The Unified Decompression Model

Assessing dive profile safety by using A Combined Decompression Model An empirical approach to decompression modeling Steve Burton C.Eng, Mark Ellyatt <<<DRAFT Version V1.6 FOR REVIEW PURPOSES ONLY> The last 100 years has seen many mathematical models and empirically developed procedures developed to predict the human body’s decompression requirements for ascent after utilizing breathing gases at high ambient pressures. Decompression ‘dissolved gas’ models developed to provide safe procedures for military or commercial divers with saturation recompression facilities ‘on site’, were proven unsuitable for use by recreational divers or self supported ‘technical divers’ carrying out dives utilizing Air, Nitrox and Helium mixed gases. Subsequently more relevant models were developed for mainstream use. Decompression researcher J.P Imbert (ref1. 1998) first identified the need for a combined model to better predict safer decompression. This paper proposes a new ‘combined’ model containing elements representing the decompression limits identified in formally researched ‘man-tested’ experiments, and attempts to predict safe decompression for all dive exposures and breathing gases. The model also includes additional tissues to accurately predict deep stops plus a rules system to prevent Isobaric Counter Diffusion (ICD) using Trimix buffer gases for decompression. Why a ‘Combined’ Decompression Model? The need for such a ‘meta model’ that takes into account all Decompression Model use observed phenomena without triggering decompression Early decompression models evolved from a sickness is well documented(1). The bulk of all formal ‘man combination of animal testing and ultimately ‘man testing’. The tested’ research data suggests that such a Combined resulting decompression model was then used to determine Decompression Model would likely take the form of a ‘neo- the divers ‘no decompression limit’ or the maximum time a Haldanean’ tissue matrix of m-values and half-times (2). diver could safely stay down at a particular depth and ascend An historic trend has been established that new directly to the surface without DCI. All decompression models decompression models incorporate progressively more predict that divers exposed underwater for longer than the no conservative tissue constants. This indicates, that a decompression limit are required to carry out decompression decompression model combined of the most conservative stops during their ascent to arrive safely at the surface without tissue m-values and half times discovered by all previous man- DCI. The research and ‘man testing’ necessary to develop testing, should be at the ‘heart’ of any new Combined Model. such a decompression model could take several years, and However, there are still circumstances where a diver using a hundreds of ‘chamber dives’ table based on such a model, could receive a DCI ‘hit’ In the 1980’s divers began to use submergible ‘dive Abnormalities have existed within all current Neo- computers’ with embedded Neo-Haldanean decompression Haldanean models that require procedural techniques to avoid models to determine a safe dive profile ‘in real time’ during the injury (4). DCI injuries received while well within the non- dive. decompression limits, and more recently, the need for In the 1990’s the availability of inexpensive desk-top maximum ascent rates while not exceeding any currently computers and decompression software, encouraged technical identified ‘tissue critical tensions’, have encouraged the divers planning dives in the depth range 30-300meters to implementation of procedural techniques such as ‘safety stops’. compute their own ‘custom dive profiles’ based on individual ‘deep-stops’ and hyperoxic Trimix decompression gas mixtures and decompression gas combinations. gases are utilized to further lower DCI stress during technical Since each computed dive plan & gas combination is exposures. These techniques both improve diver safety for a ‘custom profile’ that has likely never undergone extensive recreational ‘non-decompression diving’ and have prevented ‘man-testing’, undiscovered decompression phenomena serious decompression injuries occurring during technical generated by this unique profile may still exist and jeopardize dives (6, 7). the divers safety. Thus the challenge for a ‘Combined Model’ is to Millions of dives are carried out every year by predict safe decompression for all breathing gas mixtures at all recreational divers, thus the ‘no decompression limits’ for air depths. The dive profile generated by the Combined Model diving are widely known, and may be considered a reliable should not require additional ‘safety stops’, ‘deep-stops’ or data set. other measures to compensate for shortcomings in the model, Additionally, driven by the need to carry out work on and furthermore should identify the correct decompression gas the sea bed during oil exploration, extensive ‘man testing’ has choice that avoids counter-diffusing gas complications possible been carried out to develop decompression profiles for when using Helium mixed gas for ‘bottom mix’. Assessing dive profile safety by using a Combined Decompression Model V1.6. Page - 1 - commercial saturation divers down to depths of 700 feet per hour. Following extensive problems with commercial meters/2,300ft. divers suffering from DCI in the late 1970’s being exposed to In comparison with recreational and commercial dive profiles with apparently insufficient decompression, diving, there has been comparatively little work carried out to subsequent research in the 1980’s with Doppler bubble develop a reliable decompression model for technical divers detectors used to detect bubbles flowing in the divers blood, carrying out short duration bounce dives in the 30- revealed the need to add much longer tissue half times to the 300meter/100-1,000ft range. existing models than were previously thought necessary. The Thus a computerized ‘meta model’ that takes into prevention of type IV osteo-necrosis, or bone death, caused by account all depths, breathing gases, descent/ascent rates etc, bubbles generated in the bone marrow from blocking tiny and correctly predicts the safe dive profile and gas choices for capillary vessels in the long bones, required the addition of both recreational, technical & saturation diving has still to be very long ’10 hour’ tissue half times. developed. Note, that saturation divers are decompressed very This paper analyses what form such a ‘meta-model’ slowly indeed, often equivalent to an ascent rate of a few feet will likely take, and further examine the development of such a (1 meter) per hour. This is much slower than would be model that has proven useful in generating the first successful achieved on a technical dive ascent planned with a ‘bubble bounce dive profiles for technical divers in the 1,000ft range, model’ with short 1-2 minute stops added into the ascent, that that did not generate significant DCI. would supposedly remove the need to carry out long decompression stops in accordance with bubble theory Proven decompression models? postulates. ‘Man tested’ models for bounce dives in excess of Research during the 1970’s into the causes of brittle 100meters/330ft are particularly poorly researched. Most data bones in saturation divers has proven that even with the in this range has been developed with a commercial diving saturation divers ultra slow ascent rate, the diver is still task in mind, and with ‘saturation divers’ as the tool. It was only required to carry out slow ,laborious decompression of his ‘long 25 years ago, that the French commercial diving company half time tissues’ or risk debilitating Type IV DCI COMEX carried out the then unprecedented 2 hour bottom (osteonecrosis). time ‘bounce dive’ to 180meters. The depth was not Prior to the research by Prof A. Buhlmann research, exceptional, but the subsequent decompression of 47 divers most dive tables had only a 120min half time as the slowest who used the table to recompress to the surface in only 48 tissue. Buhlman's research indicated the need for a 640min hours without any DCI incidents, was a world first(1). half time tissue to avoid DCI. Nowadays, self contained tech divers with limited Thus long half time tissue compartments should be a surface support, carrying out all their decompression ‘in water’ key feature in any decompression model that attempts to using ‘custom dive profiles’, carry out dives to twice this depth, predict a safe dive profile for all dive exposures. and expect to be back on the surface in less than 10 hours (7). For recreational (non-deco) diving only, research has Most recently (late 1990’s) the wide availability of high proven that long tissue half times (longer than 60mins) may be power computers and advanced analytical tools has assisted in all but ignored accept in special circumstances (5). the development of new decompression models based on But for technical(decompression) diving and either purely mathematical theories or observations of bubbles saturation diving, it is essential that the decompression model in gel samples or fish(9). either has long half time tissues or in the case of ‘bubble Decompression techniques based on ‘bubble models’ models’ that generate the custom dive profiles using alternative typically require the diver to carry out many small stops during mathematical techniques, the dive profile must generate a ascent from the bottom, in an attempt to reduce bubble growth. profile that mimics their existence in accordance with the ‘man Bubble

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