Number 2305 Colin P. Neufeldt The Public and Private Lives of Mennonite Kolkhoz Chairmen in the Khortytsia and Molochansk German National Raĭony in Ukraine (1928-1934) Number 2305 ISSN: 0889-275X (print) ISSN 2163-839X (online) Colin P. Neufeldt The Public and Private Lives of Mennonite Kolkhoz Chairmen in the Khortytsia and Molochansk German National Raĭony in Ukraine (1928-1934) This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. This site is published by the University Library System of the University of Pittsburgh as part of its D-Scribe Digital Publishing Program, and is cosponsored by the University of Pittsburgh Press. Colin P. Neufeldt No. 2305, March 2015 2015 by The Center for Russian and East European Studies, a program of the University Center for International Studies, University of Pittsburgh ISSN 0889-275X (print) ISSN 2163-839X (online) Image from cover: Mennonite collective farm, 1930. Photo Courtesy of the Mennonite Heritage Centre, Winnipeg, Manitoba. The Carl Beck Papers Publisher: University Library System, University of Pittsburgh Editors: William Chase, Bob Donnorummo, Andrew Konitzer, Robert Hayden Managing Editor: Matthew Clews Editor Emeritus: Ronald H. Linden Submissions to The Carl Beck Papers are welcome. Manuscripts must be in English, double- spaced throughout, and between 40 and 90 pages in length, including notes. Acceptance is based on anonymous review. Manuscripts can be submitted on The Carl Beck Papers website, http://carlbeckpapers.pitt.edu. Please direct all inquiries to Matthew Clews, Managing Editor, at [email protected]. Abstract This article examines the role that Mennonites played in the establishment and management of kolkhozy in the two largest Mennonite settlements (Khortytsia and Molochansk) in Soviet Ukraine during dekulakization and collectivization (1928-1934). More specifically, it investigates the social and ethnic criteria used in selecting Mennonites to be kolkhoz chairmen; the duties and daily routines of chairmen; the conflicted relationships that chairmen had with local authorities and kolkhoz members; the numerous challenges that chairmen encountered during the 1932-33 famines; and the mechanisms that local authorities and kolkhoz members used to control, embarrass, and discipline chairmen. It also discusses the negative repercussions that the rise of Nazi Germany had for Mennonite chairmen, and how political, economic, agricultural, social, and ethnic policies and conditions made it very difficult for Mennonite chairmen to succeed. Colin P. Neufeldt The author thanks Lynette Toews-Neufeldt, Wesley Berg, Johann Esau, William J. Chase, Matthew Clews, the editorial staff at the Carl Beck Papers, and the anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions in preparing this article. - 5 - The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies http://carlbeckpapers.pitt.edu | DOI 10.5195/cbp.2015.199 | Number 2305 “The Public and Private Lives of Mennonite Kolkhoz Chairmen in the Khortytsia and Molochansk German National Raĭony in Ukraine (1928-1934)” Introduction In July 1934, an embarrassing article appeared in Stürmer, a newspaper published by the Khataevich Machine Tractor Station, which circulated among Mennonite and Ukrainian villages in the former Mennonite colonies of Khortytsia (Chortitsa) and Yazykovo near Zaporizhia, Ukraine. The article alleged that comrade Ens, the Mennonite chairman of the Torgler collective farm (kolkhoz in Russian; kolhosp in Ukrainian) near the town of Khortytsia, was playing favorites with Sarah Koop, a single mother who worked in the pig barns at Torgler.1 According to the article, Koop had become a “radiant beam on the face of Chairman Ens,” who was doing everything that he could to keep her happy. He rigged a kolkhoz lottery to ensure that Koop won a prize calf; he provided extra benefits to her at the expense of more deserving kolkhoz members; and he ensured that she and her daughter lived rent-free in three rooms of a kolkhoz house, while members of the kolkhoz administration had to pay rent for overcrowded quarters. Why did Ens, a married man, perform special favors for Koop? According to the Stürmer article, it was because Chairman Ens had become a regular guest at the drinking parties that Koop hosted for Ens and other men at her residence.2 Scandalous accounts of the alleged vices of Mennonite kolkhoz chairmen were not uncommon in Stürmer in the early 1930s. Almost every issue contained letters and articles detailing the corrupt practices and un-Soviet acts of Mennonite and non-Mennonite kolkhoz officials in theKhortytsia and Yazykovo area. These articles were sometimes based on anonymous poison- pen letters that lacked corroborating evidence, but journalistic integrity and factual reporting were not the primary concerns of the editors of Stürmer. The newspaper also served as a forum for kolkhoz members to vent their frustrations with kolkhoz chairmen, bring to light alleged abuses and corruption of chairmen, and parrot government expectations of chairmen in the administration of their kolkhozy. Newspapers such as Stürmer provide a fascinating perspective on the public attacks that many kolkhoz chairmen had to endure, but unfortunately they do not - 1 - The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies http://carlbeckpapers.pitt.edu | DOI 10.5195/cbp.2015.199 | Number 2305 The Public and Private Lives of Mennonite Kolkhoz Chairmen ... provide a complete or entirely accurate picture of what life was really like for kolkhoz chairmen in the early years of collectivization. In fact, virtually nothing has been written about the experiences of Mennonite kolkhoz chairmen, the role they performed in collectivizing the Soviet countryside, the challenges they encountered in organizing and managing kolkhozy during the early days of Soviet collectivization, or the expectations placed upon them. There are historical accounts that examine the role of Soviet kolkhoz chairmen in the late 1920s and early 1930s, but they present the experiences of kolkhoz chairmen as a singular history and do not delineate the unique challenges and issues that chairmen of different ethnic and religious backgrounds endured during Soviet collectivization.3 Questions arise as to whether any of the challenges and experiences of Mennonite kolkhoz chairmen were significantly different from those of non-Mennonite kolkhoz chairmen. This article will endeavor to address some of these lacunae by focusing on the public and private lives of Mennonite kolkhoz chairmen who served in the two regions in Ukraine with the largest number of Mennonite communities: the German national raĭony (districts) of Khortytsia, located on the western bank of the Dnieper River, and Molochansk, situated along the Molochna River northeast of Melitopol. These two raĭony were the location of the oldest and most influential Mennonite settlements in Ukraine. Kolkhozy in the Mennonite Countryside That Mennonites served as Soviet kolkhoz chairmen is in some respects astonishing, given the conflicted and distrustful relationship that existed between Soviet authorities and Mennonite communities in Ukraine.4 The Bolshevik seizure of power in 1917 ushered in a new socialist regime that was unfamiliar to the Mennonites and unsympathetic to their interests. In the eyes of many Mennonites, the Bolshevik regime was responsible for the destruction of their communities and represented the personification of evil. As descendants of sixteenth-century Dutch, German and Swiss Anabaptists, the Mennonites’ interpretation of Christianity rejected the use of violence, and instead espoused peaceful non-resistance, the separation of church and state, and voluntary membership in the church symbolized by adult baptism. They also considered themselves as brothers and sisters in the Lord, and therefore equal in status, with no one, not even a pastor, superior in religious faith or ability. Their emphasis on purity of life meant nonconformity to the spirit, - 2 - The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies http://carlbeckpapers.pitt.edu | DOI 10.5195/cbp.2015.199 | Number 2305 Colin P. Neufeldt ideals, and culture of the non-Christian world, avoiding support for and participation in government institutions whenever possible, and if necessary exercising discipline on those members who deviated from the Mennonite standard. Whenever possible, they lived in separate communities in order to provide mutual support and prevent the infiltration of secular ideologies and practices into their homes and congregations.5 When Mennonite colonists first settled in Russia in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the soslovie system of social classification that existed in tsarist Russia suited them very well. For more than a century, the tsars organized Russian society according to soslovie groups (such as the nobility, state officials, clergy, townspeople, and peasants), each owing special service obligations to the tsar and the Russian state. In this system, no two soslovie groups were equal, and the government treated each group differently according to their own privileges, service obligations, and status. The Mennonites had negotiated special privileges with Catherine the Great, and later with her son Paul, which allowed them to easily fit into the soslovie system and included service obligations that were different from the obligations owed by their non-Mennonite neighbors. In this system, the Mennonites viewed