there ate environment of the individual. of History and Theory of Atheism fore no accident that certain nonre Therefore, in the German villages, of Moscow University to Orenburg ligious Germans began to call them although the economic position of Oblast, and also as the result of in selves Mennonites. For them "Men the collective farms is good, and the vestigations of Mennonite congrega nonite” and “German” became iden daily needs of the collective farm tions by the author in Kemerovo tical concepts. ers are relatively well taken care of, Oblast, Altai Krai, and the Kazakh The large number of Mennonite we encounter cases of high levels of SSR. Orenburg Oblast is of par congregations in Orenburg Oblast religious belief. Thus, investiga ticular interest to a scientific expe is also to be explained by the tra tions by the Central Statistical dition of atheists not only because ditional geographical distribution of Bureau in Orenburg Oblast in 1961 it contains many widespread relig the Mennonites. The first Menno and 1962 show that income per ious currents (Islam, Russian nite colonies (settlements) appear family member at the Karl Marx Orthodox}1; Baptists, the Old Be ed there in the second half of the Collective Farm of the then Soro- lievers) but also because dying re 19th century.At the beginning of the chinsk Raion of Orenburg Oblast ligious groups such as the Khlysty, 20th century there were already was 119.6 rubles in the first half Dukhobors, Molokans, and the like about forty German villages in of 1961, and 138.1 in the first half are still strong there. The Menno Orenburg,1 whose population con of 1962. At the "Frunze” Collective nites hold a special place in the fessed the Mennonite faith. The Farm of Novo-Sergievskii Raion it MARCH, 1981 19 was 194.4 in the first half of 1961, In Stepanovka village, 65 of the correspond with relatives in the and 207.0 in the first half of 1962. 81 members of the congregation United States, Canada, West Ger The Zhdanov Collective Farm of were surveyed. The survey showed many, and other capitalist countries. Aleksandrovskii Raion, Orenburg the sect to contain : They all have Bibles and religious Oblast, is also a highly developed 16 persons between 20 and 30 songbooks, and a good understand enterprise. In I960, the collective years of age, ing of the teachings of the sect. farm provided the government with 19 between 3 Oand 40, and The older generation of Mennonites 500.000 poods of grain, 16,000 cent 14 between 40 and 50. are intolerant of atheists and are ners of milk, and 4,500 of meat. In the congregation in Stepa inclined to idealize Mennonite life The collective farm’s income was novka village, people under 50 com under Tsarism. All Mennonites are 1.300.000 rubles. All of its villages prised 75.4 percent of the total literate (the majority have had had electricity and wired radio ser number of members.2 three or four years of schooling). vice. (a) The sociological studies conducted Despite the small numbers of this Despite the high material level of in Mennonite congregations show age group, it is the backbone of the the collective farmers on these that the opinion prevalent in athe sect and enjoys great influence a- farms, the Mennonites were quite ist circles in our country that people mong the faithful. Its fanaticism, active there. This is to be explained of advanced years predominate a- reinforced by the traditional un by the lack of properly conducted mong the religious is not applicable conditional obedience to the eldest atheist activity in the German vil to the Mennonite sect. Here a ma within the family, presents a great lages. jority of the members are young danger to young people brought up Sociological surveys conducted in and middle-aged. in the families of Mennonites of the Orenburg Oblast show that, unlike The leaders of the Mennonite older generation. other religious currents and sec congregations, taking into consider Believers of the middle genera tarian groups in the USSR, a ma ation the age composition of the tion (up to 50) are the most num jority in the Mennonite congrega faithful, have recently reexamined erous category. All of them were tions are young and middle-aged the makeup of their preaching staff. drawn into the sect during the people. A survey of the age composi In addition to old and experienced Soviet years. Most of them accept tion of the members of the sect preachers, they are involving more the ideology of our society as their showed that approximately 70 per and more young people in the lead own, and are therefore inclined to cent of the members of the congre ership of the sect. Today they make make compromises between their re gations consisted of believers under up not less than one half the leader ligious convictions and the commu 50 years of age. Thus, in the con ship of the Mennonite congrega nist worldview. Their level of edu gregation in Suzanovo village there tions. Thus, of 19 preachers in cation is low compared to that of the are 145 members. They include: Novo-Sergievskii Raion there are: surrounding population (fourth to 45 persons under 30 years of age, 4 under 30, sixth grades). 59 between 30 and 40, 8 under 40, Young people constitute a con 14 between 40 and 50, 2 between 40 and 50, and siderable portion of the Mennonite 12 between 50 and 60, and 5 over 50. congregations. Their religious views 15 over 60. In atheist work with Mennonites, consist of fragmentary ideas ob Thus, sectarians under 50 years it must be borne in mind that each tained from the older generation. of age are 88.1 percent of the total age group has its distinctive fea The entry of young people into the in Suzanovo village. tures. True, the degree of religiosity sect can be explained by established Of 145 surveyed members of the is not always related to age; but, traditions according to which each Pretoria congregation there are: nonetheless, the believers of the individual, upon attaining the age 12 under 30 years of age, older generation, born before the of 18, was required to accept Men 59 between 30 and 40, October Revolution, are entirely un nonite baptism, and by the active 21 between 40 and 50, and like those who received their up influence of the older, religious 53 over 50. bringing in the years of Soviet members of the family and of the So, in the Pretoria congregation power. Mennonite preachers. In addition, as well, 63.4 percent of the sect The entire Mennonite community entry of young people into the sect are persons under 50. may be divided into three groups has been facilitated by the pooh In the congregation of Kichkassy by age and degree of religiosity. atheist propaganda and the unsatis village, 42 of the 72 members of the The first group consists of the factory work of mass cultural and sect were surveyed. The survey elderly (over 60) who were born educational institutions in the Men showed the congregation to contain: and raised under Tsarism. As a nonite settlements. The field party 4 persons under 30, rule, they regularly attend prayer conducting the sociological study 12 between 30 and 40, meetings. If there is no functioning among Mennonites in Orenburg 12 between 40 and 50, and Mennonite congregation where they Oblast tried to determine the per 14 over 50. live, they travel periodically to other centage relationship between men i.e., 66.6 percent are people under communities for the satisfaction of and women in the congregations. 50. their religious needs. Many of them The investigation showed that in 20 MENNONITE LIFE this regard the Mennonite sect dif persons, 13 have primary education, Baptist congregations. The erasing fers from all other religious groups. and 7 have seven years of schooling. of ideological and organizational Here the notion that women pre In that same village, not one of the differences is a characteristic of the dominate within the sects is not seven members of the church con development of religious sects in applicable. True, here too women gregation has more than four years our country. This tendency led to outnumber men. But although in of schooling. In the congregation of the unification of the Evangelicals, other religious bodies women are Zelenovka hamlet, 10 of the 13 mem Baptists, and some Pentecostals in 75 to 85 percent of the total, in bers of the sect, or 77 percent, have the years 1944-1945. In October the Mennonite congregations they four years of school. In the con 1963, a congress of the Evangelical come to little more than 50 percent. gregation of Karagui settlement, 32 Christians and Baptists [ECB] took Thus in the Pretoria congregation, persons of 40 (80 percent) have place in Moscow, at which one of the total membership of 145 con four years of schooling. The con the sects of the Mennonites—the tains 77 women and 68 men, women gregation in Suvorovka village has Brotherly Congregation — formally thus amounting to 53.1 percent. In 67 members. Of them, 50 persons joined the ECB and abandoned cer Kubanka village, women number (74.3 percent) have less than six tain postulates of their faith. 58.3 percent. In the congregation years of schooling. Of the 110 mem In Kazakhstan, joint Baptist- in Rodnichnoe village, women make bers of the Mennonite congrega Mennonite congregations have been up only 42.9 percent. tion in the town of Iurga, Keme functioning on a de facto basis since The large percentage of men in rovo Oblast, 22 are functional illit 1947-1950. In Altai Krai, many the Mennonite congregations can be erates, 46 have had 2 to 4 years of Mennonites of the Brotherly Con explained fundamentally by the school, and 42 have had 5 to 8—i.e., gregation began to refer to them same factors as the presence of a here, too, 68 percent of the mem selves as Baptists long before for large number of young people. It bers of the sect have no more than mal adherence to the ECB alliance is also worth recalling the fact that four years of schooling. No Men took place; but they retained their many men, upon completing their nonite has a higher or a specialized Mennonite teachings. In Orenburg service in the labor army and re secondary education. Among them Oblast, the attempt to bring about turning to their permanent places there is not a single engineer agron unification began in the first post of residence, join the religious sect omist, economist, or animal-hus war years. under the influence of religious bandry specialist. As a rule, they The reasons for unification must propaganda. work as general laborers and rare be sought in the conditions of our The policy of the Mennonite ly as farm machinery operators. The Mennonites camouflage their life. Unification is promoted, above leadership according to which relig all, by the moods of the faithful ious Mennonites should be isolated backwardness, in the cultural and political sense, by the illusion of themselves, and by changes in their from the cultural life of Soviet so ideology which have occurred in religious exclusiveness and an in ciety has made the level of develop recent years as the result of im ment of the bulk of the believers vented superiority over unbelievers and those of other faiths. provement in economic conditions lower than that of unbelievers. An and ideological work in the German investigation of the 145 member Although there is no central Men villages. The believers are no longer Mennonite congregation in Pretoria nonite headquarters in the USSR, content with certain provisions of village, Orenburg Oblast, showed the leaders of the sect nonetheless their faith which conflict with their that it included: try to provide some central direc own interests (refusal of military illiterates—1, tion for the activity of the Menno service, prohibitions against partici with 4 years or less of school nite congregations. The congrega pation in public life, and use of the ing—76, tions of Mennonites in some raions achievements of modern science and with 5 years—26, or groups of raions are headed by culture). with 6 and 7 years—36, and a senior presbyter, whose duties in The formal affiliation of the with 8 and 9 years—7. clude supervision of the presbyters Brotherly Congregation of Menno Thus, there are 102 persons (over of other congregations, their train nites with the ECB was facilitated 70 percent) of the congregation ing, and consecration. Thus in Oren by the similarity of beliefs, rituals, who have no more than 5 years of burg Oblast, there were senior pres and preaching. Thus, the Mennonite schooling, and not one member with byters in Sorochinskii, Novo-Sergie- Brotherly Congregations have a secondary education. vslcii, and Aleksandrovskii raions, baptism ritual identical to that of In Petrovka village (a “Brotherly in each of which approximately ten the Baptists — total immersion — Congregation”—Mennonite Breth Mennonite congregations were func while the Mennonites [sometimes ren) (ö), not one of the 17 mem tioning. To exchange experience in called “Church Mennonites”] are bers has more than 4 years of their activity, the preachers visit baptized by sprinkling or dousing schooling. In Kantserovka village, back and forth at prayer meetings in prayer houses. The breaking of of 9 persons there are 2 functional in other congregations. In some bread takes place among Menno illiterates and 7 with four years of parts of the country, Mennonite nites of the Brotherly Congrega schooling. In Zhdanovka village (a congregations have not only mutual tion, as among Baptists, on the first “Brotherly Congregation”), of 20 relations but close contacts with Sunday of each month; while among MARCH, 1981 21 the Mennonites, it occurs twice a of the Mennonite leadership is try congregations. Each preacher en year. The German Baptists exer ing to maintain the old, traditional gaged in active religious propa cised a major influence on the de dogmas and methods of work. On ganda in his place of residence not velopment of the Brotherly Congre the other hand, there is a notable only among members of the sect but gation in Russia. German Baptists attempt to adapt themselves to the also with the non-believing popula took an active part, for example, new conditions of our life. The tion. Until 1962, there were virtual in the organization of the Einlage adaptive tendencies affect all as ly no competent experts in those Brotherly Congregation. The Broth pects of the religious life of the raions capable of conducting active erly Congregation adopted the Bap Mennonite congregations. Without atheist work among Mennonites. tist form of organization and took changing the essence of their be The tasks of improving atheist over techniques of practical and lief, the Mennonite leadership is propaganda rest, above all, on per missionary activity. From its earli seeking a means of ironing out its sonnel. Without training qualified est origins it was in the very closest most absurd aspects, and providing specialists of German nationality, relations with the Baptists, accepted a new and more “rational” interpre it is impossible to organize a con baptism from Baptist preachers, tation of certain provisions in the crete, purposeful atheist offensive conducted baptism in Baptist con Bible, and so forth. among Mennonites. An atheist lec gregations, and participated jointly In recent years, the Mennonite turer of German nationality is re with the Baptists in prayer meet leadership has fundamentally taken garded by the people as “one of their ings. the course of loyalty toward the own.” Many questions are put to In 1873-1876, the Brotherly Con Soviet government, and no longer him, people argue with him, willing gregation of Mennonites in Russia categorically insists (as was prev ly engage in conversations with him, obtained its first statement of be iously the case) on refusal of mili and so forth. It appears to us that it lief from the Baptists, which was tary service. would be desirable to establish introduced in final form in 1901. In atheist activity among Men month-long or six-week courses to It is a virtually literal transcription nonite sectarians, it is necessary to train lecturers and propagandists of the teachings of the German Bap consider the distinctive features of for work among Mennonites in tists. this group and the special aspects places where they are most numer The Brotherly Mennonites have of their faith, rituals, and practical ous (Orenburg and Perm Oblasts, more in common with the Baptists activity. Altai Krai, the Kazakh SSR, etc.). than with the . . . Mennonites. In In developing techniques and It would be desirable to enroll in commentaries on the profession of forms of atheist activity suitable such courses the best prepared athe faith of the Brotherly Congrega for overcoming vestiges of Menno ists — people familiar with the ac tion we read: “We consider the nite belief, the following circum tivity of other sectarian groups, Baptist congregation to be ‘living,’ stances must be borne in mind: who have a perfect knowledge of i.e., an assembly of children of God 1) German nationalism among a German (specifically, the Platt ... their differences from our be certain portion of the Mennonite deutsch dialect). The initiative liefs do not prevent us from having sect; taken by the Altai Krai Committee sincere communion, or even assem 2) the connections between the of the CPSU, which has in recent bling with them to break bread, and Mennonites living in the USSR and years conducted seminars with having teachers from them among Mennonite organizations abroad;4 propagandists of atheism working us sometimes to bring order into 3) the great strength and vitality among the German population, de the affairs of the congregation. of Mennonite traditions among the serves approval. These seminars are And this is because they: German population. useful in helping to uncover inter “a) profess the same faith as we; The difficulty of atheist activity oblast and interrepublic ties between “b) baptize only ... by immer among Mennonite sectarians is in the Mennonite leadership and their sion ; creased by the lack of qualified missionary and propagandist activi “c) expel from the society for an propagandists of atheism of Ger ty. Familiarity with the connections indeterminate period, until real man nationality. and methods of missionary and changes and correction take place in Local teachers of atheism usually propagandist activity among the them, members who engage in dis have little familiarity with the his leaders of the Mennonite communi orderly behavior; tory of the sect, with the trends in ties will help in planning concrete means for overcoming vestiges of “d) the entire organization of it, with its world view, and with their congregation (or church) is the tactic of adaptation to life in religion among one of the most identical with that of our society.”3 our country. They often number fanatical religious sects in our coun try—the Mennonite. The bases of the sect’s beliefs considerably fewer than religious have undergone no serious changes preachers. Thus in the years 1961- In atheist work among Menno during the period of its existence. 66, several Mennonite congrega nites, it is important to remember However, recently two tendencies tions, with a total of over 400 mem that many of them correspond regu have been observable in the Men- bers, functioned in the former Per'e- larly with relatives abroad. Thus, of nonite movement in the USSR. On volotskii Raion of Orenburg Oblast. 49 of these sectarians in Kubanka the one hand, a considerable part There were 35 preachers in these village, 15 or 30.6 percent, corres- 22 MENNONITE LIFE pond with Mennonite relatives liv that there are two principal cur the German population. Such cus ing abroad. The letters from abroad rents in the sect: the ... New Men toms as ceremonial celebration of are quite diverse. Some of them are nonites and Old Mennonites. The maturity, Soviet wedding cere written at the dictation of certain formal adherence of the Brotherly monies, baby naming ceremonies, agencies to propagandize “the for Congregation of Mennonites [New new Soviet local holidays, Livestock eign heaven,” while others contain or Mennonite Brethren] to the sect Workers’ Day, Farm Equipment truthful descriptions of the cata of Evangelical Christians and Bap Operator’s Day, Harvest Day, the strophic situation of plain people tists does not mean that all mem Day of Labor, and so forth, which abroad. In the hands of an able bers of the Brotherly congregation have become traditions in many propagandist, these letters can be have completely abandoned the dis places, could play a useful role in come splendid material for expos tinguished features of their [Men winning German youth in the USSR ing the falsity of imperialist propa nonite] faith. to atheism. The wedding ceremony ganda. Many of these letters are Religious Mennonites do not at that has become part of the life of more persuasive than any lecture, tend non-Mennonite public gather a number of communities in various and can dispel the idea of a “heaven ings. In addition, certain categories oblasts deserves attention. This abroad” which is current among of believers (watchmen, railroad ritual counters the traditional wed many Mennonites. siding switchmen, trackwalkers) ding rituals of the Mennonites, an The pro-emigration and national are unable, because of the nature integral component of which are istic propaganda of Mennonite lead of their jobs, to attend gatherings speeches by the heads of Mennonite ers must be countered with propa for atheist purposes. As a conse congregations, who preach unity ganda about the advantages of quence, work with people on an in with God and the sinfulness of life socialist society over capitalist, and dividual basis may prove to be the on earth. a presentation of the real picture most effective form of education in The Mennonite ideology will be of economic and political life in the atheism. It is important that athe completely overcome if the general United States, West Germany, and ists who have authority among the public of the cities, villages, and other capitalist countries. population, and who live and work settlements with German popula In educational work with the alongside believers, be involved in tions participate in the struggle Mennonite faithful, special atten this activity. With this object, one against it, and if the diverse and tion must be given to questions of might use the experience of assign effective forms of individual and socialist internationalism and Soviet ing village propagandists to groups mass atheist activity developed by patriotism, and a profound explan of ten homes during election cam propagandists of atheism in our ation of the essence of the Leninist paigns. Individual work with be country are ably employed. nationality policy. It is necessary lievers cannot be left to the personal to use concrete examples to demon initiative of propagandists of athe Editor’s Notes strate the reactionary nature of the a) The village Is provided with one radio ism. This is a pressing concern for receiver, and programs are piped Into the nationalist propaganda of certain Party, trade union, mass cultural individual houses. b) The "Brotherly Congregations" or Mennonite leaders. and enlightenment organizations, simple "Brethren” [Mennonite Brethren] The high percentage of young are the less conservative of the two main educational institutions, branches of bodies of Mennonites In the Soviet Union: people in the Mennonite sect makes the “Znanie” lecture society, and they tend toward the Baptist movement In it obligatory that atheists direct the like. Party organizations must theology and organization. special attention to educational work direct this work. A decisive condi Notes among the young people. Here a tion for successful individual work 1 Three raions of Orenburg Oblast con tain 36 villages of purely German popu special role must be played by our with believers is that it be properly lation. These are old German colonies, Soviet schools in cultivating indus organized and, above all, that per founded in the 1890s. 2 It is suggestive that sociological investi triousness, collectivism, interna sonnel be correctly chosen and as gations of the age composition of the Men tionalism, love of country, and a signed. nonite sect conducted by the author in striving for knowledge, in an effort other oblasts of the USSR yield approxi Explanatory work alone is not mately the same results. Thus in the Men to make them active, conscious build nonite congregation of Iurga in Kemerovo enough if the religious traditions Oblast, 60 percent of the members are less ers of communism. than fifty years of age. In the Mennonite of the Mennonites are to be over community in Karaganda, over 52 percent Mennonite believers generally come in the life of the German of the members are under fifty. have a good knowledge of the Bible, 2 S. D. Bondar’, Sekta menonilov v Ron- population. Necessary conditions to sii, St. Petersburg. 1916, p. 155. and this cannot be left out of con ward that end are extensive involve -i In many foreign countries with Menno nite populations, there are central com sideration in work with them. A ment of believers in the productive mittees of the sect, subordinate to the propagandist of atheism must him World Conference of Mennonites: the Men work and civic functioning of the nonite Central Committee . . . in the United self be well equipped with knowl personnel of collective and state States, the Vereinigung Deutscher Men- nonitengemeinden in West Germany, the edge of the Bible. Only thus will he farms and of enterprises, and gen European Evangelism Committee in West be able to help the believer find the Germany, and so forth. According to H. eral improvement in all ideological, Bender. President of the World Conference contradictions in the Bible and un cultural, and educational work. A of Mennonites, there are presently over derstand their essence. 400,000 Mennonites In various European. special place in this regard must be African, and American countries. See Ben In atheist work with Mennonites, occupied by the shaping of new der, "Mennonlten,” Weltkirchenlexicon, Handbuch der Ökumene, Stuttgart, 1960, it is necessary to deal with the fact Soviet socialist traditions among p. 905. MARCH, 1981 28 The Story of Nazism and its Reception by German Mennonites by Diellier Goetz Licluli Dictkcr Goetz Lichdi is a Mennonite pastor and historian living in Heil- bronn, Germany. He is the author of Mennoniten im Dritten Reich, Dok umentation und Deutung. The question for the Mennonite attitude towards the Third Reich is not incidental. The evaluation of those deplorable circumstances is to be seen on a greater scene, in which historians, writers and journalists occupied themselves during the sev enties with the details of the Hitler story, the Holocaust and World War II. At no time since 1945 has the subject been dealt with on such a large scale. Even the numerous trials of Nazi crimes in the fifties and sixties connected with the re vealing of incredible atrocities had not caused as much public attention and discussion. It looked as if the generation that experienced both the rise of Fascism and its end in disaster did not like to be bothered with this recent history. After the bombing, the hunger, the escape and the denazification they just did not want to be any longer confront ed. Not because they felt guilty about what happened in the German name, but they desired to forget and to start a normal life; they did not want to be disturbed any more with the nightmare of the past. This generation which cheered Left, Nazi war poster: “For Liberty and life—the Volkstrum” (Home Guard). 24 MENNONITE LIFE Nazism and suffered the defeat has with an article “Nationale Erhe Mennonite groups were so differ built up democracy in the Federal bung und religiöser Niedergang— ent that you can hardly make an Republic and created what was Missglückte Anegnung des täufer- evaluation of the Mennonites as a known as a Wirtschaftswunder (an ischen Leitbildes im Dritten Reich” whole. Another point demonstrated economic wonder). (National rise and religious decline the change in their attitude as the This situation of superficial si —failed adaption of the Anabaptist regime grew older; parts of the lence and partial complacency vision during the Third Reich), pub Anabaptist vision still were to be crumbled in the seventies. The older lished in the Mennonitische Ge recognized in the attitude and con generation that had witnessed schichtsblätter, 1974 and in H. J. duct of some Mennonites. Nazism was replaced by people born Goertz (ed.), Umstrittenes Tiiufcr- The book is the first publication shortly before or after the war and tum 1525-1975 (Anabaptism in con of any extensive study which deals had no personal memory of it. troversy 1525-1975), Göttingen, with the conduct of a Free Church It became usual to ask parents 1975, 1978. Goertz’ essay is based during the Third Reich. As for the and grandparents “how did you feel mainly on articles from the periodi other Free Churches, there are two about Hitler, how did you offer cals Mennonitische Blatter and Men theses which have not yet been pub resistance ?” It can not be concealed nonitische Jugendwarte and on min lished. As far as the Catholic and that this dealing with the past and utes of some meetings of two con Protestant Churches are concerned searching for the truth was not al ferences. In his preliminary re there are many minor and major ways for pure historical purposes. marks he requests continued re publications. The most comprehen Quite often this kind of coping with search, collection of new materials, sive study is by K. Scholder, Die the past occasioned accusations of especially eye-witness reports. His Kirchen und das Dritte Reich (The the parents’ generation. The conflict goal was “to bring a little light in Churches and the Third Reich) of the generations tended to be to the complexity of decision in which discusses the period from moralized under the Nazi label. Of which the Mennonites were placed 1918 to 1934. A sequel to the pres course, the parents should have immediately after Hitler’s Machter ent is expected. prevented Nazism; they should have greifung (seizure of power). Goertz resisted the evil. We experienced states that the attitude of the Ver The Findings of Mennoniten im Dritten Reich. suspicion, disclosures, and fruitless einigung (Conference of Westprus- It has been a long but straight and inadequate defenses. Historic sian, northwestern and Palatinate facts tended to be judged under the Mennonites) was too compliant with way to Nazism. The German Men impact and impression of present the newly established Nazi regime. nonites stepped out of their isola tion during the 19th century and times. The debates were sometimes ITe compared it with the Anabaptist difficult and proved useless. The old concept of the state and character began to feel like citizens of the German Reich. The march, starting generation felt misunderstood, un ized the conduct of the 1933 Men justly sentenced and hurt. nonites as “religious decline” : with the initial conviction of sepa “Basic Anabaptist convictions were ration in the 16th century through It is evident that in a situation emptied of their theological content persecution and in tolerance, was like this the Mennonites in the Fed and refilled with politically oppor tough and troublesome. The privi eral Republic of Germany question tune contents.... Loyalty towards leges acquired during the 17th and ed their fathers’ attitudes and con the state who granted the denomi 18th centuries (such as conscien duct before and after 1933. These national status and the maintenance tious objection to military service questions were aroused when after of denominational identity were ad and to oaths) came into contradic 1970, many brethren who had ex justed to each other.” It is under tion with the equality of all men in perienced Nazism and were leaders standable that this thesis was not a society. All Mennonite groups in in the congregations and confer applauded by all contemporaries of tegrated quickly into the new Ger ences during that time had died or the Third Reich, but a direct re man Reich (since 1871), they be retired. Today there are only six sponse was never published. In 1977, came good patriots like most of Mennonite elders / preachers who my book was published under the their fellow citizens. The ecelesi- came into office in the thirties Mennoniten im Dritten Reich, ological reservation of the 16th cen still living; only two of them are title: Dokumentation und Deutung (Men tury Anabaptists toward the state, still active. The same is true with nonites during the Third Reich, against which the freedom of the those brethren elected into office documentation and interpretation). gospel had to be defended, was right after World War II; most of It was based on about 5000 printed gradually substituted by the recog them are retired. The elders/p reach - pages from various sources and a- nition of the state and adaption to ers of today were elected during the society. The Swiss Brethren expect bout 30 reports from eye-witnesses. last ten years and this concerns es ed the state to grant them a life as In many points I agreed with pecially the university trained pas Christians not to be disturbed. This tors. Goertz, in others I disagreed. I also meant in the course of time sepa The debate was started by Dr. found the leaders of the Vereinigung ration from society and the refusal I-Ians-Jürgen Goertz, former pastor were too enthusiastic about the of various compulsory duties. After of the Hamburg congregation, to Nazis, but I stated that on the other three centuries the Mennonites were day professor for social history, hand the attitude of the various ready to stand up for this illustrious MARCH, 1981 25 IHmnoniti fcbe B latter Unter UTifroitfung oon D. theol. (Efjt. Tieff-lBeiertjof, paffoc (End) (Soettner-Danjig u. a. Ijerausgegeben oon (jftOf L ie. ih e o l. (E. Qöltöfges, Heltefter ber SJtennonitengemeinbe (ElbtngsiElIertoalb, in (Elbing ©ftpr. ______2)amafd)feftrabe 4, Fernruf 2155 eie Blätter erfrfjeinen monatlid). Be3ugsprets jäftrlitf) 3 B 9JL, fürTsöeiträge, ^ufenbungen uub Badjridjten finb fpateftens bis 3um ii ftreiftcmt S a n 3ig 5 ©ulben; für bas Buslanb entfpredjenb bem j 20. jcben Dttonats an ben Herausgeber erbeten. ®elb3af)lungen jtfrfjcn Kursrocrt. Die Blennonitifdjen Blätter fönnen aud; bei ber j erfotgen am einfadjften burd) beffen ipoftfdjecffonto Königsberg $ r. i[t beftellt merben unb foften piertetjäljrtidj 75 Beidjspfennige. j Br. 135 10 ober beffen Banffonto bei ber Kreisfpartaffe 3u (Jibing. 86. Jahrgang g______9Kai 1939 | Hummer 5 Juliall: eimn 'ill. ('kl'iirtsuig mifcrcs jyiiljrcrö. 'Üou ber Ber» Reich and to participate in it as may have looked strange but with .hinmil burd) Ciefiio (fbriftus ( 2G MENNONITE LIFE other strong authoritarian goven- later the Barmen Declaration of the absolutely in contradiction to the ment rather than insist on a point Bekennende Kirche (The Confes German heritage and tradition. of view which did not conform to sional Church), an opposition group The elected bodies in countries, the general public opinion. On the in the Protestant church. counties and cities were purified contrary they followed—conscious Nevertheless, it has been recog and occupied by Nazis. The Gesetz ly or not—the nationally common nized and stated that the Nazi zur Reinerhaltung von Volk und theological thought. The Alliance of Weltanschauungsstaat (state of ide Staat (law for purification of peo Peoples’ völileische Begeisterung ology), transgressed the limitations ple and state) of April 15, 1933, (people’s enthusiasm) and the com of its “God given” assignment. arranged for the dismissal of Jew mon Christian attitude towards the However, this realization was quite ish citizens from state and other state were seductive. The Protes general and caused no consequences public offices. The exodus of Jew tant tradition of theology, adopted at all. The Rundbrief-Gemeinschaft ish and other artists and scholars by most Mennonites during the last (a group of educated and interested began. The Reichstagsbrand (burn century despite the historical repre young people from several countries ing of Parliament), February 28, sentation of the Anabaptist begin which corresponded in German with 1933, created a pretext to persecute ning, supported quite logically the the help of circular letters), wor and to arrest dissidents. First com awakening of the people. This can ried about this transgression. Fac munists, then Social Democrats, be demonstrated with an analysis of ing the introduction of universal trade unionists, Catholic youth the exegesis of Romans 13 in Men- conscription which came in 1935, workers and other alleged opponents nonite publications around 1933. they reacted with alarm. They were put into concentration camps. Here the state was interpreted as pointed out that the ideological pre This procedure was supported by God’s creational order (Schöpfung- tensions of the Third Reich disre the general consent, even enthusi sordung) and so transcended. This garded the first commandment; the asm, of the people. They conceived state was always a constitutional deification of human being was con Hitler almost as a savior, a savior state which “executes wrath upon ceived as the exchange of creator who stopped national humiliation, him that doeth evil” and keeps the and creation. The Führ erpr inzip stopped the fruitless squabble of public order which is conceived as (leader’s principal), which was sup the parties, who set an end to the God’s order “to thee for good.” In posed to be introduced into church unpopular, even despised “system of 1933 the goals of the Nazis were es and congregations, contradicted Weimar.” He was a leader whose compared with the statements of the congregational concept based on tough speeches were followed by the New Testament and found to be the equality of members and the strong deeds, who appealed to the more or less identical. The belief in priesthood of all believers. Here and good and decent in human beings, the essence and power of the state there it aroused doubts about laws who employed the positive powers made a neutral or unimpressed at being respected, but no specific of history and who placed the com titude towards the Nazis difficult. cases of failure to comply were mon benefit ahead of private profit. In all consideration the Bible was mentioned. The perversion of jus Gemeinnutz geht, vor Eigennutz cited and employed for defining the tice seemed possible to some. The (community needs over private Mennonite position. They tried to critical and nonconforming attitude needs). He was the genius who res base their thinking on the gospel of some Mennonites has to be men cued Germany from Russian Bol as the sole guide, but they hardly tioned, but it created no real resist shevism and from Western Libertin succeeded in a time of confusion ance. They faced the brutality of a ism, who delivered the people from and revaluation. The Mennonites in regime in which form of opposition misery and unemployment. He was Germany were tempted to read the was to be crushed and thus they a great man who piled success upon Bible in such a way that its mean retreated again into privacy. They success, who made Germany inde ing became compatible with the again became the Stillen im Lande pendent from the world market with “challenge of our time.” They did (the quiet in the land). the production of Ersatz (substi not withdraw at first from the at tute) products, who constructed mosphere of political awakening in Welcome is Extended to Hitler. autobahns and had armaments pro Germany. To be sure, they cited the On January 30, 1933, the Nazis duced. Even skeptics were convinced right New Testament texts, but celebrated Hitler’s nomination to by Hitler’s results and by the sin their understanding was stamped by the Chancellery by Reichspräsident cerity in which he led the way out the general Protestant and political von I-Iindenburg. The so-called Third of crisis and disaster. Zeitgeist (spirit of the age). The Reich seized quickly all executive theological thinking coming from positions in the Reich and the The Mennonites did not want to Länder (confederated countries). separate themselves from this wave the Protestant universities formed The Ermächtigungsgesetz (law of of general support and sympathy. a Lutheran and conservative mind. authorization) of March 23, 1933, As was customary upon the Em Generally it reflected the dogma of dissolved all parties and unions. The peror’s accession to throne, the con the two realms which had not much Gleichschaltungsgesetz (law of co ference of the Westprussian Men in common with the Anabaptist vis ordination) of March 31, 1933, abol nonites sent a telegram to Hitler, ion. This dogma ignored Karl ished the federal structure and in greeting him from the Tiegenhagen Barth’s commentary on Romans and stalled a centrally governed state convention on September 10, 1933, MARCH, 1981 27 citing I Corinthians 3:11 and af most Mennonites; however, the con ments had led to indebtedness. Due firming: “The conference realizes servative Mennonites in South Ger to increasing industrialization, the with deep gratitude the tremendous many were more reluctant to react significance of farming decreased. upheaval, which God gave to our and remained silent. In the Menno- The public influence of farmers was people with your energy” and vow nitische Blatter one could find sev- more and more neglected. This ed on their part “cheerful cooper veral articles which relentlessly sup changed immediately when the ation for the reconstruction of our ported the regime, but none in the Nazis came to power; the importa Fatherland out of the strengths of Gemeindeblatt of the South German tion of farm products stopped, debts the gospel.” Hitler in return thank Verband. were cancelled. The farmers became ed them for their “true spirit and The 1929 depression also had in many respects a privileged group. readiness to cooperate.” This of some impact on the Mennonites. As The Mennonites took steps to ficial attitude of the Westprussian farmers (German Mennonites being unite the Vereinigung and the Ver Conference corresponded at least in 84% farmers) they were not unem band. The reason was the coordi the beginning with the opinion of ployed, but the economic develop- nation of the 29 Protestant state churches into one church: Deutsche Evangelische Kirche (DEK) and E B Bits the introduction of the Führerprin D & zip (principle of leadership where by all functions were centrally struc tured under the leadership of a Reichsbischof). There were rumors of an impending coordination of all BAUERN Free Churches with the DEK. The negotiations between the Vereini UND gung and the Verband failed since /«■# both parts could not agree on a com SOLDATEN mon confession of faith. However, this did not endanger the Mennonite STEHEN existence, because the Nazis soon lost interest in the matter after the HAND IN HAND coordination of the Protestant churches and a Concordat with the Vatican. ZUSAMMEN' Regarding the issues of rearm ament and compulsory military ser UM DEM VOLKE vice, the Vereinigung made up its mind as early as March, 1933, “not SEIN to claim any more special privi leges.” Rather, conduct in this mat TÄGLICH BROT ter was left to each one’s discre tion. Most Mennonites saw no con ZU GEBEN flict with the gospel but only the execution of a normal development UND DEM REICHE after they became real citizens and German patriots. “For the German SEINE circumstances it should be stated also, that the connection of fate FREIHEIT with the German Fatherland ... gives no possibility to maintain as ZU a congregation our fathers’ point of view ... The New Testament SICHERN gives us this freedom. In support ing our people and Fatherland with life and limb we have to prove the Left, Nazi war poster quoting Paul Goebbels: “Farmers and soldiers stand together hand in hand to give the people their daily bread and to safeguard the freedom of the Reich.” MENNONITE LIFE fU’cat love which we have for our out of about 200 servants left of the writer, said the time was not people.” However, there were op fice. On the contrary, new servants ready for the evaluation of the posing opinions which were ex were elected and ordained. The Nazi regime. As justified as this pressed in letters to editors and in adolescents were instructed and argument might be there are but the circular letters (RB). The op baptized, despite the indoctrination few eye-witnesses left and we ponents held as reasons, the fifth of the youth in the Hitler youth should not miss, as we did up until commandment and the example of organization. The Lord's Supper now, to collect their testimonies and Jesus. It was soon recognized that seems to have been attended by an experiences, Nazis or not. I might Nazism was on the way to an au increasing number of people. The suspect that these critics are not as thoritarian state, but this seemed youth were gathered by appointed much interested in an adequate no reason to withdraw the original youth workers to bible groups and representation as that they do not consent. Nobody could imagine that vacation camps, obviously in com want to be reminded of the old it was ready to start World War II petition to the educational activities wound. There may be reputations to and the Holocaust. of the Nazis. The number of mem be protected. bership did not decrease; on the During the writing of the book Distance and Inner Emigration In contrary there seems to have been to Privacy. I received criticisms and presumed a little increase, for example, in corrections. One asserted I would The early enthusiasm of 1933-34 Heubuden. Missionary efforts were faded away. Some enthusiasts show purify old Nazis of the accusation still within the scene of the congre of Nazism. In my research I met ed increasing reserve, others just gation. In 1934, two missionaries calmed down. The distance can be resistance and rejection. One broth were sent out to Indonesia. Numer er whose story I planned to tell detected in letters and sermons— ous mission conferences collected they felt that the “total” ideological forced me to delete the material be good offerings. New mission groups fore printing. In another case I had state removed the limitations be were established, for example, in tween God and men, that Hitler to agree to an expensive settlement Berlin, 1937. In an atmosphere hos when one felt insulted by another placed himself on God's Throne. The tile to aliens the interest in mission Nazi ideology began to be conceived witness, both close relatives. Nazism grew unexpectedly. is still a sensitive issue. as competitive with the Gospel. The Mennonites could maintain Bible study especially among young the traditionally congregational One Mennonite critic challenged people seemed to increase. A pre structure, but they did not sacrifice the congregations to repent pub occupation with apocalyptical texts individual nonconformism for the licly of their attitude and conduct in South Germany is evident. There idols of people and fatherland in the during the Third Reich—a chal were 46 articles on that subject very end. They were not coordinated lenge which raises a fundamental from 1934-1940. D. Christian Neff, and did not introduce the Führer question: Is there collective guilt? founder of the World Conference, prinzip. The responsibility for the Can there be collective repentance conducted a series of interpretation world is spiritualized in a nonpoliti and will there be a collective atone of the Book of Revelation for the cal manner. Numerous acts of as ment? Another reason for a rejec preachers’ meetings in the Palati sistance for Jews, the bombed refu tion of such a repentance might be nate. gees and the hungry are known. the feeling that Mennonites, es One pastor in a sermon has this Those events which occurred in dis pecially from West Prussia, had suf to say about aggressive Nazi tress may have been signs of chari fered a great deal as refugees, with propaganda : “ ‘Love your enemies, ty. The objections and hesitations heavy personal and material losses. bless those that curse you, do good mentioned in the circular letters . . . Some allotted guilt and judged to them that hate you!’ No nation and in some sermons qualified not without considering the temptations on earth will escape the punishment only as signs of retreat but also as of today (Matthew 7:1). which does not keep this in mind___ inner resistance. One result of the book was that In the teachings of Jesus hate is after publication a lot of further among the most blamable things ... The Reception of the Findings. details were revealed to me. Besides things which might and must lead My findings incited a broad dis this, I received some more material to the death of a nation as a whole. cussion among German Mennonites. from private persons. Several dis There are many positive things be I heard both praise and reproach cussion groups talked about the sub ing achieved in our nation . . . but with the instances of reproach pre ject, primarily the aspect of a do we not hear the same about the vailing. Moreover, the praise was Christian’s conduct towards the people of Israel?” mostly from older and more con state. This subject seems to be con Despite the disintegrating atti servative people, from those who nected with the Mennonite identity tude of Nazism toward religion, and experienced the Nazis personally. and it is still occupying the Christian its later propaganda against church The reproaches came often from mind. Outside Mennonite circles the es and Christianity, the congrega young intellectuals and moralists. book was also read and, of course, tions remained almost undisturbed No historical book in my memory reviewed. There the opinions were and worked until the end. Only a has raised so many responses among surprisingly positive. One critic few left their congregations due to Mennonites. One objection mention calls the documentation “a confes Nazi summons. Only one preacher ed several times, also in letters to sion ... which is given publicly in MARCH, 1981 29 the original Christian way, the read mentioned at the expense of broth ed my book and reaffirmed his ers conceived of as a confessional erhood; old sores were opened and thesis of the religious decline. In congregation.” And a critic oi a new ones hit. In a particular case, his critique he demonstrated the leading newspaper wrote, “This a grievous and complex situation, methodological difficulties in work book is a sign and example of a five brethren concerned stopped and ing with the material from Nazi possible Christian research of con repented. They “deplored” in a sources and criticized my use of eye science. .. “common declaration . . . the words witness reports as unrefleetive. He and deeds which made the other identified contradictions in my story Reconciliation feel hurt and offended.” The breth and doubted if the official support Besides the public debate there ren affirmed that we “will continue of Nazi policy and the declaration was a nonpublic dispute among our debate in a brotherly spirit in of cooperation of the administrative brethren especially involved in the order to clear up the facts.” bodies of the Vereinigung could be subject. This was in some respects The public debate came to a cul conceived of as a shield behind a personal battle; suspicions were mination when II. J. Goertz review which some reservations and non conformisms could be exercised. Goertz did not accept the soundness of some of my findings and claimed that the more important “pillars of the presentation have crumbled.” I-Ie stated, “I see no reason to revise my classification of the religious decline.” He called attention to the ENN-ES-DEM fact that the goal of discussion is “the Mennonite today.” . . . The INTERNATIO greater part of my simultaneously- published response emphasized the NALEN -FINANZUUDEN' aspect of the present. I pointed out that today we also have to face the fight against ideologies as did our TUM.-GELINGEN fathers 50 years ago: “Together with our fathers we share the be s o i l ] I I >11 -VOIM R lief in the ability of men to form structures . . . ; together with our fathers we are fascinated by moral NOCH-E1NMÄI; IN pretension and ideal aims.” With this confrontation in August, 1978, EINEN-WELTKRIEG it was evident that besides all dif ferences in opinion and judgment ZU-STÜRZEN / DANN there was a consensus concerning the impact of the Nazi story on our time. The attitude and conduct of WIRD-DAS-ERGEH' Mennonites during the rise of the Third Reich are not to be concealed. NIS -NICHT-DER-SI EG Collective guilt and collective re pentance are not evangelical. The D E S - : JUDENTUMS gospel must be the guiding rule for our congregations. This resulted in a common declar S EI N • S ON DE RN DIE ation of Goertz and myself in both periodicals (Mennonitische Blätter and Gemeinde Unterwegs): “To VERNICHTUNG-DER-UÜ' the readers we are grateful for both DISCHEN-RASSE IN Left, Nazi ■poster quoting Adolf EUROPA Hitler: “Should the international Jewish financiers succeed again in plunging the nations into a World War, the results will be not the victory of the Jews but the annihi lation of the whole Jewish race in Europe." 30 MENNONTTE LIFE affirmation and critique. However, congregation of visible saints in a sole Lord in our life and not just we know that some readers felt of Godless world. This is no more in during worship. It is linked to our fended or misunderstood by the the Mennonite conscience after per trust that His deeds are right and formulations, arguments and con secutions, discriminations and wan that He does not need any help. The clusions. We are not interested in a derings. The road out of social problem of Mennonite identity has combat situation. We are interest segregation has raised the question broken open at the old Anabaptist ed in promoting from the controver of Anabaptist Mennonite identity. border: the Christian’s attitude to sy a common discussion fruitful for It seems to me that the discussion ward the state and conduct toward the life of our congregations. To about “Mennoniten im Dritten society. encourage this we agreed: (a) In Reich” reveals a certain uneasiness We know how our fathers should the future there will be no further among ourselves. The isolated call have reacted in 1933 but today it mention of the religious decline of for repentance may be conceived as remains open how we should react the Mennonites and no statements the call for a new beginning. The to pollution, computerization, unem that the Mennonites preserved their failure of the fathers was caused by ployment and industrial growth, in peculiarity---- It will be correct to their unreflective joining in the creased state control, decrease of describe the Mennonite way through spirit of the age.... What they liberty, bureaucracy, and vanishing the Third Reich as a serious crisis learned from the Gospel they con personal rights. . . . In a society of of identity. . . . (b) We agreed re ceived as support of their prejudiced tolerance and indifference there has garding the spiritual aims of this political opinions. Many read the to be a response other than Schleit- historic questioning. . . . Our goal Gospels with the intention that they heim to the questions of a Christian is to advise the congregations of confirm their daily political life. life in responsiveness to Christ. their political dependencies, intend Their ideas were shaped by the The German Mennonites demon ed or not . . . adopted or still to be general Christian convictions of the strated during the Third Reich that adopted, which leads to the question time, romantic nationalism and these dangers cannot be met by whether the confession that Jesus moral legality (Gesetzlichkeit). The adopting the Zeitgeist or by ad Christ is the Lord of the Church is popular ideologies were stronger justing the Gospels to political limited by those dependencies, (c) than the Anabaptist heritage. suitability. The discussion today re It might be a first step to common The matter of Mennonite identity affirms these problems of striving repentance and forgiveness that our is connected with the confession to for one goal—the succession of congregations are able today to talk the Lord Jesus Christ that he is the Jesus Christ. about the relation of our congrega tions to the Nazi regime in a com mitted . . . and understanding way without charging each other with malicious intentions.” Although this declaration was aimed to give way to more profound discussion it has not yet succeeded. Nobody has taken the risk of dealing with this theme in the present or past. Not withstanding, there will be two ad ditional relevant articles by us in the Mennonitische Geschichtsblätter. Generalizations: The Imitation of Christ Excludes Ideologies The Mennonite openmindedness towards the Third Reich was possi ble when Mennonites left the early separation and integrated into a Protestant society. This pattern has not changed since 1945. The Ana baptist approach to the Church of Christ and the community of citi zens does not correspond at all (I Cor. 12). The Church has to be the Right, cemetery in Heilbronn where thousands lie buried, the result of an allied fire bombing on December h, 19U. MARCH, 1981 31 3unoTi.ni Mivtn.iii: (’<• Iu'u|ui11Mil : ( I « i f i i j I'llJi'I'Opono.u, lKS^ r. r.iMiinaii. iliiaoi.-.misr. r. MaJaa, I'ocroBb it 1.. IMS r. M ii.iiui, I’oiiTitui. n . l . 10 Verfertigt ate Spezialität © ® refd)inafdniieit © 10--, S-, P-, nub 4=V>f., mit Vitfdu’ib aber ©tiftcntrommel, mit 5clb|'tcingobcr, enlmebor Xrid)tcr= ober (Slel'atorfuR'-tn, unb mil Sting: iffifasB fdjmicrlagcrn, mit ober obnc 'jiukenn, mit amcrifanifd;. ob. gemiautidiom StRdifdpitllor, transportabel (auf Stübern), ober ftabit (ohne Stüber), mit (Sitycl fiir dltciticnbciricb, ebenfalls transportabel unb ftabil. dKuftcleite Wrttfttoftc ftdjeu jebevKit frnuio mib nvatib jiir Verrilnwtfl* r«s . >♦: 38 « -Äs. r+: üeber eine j s m m u -.: m halbe Million 3 8 •■M >i i.x >T< ' L-' ^ aim @djiDitttflrab'5fafric&. ^ 9Jtit &c&cfe§Cntvicb. k mmmwm m & ba^ baö löafrfjcii bet* TOäfrfje auf bet ftumjjf?«, ßefcfymctbtßett, ftl$attißcit Önflfrtffr flCßeiüibcr allen aitbe 1| It ft V f 1 1 1 It tocH 3E11 dJLll L ü 1 11 reu äöaf(fjmet^be« tierbtetit, — <$d>m tbfö o1töiva fd)inafeb t ite ?ibt. 20. Veftctlungcn mit einem ©rittet be§ JflctrageS finb ju abreffieren an: - 11 1..: .gtetitttr!) Ven 3 Uta tut, ^al&ftabi, (töoitti. F aunen. = igtigijö} jgiiSijSuBiäilRi !si isusM silsi jöi IBI isösl iri JsUsitsI isiisSiHiisiissisusiSiisi