Financing Educational Development: Proceedings of an International Seminar Held in Mont Sainte Marie, Canada

Proceedings of an International Seminar held in Mont Sainte Marie, Canada

IV 014.543 The International Development Research Centre is a public corporation created by the Parliament of Canada in 1970 to support research designed to adapt science and technology to the needs of developing countries. The Centre's activity is concentrated in five sectors: agriculture, food and nutrition sciences; health sciences; information sciences; social sciences; and communications. IDRC is financed solely by the Parliament of Canada; its policies, however, are set by an international Board of Governors. The Centre's headquarters are in Ottawa, Canada. Regional offices are located in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East.

® International Development Research Centre 1982 Postal Address: Box 8500, Ottawa, Canada K1G 3H9 Head Office: 60 Queen Street, Ottawa

International Development Research Centre, Ottawa CA Canadian International Development Agency, Ottawa CA IDRC-205e Financing Educational Development : proceedings of an international seminar held in Mont Sainte Marie, Canada, 19-21 May 1982. Ottawa, Ont., IDRC, 1982. 142 p.

/ Economics of education / , / educational financing / , / educational development/, /educational innovations/, /cost of education/, /developing countries/-/investments/,/educational budget/,/aid institutions /,/educational needs /,/decision making /,/IDRC /,/CIDA /,/technical assistance /,/conference report/,/references.

UDC : 370.014.543 ISBN : 0-88936-361-7

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IDRC-205e

Financing Educational Development Proceedings of an International Seminar held in Mont Sainte Marie, Canada, 19 -21 May 1982

Organized by the International Development Research Centre and the Canadian International Development Agency

The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the International Development Research Centre or the Canadian International Development Agency.

l sj- Resume

Du 19 au 21 mai 1982, les representants de plus d'une douzaine d'organismes qui se consacrent au 6nancement de la recherche et du developpement educationnels dans les pays en developpement, se sont reunis au Mont-Sainte-Marie (Canada). Cette reunion, la plus recente d'une serie echelonnee sur dix ans, portait sur le financement du developpement educationnel; les investissements en education dans le monde, les difficultes que les gouvernements nationaux et les organismes donateurs rencontrent dans l'augmentation des ressources affectees a ce domain et 1'experimentation d'une gamme d'innovations educationnelles presumees rentables. Plusieurs communications presentees a cette reunion avaient ete commandoes a des chercheurs qui etudient les questions interessant les investissements dans 1'education. Celle monographie contient tous les exposes presentes a cette reunion; suivent le resume du compte rendu de la reunion et des debats sur le theme a 1'etude des decisionnaires du Tiers Monde qui y ont participe.

Resumen

Delegados de mas de una docena de organismos donantes involucrados en la financiacion de la investigacion y el desarrollo educativos en el mundo en desarrollo se reunieron en Mont Sainte Marie, Canada, del 19 al 21 de mayo de 1982. Esta reunion, la mas reciente de una serie que se ha prolongado a to largo de una decada, se centre, en el tema de la financiacion del desarrollo educativo: el estado de la inversion en educacion en el mundo, las limitaciones que enfrentan tanto gobiernos come, organismos donantes para el otorgamiento de mayores fondos con destino a la educacion y la experiencia con una serie de innovaciones educativas supuestamente costo-efectivas. Para esta reunion se comisionaron varios estudios sobre aspectos de la inversion educativa a expertos en el tema. Tales trabajos aparecen en esta monografia, acompaiiados de una resena general de las exposiciones y de los comentarios que sobre el tema hicieron los formuladores de politica del mundo en desarrollo participantes en la reunion. Contents

Foreword ...... 5

Participants ...... 7 Introduction J. King Gordon ...... 9 Adjusting to the 1980s: Taking Stock of Educational Expenditure Keith Lewin, Angela Little, and Christopher Colclough ...... 13 The Political Economy of Financing Education in Developing Countries Martin Camoy, Henry Levin, Reginald Nugent, Suleman Sumra, Carlos Torres, and Jeff Unsicker ...... 39 A Review of Educational Innovations to Reduce Costs Nelly Stromquist ...... 69 Priorities and Problems in Education for Development J. King Gordon ...... 95

Commentaries ...... 129

References ...... 135 belief that dominated the 50s and 60s that the transfer of science and technology of the industrialized countries to the economically backward countries would lead to the eradication of poverty for the mass of the population turned out to be fallacious. While some economic growth was measured, the majority of the population remained in absolute poverty and the gap between rich and poor nations grew wider. By the mid-70s, the concerted voice of the Third World demanded a restructured international order to assure a more equitable distribution of the world's resources, greater equality of distribution within nations, sometimes with genuinely revolutionary overtones, Priorities and Problems in and a substantial increase in the contributions of the Education for Development rich nations to international assistance. The 1980s opened with more and more of the J. King Gordon Consultant on Education for Third World nations prepared to chart their own Development for the Canadian International course of development, taking into account the Development Agency, Ottawa, Canada. particular needs, resources, and cultural goals of their people. Relying in any case on their own resources for the major share of the funding of This study was prepared at the request of the Canadian development, they were determined to increase International Development Agency (CIDA) as a contribution to the discussions of the meeting of donor agency their self-reliance and break clear of their depen- education stuff at Mont Sainte Marie, Canada, 19-21 dence on the countries of the developed world. The May 1982. To ascertain the present policies and practices same attitude and policy applied to their education- of certain contributing governments and international al approach. Originally it had been a replica of the agencies, it was agreed that 1 should speak with the system in the industrialized countries, closely appropriate officers of the development cooperation linked to the technical and professional needs - agencies of the Netherlands, Sweden, and Canada, and not to mention the class interests - of the modern, that I should also meet with representatives of the United mainly urban sector. Now educational leaders Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organiza- thought in human terms the human needs of the tion (UNESCO), the International Labour Office (ILO), - the World Health Organization (WHO), the United formerly neglected sectors of their society, the Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and certain Com- legitimate demands of all their people for the monwealth institutions in London. competent means to master their environment, the aspirations of their people for cultural and spiritual In undertaking this survey, it seemed to me that fulfillment. more was expected than to determine if financial I should like to say a little more about this aspect support for educational development in Third of the educational approach, which was clearly World countries was being sustained. The trends evident in the course of this investigation and were certainly important in view of the impact of accounts in some measure for the forms this study the economic recession on the social policies of has assumed. People are in the focus of the certain western governments with a spillover in educational picture - as beneficiaries, as partici- international policies. The related economic pants, and as contributors. There is no field of hardships suffered by developing countries almost human activity in which there is a greater sense of certainly affected the funds available for education. shared goals and aspirations. This applies But equally important were changes in the priorities immediately to those who are active participants in educational support on the part of contributing within the educational process. But it also ex- governments, many of them in response to changes presses itself in a strong sense of community, in the educational policy of the governments linking people outside the process with those directly responsible for the planning and adminis- within. The official interest of contributing gov- tration of education in the interest of their people. ernments is, to some extent, an expression of this The most important changes in educational popular concern, but it is always paralleled by a policy resulted from a major shift in the philosophy very active interest on the part of people, as and practice of international development. The individuals or as members of organizations, an

95 interest that transcends national boundaries. educational effort with similar institutions in Before turning to a consideration of some of the developing countries. We get support from the priorities and problems of education for develop- Dutch government but we are not part of their ment that I encountered during my European program of international assistance." consultations, I should like to say one word about NUFFIC was established in 1952, not long after the factual situation in regard to financing educa- the Netherlands had ceased to be an imperial power tion that was made known to me. In the case of the with the independence of Indonesia. The Dutch three governments whose officers I consulted, universities in collaboration with the government financial constraints were not a prime consid- decided that the surfeit of technical and profession- eration. The Netherlands and Sweden have main- al expertise associated with the administration of an tained two of the highest levels of contribution to empire should be made available to the new nations development assistance among all industrialized that came into being in the postcolonial era. Some countries, amounting to more than I % of gross 18 specialized institutes were established, some- national product (GNP). Canada's percentage is times on an independent basis, sometimes in considerably less but it stands up well among association with a university, and under the contributing nations and its yearly allocation is coordination of NUFFIC their resources and those increasing. In all three instances, a higher propor- of the universities were made available for teach- tion appears to be directed each year to educational ing, training, technical assistance, and research support. In the case of the international agencies I to students and professionals from developing consulted, the picture is not as bright. Although countries. interest in educational support is higher than ever, There is always a danger in such an approach that the funds available either directly from govern- despite an emphasis on cooperation a feeling will ments or from the United Nations Development persist of superior scholarly endowment that one is Programme (UNDP) - the major source of prepared to share with others. But in this visit to funding - have suffered drastic curtailment. The The Hague I noticed a distinct change in attitude Commonwealth institutions, with great potential and practice. There was an increased recognition for contributing to cooperative educational that important decisions were being taken by development, are greatly underfinanced. responsible authorities in developing countries and Rather than attempt to put into this introduction a that the contribution of scientists and scholars from summary journal of my visits and encounters as I the Netherlands was a supportive one. It was traveled from The Hague to Paris to Geneva to becoming NUFFIC policy to move their scientific Stockholm and to London, I have tried rather to and professional expertise out into the countries of identify certain findings that have emerged out of the Third World so as to face in a cooperative way one or out of several consultations. The consulta- problems that had to be solved in their own context. tions were more than a device for acquiring some This interuniversity cooperation is by no means information that I might just as easily have found in unique in the case of the Netherlands. In Britain, a book or a report. I have just remarked that immediately after the war the Inter-University "People are the essential focus of the education Council (IUC) launched a very efficient scheme of picture - as beneficiaries, as participants, and as collaboration between British universities and the contributors." In most cases those I talked with universities of the newly emerging nations of the were participants in some aspects of the educational Commonwealth. The IUC retained very effective process and the interviews were a shared experi- existence until last year when it was absorbed in the ence for which the actual setting or the historical British Council. In Canada, the universities have context might have relevance. Some parts of my become increasingly effective in international study may reflect this shared experience more than cooperation with the establishment of the Interna- others. tional Development Office of the Association of To begin with, my visit to The Hague reinforced Universities and Colleges of Canada and the setting my strongly held conviction that the most useful up within CIDA of the Institutional Cooperation support for educational development is the natural and Development Services Division. The Interna- cooperation of educator with educator. Dr Heiman tional Development Research Centre (IDRC) has Quik, first Director of the Netherlands Universities also given its effective support to cooperative Foundation for International Cooperation research involving Canadian and Third World (NUFFIC) used to say: "Get this straight: NUFFIC institutions of higher learning through its new is not part of the Dutch aid program. It is an Cooperative Programs. organization of universities and specialized training In the second place, new emphases in the and research institutes engaged in a cooperative educational support programs of UNESCO, ILO,

96 and WHO reflect significant shifts in the education- A third feature of educational development al policy in Third World countries. One of the most evident from this study is also closely linked to the important is the shift in focus from the urban growing self-reliance of developing countries. We industrial sector to the rural sector in the interest of are witnessing many examples of regional coopera- greater equity in the provision of educational tion in the sharing of knowledge, the sponsorship of opportunities. This is closely related to the collaborative research, and the establishment and reorientation of educational objectives so as to maintenance of common training facilities. The integrate them with a series of development education network in Asia sponsored by UNESCO programs aimed at meeting basic human needs, links 1000 educational institutions from Japan improving the human environment, and broadening south to Australia and west to Pakistan. ILO has the opportunities for human fulfillment. given support to a training program for seven countries in east and southern Africa with some In UNESCO, there was a new emphasis on the funding from Sweden. WHO and UNICEF spon- importance of primary education and a new stress sored a conference on health care in Ethiopia on literacy and adult education. In ILO, there that brought together a number of African countries that appeared to be a movement away from the were engaged in relating central government establishment and staffing of vocational training health policy to establishing basic conditions institutes geared to industry and toward training of health at the village level. closely linked to actual crafts and employment in The Commonwealth presents perhaps the most rural as well as urban areas. Great importance was interesting examples of regional cooperation. With attached to the preparation of detailed training some assistance from the Commonwealth Sec- modules, suitable for self-instruction and the retariat, which includes an Education Division and upgrading of skills. There was also a new emphasis administers a Fund for Technical Assistance, it on training for women and the improvement of the manages to support joint educational efforts, an status of women, particularly in rural areas. In extensive scholarship program, and a number of WHO, there was a new emphasis on the importance specialized training centres in specialized fields. of primary health care with formal and nonformal A unique feature of the Commonwealth is that it education at the local level integrated with includes nations from both North and South and improvements in agricultural production and nutri- normally succeeds in resolving differences and tion, sanitation, fresh water, and basic health achieving a large measure of unanimity on impor- education. Moreover, this integrated community tantissues. development activity was linked with training and A fourth area of concern that emerged in this professional health administration at higher levels. study relates to the capability of Third World The role of nongovernmental organizations in countries to draw upon the world's resources of these new educational activities at the community science and technology necessary for the social and level is of great significance and there are many economic development of their societies. We have examples of its effectiveness. Community devel- already touched on this subject in our reference to opment is often served best by the actions of local university cooperation and the development of nongovernmental organizations with cooperative networks or educators and other scholars and support from international and national non- professionals concerned with development. A governmental organizations. Development is central feature in this capability must be the directed to human goals and, as we have noted, in development of centres of research. Here reference the educational process people are both must be made to the role of the IDRC, financed by beneficiaries and participants. But this does not the Canadian government but operating under an mean that development is essentially a grass-roots international board of governors. The contribution activity any more than it implies that basic or of IDRC during its first decade has earned it the nonformal education is true education. What it does highest respect in the Third World. It has provided mean is that enlightened government policy must a model for other national centres supporting find expression in the actual community that is development research, notably the Swedish Agency being served and there nongovernmental activity for Research Cooperation with Developing Coun- has a vital role. From the standpoint of contributing tries (SAREC). governments, nongovernmental organizations both But there are also other research centres related national and international, provide some of the to international development that serve other and most effective channels for the provision of equally important purposes. These are directed to a cooperative support. All three governments inter- clearer understanding of the development process viewed are making full use of these channels. itself and, in consequence, the role of education in

97 the process. Within the last decade a number of culture to begin with. But it also means a leading institutes have undertaken to sponsor research in out into the emergent culture of a world that, in this field, drawing on the scientific expertise from Brandt's phrase, is becoming a single community. developing as well as developed countries. One outstanding example, investigated in this study, is the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation in Uppsala, The Netherlands and NUFFIC Sweden. Its contribution through research, conferences, and publications has been highly important, The shape of any country's program of interna- with a strong emphasis on the dynamic role of tional development assistance is determined in education in economic and social development large measure by its history. The particular within changing domestic and international character of the Netherlands' program may be parameters. Other development research centres traced to the year 1949, the year in which the Dutch visited in the course of the study included the lost their Indonesian empire, President Harry International Institute for Educational Planning Truman announced a new program of aid to (IIEP) in Paris, the Institute of Development developing countries as Point Four of his State of Studies (IDS) at the University of Sussex, the the Union Address, and the United Nations worked Overseas Development Institute (ODI) in London, out its plans for an Expanded Program of Technical and the Institute of Environment and Development Assistance. in London. The formal transfer of sovereignty from the Finally, Julius Nyerere once said: "Education is Netherlands to the new Republic of Indonesia took liberation." We have observed how the concept of place on 27 December 1949. It had been hoped the role of education has evolved from a functional originally that the new independent state might relationship with economic growth - with a retain some commonwealth-type relations with its consequent income benefit to the possessor of former colonial ruler but this was not to be. The education - into a much more social concept of a Dutch faced literally an embarrassment of riches in contributor to a society that meets the needs of its the form of scientific and technological expertise members with equity and efficiency. But from the that had been acquired and applied in the develop- very beginning education has meant much more ment of the former East Indies. It was on the than that. It has been one of the principal agents by initiative of the Dutch universities, with sympathe- which the individual has been freed from the prison tic support from the government, that it was of ignorance and bewilderment into a world in decided to establish specialized institutes in a broad which one may find fulfillment as a human being, a range of fields, which would be utilized as a world rich in the resources of literature and art and resource base for technical assistance and training music and other forms of human creativity. that could be drawn upon by the newly independent One of the most impressive educational efforts countries seeking to carry out economic develop- encountered during this study was being carried out ment for the benefit of their people. Eventually, 18 in Sweden through the schools and the "people's of these institutes were established, covering 66 movements" - as nongovernmental organizations fields. are called - to internationalize education. While To coordinate the activities of these institutes, the immediate results of the program are to relate relate their activities with those of the universities, the Swedish people to the development cooperation establish effective linkages with institutions and goals of the government, the more basic purpose is governments in developing countries, and establish to educate the members of a new society on which a necessary and responsible relationship with the peace must rest and within which they can discover Netherlands government, a national organization for the first time the riches of a global culture. was called for. This emerged in 1952 as the Within the context of our contemporary world, Netherlands Universities Foundation for Interna- this essential nature of education links together in a tional Cooperation or NUFFIC. It remains to this single creative endeavour the members of the day as the vital core of international educational developed and developing worlds. In fact, such support provided by the Dutch people through adjectives within this context are seen to be teaching, training, research, and nongovernmental somewhat old-fashioned and even obsolete. The cooperation with funding from the Netherlands ultimate emancipatory goals of educaton differ government. As one might expect, the programs very little in the countries of Europe and North under NUFFIC have expanded, diversified, and America and the countries of Asia, Africa, and shifted their emphasis over the past 30 years. There Latin America. In all countries, education means a has, however, been no indication of any serious liberation into the rich experience of one's own cutback in the educational emphasis or any falling

98 off in the total development cooperation program, was irrelevant to the critical conditions of urban which is one of the three national programs that has crowding in an African city. After some basic reached more than I% of GNP and maintained that training in the Netherlands, the study and training level despite domestic financial strains. was moved into the country from which the trainee The generous allocation of time granted by the came, making use of local training facilities Director of NUFFIC, Dr A.J. van Dulst, and the reinforced by experienced builders and planners Deputy Director, Dr Gerard van der Horst, and from the Bouwcentrum. The results were remark- more than a dozen men and women serving in some able. This change in emphasis had certain financial section of the educational program permitted me to implications. The budgets of the institutes were gain a fair appreciation of the salient points of the stabilized approximately at the level reached in present approach. To begin with, NUFFIC must be 1976. On the other hand, the funding of activity in seen as an umbrella organization under which developing countries was allowed to expand - 10 several quite distinct programs are executed. There million guilders in 1976, 20 million in 1981 (as of is, to begin with, the original International Educa- 1982, 2.58 NLG = U.S.$1.00). There was some tion Program drawing on the resources of the criticism that the freezing of the institutes' budget 18-odd institutes. Then there is the program and staff was short-sighted, because it was cutting involving the Netherlands universities that pro- back on the scientific and technological resources motes relationships with some 12 universities or of the Netherlands to maintain its important groups of universities in developing countries. The contributions in the Third World. impressive Institute of Social Studies, which It is worth interjecting at this point the general shares quarters in The Hague with NUFFIC, offers goals of NUFFIC that were outlined by Jan Pronk a series of diploma courses designed primarily for when he headed the Ministry of Development public servants from developing countries as well Cooperation. In the first place, its activities should as certain academic courses at the master's level. be directed toward the poorest countries and the The Advisory Council for Scientific Research in poorest groups in the poorest countries. In the Development Problems (RAWOO) acts as a coor- second place, the end goal of international cooper- dinating body for research conducted by Nether- ation should be to support the efforts of developing lands institutes as well as conducting some research countries to achieve self-reliance. In both these of its own. Some Dutch universities out of their related objectives, it went without saying that the own resources initiate projects linked with Third specific needs and specific targets should be World universities. A sizable number of education- defined by groups and individuals within the al activities are carried out by nongovernmental countries in question. organizations with some matching financial assis- The university involvement in NUFFIC, while tance provided by the Dutch government. more general at first, became increasingly focused The specialized institutes carry out training on relationships with a small number of countries activities that are functionally adapted to the and a small number of universities or university upgrading of professional administrators in some groups within these countries, no more than 12 in branch of public service in developing countries. all. This meant some impact in depth on the They concentrate on short-term courses specifically universities in linkages with Dutch universities and designed to upgrade performance and status rather concentration on certain fields where needs were than to promote academic advancement. The range clearly defined in Third World countries and the of specialization is wide, including several resources of Dutch universities were available to branches of agricultural science, health sciences, a match these needs. wide range of engineering and technical expertise, In certain cases it was learned - and this came architecture, housing and town planning, business from an interview with the Director of the Division administration, and so on. of Foreign Relations of the University of Leiden - Six years ago, the government insisted that the universities themselves, out of their own resources, institutes should carry on more of the activities in open up small experimental projects with univer- developing countries where training and research sities in developing countries. If it appeared after 2 would be more relevant to actual conditions and or 3 years that the project or field of cooperation perceived needs. A good example was the Bouw- was likely to be successful the project could be centrum in Rotterdam, which had developed a high extended with support from NUFFIC. There were reputation in the field of functional construction three main channels for education funding in the and town planning. Unfortunately, much of what Netherlands: (a) funding for immediate university was learned in Rotterdam within the context of the costs, salaries for teaching staff, funding for social and economic conditions of a European city immediate research, and funding for administra-

99 tion; (b) funding for special research projects with of the Dutch development policy. But research wider involvement; and (c) all other funding, that is relevant to development can also promote including the funding of international programs and the self-reliance policy of the developing coun- projects including all activities under NUFFIC. tries. It is now increasingly recognized that develop- The largest and probably most important activity ment is primarily a question of the poorest under the NUFFIC umbrella was that of the population groups and their basic needs. If any Institute of Social Sciences in The Hague. Under research is to be relevant to development, whether the Institute several programs were carried out, in the first, the second, or the third case, it must most of them directly related to the strengthening of ultimately be directed at these people and their education related to development. The first were problems. 6-month diploma courses for middle-level public RAWOO was established with a twofold pur- servants, 90% of whom were from developing pose: as an advisory body on research policy and countries. There were four separate programs in the priorities to the Minister of Development Coopera- diploma course and some 200 students attended the tion and as an advisory body to the Minister of courses each year, returning to their home coun- Science Policy on development-related research tries, presumably with upgraded qualifications. A carried out by the universities and other institutions second course had stronger academic emphasis. It in the Netherlands. There were many issues to be was a Master's course in which the earlier considered in working out guidelines for both roles undergraduate work had been done in a developing for the Council, which was constituted of rep- country. Frequently, close links were established resentatives of the research community and the and maintained with the institution from which the policymakers: how to gauge the needs of develop- student came and to which he or she might return. ing countries to be met by research, who should be There were also four or five doctoral students. I got the beneficiaries of research, what value judgments the impression that increasingly the postgraduate in regard to social policy had to be made in studies were related not only to the needs of determining research objectives, what relationship developing countries but also to strengthening the should be looked for between research and policy to capabilities of universities in developing countries implement the results, how to reconcile the with which the students were related. research goals of Netherlands researchers and goals The Institute also sponsored research, some of development in Third World countries, where carried out abroad, some in The Hague. There were should the research be done, how to foster greater four to six research fellows from developing cooperation among Dutch institutions, and what is countries and the Institute helped to publish their the role of interdisciplinary research? works. More was being done in the form of group An interim report of the Council established a research dealing with specific problems of twofold objective: (a) to set objectives and criteria developing countries. The Institute sponsored short for the research program for the Minister of workshops, bringing together experts in different Development Cooperation, and (b) to promote specializations from developing and developed regional research programs in a number of countries. It also provided staff for consultancies to developing countries. On the first objective, the assist ministries concerned with projects and Council enunciated five criteria to guide the programs involving the Third World and for Minister: research should be problem, solution, and consultancies of a joint nature in association with, policy oriented, and it should be multidisciplinary for example, the Institute of Development Studies and serve to strengthen the research capacity of the (IDS) of Sussex University or with one of the other researchers in the developing country. On the members of the European Association of Develop- second objective, RAWOO advised the Minister to ment Research and Training Institutes (EADI). set up research programs in two regions, the Sahel A fairly recent development in the Netherlands and Southern Asia. Both these programs are now policy of international cooperation was the estab- well advanced, with full input from policymakers lishment in 1977 of RAWOO. It was formed on the and researchers from the developing countries initiative of the then Minister of Development concerned. Cooperation, Mr Jan Pronk. In his announcement As to the other advisory function of RAWOO as of the launching of RAWOO, Mr Pronk said: one of the sectoral councils of the Minister of is the inevitable Development related research can be aimed at Science Policy, what has emerged analyzing the processes that cause poverty. It can tension between research priorities as established also pinpoint the instruments with which the on the basis of perceived needs in developing assistance can most effectively achieve the goals countries and the priorities of research policies of

100 specialized Dutch institutions. A report that at- Council is provided by NUFFIC, with the Deputy tempts to summarize the first 4 years of RAWOO Director of NUFFIC, Dr G.J.C. van der Horst, puts it this way in its English version: acting as Council Secretary. To what extent should the Council let ethical The goals and administrative operation of and political considerations influence its advice RAWOO may be compared with those of IDRC even when long-term policy is concerned? Should and SAREC. They throw considerable light on the one have a consistent social point of view with orientation of the program of the Netherlands as it respect to development-related research? The relates to the broad purposes of education and Council thinks that one should. There is no such training within the context of development. thing as the development problem, or the The Netherlands government program for inter- development issue; it is such a multi-faceted, national cooperation and development, as men- complex phenomenon that it is up to the observer to impose the order that makes study possible. tioned previously, has been sustained for several Moreover, development is not a historically linear years at an amount equal to 1% of the national process; the structures and policies of the GNP. In 1978, it totaled 3 billion guilders, in 1982 developed countries should not be merely repli- it will amount to 4.2 billion guilders. Of this, it is cated in the developing world. There are many estimated that educational activities under NUFFIC possible paths to development. Nor is science a constitute about 1.5%. However, these do not neutral instrument; the facts that it reveals and the include the core funding of the 18 institutes that diagnoses it makes do not exist in a social provide the resources base for much of the vacuum. One cannot avoid first making a choice. specialized training carried out for and in develop- The Council has chosen the side of those in the developing countries who are living beneath the ing countries, which are at present financed by the subsistence level. The Council's attention is thus ministries of education, agriculture, health, and drawn to the root causes of poverty, the problems others according to the field of specialization. Nor of independence and to power relationships. does it include the joint funding of NGOs, much of Scientific research can seldom offer quick, ready- the work of which is educational, chiefly in the made solutions. The importance of research for rural areas and associated with health care, development lies instead in the contribution it sanitation, women's activities, and community makes to structural solutions for the development development in general. If these activities are issue. added in, the proportion of Netherlands assistance Although it would seem to involve a measure of going to education could be increased to about 4%. arbitrary choice to attempt to establish a priority It is important to note that NUFFIC activities are among possible fields of specialization, an attempt carried out under the direction of a Board that is was made by the Council early in 1981. The drawn from the Dutch professional and business following were selected as meriting special community. Although final decisions on the main emphasis: tropical health care, energy, and intema- directions of policy and even on specific programs tional dependency relations. Two goals were call for ratification by government authorities, the considered as deserving major consideration in voice of the university and professional community directing Dutch researchers toward development is still strong. The responsibilities of the Board problems: there must be long-term links between establish a link with the Dutch community and Dutch research institutes and their counterparts in strengthen the continuing support given to the the Third World, and Dutch research may not be NUFFIC program and the wider program of attuned at the expense of the research capacity in international cooperation by the people of the the developing world. Netherlands. The Council, as we have indicated, is drawn from the research community and the ministries directly or indirectly concerned with international The United Nations Specialized development. The universities and specialized Agencies: UNESCO, ILO, and WHO institutes provide members in the fields of human and social sciences, natural and technological The Specialized Agencies of the United Nations sciences, and medical sciences and agricultural are an outward manifestation of a widely held belief sciences. The ministries represented include after World War II that peace depends not only on Foreign Affairs/Development Cooperation, Educa- collective security agreements and effective tion and Science, Science Policy, Agriculture and instruments for the pacific settlement of disputes Fisheries, and Economic Affairs. In addition, there but equally on international cooperation to find are representatives from the employers' organiza- answers to the basic human concerns in day to day tion and the trade unions. The secretariat of the life - food, health, shelter, education, employ-

101 ment, communication, and the protection of human sion on the Status of Women carried out effective rights. work in a too long neglected field. An ad hoc This belief found expression in Article 55 of the commission on minorities awakened the world's U.N. Charter that called for the promotion of: conscience on the plight of refugees and displaced "higher standards of living, full employment and persons. Another ad hoc commission on freedom of conditions of economic and social progress and the press and information began a process of critical development"; "solutions of international eco- appraisal that is still continuing. All of this activity nomic, social, health and related problems; and had the effect of providing international codes of international cultural and educational coopera- conduct by which actions of governments and tion"; and "universal respect for, and observance lesser jurisdictions could be judged. They rein- of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all forced the strengthening belief that human rights without distinction as to race, sex, language or and the claim to a decent life for all people were religion." proper subjects for international concern. They Delegates to the San Francisco Conference speeded the process of decolonization. They placed considered this affirmation of such importance that international guarantees behind belated demands they raised the status of the Economic and Social for independence. Eventually they were to lead to Council to that of a principal organ on a par with active international programs of assistance for that of the Security Council and the Trusteeship development of the poorer countries. Council. It is generally admitted that this new The other line of action that expressed an regard for international economic and social coop- emerging global consciousness took the form of the eration that found expression in the Charter came as bringing into being of a large number of a result of pressure from nongovernmental organi- Specialized Agencies under the United Nations, zations present in San Francisco that believed each designed to meet a particular area of human strongly, to quote the preamble to Article 55, that need. We have mentioned ILO, the one surviving joint and separate action must be taken "with a member of the League of Nations family. Out of a view to the creation of conditions of stability and meeting at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, came well-being which are necessary for peaceful and the International Bank for Reconstruction and friendly relations among nations." Development (IBRD) and the International Mone- The statements of objectives - expanded in tary Fund (IMF), to help meet the inevitable greater detail in other articles concerning the postwar financial problems as a result of war function of the Economic and Social Council - dislocation and damage. The Food and Agriculture revealed a marked advance on anything in the text Organization of the United Nations (FAO) was to of the Covenant of the League of Nations, although mobilize an international effort to assist in the it must be admitted that special commissions under world food problem. So did WHO in the field of the League succeeded in carrying out pioneer work health. The United Nations Educational, Scientific in fields of health, narcotics control, traffic in and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was the women and children, and generally humanitarian successor of the prewar Committee of Intellectual relief. Moreover, the one Specialized Agency Cooperation. Several Specialized Agencies took established under the League, the International into account that there had to be institutional Labour Organisation (ILO), through its practice of recognition of the fact that we had moved into an drafting and securing ratification of international interdependent technological order. These were: covenants, greatly improved the status and condi- the International Civil Aviation Organization tions of labour throughout the world. (ICAO), the International Telecommunication The U.N. Charter provisions calling for interna- Union (ITU), and the International Meteorological tional cooperation to achieve more equitable Organization (IMO). Others were to come into conditions of living for the world's people ex- existence as some new area for international pressed themselves in two lines of action, both jurisdiction and management became obvious: the important. Within the United Nations itself, and United Nations Industrial Development Organiza- specifically under the jurisdiction of the Economic tion (UNIDO), the United Nations Environment and Social Council, commissions were established Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Fund for for various purposes, all having to do with the Population Activities (UNFPA). UNICEF is part of promotion and protection of human rights. The the United Nations itself and enjoys a different Commission on Human Rights drafted the Univer- status. sal Declaration of Human Rights, which was In the beginning, it was assumed that the adopted and proclaimed by the United Nations Specialized Agencies would be advisory, research, General Assembly in Paris in 1948. The Commis- and regulatory bodies in their special field of

102 expertise. Under their respective governing confer- policy is in response to increased demands from the ences, they have discharged these functions. developing countries where UNESCO has been Moreover, they have developed an expertise in active. In regard to literacy, UNESCO budgetary their staff that is frequently drawn upon by their allocations show a 10% increase; unfortunately, governing bodies. But in 1950, the role of many of although the requests are pressing, it appears that them was transformed through the launching of a funds are not available for a similar increase in the new international effort to give practical imple- field of adult education. In both cases, UNESCO is mentation to those articles of the U.N. Charter that matching its training programs and advisory ser- called for assisting peoples living in desperate vices with supplies of paper, pencils, books and poverty achieve a life of decency and dignity. The other reading material, and audio-visual materials United Nations Expanded Program of Technical and equipment. Assistance was launched and the institutions to Programs in literacy and adult education mark a carry it out were the Specialized Agencies. The swing toward the rural areas. There is a new program was funded by the members of the United emphasis on basic education and community Nations on a voluntary basis. It had been inspired development. Schools are being regarded not by the announcement to Congress of President merely as facilities for conducting formal education Truman that the United States was about to but as community centres, open beyond school inaugurate programs of assistance to needy coun- hours for all kinds of integrated educational tries and that the United States would be willing to activities related to raising the competence of all join with others in funding a similar international members of the community the better to cope with program under the United Nations. Other countries their environment and become actively involved in followed suit, setting up their own bilateral the process of community development. These programs and giving support to the international issues were actively discussed with me at the IIEP, program that was eventually to be known as the which, although closely linked with UNESCO, United Nations Development Programme or maintains a degree of autonomy as a research and UNDP. training centre. I had gone to the I IEP headquarters The particular concern of my study was the in the rue Eugene Delacroix to meet the Acting development programs under the direction or Director, Mr Ta Ngoc Chau. But to my surprise sponsorship of UNESCO, ILO, and WHO with a and pleasure I discovered that I was being invited to special interest in their support of education. I participate in an informal seminar composed of Mr began with UNESCO in Paris. Chau and six of his colleagues who are resident fellows of the Institute from West Germany, UNESCO France, Venezuela, Zaire, Britain, and Lebanon. At present there are some 40 men and women from With the assistance of the Canadian National developing countries engaged in studies and Commission for UNESCO and Giulio Fossi, research in the Institute who will be visiting Canada Acting Director of the Organization for Economic on a study tour in late April before returning to their Cooperation and Development (OECD) Develop- homes. ment Centre, interviews were arranged for me with What impressed me in this seminar was its staff members of UNESCO and the International nonacademic character. We were not talking about Institute for Educational Planning (I IEP). theories of education. The members of the Institute, In UNESCO's approved programs for 1981-83, all young, seemed to be very close to the actual 19 out of 44 are in the educational sector. Three situation in the Third World countries from which areas - promotion of the formulation and applica- they and other residents of the Institute came. The tion of policies and improvement of planning in the discussion ranged over the importance of the field of education; improvement of educational various emphases in the formal system of educa- content, methods, and techniques; and intensifica- tion, the dangers of too great a concentration on tion of the struggle against illiteracy - account for higher education, the dangers in education con- more than half of a total budget of something over solidating the establishment in these countries and U.S.$100 million. strengthening the power elite, the importance of the A new importance is being attached to the campaigns of literacy as well as the limitations of literacy campaign, an old enthusiasm of UNESCO, these campaigns, and the importance of nonformal which is now taking on new life. There is also a education. stress on the importance of adult education. What It seemed to me that the IIEP is one of the most makes the present priority different from the earlier important subdivisions of the UNESCO family. It one is that in both cases apparently the UNESCO is in close touch with developing countries, and its

103 guidelines for directions in educational policy when some proposal was being discussed a should be of continuing value to donor agencies. Japanese member generously offered to get a gift of The role of the institute will depend, of course, not U.S.$I million from Japan as well as some only on the intelligence and commitment of its necessary equipment. But he was politely reminded resident fellows but also on its direction. I had the by an educator from Nepal that they were all equal privilege of having a conversation with its new members of an educational network joined together director, Sylvain Lourie, the day before his to share in matters of common concern. appointment was announced. He appears to be a The direct forerunner of UNESCO was the man of outstanding intellectual qualifications and a Committee of Intellectual Cooperation, but the deep commitment to the needs of the Third World. International Bureau of Education in Geneva (IBE), In addition to long service with UNESCO he spent established in 1925, can claim some share of that 6 or 7 years in Central America as an educational honour. Its activities have been to serve as a centre adviser. for cooperation among educational authorities I have already suggested that there is a tendency throughout the world. Although UNESCO for Specialized Agencies to become populated with appeared to take over much of its field of interest, specialists. In UNESCO, you are apt to hear quite a particularly after the establishment of the IIEP, it bit about formal schooling and sometimes, in continued its independent existence until 1969 certain quarters, a condescending reference to when it was absorbed by UNESCO. Nevertheless, nonformal education. But that is not always a bad it still maintains its base in Geneva and serves two thing. UNESCO from the start has had a concern useful purposes: it publishes the International for quality in teaching. I spent an interesting hour Yearbook of Education containing valuable infor- with Nahum Joel, one of whose major interests is mation on the educational systems and directions of how to improve the teaching of science. He showed the majority of the world's nations, and it provides me some attractive books that did just that, well a very useful point of contact with international written, well illustrated. They were designed organizations based in Geneva or holding confer- primarily for Third World students but the high ences in Geneva that have a direct or indirect schools of Europe were grabbing them up as fast as interest in educational concerns. they came off the press. I have heard that UNESCO with UNDP backing is just now completing a ILO U.S.$2 million program in Indonesia to improve science and mathematics teaching in secondary The International Labour Organisation (ILO) schools. was created in 1919 by the Treaty of Versailles There is that other information that one picks up along with the League of Nations with which it was in Paris in the Place de Fontenoy about the new closely linked. It is unique among international trends in education that have their origins in Third organizations in that it is a tripartite organization World countries. Like the Seti Zone project in made up of governments, representatives of labour, Nepal, in an area where 12% of the population were and representatives of employers. Its original and literate and only 17% of primary teachers were continuing aim is to improve industrial relations trained. The government decided, in consultation and employment conditions of workers. The with the UNESCO senior education adviser, that a International Labour Conference, or general new type of teacher must be produced who was not assembly of the ILO, has for more than 60 years only competent in teaching children but also trained been drafting international conventions to commit as an agent for rural development with at least one signatory and ratifying governments to the mainte- skill in agriculture, irrigation, primary health care, nance of human rights (such as freedom of or some other relevant field that was immediately association, the abolition of forced labour, and the useful to the village. elimination of discrimination in employment) and There is also a remarkable network of 1000 the maintenance of equitable standards covering educational institutions in Asia that includes Japan, working conditions, social security, occupational New Zealand, and Australia as well as Indonesia, safety, the employment of women and children, Thailand, India, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan. It was and the employment of special categories such as described to me by E.R. Prabhakar, UNESCO's migrant workers and seafarers. In addition to the Chief of the Asia Section. Its purposes are to bring 156 conventions that have been adopted up until educators together to share experiences, exchange 1981, the Conference has adopted some 165 views on common educational problems, and, recommendations as a guide to improved labour where advisable, combine common efforts for relations and working conditions. common goals. He told how at an early meeting The ILO with its permanent secretariat, the

104 International Labour Office, was the only segment increasing concern for the immediate relevance of of the League of Nations to survive World War II the skills that are being developed. They should be and, thus, became the first specialized agency of related to useful and available employment. They the United Nations. With the advent of the should wherever possible be related to in-service Expanded Program of Technical Assistance, it training. undertook new responsibilities in providing Another very important development designed to facilities and staff for vocational training institu- improve the efficiency of vocational training tions to create the skilled manpower necessary for programs and also open up effective avenues for industrial development with the long-term goals of self-education in relevant technical fields is referred assisting developing countries to become self- to as Modules of Employable Skills (MES). reliant in carrying out their training programs. Training programs are based on precise job It would be a mistake to underestimate the specifications, established by analyzing existing contribution made by the ILO in the development jobs. Standardized written and graphically illus- of qualified personnel. Moreover, the philosophy trated material is prepared to cover the learning of the organization, based on its tripartite constitu- process in all the skills called for in such tion and its commitment to equitable labour occupational areas as building construction, relations, has discouraged the tendency to view automotive, electrical and mechanical engineering, skilled labour as a necessary component of the welding, plumbing, etc. The acceptance of such industrial process. Nevertheless, as we have noted standardized material by industries in various before, the original programs of development aid countries makes for uniform standards in training were culturally oriented toward western models and and also the possibility of regional cooperation. value schemes, and frequently took little or no The approach, according to ILO, is applicable to account of priorities in development-planning indi- in-plant, institutional, apprenticeship, and up- genous to a particular country, let alone the relation grading and up-dating training programs. of a particular program of industrial development to There is some indication of a determination on the satisfaction of the basic needs of the majority of the part of the ILO to move into the much neglected the people. In general, training was focused on the field of training for the rural areas. Here, of course, "modern" industrial section of society to the there is greatly increased concern evidenced by disregard of the rural, agricultural, and "tradition- FAO and the more recently established Internation- al" section. al Fund for Agricultural Development to take into There are some indications of new policies in the account the necessity of extending educational and training activities sponsored by the ILO that training opportunities to those engaged in the account for more than 40% of the Organization's production of food. But the rural community technical cooperation expenditures. In 1975, the includes more than the farmers and food-growing. ILO adopted the Convention Concerning Vocation- There are many independent craftsmen and al Guidance and Vocational Training in the craftswomen whose standard of living can be Development of Human Resources and along with improved and their contribution to the community the Convention detailed recommendations spelled enhanced through training. Mr Zarraga described out in some 77 articles. The effect of these was to two such projects, one general training project in relate training to a broad range of educational the Philippines and a project in northern Kenya activities within or linked to the formal schooling involving some 50 000 women in handicraft work system, stressing the broad objectives of human that was very much in demand - by women. It was development going beyond the acquisition of reported that it roused some concern among the technical skills, and also emphasizing the impor- men because of this extravagant expenditure on a tance of participation in the educational process. frivolous item of dress, but it added greatly to the Although the convention and the recommenda- income of those directly involved and raised the tions were aimed at bringing about new approaches sense of dignity for all - makers and wearers in the policies of member governments, they seem alike. to have had some effect on the approaches of the One final example of ILO's contribution to ILO itself. In my conversations with Mr C. education and training is worth reporting. As Kanawaty and other ILO officials in Geneva, I mentioned earlier, the title of the project is: Skill discovered several new emphases in their training Development for Self-Reliance: Regional Project programs. for Eastern and Southern African Countries. The The training programs at ILO still stress the first paragraph of the project description reads: traditional approach through vocational training The concept of skills development for self- and the training of trainers, but there is also reliance was conceived by educationalists from the

105 region, not handed down by ILO for acceptance WHO and UNICEF by countries. It was evolved in response to the needs and aspirations of countries of the region, as Health education has long been regarded as a determined by themselves. As to be expected, crucial element in integrated social development. national interpretations of the concept have dif- After my conversations with ILO it seemed fered according to national policies and objec- important that I visit the World Health Organiza- tives. tion. The man I had been directed to see was Dr The countries participating in the project are Hakan Hellberg of the Primary Health Care Kenya, Lesotho, Somalia, Swaziland, Tanzania, Division. Dr Hellberg comes from Finland and has Uganda, and Zambia. The project is funded by been associated with a well-known community Swedish SIDA in the amount of U.S.$1.1 million. project in Karelia that involved the entire commun- Senior educational planners from the seven coun- ity in an integrated program to lay the basis for the tries drew up the operational policy in 1978 and health of the people. It involved education and after discussion and refinement circulated it among access to relevant information, but it also called for the governments for comments and suggestions. changes in personal habits and environmental UNDP officers and ministries of planning and improvements that would contribute to the support education were involved in the discussions. While of good health. Dr Hellberg had seen these this was going on, ILO's Chief Technical Advisor principles put to good use during years of was visiting national authorities at various levels - experience in developing countries. decision-makers, planners, organizers, and The approach had been around for some time but implementers - to explain the project and get an only recently had attained its present priority. In the understanding of what was expected. Those who course of its history WHO had made important developed the curricula and those engaged in contributions through its attacks on killing and training of various kinds and at various levels were debilitating diseases, such as small pox and constantly in touch with the rural people. As the malaria, through campaigns of immunization and project description states: eradication - successful in the case of small pox. It strengthened professional health care through The approach tries to combine faith in the nurses training and child care centres. It also villagers' analysis of their own problems with a promoted health education activities making use of macro-analysis of planners operating from the centre. The philosophy of curriculum develop- literature, posters, films, and media programs. ment, as advocated by the project, emphasizes Unfortunately, over the years it became evident that local participation by villagers in matters affecting no great impact was being made in the improve- their own welfare. ment of the health of the great majority of the people, particularly those in rural areas and in the It is a new and hopeful approach. Moreover, it is slums of the cities. an approach that is being shared by more and more WHO is a decentralized agency with strong international agencies as they face the critical regional offices unlike most other specialized problems of development. The Annual Report for agencies with staff concentration in headquarters in 1981 of the International Fund for Agricultural Paris, Geneva, Rome, or Vienna. One result of this Development (IFAD) contains a chapter headed: is that their professional officers are much closer to "People's Participation in Development." One field conditions where the work is being carried out paragraph reads: and the problems are being faced. To them it became increasingly evident that ill health and high Development may be described as a process aimed at liberating human creativity to enable the mortality were, for the most part, due to environ- individual and the community to derive the fullest mental factors such as inadequate food and benefit from available resources. It implies not nutrition, polluted water, lack of proper sanitation, just the better utilization of physical resources and infested habitation. The battle for good health such as land and water but the development of the had to begin where these factors were determining individual. Viewed in this context, the participa- the quality of life and be waged in the first instance tion of beneficiaries in the design and execution of by those who were experiencing them. development projects is not only a means for A new philosophy of health care and health securing greater effectiveness in the implementa- education began to take shape that in some measure tion of such projects, but is also an essential goal of development. Participation which fosters ran counter to that of the medical profession with its human creativity is needed to set into motion a therapeutic approach to the mastery of disease and process of self-sustained and self-reliant develop- its centralized, professionally directed, and some- ment. times paternal, concepts of health education. The

106 new philosophy of primary health care found wide relevant." Then his right hand came into play: support in the developing world. The appointment "I'm not talking just of grass-roots approach. At of a new Director-General of somewhat unorthodox the village level there is a need for the community and innovative turn of mind set the Organization on health worker and the traditional birth attendant and a sympathetic course. Dr Halfdan Mahler, now into others who are concerned with water and sanitation his second term, comes from Denmark, a country and improving food production. But what is being that for a century has had its social thinking shaped done in the village is linked to a higher level in the by an adult education movement based on a faith in district where more qualified health workers and the ability of ordinary people to guide their lives professional medical workers can provide advice toward satisfactory goals. Dr Mahler apparently and training and so right up to the national level." found support for this faith in long service in India He cupped the right with the fingers pointing down where tuberculosis was the visible enemy. and brought it close to the left hand with the fingers A series of decisions taken by the Health pointing up. "It's a two-way system - from the Assembly of WHO culminated in a joint action bottom up, from the top down, intermingling, and taken by WHO and UNICEF to hold an Interna- all taking part in a learning experience, because tional Conference on Primary Health Care. The participation is part of learning." conference took place in September 1978 at Dr Hellberg reported on a recent regional health Alma-Ata, capital of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist conference that had been held in Nazaret, Ethiopia, Republic. Out of the conference came the Declara- which brought together health representatives from tion of Alma-Ata and a detailed conference report seven countries in east Africa. These were not that spelled out many of the implications of the new merely ministers of health but representatives from policy. all levels of the national health services - the Some of the statements from the Declaration are village-level teams being represented as well as worth considering seriously: professional men and women from the capital and The people have the right and duty to government authorities. What one saw at the participate individually and collectively in the Ethiopian conference, held 3 years after Alma-Ata, planning and implementation of their health care. was proof of a more or less successful achievement Primary health care forms an integral part of integrated primary health care systems in seven both of the country's health system, of which it is African countries. True, in certain cases there was the central function and main focus, and of the some evidence of the old professional elitism, overall social and economic development of the particularly in countries still dependent on expa- community. triate doctors. But the direction appeared to have Primary health care forms an integral part both been set. The next stage had been embarked upon: concerning prevailing health problems and the the establishment of a consultative regional net- methods of identifying, preventing, and controlling work, with the assistance of WHO and UNICEF. I them; promotion of food supply and proper was told that similar developments were evident nutrition, an adequate supply of safe water, and among the francophone countries of Africa and basic sanitation; maternal and child health care, countries of the Middle East. including family planning; immunization against Considering the magnitude of the problems and major infectious diseases; prevention and control of the external and internal obstacles to be overcome locally endemic diseases; appropriate treatment of in bringing about basic environmental changes and common diseases and injuries; promotion of mental developing human resources, the need for interna- health; and provision of essential drugs. tional assistance is very great. The responsibility All countries should cooperate in the spirit of for the planning and execution of the programs partnership and service to ensure primary health rested with the countries themselves beginning with care for all people because the attainment of health the participants at the village level. But oppor- by people in any one country directly concerns and tunities for support in training, formal and nonfor- benefits every other country. mal education, literacy, and equipment were I can see Hellberg facing me, his left hand challenging. Hellberg cited many examples of cupped with the fingers pointing up: "It has to programs where WHO or UNICEF were executing come from the bottom, not from the top. From agents or merely channels of cooperative assistance where the people are, where their health is being in which the financing had been undertaken not shaped by their environment. Where controls have only by UNDP but out of bilateral funding by the to be exerted to bring about change for the better - Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, or Germany. through participation and through community It would be a mistake to view the encouraging involvement. And here is where education is gains in this world-wide movement toward the

107 impossible goal of "Health for All by the Year man who was expecting me. She dialed a number 2000" apart from the larger issues of social and and she said a few words to the person who economic development. In fact, a central feature of answered. She hung up and said to me: "Mr the primary health care approach is a recognition of Sundgren will be down in a minute." the integrated relationship of the problem of health I looked around the big lobby. To the left on to the whole development process. Moreover, there stands were blowups of photographs, woven mats are obstacles to success having to do with the and hangings, artifacts, all obviously from some distribution of resources, the holding of land, and part of Africa. A young bearded man sat relaxed in the inequities in the international economic system a big chair. "What's this," I asked. "It's an that can only be overcome by action at the highest exhibit from Kenya," he said, "we've set it up for national level and with an as-yet-unachieved school children who will be visiting it today." international accord. But these facts do not in any "Have you been there?" I asked. "Yes, I've way negate the importance of a program and a worked there for a couple of years." Because my process that involves ordinary people in their own mission with the Swedish International Develop- communities in contributing to their liberation into ment Authority (SIDA) concerned education, I felt a larger measure of healthy and creative living. that I had come to the right place. Dr A. Moarefi, Chief of Health Education in This was more than confirmed by my talk with WHO, addressed the All-Africa First Health Lars Sundgren who was in charge of a program that Education Conference at Lagos, Nigeria, in Sep- we would call "development education." But that tember 1981. His theme was: "Some Consid- title hardly does it justice. SIDA refers to the erations in the Health Education Component of activity as "internationalizing education" or, in Primary Health Care." The whole presentation even more high-sounding language, as "education deserves careful study but one paragraph warrants toward the responsibilities of world citizenship." I quotation: go into this detail at the beginning of my story so as to suggest that this is much more than a kind of It should be realized that primary health care is public relations effort to win popular support for the not just another alternative in the provision of by health care. It is a philosophy pointing to an SIDA program of cooperation for development approach based on the understanding that the eliciting interest in and sympathy for aid to the poor individual, any individual, has the right and people in the Third World. The education that Lars responsibility to be involved in matters regarding Sundgren was promoting through the exhibition in his well-being. It is founded on the assertion of the lobby, with the cooperation of the young man in dignity of every man and every woman regardless the big chair, and through materials finding their of their economic, social, or education status and way into the school curricula, was not too far on the acceptance of the fact that they are capable removed from the education SIDA was supporting of taking proper decisions if other essential in developing countries. In both cases, education elements including education are properly met. They have the ability to be involved in the was a process in which you found your identity in promotion of their health and the health of those your world and, as a participant with others, close to them. discovered a meaningful place for yourself in your world - a world that included those in the pictures The Swedish Programs of International in the exhibition and those who looked at them. Development The more I talked with Lars Sundgren on this educational phenomenon in Sweden, the more I SIDA thought that it helped me understand a very special The bus driver stopped the bus at a cross street on quality of the Swedish program of development Birger Jarisgatan and pointed across the road and cooperation. The understanding has been deepened said: "Sixty-one. SIDA." I thanked him and got by reports I have read since. To begin with, the out, crossed the street and walked along the front of educational activity sponsored by SIDA is in a nondescript brown building. In the windows were response to an eager demand for information about pictures - landscapes, people, activities, obvi- and involvement in the world community of which ously not Sweden in a brisk late winter day in Swedish children are a part and that they share with February. They were scenes of hot countries - other children in other countries, on other conti- farmers in fields, women washing clothes in a nents. Sundgren told me that there were certain river, doctors and nurses in a clinic, children in weeks in the year when he would be away 3 out of 5 school. I went through the main door into the days meeting with teachers at their teacher training lobby. Facing the door was a desk with a colleges or in their associations discussing how best receptionist. I gave my name and the name of the to bring into the educational process the reality of

108 being a part of this larger world community. This lot. They found at an early stage that only by kind of education goes far beyond the school joining forces could they change the existing curriculum. It means audio-visual presentation with conditions. Solidarity became the strength of the full cooperation of the media, seminars and open weak, cooperation was their instrument... . discussions for teachers and students, and vacation The future strength of Swedish democracy is largely trips to Third World countries and direct contact determined by the degree of vitality and power of action of the people's organizations and with people and institutions in developing coun- their ability to make men and women committed tries. Out of this process comes a new sense of to the day to day work that gives substance to belonging in this emergent world community. democracy. A very useful account of the philosophy and methodology of the educational activity we have The build-up of a Swedish international approach been describing is to be found in a booklet written began with Sweden's close involvement in the by Ingar Andersson and Lars Sundgren and League of Nations and the ILO, focused in the published by SIDA with the title: "The Inter- activities of Sweden's Prime Minister and great nationalization of Education." Its relevance trade union leader, Hjalmar Branting. During the extends far beyond a single Scandinavian country. war, assistance to refugees was given more I learned from Sundgren that SIDA considers this prominence by the organization of the Swedish program of education for international understand- Committee for Voluntary Aid, financed by the ing sufficiently important to fund it in the amount government but staffed largely by representatives of U.S.$4 million annually. Only part of the of trade unions, employers, and religious and activity is carried out through the schools. Some humanitarian organizations. At the end of the war, U.S.$2.5 million goes to Sweden's non- this effort to aid war victims expanded into what governmental organizations. There is no country in might be called a Swedish Marshall Plan to assist in the world in which nongovernmental organizations, the reconstruction of Europe; it preceded the U.S.

` folkroreiser" or "peoples' movements" as they effort and for several years drew financial support are called, have done as much to shape the amounting to 2% of Sweden's GNP. From League emergence of an egalitarian and democratic society of Nations days, the Swedish people had been and then to ensure that those same principles are particularly concerned by Italy's attack on and manifested in the external affairs of the nation, occupation of Ethiopia, partly because of mission- particularly in its program of international coopera- ary effort in that country but dramatically focused tion for development. The best account of this in the bombing of a Swedish ambulance unit. phenomenon is to be found in a publication written Sweden after the war lost no time in providing for UNITAR by Ernst Michanek, Former Director technical assistance to Ethiopia in the build-up of of SIDA, entitled "Role of Swedish Non-Gov- its military and civilian aviation, its judiciary, its ernmental Organizations in International Develop- telecommunications, and its schools. ment Cooperation." The part played by NGOs in Sweden became a member of the United Nations shaping Sweden's development cooperation policy Economic and Social Council in 1951 and was is so important as to merit more detailed treatment active in the plans that led to the launching of the and I have relied heavily on Michanek's work. United Nations Expanded Program for Technical In 1973, at the time of the enactment of laws Assistance. But Sweden went about mobilizing its directed toward a large measure of constitutional support in its typical Swedish way. The Secretary- reform, the Prime Minister, Olof Palme, said: General of the Foreign Ministry invited a number of important NGOs to discuss a coordinated Swedish The constitution is important. But let us not aid program. Out of this meeting came the Central forget that the Swedish democratic tradition is a Committee for Swedish Technical Assistance to tradition of people's movements. The activities of Less Developed Countries on which no less than 44 the people's movements are not regulated by our NGOs were represented. For 10 years from 1952 to constitution. They are associations of free men 1962 it was the Central Committee that directed and women brought together by an ideology and Sweden's international aid effort and mobilized by common ideals. Swedish public opinion in sympathetic and active The people's movements grew into instruments support. In 1962, the government decided that the for the people to gain independence and freedom time had long before universal suffrage was obtained. come for more direct official involvement People met in the cooperatives, in the labour in international cooperation and development. movement, in the temperance movement, in the Again, an important group of NGOs was consulted Christian congregations, with a view to joining and on its advice the official government develop- forces for change and for an improvement of their ment agency, SIDA, was formed. However, the

109 influence of the "peoples' movements" remained between the Swedish University of Lundu and the strong; they were well represented on SIDA's University of Dar es Salaam and between the Board of Governors; they continued to be an University of Lulea and the Faculty of Mining in important contributor to education in international the University of Zambia. understanding; and they continued with increasing Many of the educational activities receiving support to carry out their grass-roots cooperation SIDA support that were not covered in the listed activities with their counterpart movements in projects and programs were more directly developing countries. One cannot understand the associated with economic and social development. importance and character of the Swedish program Examples were to be found in the activity of for international cooperation without taking into cooperatives, in the role of agricultural extension account the role of the NGOs in its origins and its workers, in the primary health care programs that continuing direction. That is also true of its diverse we had discussed at some length in WHO. Miss activities in support of education. Munch told me what we had heard from Dr Bo Karre, Director of Information, had arranged Hellberg that SIDA gave support to a number of that I meet several SIDA officers in the field of such programs in which WHO was the executing education who could discuss with me SIDA's agent and that comprised many components of present and future policy. I met them after my training and integrated nonformal education. There conversation with Lars Sundgren. They included was another area of SIDA's development support Ingemar Gustafsson, Per Kokeritz and Birgitta activities into which invariably a training program Berggren from the Division of Education; Mats was built: this was the financing of capital Kihlberg from SAREC, and Miss Munch, with infrastructure, the big paper mill at Baibong in special interest in primary health care and educa- Vietnam, for instance, where the training of tion. I had a profitable discussion with them lasting operational and maintenance workers was consid- several hours. ered as equally important with the construction and In regard to SIDA's present and future education the installation of the equipment. policy, a SIDA report prepared in 1980 contains a Then, of course, the NGOs contribution. Fifty list of projects supported by SIDA in the period percent of their activity was devoted to education, since 1975. The report refers to projects in eight 30% to health of which much might be described as African countries - Ethiopia, Kenya, Zambia, educational. Here the emphasis tends to be on rural Tanzania, Botswana, Mozambique, Angola, and education and education for usually disadvantaged Guinea-Bissau - and two Asian countries, sectors of the community: rural primary schools in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. The report suggests that Bangladesh, health services for Indians in Peru, a the main areas have been primary education, adult vocational school for blind girls in Tanzania, education, and vocational training - and this is mother and child care in Cape Verde, training in the confirmed by a study of the listed projects. But management of cooperatives in many countries, there are also cases of support for secondary and training for women in home industries in education, with an emphasis on the training of Nairobi. SIDA's support for NGO activity has science teachers, and the provision of facilities for increased from some U.S.$22 million in the year practical and technical subjects. Most of the 1979-80 to U.S.$38 million in 1982-83. The financial assistance went toward the construction of total expenditure including the NGO contribution buildings and the supply of equipment. Instructors will put the amount this year up to some U.S.$120 in the field of vocational training and advisors in million. the fields of adult education and literacy constituted the main elements in the provision of technical SAREC assistance. SIDA provided financial support for paper and books in several instances in connection A comparatively new contribution of Sweden to with programs of adult education and literacy. the educational capabilities of developing countries Conversations with SIDA staff members brought is to be found in the Swedish Agency for Research out the different priorities in different country Cooperation with Developing Countries (SAREC). programs. In Botswana and Zambia, for instance, Modeled on the IDRC, SAREC was established in there was a strong movement to increase secondary 1975 with its main objective "to support develop- schooling. In Zambia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe ing countries in their endeavours to create and the strengthening of teachers training colleges was strengthen endogenous research capacities." stressed. The Swedish Agency for Research Coop- Like IDRC, SAREC is itself not a research eration with Developing Countries (SAREC), has institution but rather a funding organization for also expressed an interest in supporting the linkages researchers and research institutes, the activities of

110 which have a direct bearing on problems faced by number of specialized international research insti- developing countries. There are main categories of tutes such as the International Rice Research research activities that receive support from Institute (IRRI), Centro Internacional de Mejora- SAREC: (a) direct research cooperation with miento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT), International developing countries; (b) research cooperation Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics between developing countries and special research (ICRISAT), and Centro Internacional de Agricul- programs; (c) international research programs, tura Tropical (CIAT). Another group of interna- usually with an institutional base; and (d) Swedish tional research programs is sponsored by WHO in development research. such fields as human reproduction, primary health The countries with which SAREC is supporting care, and tropical diseases. Another object of research cooperation are, with one or two excep- support is the International Foundation of Science, tions, the same as those in which SIDA is a nongovernmental organization based on scientific supporting educational development. The type of research councils in 53 countries. It is located in research and the projects selected for support Stockholm and also receives support from IDRC. correspond to the expressed wishes of the develop- Finally, SAREC contributes a small amount to ing countries concerned. In cases where the Swedish universities and other research institutes to research base in the country appears to be adequate support projects with a direct relation to develop- to the task, the necessary financial support will be ment. Fields covered include development theory given. In other cases, cooperative support may be and social science, technology and industrializa- facilitated between an institution in the Third World tion, agriculture and rural development, health and country and a Swedish research institution or nutrition, and education and communications. university with relevant resources. In Ethiopia, for SAREC's objective is to help developing countries example, a highly important study of local flora strengthen their research capabilities, and it is will bring together researchers from Addis Ababa hoped that the "Swedish program" will contribute University and the Institute of Systemic Botany at to this goal, creating stronger links between Uppsala University. Concern for increased prod- SAREC and the Swedish research community. uction and more efficient use of oil seeds in India Sweden's support of development research through has led to a research program involving the SAREC cannot be seen in entire isolation from its Department of Science and Technology of the support of education in many forms in the Government of India and SAREC to be carried out developing world. SAREC's Annual Report for the by a network of Indian and Swedish research year 1980-81 puts it this way: institutions. The dependency of the nomads of Researchers and research institutions are only Somalia on the lowly but omnipresent camel has at the top of the pyramid, the basis of which includes least occasioned a comprehensive research project education at different levels, organizations to too long neglected. The project will bring together develop national research policy and technicians researchers from the Faculties of Agriculture, and workers capable of making use of research Industrial Chemistry, and Veterinary Sciences of results. A policy which aims at developing the Somali National University of Agriculture and research capacity has to be seen as an integrated from the Department of Social Anthropology of the part of social development. In a wider perspective University of Stockholm. this policy touches on the very foundations of culture and its relations to technological The second program of research support provides change. funding for research cooperation between devel- On the basis of the evidence we have reviewed, oping countries. In practice, this means supporting how do we assess Sweden's policy toward its regional research organizations such as the Council present and continuing support in developing for the Development of Economic and Social countries? In purely quantitative terms, it would Research in Africa (CODESRIA) and the Consejo seem that support of education is firmly locked into Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales (CLACSO) SIDA's general program of development assistance in Latin America. But it also means supporting and that that program among other national certain international seminars and certain joint programs is comparatively large and is increasing. projects that bring together Third World re- With strong popular support the Swedish Parlia- searchers. ment some years ago targeted its development The third object of SAREC support is the group assistance budget on a goal equal to I % of its GNP. of important international research centres and That goal was reached several years ago and is programs. The Consultative Group on International being maintained if not exceeded. Four years ago Agriculture Research (CGIAR) commands the most SIDA's appropriation amounted to 4419 million support in this category with core support for a Swedish kroner. The budget this year, 1981 -82, is

111 one would imagine 5720 million kroner. The 1982-83 estimated tice, and meeting basic needs, as budget is 6228 million kroner or about $1245 that the priorities in the selection of programs million (Canadian). well as in the designing of programs are increas- The listed education budget in the bilateral ingly the responsibility of the Third World coun- program appears to be remaining fairly constant at tries. There may be a prolonged period of dialogue about 8%. But, as we have seen, this by no means between SIDA and Third World country authorities accounts for all the support that SIDA is providing but, as Ola Ullsten, Sweden's Minister of for education. We must consider the contribution of Development before he became Prime Minister the NGOs, their appropriations increasing more said: appropriations. We must rapidly than the over-all ...in the final analysis it is the developing consider other programs with educational compo- countries which control what uses they wish to nents and the multilateral programs, such as those make of the Swedish resources. No Swedish flags of WHO, ILO, and UNESCO, to which SIDA is fly over the projects we support. We contribute to giving support. Finally, there is SAREC, the efforts to which developing countries themselves budget of which was CA$25 million in 1980-81 give priority in their development plans and for and will be CA$30 million in 1982-83. From the which they bear the full responsibility. look good purely quantitative point of view, things Such a statement when read alongside of the support for educa- for continuing if not increasing actual evolution of Sweden's program of develop- cooperation tion in the Swedish development ment assistance, confirms the growing conviction not be doing the programs. However, we would that Sweden has moved far from the traditional not take into Swedish program justice if we did concept of a donor-recipient relationship to one of We must account some qualitative considerations. full and equal cooperation. Moreover, the emphasis NGOs, the recall, once more, the role of Sweden's on the meeting of basic needs, a deep concern for Sweden's peoples' movements, in their shaping of environmental conservation, the special concern for its international democracy and its projection into the improvement in the status of women, all finding programs of development cooperation. expression in actual programs, represent a growing bill In 1978, the Swedish Parliament adopted a consensus that human goals are central in develop- within which that established a frame of reference ment policy. This in turn reinforces a belief that the be plan- Sweden's development assistance should Swedish international program is not only a guidelines call for ned and executed. The overall projection into international relations of social and and people in need. solidarity with poor countries democratic principles realized in national society, Swedish program would In keeping with these, the but also a continuing involvement of the Swedish to: (a) economic growth with maintained contribute people in a combined effort to achieve an equitable and social justice, ecological balance, (b) economic and democratic world community. (c) economic and political independence, and (d) strengthening of democracy. The Dag Hammarskjold Foundation In support of these goals, the appropriations for development aid should remain above 1% of GNP. I met Sven Hamrell on the station platform at Swedish assistance should be directed to low- Uppsala. I was to have come by train and over the income countries and be used to improve the living phone he had said: "You will recognize me: I shall conditions of poor people. Resources should be be wearing a green coat and a green hat and I am extended for the most part through grant aid, and very fat." In the meantime, Swedish friends kindly Sweden should retain its policy of untied aid and offered to drive us the 75 km to Uppsala and I was continue strong support for multilateral programs. delivered safely to the railway station, while our At first glance such goals sound rhetorical and friends took my wife and a Canadian friend to idealistic. But consider the record: the 1% of GNP explore the old city dominated by the cathedral and target has been sustained and surpassed; the 20-odd the red castle on the hill. countries in which SIDA's program is concentrated I had no difficulty recognizing Sven Hamrell are among the poorest in the Third World; in the although he was not very fat and most Swedes entire SIDA program, tied aid does not exceed seemed to be wearing green coats and hats on that 15%; and contributions to multilateral programs, wintry morning. Hamrell drove me to the Dag mostly through United Nations agencies and Hammarskjold Foundation office in an old mansion regional development banks, stays somewhere in on the grounds of the 500-year old Uppsala the neighbourhood of 33%. University. The Foundation was established to With the emphasis on support for increasing honour Dag Hammarskjold in 1962, the year after self-reliance, increasing economic and social jus- his death. In 1965 it found a permanent home in

112 Uppsala in the house once occupied by the Swedish seminars and conferences. Its journal, "Develop- philosopher and poet, Erik Gustaf Geijer. It is on a ment Dialogue," which appears twice a year, is road not far from the castle along which Dag probably one of the most stimulating and provoca- Hammarskjold used to walk each day on his way to tive journals in the field. It has carried many school and then to the university. articles on education in relation to development, the The Dag Hammarskjold Foundation was set up second issue of 1978 being entirely devoted to the to focus serious discussion on the critical problems subject. As a working paper for a seminar on of a world that had outgrown the patterns and education in Dar es Salaam in 1974, the Foundation policies of the nation state but had not yet created asked Patrick Van Rensburg to put together a the institutions and practices necessary to serve the selection of his writings on education and employ- needs of a world community. The discussion was ment in an African country. It was published under not to be confined to academic deliberations, the title "Report from Swaneng Hill." Papers by although high-level scholarship was called for. Nor Julius Nyerere, Joseph Ki-Zerba, and Asfaw was it to become a vehicle for ideological Yemirru from the seminar are carried in propaganda, although the suffering and injustice in "Development Dialogue," the second issue of the existing order encouraged bitter protest. It was 1974, which also carries the interesting conclusions to operate, as two members of the Board of that were arrived at. Trustees described it, "on an interface between Although it may seem relevant to this study that research and politics." The research would be the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation has made respectable, as its presence on Uppsala campus particular contributions to educational research and implied, but the research, and the deliberations discussion, what is much more important is that it is based on it, would result in political action directed constantly throwing new light on social and cultural to the achievement of a new international order. situations within which education is to be seen as a Between 1966 and 1981, the Dag Hammarskjold factor in development, all of which must be viewed Foundation sponsored more than 60 seminars and within a global context that demands radical conferences. More than half of them were held in reconstruction. The Dag Hammarskjold Foundation Uppsala and some 20 in the Third World, the then must be regarded as part of a particularly majority in Africa but others in Latin America, the Swedish approach that finds expression as well in Caribbean, and the Pacific. Discussions centred for SIDA and SAREC but that also embodies the the most part on problems of international coopera- thought and concern of the Swedish people. tion and development, frequently with specific There is something else that is particularly regional emphasis. Eight seminars had to do with Swedish about the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation; education in developing countries. in terms of staff it is very small. There are only four Changes taking place in the Third World and in or five people to direct their extensive activities of the relationships between Third World countries seminars and publications. Of course, there is an and developed countries - highlighted by the impressive Board of Trustees that includes the solidarity of the Group of 77 at the first United Vice-Chancellor of the University and the former Nations Conference on Trade and Development Director of CIDA as well as the Minister of (UNCTAD) conference in 1964 and the confronta- Economic Planning and Development of Zim- tion that came out of the oil crisis in 1973 - babwe, the Minister of Finance of Tanzania, and an seemed to call for radical reassessment of the Undersecretary-General of the United Nations. international situation. It was at this point that the Equally impressive is a very distinguished Honor- Dag Hammarskjold Foundation took the initiative ary Advisory Committee of 22, of which 12 are in bringing together a broadly representative group from Third World countries. Most especially, it of research scholars, political leaders, and interna- gains a certain vitality from being based in tional officials to formulate a new concept of Uppsala, the home university of Dag Ham- development directed toward human rather than marskjold, the resources of which it can constantly economic goals and map out strategy for their draw on. attainment. This was presented in a striking Sven Hamrell and I talked for an hour or so in his publication, "What Now: Another Development." office in Geijersgarden. As the conversation It appeared in 1975 on the eve of the Seventh roamed over various topics, he kept pulling out United Nations Special Assembly on Development publications with relevant articles or ones descrip- out of which came the challenge of a New tive of the work of the Foundation. The final one International Order. was a slim blue booklet inscribed: Dag Ham- The Foundation carries out an active program of marskjold - Castle Hill. It was the last thing that publication, much of the material drawn from the he had written, just before he left for Africa on his

113 final mission. It is a simple reminiscence, detailed, Nor was the protest confined to educational a little sentimental, of the progress of the seasons circles. The media were picking it up. A late and the activities associated with them as viewed television broadcast on March 3 was carried live from the castle, which was his home, just out there from Stirling where the university - the first across the road. "new" university in Scotland in 400 years - faced We went out to lunch to a restaurant that a cutback of 27%. The whole community - the resembled the crypt of an old church. Hamrell public, students, professors, the Vice-Chancellor, explained that it had been the wine cellar of the the distinguished Chancellor himself - were archbishop several centuries ago. Most of the expressing their outrage in a very direct, articulate others having their lunch were professors from the Scottish way. university. We seemed a long way from Stock- The policy, naturally, has had a direct bearing on holm, from Europe, and certainly from the Third the government's and the universities' international World. But not from Hammarskjold. I recalled that programs of educational assistance and coopera- flight I took with him the Christmas of 1957 from tion. A case in point is the fate of the Inter-Univer- Cairo to Gaza when he had just come from sity Council for Higher Education Overseas (IUC). Stockholm where he had delivered the lecture to the Established in 1946 by the British universities, with Swedish Academy on "The Linnaeus Tradition and government support, it did an extraordinarily Our Time." Linnaeus had been a professor of effective job in relating the resources of British Uppsala University. Hammarskjold gave me a copy universities to the needs in higher education of the of his lecture. And I remembered the passage that emerging nations of the postwar Commonwealth. caught my attention: In some measure the IUC resembled NUFFIC of the Netherlands in its historical origins; in each case Only those who do not want to see can deny that there was surfeit of high-grade scientists, scholars, we are moving these days in the direction of a new and educators as an empire came to a close. community of nations, however far we may be was an ongoing from its full realization, however often we may However, in the British case, there seem to have chosen the wrong path, however Commonwealth and the beginnings of educational numerous the setbacks and disappointments have linkages with British universities. Flexible and been. Could it be otherwise when no other road responsive, with a minimum of administration appears open out of the dangers a new era has bureaucracy, the IUC made an impressive con- created? tribution to the growth of the new universities and at the same time, because it was an instrument of After lunch, Hamrell and I drove over to the university community, mobilized the cemetery where we met our Swedish friends with the British of British universities to a larger my wife and friend. We made our way toward a commitment responsibility. On the basis of care- large stone that marked the grave of Ham- international budgets, annual funding was made marskjold's father. Dag Hammarskjold's grave was fully prepared by the Ministry of Overseas Develop- next to it. Hamrell said it was marked by a simple available efficient administration of brass plate with an appropriate inscription. Now it ment, to the small and As in case of NUFFIC, the pattern of was covered with snow. We stood for a few the IUC. the appeared to be determined minutes beside it. On the snow was a bunch of support and cooperation in the Third World, yellow daffodils. by the priorities of universities which in turn reflected a perception of development The Commonwealth Connection needs. In a sense, the priorities on which the IUC What struck me when I arrived in England and operated and its large degree of independence from began to make the rounds of old friends and government control left it particularly vulnerable in colleagues on the educational network was the deep a period when university funding was being concern over the savage cuts on university funding severely curtailed and when international coopera- ordered by the government. Not only did these tion was paying special concern to the promotion of mean curtailment of academic programs and staff British interests. To quote a government statement - Sussex faced a likelihood of 200 layoffs - but on aid policy dated 20 February 1980: "It is right at the policy seemed dangerously short-sighted in the present time to give greater weight in the terms of Britain's future. Moreover, the cuts allocation of our Aid to political, industrial and appeared arbitrary; Bradford, one of the new commercial considerations along-side our basic red-brick universities with a strong emphasis on development objective." There was another technology, was said to be required to cut back by important factor, the activities of the IUC were 40%. focused on institutions of higher education in

114 Africa and to some extent in the Caribbean. The role is recognized by the funding arrangements for universities in India, on the other hand, were being the Council's `mixed money' under which the assisted through a cultural organization of the FCO and ODA each pay a proportion of the government known as the British Council, estab- Council's core budget, respectively some 64% and lished in 1934, financed by the Foreign and 36%. In the case of the aid-receiving countries, however, Commonwealth Office and the Ministry of Over- by far the larger share of the cost, which may be as high as 90%, is borne by ODA. seas Development, with a staff in Britain and abroad of over 4000. In a handbook of Common- wealth Organizations its aim is defined: "...to Conversations with representatives of the Edu- promote a wider knowledge of Britain and of the cation Divison of ODA and with the British English language abroad, and to develop close Council's Committee for International Cooperation cultural relations between Britain and other coun- in Higher Education left me in some doubt as to tries. " how well the new arrangement was going to work The case was presented, therefore, to abolish the out. On the one hand, much stress was laid on the IUC and transfer its responsibilities and its func- fact that the former IUC budget was intact, or tions to the British Council. In this way, economies nearly so, and that it was protected against any would be effected and interuniversity cooperation infringement from the country-program require- brought directly under the control of an organ of the ments of the main ODA program. The declaratory government, tied closely to British foreign policy guidelines bore a close resemblance to those of the and with considerable experience in the field of IUC. At the same time, it appeared that present educational support. In 1981, the action was taken arrangements amounted to the completion of - the IUC was abolished and the British Council commitments and programs already in progress. It was in full charge. was not at all clear what was going to happen next A study of the British program of aid to year or the year after. Certainly, the free input from education reveals that a good many sectors are British universities and their linked sister univer- administered by the British Council and funded by sities in developing countries seemed to be the Overseas Development Administration: the Key regarded as a luxury under the new arrangements. English Language Teaching Program (KELT) for There was not much discussion about the central which some 150 specialists are recruited, in-train- goal of educational cooperation being to strengthen ing service courses for teachers, several sections of the capabilities and promote the self-reliance of the the books supply program, specialist advice on the Third World participants. use of radio and television technology in teaching, Among many who had been closely associated university support and inter-university cooperation with the work of the IUC during its distinguished formerly under the IUC, and advisory and opera- history this last point caused deep concern. For tional support in technical education, industrial them it appeared to be a retrogressive step. For the training, public administration, and agricultural encouragement of university initiative and flexible education and training, formerly under an organi- response one might anticipate a studied adherence zation known as the Technical Education and to policy guidelines. The priorities of needs arising Training Organisation for Overseas Countries in developing countries were not so clearly the (TETOC). In addition, the British Council super- determining factors in day-to-day decisions; they vises the British Volunteer Program (BVP), coor- would have to be carefully weighed against dinating the work of four independent voluntary economic and political considerations. But in societies and joint funding projects in several areas fairness, the new arrangements have been in effect of nonformal education. only a year and one must give them a chance to The British Council, in fact, has a wide range of serve the educational goals they are intended to responsibility as shown in a recent paper on British serve. Aid to Education, prepared by the Education There is one important organization whose aims Division of ODA: and activities bear a close resemblance to those of the IUC. That is the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU). Its aims are: "To promote, in An important role that the British Council plays practical ways, contact and cooperation between in the British Aid program is the provision of the universities of the The advice to ODA and British diplomatic missions on Commonwealth." educational matters generally in the developing Association is made up of 221 member universities world, carrying out this function in parallel with in 28 Commonwealth countries. For many years, its function as a centre of information for overseas its distinguished Secretary-General was Sir Hugh countries about British life and culture. This latter Springer of Barbados, former Vice-Chancellor of

115 the University of the West Indies. He was giving a tidy description of an interconnected group succeeded in 1981 by Dr Anastasius Chri stodoulou, of institutions and activities that together may be formerly Secretary of the Open University. making one of the really serious contributions to The ACU plays a network role in the Common- education in developing countries. wealth university community, acting as a clearing The Commonwealth Secretariat was established house of information, promoting the movement of in 1965 as an international body at the service of students and professors, making information gener- and responsible to all 40 member countries of the ally available on centres of excellence, admission Commonwealth. An official statement of its aims standards, awards, etc. It holds quinquennial reads: "To facilitate joint consultation and cooper- conferences - the last at the University of British ation between member countries; to collect and Columbia in Vancouver in 1978, the next in disseminate information for their use; to organize Birmingham in 1983 - where issues having to do meetings and conferences in areas of common with the university's role in a world undergoing concern and to put into effect decisions for radical change are discussed. It publishes a collective Commonwealth action. " On a number of Commonwealth Universities Yearbook and a regu- occasions, it has demonstrated a capacity for larly updated Register of Research Strengths in bringing about a remarkable degree of political Universities of Developing Countries of the Com- unity in divisive situations. One such instance was monwealth. It also provides the secretariat for the the Commonwealth Heads of Government meeting Commonwealth Scholarship Commission that in Jamaica in 1975 when a large measure of administers the British portion of the Common- unanimity was achieved on the concept of a New wealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan in collab- International Economic Order just prior to the oration with the British Council. Special Session on the U.N. General Assembly. The Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Another even more dramatic instance in which the Plan was established in 1959 by the First Com- Commonwealth Secretariat played an important monwealth Education Conference that was held in part was in negotiations that led to the establish- Oxford. The scheme was intended to make it ment of Zimbabwe as an independent state. Most of possible for students of ability and promise to its success, however, has been in the maintenance attend postgraduate study in Commonwealth coun- of an open and intelligible network of communica- tries other than their own and for a few outstanding tions among members, so that members from the scholars to take up visiting Professorships or North and members from the South, left-leaning Fellowships, usually in response to invitations. members and right-leaning members can maintain a Some 15 countries offer scholarships. The number civilized and constructive dialogue. In our contem- of scholarships has remained at about 1000 a year. porary world, that is quite an achievement. The It has been generally regarded as one of the most dialogue may reflect genuine concern, but it may successful contributions to the development of also reflect innovative departures that, with higher education in Commonwealth countries as adequate support, can lead to significant economic well as to their professional leadership. In London and social advance. Perhaps most of all it an evaluation committee drawn from a broad and represents an abandonment of the concept of representative group of educators conducted a dependency arising from the old colonial relation- decennial review of the program, and there was ship or from a transformation of that relationship almost universal enthusiasm in regard to the into one of generous giver and grateful receiver. In program and little to indicate that any important the relationship, integrated through the Common- suggestions for modification or improvement were wealth Secretariat, human dignity is preserved in being brought forward. the cooperative effort to attain a better life for the This brief study of these two institutions, the people of the member countries. ACU and the Commonwealth Scholarship and In the support of educational development in the Fellowship Program, tempts one to probe deeper developing countries of the Commonwealth there into the complex of organizations and activities that are two sectors in the Secretariat that are making a usually carry the prefix "Commonwealth" and significant contribution. The first is the Education somehow or other fall under the aegis of the Division. It would be misleading to talk about the Commonwealth Secretariat. But if we do so, it is "program" of the Education Division. Programs necessary to put out a clear warning that if one finds are not drafted for Commonwealth countries in the difficulty in sketching a clear picture of the faded imperial splendour of Marlborough House. Commonwealth, which I consider to be one of the Rather they are put together in the classrooms and most important phenomena in the international school boards and teachers' associations and scene today, one will find similar difficulty in vocational training centres and ministries of educa-

116 tion and health and agriculture in 40 member limited by shortage of funds in CFTC. countries. At best, and it is a very important best, In a closely related field, attention is being given the Education Division of the Commonwealth to the training of nonprofessional library staff in Secretariat can contribute to the environment in collaboration with the Commonwealth Library which programs are planned and critical decisions Association. A meeting of Commonwealth library taken. experts was held in Fiji in 1979 to identify the skills Take the question of the teaching of science and needed in this field, and out of this meeting came mathematics in the schools, a question, as we saw, training modules that will be tested out in a pilot UNESCO is very much interested in. One of the edition before being revised for publication and serious issues is the high cost of science equipment, made generally available. The Education Division most of which has to be imported. Three successful has produced a "Handbook for Teacher Librar- regional workshops were held in the Bahamas ians" "to help teacher-librarians with no previous (1976), Tanzania (1977), and Papua New Guinea experience to organize their libraries and use them (1979) on the production of low-cost equipment. to support the educational work of the schools in Following a lengthy discussion at the eighth which they work." As a means of promoting the triennial Commonwealth Education Conference in distribution of books within the Commonwealth the Sri Lanka in 1980, with a number of suggestions as Secretariat has published a directory of Common- to various forms of logistic support the Common- wealth national bibliographies that will be kept wealth Secretariat might provide, a regional meet- updated. ing was held in Suva, Fiji, in April/May 1981 "to These are but two of many areas in which the examine the feasibility of establishing a science Education Division of the Commonwealth Sec- equipment production centre for the South retariat is involved, not so much in initiating and Pacific." At this meeting, it should be noted, not implementing programs but in responding to only governments but regional and international initiatives taken and requests for cooperative organizations were represented. support put forward individually or, more often, Another example of the contribution of the collectively in regional workshops or seminars or in Education Division of the Secretariat is in that basic the general conclave of the Commonwealth Educa- problem area of educational development, book tion Conference. Similar examples could be cited in production. To some extent the emergence of the such fields as technical and vocational education problem reflects the constructive move to new and training, nonformal and adult education, curricula relevant to the cultural, social, and education for women, teacher education, and economic needs of a particular country. But it goes educational administration. beyond this in the growing recognition that an I have already referred to the CFTC. Alongside efficient and successful book industry is an of a General Technical Assistance Division, which important element in the achievement of self- provides specialists to work in a country requiring reliance. The obstacle is the lack of knowledge, assistance, there is an Education and Training skill, and training facilities in all departments of the Division that provides funding for the training of publishing process. Pressure from Commonwealth nationals. One very important aspect of this members for assistance to overcome these obstacles training-support program is its close tie-in with no has resulted in the formation of a Commonwealth less than 10 regional training centres located in Book Development Program. A meeting of Com- various parts of the Commonwealth. For example, monwealth experts was held in London in 1975 to it has supported in the past 2 years 11 1 technicians identify sectors in the book industry where training from Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland at the was badly needed and produced some syllabuses Multi-Country Telecommunications Centre in that might be useful in teaching the needed skills. Malawi. It has sponsored 200 trainees at the Two years later in Guyana the Secretariat spon- Agricultural Management Centre in Swaziland and sored a highly practical training course for the 168 technical education planners and administrators Caribbean region and is being urged to set up other at the Colombo Plan Staff College in Singapore and regional training courses. It is also assisting in the 394 teachers of French from The Gambia, Ghana, development of book production through the and Sierra Leone have received training at 6-week provision of experts through the Commonwealth summer schools held in the Village du Benin in Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC) and giving Lome, Togo. More specialized training in such financial assistance for attendance at established fields as seriology, animal husbandry, cartography, national and international training centres and soil conservation, management of cooperatives, attachment to book industries in developed coun- and training of the deaf has also been made tries. This assistance, unfortunately, is severely available in Commonwealth institutions. The result

117 has been not only more trained people but a scholarships, find more scholarship money but strengthening of the educational and training also, for the longer term, strengthen the academic centres that mean so much to a country's develop- standing of other Commonwealth universities so as ment and to the level of science within the whole to add to collective self-reliance. Commonwealth. One notable characteristic of the Commonwealth It seems extraordinary that the tangible and is that it constitutes an environment and a climate highly relevant contributions being made to educa- within which groups and associations of like tional development within Commonwealth coun- purpose come together and thrive.There are a great tries with the support of the Education Division and many. Two are worthy of special mention. The the Education and Training Division of the CFTC Commonwealth Foundation was established in are being curtailed through lack of funding. The 1966 to promote closer professional cooperation amounts involved seem incredibly small in the light within the Commonwealth. It provides financial of the resources of Commonwealth nations and the assistance to some 21 Commonwealth professional amounts they are making available to bilateral organizations and 16 professional centres. In a programs of international development and to other number of professional fields it offers support for multilateral programs. The annual regular budget of continuing study and research and widening of the Secretariat is £3.25 million (as of 1982, £1 = professional experience. The Commonwealth Sci- U.S.$1.72) and the pledged contributions in 1980/ ence Council (CSC) is composed of 29 countries 81 to the CFTC amounted to £9.38 million. This and is devoted to the promotion of scientific and was £2 million less than the level of expenditure in technological cooperation and a particular concern 1978/79. There are indications that some recovery for efforts to increase the capabilities of member will be made this year. But considering that the nations to use science and technology for their Commonwealth's 40 nations include about one- economic, social, and environmental development. third of the world's people, that it enjoys a common The topic for the Eighth Commonwealth Educa- language of communication, that it has achieved a tion Conference was "Education and the Develop- remarkable record of political and economic coop- ment of Human Resources." It is evident that the eration associated with a high respect for national process referred to was more than the careful self-reliance, and that in a wide range of education- application of an attractive veneer or even the care al endeavours it has shown commitment, social and nurture of a sensitive plant by knowledgable realism, and innovation, it is very strange that gardeners. It was rather a participatory process, member states and other donor agencies do not leap drawing mutually on human resources, developing at the chance of adding to this meager budget. new resources through the mutual experience. The The Eighth Commonwealth Education Confer- Commonwealth Foundation and the CSC are ence Report, on which we have already drawn, contributors to the development of human resources merits careful study. In its analysis and recommen- through education but they share in the process of dations it reveals remarkable unanimity on some of participation. the most urgent issues in educational policy. Other centres of research, learning, and scientific Universities must be more aware of their respon- expertise also share in the process of participation. sibilities to the needs of the countries in which they They are to be found throughout the Common- are placed; higher education must assume much wealth but partly, I suppose, for the same reasons more of the burden of developing the science and that apply in the Netherlands, have an impressive technology necessary for development. At the concentration in Britain. Queen Elizabeth House, primary level and going on to the secondary and for instance, was founded in Oxford as early as tertiary, it is an urgent necessity to give much 1954 as a study centre focused chiefly on Com- greater attention to the education and training of monwealth studies. But in 1968-69 its scope was women and to insist on equal employment oppor- broadened to include extensive research in tunities and greater attention to nonformal educa- development economics with a global application. tion in relation to rural development. In these and The Institute of Development Studies (IDS) at other fields, the resources of the Commonwealth the University of Sussex came into existence in and its Secretariat should be drawn on. Much 1966 with financing from the ODA. Research has dismay was registered over the discriminatory fees been at the core of its program and it has made a now fixed for overseas students by certain substantial contribution to development theory. It developed countries. The practice was having a has sponsored seminars in specialized fields that serious effect on essential training and student have brought together government officials from mobility. An attempt should be made to have the developing countries. A characteristic of its discrimination lifted for certain categories of activities has been that much of its research has

118 been closely related to actual problems, and its tered very often in this review. The educational permanent staff and research fellows have been emphasis, for example, put forward by Dr Hellberg actively involved in association with international in his exposition of WHO's concept of primary agencies and governments of developing countries health care, is completely in line with the thinking on cooperative assignments. An important con- of the Institute. It is a knowledge of the integrated tribution has been the biennial publication of environmental factors in a community and the research projects in British universities linked to a application of that knowledge that provides the unique seminar conference at which all the projects basis of health. A pamphlet entitled "Energy come under discussion. In association with the Policy for the Rural Third World," written by University of Sussex it conducts a M.Phil course in Arjun Makhijani and published by IIED says little development economics. A key to the excellence of or nothing about oil or hydroelectricity or nuclear the Institute is a development sciences library that power, but it tells a great deal about the efficient is probably unmatched in the world. utilization and conservation of the relevant energy resources in The Overseas Development Institute (ODI) in the village - water, food, fuel from London has been active since 1960. Its chief focus the forest, and the need for wisdom in harvesting is research with an emphasis on development gas from vegetable and animal waste, efficiency of policies. But like its counterpart in Washington, the stoves, energy from the wind and the sun. All of Overseas Development Council (ODC), it is vitally these are related to an increase of knowledge, concerned in furthering the public understanding of changed practice, the strengthening of local institu- and involvement in development cooperation tions. programs. Recently, under the guidance of a There are other centres and institutes that I might European editorial board of distinguished develop- mention. But what has been described is probably ment economists, it has combined forces with the enough to illustrate the importance of a partnership IDS to produce an annual survey on the European in development, which within the Commonwealth Economic Community and the Third World. The and extending beyond includes input, and output, at first issue appeared about a year ago: the second the grass-roots level but also at the highest level of survey entitled "Hunger in the World" is just scientific research. appearing. Since 1975, under an Agricultural Administration Unit, it has been conducting an CIDA and IDRC active research program on agricultural problems and policies and publishing the results. The Canadian International Development There is also a new and important centre, the Agency (CIDA) International Institute for and Environment My task in this brief chapter is to give a Development (IIED). Originally called the Inter- description of CIDA's policy and practice in regard national Institute for Environmental Affairs under to support of educational development in the the sponsorship of the Aspen Institute for countries within the scope of its programs of Humanistic Studies it of Colorado, had been active international cooperation for development and give in the preparations for the 1972 U.N. Conference some kind of a judgment as to what the policy and on the Environment held in Stockholm. The practice is likely to be during the remainder of this Institute contributed much of the staff work for the decade. If my description and judgment are to have publication of the book by Barbara Ward and Rene any meaning they must be made within the context Dubos, "Only One As Earth." a follow-up to of important changes in the international system, Stockholm it was decided to strengthen the Institute changes in Canadian policy, and changes in the and Barbara Ward was asked to become President. very philosophy of development. It is not an easy She accepted on the condition that the name be task. changed to include "Environment," because one To begin with a short background sketch: the could not approach development without consider- Canadian aid program, as it was called, was a ation for the in which people lived environment and postwar phenomenon. It was conceived at San moved and had their being. Nor could one consider Francisco when the Canadian delegation to the environment and its use and conservation unless founding United Nations conference pressed for one considered the imperatives of development. increased status for the Economic and Social The IIED would consider itself an educational Council in the Charter that was being drafted, institution even more than a research institution, because of a firm belief that international economic although research is involved. Education represents cooperation aimed at improving the standard of an integrated approach such as we have encoun- living in the world's poor countries would be an

119 important contribution to peace. The Canadian of the aid consisted of equipment and structural government took heart from the results of the materials produced in Canadian factories and mills Marshall Plan, responded favourably to President and technical advisors to guide the construction of Truman's challenge to a world-wide international the new society. At the early stage little needed to assistance program that he outlined in an address to be provided in educational support, because South Congress in January 1949, and found an immediate Asia was well supplied with institutions of higher object for its own bilateral aid program in the education. But when in the late 1950s and early Colombo Plan to give assistance to the group of 1960s the aid program was extended to Common- newly independent Commonwealth nations in wealth Africa, Francophone Africa, and the Carib- South and Southeast Asia after the end of British bean, while the main industrialization program rule over India, Pakistan, Ceylon, and Burma. The continued the demands for educational support plan was extended to include other nations in became clamant. Southeast Asia as they gained their independence. By this time the interdepartmental team had been The main objectives in both the Marshall and given some structure and a name. The External Aid Truman plans, and they applied as well to the Office (EAO) had four divisions responsible for Canadian efforts, were: repair the war devastation capital assistance, technical assistance through the suffered by countries and their people in Europe provision of Canadian experts, a training division and in other parts of the world; in so doing, that opened places in Canadian universities to strengthen a barrier against the spread of com- students from developing countries, and an educa- munism; and provide a market for the glut of tion division responsible for supplying Canadian products produced by industries, undamaged by teachers for schools in Anglophone and Fran- war and, in fact, enlarged through serving war cophone Africa. needs. These foreign-policy objectives were rein- Strangely enough, all four divisions were forced by a spirit of postwar internationalism that involved in a very active educational program expressed itself in a determination to enhance during the 1950s and into the 1960s. It was a period international understanding by charitable giving. when the building of schools, vocational training Added to these motivations was a simple faith in institutes, and university buildings and extensions a technocratic approach to what came to be known were called for. These activities came under the as "development." Just as battered and suffering capital assistance division. For technical assistance, Europe was being restored to robust health by the experts from Canadian universities were very much infusion of money and machinery and building and in demand and EAO representatives made the expertise provided by the Marshall Plan so the rounds of engineering faculties, agricultural facul- primitive, in some cases war-damaged, and in all ties, and departments of economics like weekend cases poverty-stricken countries of South and shoppers in a supermarket. The admission of Southeast Asia could be given the advantages of foreign students to Canadian institutions was our advanced industrial civilization by a sufficient handled quite separately from the recruitment, infusion of Western capital, equipment, and know- dispatch, and maintenance of teachers overseas. It how. With sufficient technological help they would didn't seem to occur to the Office that the building take off and fly on their own. It was such a faith of an educational system was an integrated process that dominated most international assistance and that there was an intimate relationship along the through the 1960s. Associated with such a faith was chain from the architect to the newly trained a firm belief in education - beginning with literacy teacher, not to mention the users of the school and and going on to the highest level of university the drafters of the curricula. scholarly attainment. Education provided the Meanwhile, important changes in the interna- trained workforce by which the modern world tional system and in the philosophy of development could be created and maintained. The educated - the two were related - were taking place and were those who would partake fully of the benefits were to affect the Canadian aid policy. In the first of the new world. place, the process of decolonization quickened; at Canada contributed to the United Nations one stroke de Gaulle dissolved the French colonial Expanded Program of Technical Assistance, which empire in a speech at Brazzaville. This had the was set up in response to Truman's Point Four effect of creating a majority of developing countries challenge. Its own participation in the Colombo in the membership of the United Nations. Their Plan, which was a coordinated complex of bilateral united vote called, in the first place, for a speedy programs, was administered under a loose inter- end to the remaining colonial regimes, and then for departmental grouping recruited from Industry an international meeting on the relationship be- Trade and Commerce and External Affairs. Much tween international trade and development. At that

120 conference held in 1964, a group of 77 developing concentration on regional and country programs - nations showed remarkable unanimity in calling for Asia, Africa, Commonwealth Africa, Francophone structural changes in the international order to bring Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean. about a more equitable distribution of resources as Three operational divisions administer the pro- well as greatly increased development assistance grams Bilateral, Multilateral, from the rich countries. - and Special Programs. About this time, and coming to a climax at the end of the 60s, which President Kennedy had The Bilateral Branch accounts for the largest christened the "Development Decade," it was share of the program budget, 55%. Countries of generally recognized that the vaunted technological concentration are selected on the basis of certain approach to development did not work. National criteria suggested in the foreign policy review - GNP might be increased somewhat. Certain urban potentiality for development, relevance, and groups close to the growing industrial and commer- availability of Canadian resources. The poorest cial centres might enjoy improved status. But the countries receive high priority. The Multilateral great majority of the poor, whether in the urban Branch looks areas or in the slums of the cities, were no better after funding programs executed by off. A large international "Crisis in Planning international agencies, mainly, but not exclusively, Conference" held at the Institute of Development belonging to the United Nations family, on which Studies at Sussex University decided that economic Canada is represented. While programs under the goals were not enough: consideration had to be UNDP, the World Bank, and the International given to actual needs of people, to social goals of Development Association (IDA) are determined by development. More than that, it came more and their governing bodies, there are a number of more more to be believed that people in developing specialized international programs, as we have countries, from village to national level, should seen, to which an individual country has the option have a large say in the making and implementing of of making a contribution. The Multilateral Branch development policy. Some of these conclusions is responsible for 37% were reflected in the report of the Pearson of CIDA's budget. Commission, prepared for the World Bank and The Special Programs Branch made a modest issued in 1969, the same year as the Sussex beginning in 1968 as a division concerned in giving conference. support to Canadian NGOs committed to programs A foreign policy review, issued by the Govern- or projects in cooperation for development. In the ment of Canada in 1970, reflected some serious decade of the 1970s, the division expanded rapidly heart-searching in the volume dealing with interna- with international as well as Canadian NGOs tional development. It said: applying for and receiving support on a matching basis. The division was promoted to the status of a The people of these countries have accepted the Branch. Quite recently it established the Institu- primary responsibility for their own development tional Cooperation and Development Services and provide most of the resources required. They Division to finance linkages between Canadian must set their own economic and social objectives, universities and universities in Third World coun- chart the main direction and dynamics of their tries. In fact, other institutions concerned with growth, and accept the economic sacrifices required. Development assistance can provide the development cooperation are eligible for CIDA extra margin of support that will enable their support. CIDA had been stretching the definition of sacrifices to be tolerable, and that will supplement an NGO and waving some of the matching their own resources with particular skills, experi- requirement to fund university linkages for some ence, equipment, and materials that are limited time; now the establishment of the Institutional within their own economies but are essential to the Cooperation and Development Services made the continuation of their development programs. operation legitimate, brought about a new definition of criteria and priorities and generally added an It is not surprising that a serious examination of important element to university support. It should Canada's foreign aid policy should coincide with a be noted as well that much of the NGO activity, decision to regroup into a more compact but at the perhaps 50%, was directed toward some form of same time more responsive structure in Canada's education and usually in the neglected rural and development aid organization. In the late 60s, village level. CIDA came into existence. In the first place, it got There are two other branches that, to use away from the sectoral divisions of the External old-fashioned terms, play a "staff" rather than a Aid Office, establishing the Agency to permit "line" role. These are the Policy Branch and the

121 Resources Branch. The Policy Branch, as its name economic community to introduce a measure of implies, is concerned with the necessary adaptation equity into a divided world. This demand became of CIDA policy to changing needs and situations articulate and specific in two Special Sessions of and also has an active interest in the evaluation of the U.N. General Assembly in 1974 and 1975. The CIDA's ongoing programs. The Resources Branch immediate result was increased polarization be- might be regarded as a carry-over from the days tween the rich and poor countries. But more careful when the External Aid Office was divided along reflection brought a recognition of the justice of the sectoral lines. In fact, today it has a key role as the claims of the poor countries on the part of the emphasis shifts to social and away from purely developed countries. Canada's Prime Minister was economic development and concerns itself with one of those who came out strongly in favour of a human goals involving education, health, human combined effort to achieve a New International habitations, and communications - all sections of Economic Order and played an important role in the Resources Branch alongside of the infrastruc- producing a measure of consensus in a meeting of tural and engineering sections. In the case of Commonwealth Heads of Government just prior education, while it is credited with having concern to the critical U.N. Special Session in 1975. At for the educational aspects of every program or about the same time, CIDA produced its "Strategy project sponsored by the Agency, it tends to be for International Development Cooperation sought out when the program or project bears a 1975 -1980. " recognizable educational label - a technical The document is no doubt a familiar one to those training school, a teachers' training institute, some who have been following the evolution of educational project in an integrated rural develop- development policy. But I have found it worthy of ment program. But when it is a project with heavy more careful study as an almost autobiographical infrastructural content the resource section called account of a dawning awareness of a world upon will be engineering, and the educational community within which a realistic development consultant will be brought in at a later stage to give cooperation policy must be formulated. advice on certain peripheral training or mainte- We start with where we came from: nance aspects. Too rarely is it considered that the The evidence is overwhelming that in the 1960s chief considerations in building a dam are human despite the achievement of an overall 5 per cent considerations and not considerations centred on growth rate by the developing countries, negligi- cement and steel and bedrock and hydrology. For a ble per capita income gains resulted for those dam to irrigate cropland is also a displacer of living in the most desperate poverty. people and a transformer of society, opening up Now a recognition of the emergent world possibilities of improved health and nutrition and community: sanitation and way of life, but only if the people The viability of an increasingly interdependent who are affected become participants in the process world order rests on the creation of an internation- the very of transformation. This suggests that at al economic system which will provide a more beginning the counsel of the education section - equitable distribution of resources and oppor- and perhaps also the health and population section, tunities for all people. the human settlements section, the social develop- a recognition that within that global system ment section, and the communications section Then - the developing countries are responsible for setting should be sought. Beyond them, and in cooperation the goals and designing the programs for their with them, the full participation of the local economic and social development so that the authorities in those same areas of social develop- majority of their people may enjoy and participate ment is needed because, after all, it is their project. in of a better life. Canada's In this context the building of the dam takes on the achievement is to support those enhanced human significance. obligation and opportunity Such an approach is not too far out of line with a efforts: new strategy announced by CIDA in the mid- The objective of the Canadian development 1970s. Important international developments had assistance program is to support the efforts of the produced basic changes in relations between what developing countries in fostering their economic growth and the evolution of their social systems in had come to be known as the North and the South. a way that will produce a wide distribution of the the First came the sudden demonstration of power benefits of development among the population of of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Coun- these countries, enhance the quality of life and tries (OPEC) group in the oil crisis of 1973. Then improve the capacity of all sectors of their came the not unrelated demands of the enlarged population to participate in national development Group of 77 for a restructured international efforts.

122 Finally, within this context, there is the recogni- universities' resources national development. In her tion of the central goals of development, the human report, she recommended the establishment of a goals, and the need to lend support to the struggle Council, not unlike Britain's Inter-University against those conditions that keep millions prison- Council for Higher Education Overseas or the ers of poverty and ignorance: Dutch NUFFIC, to coordinate Canadian universities' policies on development and to be responsi- The Canadian International Development ble for facilitating mutually satisfactory linkages Agency will focus its assistance to a greater extent between Canadian on the most crucial aspects or problems of and Third World universities. development - food production and distribution; Unfortunately, the recommendation was not rural development; education and training; public acceptable either to CIDA or to AUCC and 10 years health and demography; and shelter and energy. were to elapse before the idea was revived. Meanwhile, students from developing countries The practice of CIDA in the last half of the received training in Canadian universities, Cana- decade of the 1980s reflected in considerable dian universities served as banks of professional measure the guidelines set forth in the "Strategy." expertise on which CIDA could draw, and in its The Bilateral Branch put considerable emphasis on bilateral program CIDA funded some useful infrastructural projects designed to promote rural interuniversity and interinstitutional linkages; development. Food aid in the form of surplus Guelph University and the University of Ghana in wheat alleviated famine conditions occasioned by agricultural sciences; McGill and the University of drought in many countries of Asia and Africa. The Nairobi in medical training; University of Alberta IDRC more than fulfilled the criteria set by the and the Ministry of Education in Thailand in "Strategy": that the research and innovation be educational administration. Then a proposal origi- directed to solutions of major world problems of nating in a committee on which CIDA, IDRC, and food and rural development, training and basic AUCC were represented was put forward for an educational needs, health and population planning, International Development Office attached to shelter and energy; that supported activities AUCC, which bore a close resemblance to the strengthen the capabilities of developing countries recommendation of the Walmsley Report. This for advancing their own indigenous research and time it was accepted and the International innovation; and that supported activities have an Development Office was established to coordinate impact beyond one country or region. Canadian universities' interests in development, But by far the greatest recognition of the new establish criteria for linked university projects, and priority to be accorded the human goals of act as a clearing house of information for Canadian development was evident in the activities and and Third World universities seeking cooperative expanding role of the Special Programs Branch. association in teaching, consultation, and research. We have already noted the significance of this As a counterpart, to work in close association with development, beginning with the involvement of the International Development Office, CIDA set up Canadian NGOs in programs and projects closely the Institutional Cooperation and Development related to basic human needs and closely linked Services Division with identical criteria and with the activities of social and educational priorities. At a conference held at York University organizations in developing countries at the local or in Toronto, Marcel Masse, President of CIDA said: village level. As we noted, the activities were first supported by matching grants from CIDA; but Our and most important reason for launching a new program of institutional cooperation was overall, the contributions made by the NGOs in that we wanted to move away from the notion of 1980/81 more than doubled the grant from CIDA. aid with its confining 'donor-receiver' connotation It would appear that we have something resembling to new relationships between Canada and the the Swedish situation where the involvement of the developing countries based on partnership and people in international concern gives backing to mutuality. The developing countries do not wish government in its policy of assistance but also to be permanent recipients of aid or charity; they transcends it in a determination to participate as seek equality in their relations with other nations. members of a world community. We must be prepared to work with them as The Institutional Cooperation and Development partners. Services Division merits some additional attention. The approach is as realistic as it is humane. It In 1968, with CIDA support, the Association of confirms a central position in the Brandt Report that Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC) there is a mutual advantage to developed and named Dr Norma Walmsley, a professor of developing nations in seeking out areas of coopera- political science, to conduct a survey of Canadian tion within a single world community. It is an

123 approach quite in line with the "Strategy" and with and must call for integrated action on the part of all subsequent policy objectives. Unfortunately, its sections of CIDA that may be involved. As Marcel general implementation is blocked by a serious Masse also stated in the speech made at York constraint that goes back to early concepts of aid University in Toronto: "This approach, which will and to the close historical relationship between emphasize the developing country as the centre of Canada's evolving policy of international coopera- all our efforts, should help to ensure that all CIDA tion and its origins in the Department of Industry assistance to a particular country be complementary Trade and Commerce. The constraining policy may and mutually reinforcing." be stated in simple terms: give all the help that you In the context of our earlier discussion, this can to aid poor countries but remember that it must means that the technocrat must effect a reconcilia- be Canadian aid. CIDA's 1979/80 Annual Report tion with the humanist, the humanist with the put it neatly: technocrat. But because the evolution of CIDA policy has been toward the assertion of the priority By regulation, 80 percent of the funds spent by of human goals in development strategy and CIDA on bilateral programs have to go into the participation, technocracy must go hand in hand services used on Canadian economy for goods and with social development, institution building and overseas projects. education. This opens the way to a much wider Tied aid was condemned by the Pearson Report, range of cooperation. Marcel Masse continues: and in the "Strategy" there were prayerful and One of the main reasons why we are moving somewhat guilty hopes that it might be reduced, towards this country focus approach in CIDA is to because it was quite incompatible with the affirma- enable us to tap the creativity as well as the tion that development policy was made in and by expertise and capability which our universities developing countries. Moreover, because aid tied possess in such abundance. In the past our in such large measure to the products of Canada's bilateral, government-to-government relationships to large-scale, capital- factories and mills and to Canadian technocratic have been confined mainly intensive projects between national governments, be concentrated on the building of direction tends to implemented through contracts with firms, large industrial infrastructure, social and human goals are institutions and the like. I am anxious that we apt to be pushed to one side. This can be true even should diversify our capacity to respond to the in the rural sector, as we have seen. Within the development needs of a country and, in this context of this study, it is impossible not to recall process, cultivate a wide range of relationships that with Sweden's annual development assistance with room for many types of organizations and allocation in excess of 1% GNP, tied aid in the institutions. In this way I believe we can respond fiscal year, 1981/82 remains at 14.8% of the total more flexibly, swiftly and effectively to develop- aid budget, 22% of the bilateral budget. ment needs. It would appear to be consistent with CIDA's The budget of CIDA is increasing year by year present direction of policy to liberate itself from and will continue to do so. The proportion of that this quite unnecessary constraint. The technocratic budget devoted to the support of educational temptation would of course still remain. There is a programs in developing countries is also increas- bureaucratic inertia that resists change, holds to ing. But the support of education does not depend familiar patterns, and rejoices in monuments of as much on resources as on attitudes and priorities. steel and concrete with a real or imaginary What is more important in estimating CIDA's Canadian flag flying on top. But there is also a future policy on educational support is where it is momentum and dynamic in the involvement of placing human goals in the strategy of cooperation people, seeking goals they have set with others, for development. Recent trends are encouraging. subjects not objects in the development process. Even in an international development agency one The International Development Research observes a dialectic between the technocrat and the Centre (IDRC) humanist. The most recent change in CIDA policy, and to Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson advanced the some extent structure, has been the adoption of the original idea for IDRC in 1967, Canada's centen- "country focus." This carries into actual design nial year, in an address before the Canadian and planning a principle that has been implicit, at Political Science Association when he explored the least in declaratory form, in CIDA policy since the need for "concentrating more attention and publication of the "Strategy." It means that the resources on applying the latest technology to the policy to be followed in any country must be related solution of man's economic and social problems on to priority needs, must be consistent within itself, a global basis." At about the same time, Maurice

124 Strong, President of CIDA, was exploring with and social development on priorities established by some associates the means of strengthening the them. To bring the work of the Centre closer to the research capacity of developing countries as a key needs and research resources in the Third World, factor in their progress. The two men met and the IDRC has established five regional offices in planning began on the design of an institution that Singapore, Dakar, Nairobi, Bogota, and Cairo. would flesh out and eventually bring to realization At first glance it might appear that a Centre the two closely related ideas. A report was drawn devoted to the funding of development research up by a steering committee and submitted to would have little significance as a sponsor of cabinet, now headed by Pierre Elliott Trudeau, in educational development. But from the beginning September 1968, and the proposal for establishing the IDRC has focused its main concern on the the Centre appeared in the throne speech the second objective in its terms of reference: "to assist following month. the developing regions to build up the research The Act establishing the IDRC contained the capabilities, the innovative skills and the institu- following terms of reference: tions to solve their problems." This is essentially The objects of the Centre are to initiate, an educational support activity, closely related to encourage, support and conduct research into the the support being given to universities and other problems of the developing regions of the world institutions of higher learning that will make an and into the means of applying and adapting ongoing contribution to the scientific community in scientific, technical and other knowledge to the the Third World. economic and social advancement of those re- In some cases the educational contribution has a gions, and, in carrying out these objects (a) to direct linkage with a research project, as when the enlist the talents of natural and social scientists results and technologists of Canada and other countries; of research efforts in food production must (b) to assist the developing regions to build up the be made available to farmers working their fields. research capabilities, the innovative skills and the Or, as in the case of a rural development project in institutions to solve their problems; (c) to encour- Sri Lanka, it is linked to the organization of a age generally the coordination of international training program in the Faculty of Agriculture in development research; and (d) to foster coopera- one of the universities. Or again, in the rural tion in research on development problems between development project in association with the the developed and developing regions for their Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (ICA) in Col- mutual benefit. ombia, the project team learns from the farmers A unique feature of the new Centre that about the biophysical environment within which contributed greatly to its achievements and reputa- they have carried out their agricultural production tion was that although it was fully funded by for centuries. Later the farmers can learn from the the Government of Canada, its operations were project team, not only about improved methods of directed by an international Board of Governors of cultivation but also about nutrition, housing, 21, 10 of whom were Canadians, 10 non-Cana- clothing, and home food production that will dians, with a Canadian chairman. Of the non- improve the standard of living of their families. Canadians, it became the practice that at least six In some of the activities under the Health would be appointed from developing countries. The Sciences Division, experiences in developing first President of IDRC was Dr David Hopper, an technology for an improved rural water supply internationally respected agricultural economist opened the way to a broad range of social education who had served for many years in India under the in sanitation, basic health care, and maintenance Rockefeller and Ford Foundations' research pro- necessary if pure water were to meet people's basic grams in the field of high-yield wheat and rice. The needs. The activities of the Information Sciences first Chairman of the Board of Governors was Mr Division are obviously strengthening educational Lester B. Pearson. infrastructure by contributing to the building of The Centre sponsors research under four opera- information networks in regions where access to tional divisions: Agriculture, Food and Nutrition current scientific literature and knowledge is Sciences; Social Sciences; Health Sciences; and extremely difficult and libraries are scarce. The Information Sciences. There is also a Communica- Division is unable to provide training for librarians tions Division responsible for publication of some unless it is specifically identified as a requirement of the research findings sponsored by the Centre for infrastructural development. But it can and does and reports on the broad range of Centre activities. give support to cooperative arrangements among From the beginning the Centre has offered support librarians and libraries to maximize their resources. for researchers in developing countries on projects The Centre's own library is run by the Information and programs with a close relationship to economic Sciences Division and its use is not confined to the

125 Centre's staff but is a major information source for institute, so that they may spend I or 2 years the Canadian development community. working in a research institute in a developing One of the important contributions made in country. recent years to community development education In its support of Third World scholars, the has been made by the magazine "Famille et Fellowship Program will give more emphasis to Developpement." It came into existence as a result training in areas of concentration associated with of the recommendation of a seminar on family the work of the operational divisions. This may health problems held in Bamako, Mali, in April mean support for training directly related to the 1973. With financial support from IDRC the first preparation, implementation, and follow-up work regular issue appeared in January 1975 and has met linked to a project within the responsibility of a with widespread and enthusiastic response. The single division. Or it may mean scholarship support magazine, which is attractively produced by any for researchers and professionals in the broad fields standard, deals with every aspect of family of interest of the divisions and in regions where the economy and well-being - hygiene, family plan- need for professionally trained people is acute. In ning, safety of mother and child, education and addition, in close association with the divisions, the rural schools, and rural development and obstacles Fellowship Program will introduce a number of to development such as the Third World arms race. group training courses, either in a developing It is particularly directed at a group of people close country or in Canada. A Centre report states that to where the majority of people are living - "when organized regionally ...they build up the teachers, nurses, midwives, technical health offi- teaching strengths of the institutions in developing cers, and so on. To reach the group for which it is countries and they create a network among the intended IDRC contributed some CA$900 000 researcher trainees. " during its first 5 years. In June 1978 "Famille et The Pearson Fellowships are designed for young Developpement" was taken over by the Associa- public servants in developing countries who are tion africaine d'education pour le developpement given the opportunity of improving their manage- (ASAFED) and receives support from a number of rial and professional skills by being placed in international agencies including UNFPA, the Ford positions in government, industry, universities or Foundation, Actions de Careme (Switzerland), research centres in Canada. The Fellowship Pro- Cooperation technique suisse, and Swedish SIDA. gram accounts for some 6% of the Centre budget. If Support for educational research is one of the the IDRC budget increases as expected, the major interests of the Social Sciences Division. The Fellowship Program in the next 5 years will research covers a wide range of educational increase from about CA$2.5 million to CA$6 subjects: classroom environment and student million. achievement in Thailand, urban preschool envi- The Communications Division of IDRC also ronment in Guatemala, effectiveness of primary makes its contribution to education - in the Third education in Tanzania, the status of primary school World and in Canada. The publication of reports teachers in Egypt, women's participation in com- and monographs related to research supported by munity organizations in Peru, and a comparative the Centre adds to the store of knowledge relevant study of the people's schools in the Philippines. to the urgent needs of people and societies in Among larger projects, it has continued to support developing regions. For the people of Canada - the work of the Advisory Committee for Educa- the children in the schools, the members of NGOs, tional Research. The education program of the churches, and trade unions - the publications of Division was budgeted at CA$1.75 million or 20% IDRC open up new options for involvement in of the divisional total for 1981-82. By 1984-85 it international cooperation and development. should amount to CA$2.6 million. The latest and very promising addition to IDRC's The Fellowship Program of the IDRC has been roster is a unit known as the Cooperative Programs. designed to assist scholars and researchers who It was created to "promote research collaboration wish to upgrade their competence in their fields of between groups in Canada and those in the specialization to render them more effective in their developing world, in the execution of projects that contribution to development cooperation. Until address some problems of Third World develop- recently, scholars from both the Third World and ment." A more comprehensive goal of the program Canada have been eligible for awards. It has now is to strengthen the global community of scientists been decided to increase very significantly the and scholars through common efforts and improved support for researchers from developing countries channels of communication and to influence the and confine Canadian support to young researchers direction of Canadian research toward Third World at present attached to a university or research concerns.

126 In a sense, the Cooperative Programs Unit is worth of the project and the special qualification of IDRC's counterpart to CIDA's Institutional Coop- the Canadian university for being a partner in the eration and Development Services Division. To a research. Projects within the scope of any of large degree the background is the same. But in IDRC's operational divisions will be administered addition, IDRC, through the initiatives of its then by the appropriate division. Projects outside of the senior vice-president, Dr Louis Berlinguet, took an field of interest of any of the divisions will be active role in the preparatory work for the United administered under the Cooperative Programs. Nations Conference on Science and Technology for Funds available for the current year amount to Development (UNCSTD), which was held in CA$2 million, divided equally between the divi- Vienna in the summer of 1979. Dr Berlinguet sions and the Cooperative Programs. If IDRC's served on the Advisory Committee of scientists that budget increases in proportion to the projected held several meetings prior to the conference and, increase in Canada's development cooperation in collaboration with the Ministry of State for budget the grants for the Cooperation Programs will Science and Technology (MOSST), contributed to rise to CA$2.5 million, CA$5 million, and CA$10 the mobilization of Canadian scientific interest. As million by 1984-85. That fiscal target will still be a result, at Vienna the head of Canada's delegation less than 0.5% of Canada's GNP, far short of the announced that Canada would contribute CA$12 1% promised at Vienna. But linked with CIDA's million a year to the goals of UNCSTD through parallel contribution through its Institutional Coop- sponsoring scientific cooperation and that IDRC eration and Development Services Division, and in would be responsible for supervising the expendi- close coordination with Canadian universities ture. through the International Development Office, The Cooperative Programs Unit is concerned IDRC's Cooperative Programs can make a sub- with supporting research linkages between univer- stantial contribution to higher education in the sities and research institutions in Canada and Third World. Moreover, there is good reason to institutions in developing countries that will result hope that this kind of cooperation would be in strengthening the scientific capability of the extended even more to similar programs in the countries involved. Specific criteria in accepting Commonwealth, in international agencies, and in projects would be the priority attached to the the like-minded countries that we have examined in project by the Third World institutions, the this study, to the growing advantage of the commitment of both institutions, the scientific emerging international community.

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