HANGZHOU: THOUGHTS FROM THE ROOM

“Families, when a child is born Want it to be intelligent. I, through intelligence, Having wrecked my whole life, Only hope the baby will prove Ignorant and stupid Then he will crown a tranquil life By becoming a cabinet minister.” (Su Dongpo)

IN THE , WAS ONE OF THE LARGEST AND MOST WEALTHY CITIES IN THE WORLD. IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, OFFICIALS WERE HELD IN HIGH ESTEEM FOR THEIR SKILLS IN POETRY.

Tucked between rolling mountains and lush valleys lies enchanting Hangzhou. The city is one of ’s most popular tourist attractions, well known for its architecture and gardens. On the shore side boulevard of Xi Hu, or , there are numerous tearooms where tourists sip local long jing, Dragon Well tea. It has been enjoyed in green, porcelain cups, ground and quickly steeped, in Hangzhou for over a millennium. This city, described by Italian explorer Marco Polo as the most grand and elegant place in the world, was the capital of China’s Song Dynasty from the year 1167. The beauty of Hangzhou is a relic of a time that valued poetry and scholarship above all else. The three centuries of the Song Dynasty were one of the most active, innovative and prosperous time periods in the world. During the time of the dynasty, the Chinese learned to live in the world’s largest cities, and Hangzhou, and to enjoy their spectacular cultural life. Hangzhou made a great impression on Marco Polo. Although the grandest days of the city had already passed, he revered the city, which he called Kinsai, with its cobblestone streets and plentiful restaurants and spas. Many philosophers, thinkers and writers came to live there. The narrow alleyways of Hangzhou were full of tearooms, each one more elegant than the previous, where the city’s elite founded clubs and discussion groups. A text from the year 1235 mentions the West Lake poetry club, Buddhist tea society, Fitness club, Occultist club, Young women’s club, Exotic food society, Fruit and vegetable club, Antique collectors club, Friends of horses club and the Society of refined . In the 10th century, this capital of the Wu Ye Empire was already one of Southern China’s most important centres. It attracted scholars from all over China, Japan, and Mongolia. When Hangzhou became part of the Song Dynasty in 978, it retained its important position as a wealthy city of the southern regions, specialized in trade with foreigners. Kaifeng in the North became the capital of the Song Empire. Emperor Taizong expanded his empire from Kaifeng all the way to Canton in the South. The expansion of the empire is without comparison in Chinese history; it happened in a relatively peaceful, even civilized, manner.

THE PRINTED WORD

According to Dieter Kuhn, a historian specialised in Chinese history, the 11th century in the Song Dynasty is one of the most intellectually fascinating and stimulating periods in human history. A notable invention served as impetus for this creativity. Only seven years before the founder of the dynasty, Taizu, rose to power in the year 954, a man by the name of Feng Dao had completed a collection of classic texts. Feng Dao had engraved the texts onto wooden plates in embossed letters and printed Confucius as well as almost all of the that had been written by that time. The ability to print books was of great interest to Emperor Taizu, who was liberal and interested in different religions and philosophies. In the year 971, Taizu ordered a Chinese edition of the canon of Buddhism, Tripataka, to be published. It was engraved onto 130 000 wooden tiles and completed in the year 983. During the Song period, book moved out of the inner circles of Buddhist monasteries and was made available to all. Literacy levels experienced an explosive increase. The ceramic typesetting was invented, which served to significantly improve and speed up the printing process. This is how the world’s first industrial printing house and private printing industry got their start. The state favoured the printing of classics. Great encyclopaedias were also commissioned: the aim being a comprehensive encyclopaedia covering all of the knowledge of the time, which was made in the year 981. A collection on architecture was published in the , as were works related to , and vegetation. Block printing reduced the price of books by ninety per cent and publishers were able to make a profit nonetheless. Printed books increased interest in studies and literature immensely. Block printing was the impetus for the Song Dynasty culture, which so emphasised scholarship. There was now something completely different in place of the respected career of a soldier. The brush was more important than the sword.

ENTRANCE EXAMS TO PROSPERITY

Taizu, the founder of the Song Dynasty, was an exceptionally well-liked ruler. The fact that his soldiers shouted for him to be emperor speaks volumes of his charisma. In the year 960, Taizu, a commanding officer at the royal at the time, was convinced by his soldiers to seize power. Taizu agreed only on the condition that the soldiers promise to leave the ruling family, royal and especially the residents of Kaifeng in peace. Taizu made bold administrative reforms during his 16 years in power. He did not like political appointments, which were popular during the . Taizu assured that the influence of generals and the nobility on administration decreased. Now the most qualified, talented and educated were able to access the administration. Taizu decided to enact the ideas of Confucius in practice with the objective of societal benefit. Confucius had said that learning without thinking was useless, and that thought without learning was dangerous. The civil servant administration that Taizu envisioned was one based on both thought and learning. Instrumental in this were the printed Confucian classics, which were now available to everyone.

PICTURE: TAIZU, THE FOUNDER OF THE SONG DYNASTY, WAS NOT IN FAVOUR OF POLITICAL APPOINTMENTS. ONLY THE MOST COMPETENT WERE ABLE TO GAIN ACCESS TO THE ADMINISTRATION THROUGH RIGOROUS ENTRANCE EXAMS. WORK OF AN UNKNOWN ARTIST FROM AROUND THE YEAR 1000.

Those who wanted a career as a public official had to take part in rigorous entrance exams that were far from the modern-day aptitude tests of personnel testing firms. The evaluation was as unbiased as possible and based on the know-how of the applicant. No one, not even the emperor, knew anything about the applicants’ personalities. The entrance exams strived to avoid all kinds of cronyism, so the names of applicants were kept in secret. Only their results were judged. The entrance exam system had been in use during the preceding Tang Dynasty, but then upper-class citizens shamelessly made use of a passing lane known by the name of “protection”. The children of these families did not have to take part in the entrance exams. The passing lane was closed during the Song Dynasty. No one without entrance exam results had any business in the ministries. There were an unfathomable number of candidates. While there were hundreds of entrance exam candidates during the Tang Dynasty, in Song’s time there were hundreds of thousands. In the 12th Century, over one hundred thousand candidates enrolled for the autumn entrance exams every year. In the 13th Century, the number had risen to four hundred thousand. In the 12th Century, only three per cent of applicants got their qualifications. In the 13th, only one per cent of participants were accepted. However, applicants were allowed to participate in the entrance examinations as many times as they wished. One could even see participants as old as 70 in the entrance examinations. This type of system was exceptional, because it provided opportunity to all, regardless of age or position. The entrance examination system emphasised diversity. In the year 1044, the exam contained three sections: discussions of as well as writing an essay and a poem. Applicants were tested on Confucius’ Analects, Mengzi’s Teachings and five other classics of . The essay topics were classic. In the year 1057, Su Dongpo, who would become a famous public servant and poet, wrote an essay in the exams on the topic of “How is faithfulness strengthened through punishments and rewards?” The Song Dynasty administration did not want narrow-minded bureaucrats. During the dynasty, the best poets and writers worked in the administration. Bamber Cascoigne thinks that this connection between artists and administration has been hard to swallow in the West. For example, the two beaches on Hangzhou’s West Lake have been named after poets. The first was Po Chü-i and the second Su Dongpo - both of whom were also capable administrators. Po Chü-i was the governor of Hangzhou in the 9th Century and Su Dongpo in the 11th. One could not become a civil servant without a knowledge of poetry. In China, poetry was the deepest form of self-expression in all tiers of society and part of every citizen’s education. According to , a poet of the 11th Century, the poems were able to record intentions well, but events less so. Like , poems were good at depicting feelings, but not things. Poetry imprisoned the essential. According to Dieter Kuhn, during the Song Dynasty, the intent in poetry was to expose the inner world of the thought process. Poetry spanned all of the attributes of knowledge, ability and existence. In poetry one attempted to describe and understand the environment around them in a multifaceted manner. A person able to write brilliant poems on all facets of life was held in great esteem and received the stamp of an exceptional thinker. With a few beautiful strokes of the brush, one can express things and emotions the Western alphabet cannot. This is possible with a writing system comprised of thousands of characters. In Song Dynasty-era education, calligraphy and poetry had intellectual meaning. The Chinese understood that poetry encouraged diverse thought, as its metaphorical language built a bridge between the familiar and the new. The importance of poetry in understanding that which had never before been experienced emerged in an interesting way over one thousand years later. Michael Collins, an astronaut on Apollo 11, noted upon his return to the Earth’s surface that future flights to the should bring along a poet, a priest and a philosopher. Only through their tellings would we gain a better understanding of what the astronauts had seen. After one of the most notable technical projects in human history, those in the United States’ space agency had also begun to understand poetry as something more than an art form. Nowadays, those applying to become astronauts must write essays as well as a short rhyme or haiku. Just like in the public service entrance exams of the Song Dynasty. A future industrial engineer writing poems in the entrance examination to university? That would be an interesting idea in modern-day Europe. Song’s examination system made China the world’s education superpower. Those who passed the public service examination, jinshin, became part of society’s elite. Although China was not an equal society, the examination system allowed opportunities for the talented to reach the top. According to one document, as many as half of the applicants over a period of two years came from families that had no previous ties to the administration. The examination system also made public servants more attractive in the marriage market and advanced the mixing of different societal classes. Those with Master’s degrees have seldom been as respected as they were in Song Dynasty China. Guangxu gives a gushing description of one scholar’s homecoming in the 11th Century: “When the Master arrives in a tall carriage pulled by four horses with a flag bearer ahead of him and an escort on horseback behind, people gather on both sides of the road in awe. Average men and stupid women rush in front of the carriage in excitement and humiliate themselves by throwing themselves onto the dusty ground around the carriage and horses.” In 11th Century China, one would have marvelled at Western employers’ doubts around “overeducated” job applicants. The examination system calmed the administration of the empire. Public servants were so competent and wise, that the change of rulers did not prevent them from continuing on with their tasks - that is, of course, so long as the ruler could tolerate them. One of the greatest names in Confucianism, , made use of his erudition by writing critical memoranda to the emperor throughout his life. Some of them were found aggravating. According to Confucius, there is a benevolent and creative element in the universe, ren, humanity. For this reason, a person’s nature is, at its core, good and people should do good. Evil stems from indifference and a lack of proper education. Zhu Xi practiced as he preached and compiled a work that had an enormous effect on Chinese education. He compiled four books into one collection, called The Four Books. The work contains compiled pieces of conversations between Confucius and his students from the Analects as well as from the works of Confucius’ successor, Mengzi. There are also two complete works from the period’s The Book of Rites, which contained many Confucianist texts. In Zhu Xin’s opinion, these four books and nine other Confucianist works make up the basis for a correct education. The use of everyday reason is highlighted in Confucius’ writings: “What you know, say it, what you don't know, admit it. This is true wisdom.” Zhu Xi was invited many times to the imperial court. He was offered prominent positions, which he refused. Zhu Xi was unsatisfied with the use of power and particularly with how it corrupted. He wrote numerous memoranda on moral forms of administration. After his death, his compiled texts were chosen as the official set books of the public service examination. The books were used in China’s examinations until the year 1905.

PICTURE: A CHINESE SCHOLAR LIEING ON THE MEADOW. A FROM THE 11TH CENTURY

A PUBLIC SERVANT’S CRITIQUE: THE GOLDEN AGE OF CONFUCIANISM Rulers normally find it difficult to listen to and appreciate opinions if they deviate too much from their own views. The history of philosophy and political thought is also the history of pyres, exile and prisoners of conscience. China’s Song Dynasty, however, rises up from the sea of despotism as an island of tolerance in which discussion and the exchange of opinions were appreciated. During the Song Dynasty, reverence for scholarship and intellectual curiosity led to great achievements. The administration created a welfare policy that made the Song Dynasty one of the most humane in China’s history. Confucius was an advocate of humaneness. “An insult disgraces only the violator,” he is known to have said. The followers of Confucius emphasised the Five Constants: humaneness, justice, proper rite, integrity and knowledge. Reciprocity is emphasised in their thought. All things in existence interact among themselves. For this reason, people must strive to refine their own character, so they may be of use to others. Confucius himself was no saint - he enjoyed a wanton life and consulted anyone for money, nonetheless upholding the principle that one must be righteous in all matters. A noble person will understand what righteousness means, but so-called small people only understand what is to their own benefit. It is most important to live in harmony with the regular flow of nature, tao. Confucianist public servants were influenced by Buddhist thought. They included Buddhist concepts in their own ethics, which included respect for life, compassion, charity and . All of these gave a new, humane face to Confucianism. has traditionally been masculine, but the status of women improved during the Song Dynasty. Law gave women the right to own and inherit property, which supported the status of young widows, orphans and divorced women. Not even marriage was able to prevent the economic independence of women. If a woman inherited real estate, it belonged to the woman and not her husband, as it would have before. The woman retained ownership of her property until the end of her life. Emperor Taizu founded academies in which the learned were able to freely present their ideas. Academies were established in every prefecture city and grammar schools in every city of the district. Citizens started to revere the universal genius, able to be not only a statesman but also a poet and painter. Advisors were allowed to be critical of their rulers, with the rulers even encouraging the critique. In the year 1063, was appointed as one of the court critics, a member of the council of critics. The task of the council, comprised of six members, was to present its views directly and critically to the ruler. The council of critics was not a place for flattery nor was it a toothless executive committee droning on to its managing director. Sima Guang writes: “The responsibility of court critics was burdensome. Governance of the entire empire as well the successes and failures, the achievements and the losses of those living within the district of all four seas were dependent on their counsel. In such a position, one must concentrate on great issues and rid the mind of trifling matters, give preference to the urgent and leave the non-urgent to last, devote oneself to the benefit of the empire and not scheme for one’s own advantage. Those who pounce after reputation or their own benefit are far from suitable for this type of position!” However, there is a difference between giving critique and receiving it. Sima Guang had a falling out with Minister and retired to local leave for fifteen years. During his leave of absence, Sima Guang wrote a chronicle of China’s rules that was praised for its scientific character. It was among Chairman Mao’s favourite readings. When the new ruler, Shenzhong, came into the throne, he invited Sima Guang back to the imperial court. Sima Guang’s career development was typical for a Song Dynasty public servant. Public servants had great influence and independence, but when they became unpopular, a post and salary were arranged for them elsewhere. Some time later, they could expect an invitation back to the capital. Perhaps this is why they were not afraid to give critique. When Shenzong justified reforms by claiming they were beneficial for the nation, his public servant Wen Yanbo dryly stated: “You rule the state with us, not the people.” This comment is reflective of the spirit of independence and self-confidence felt by many of Song’s educated public servants. Confucianist education encouraged public servants to speak their mind if they noticed injustice. One such legendary horn of truth and civil servant was Su Dongpo, one of China’s greatest poets and essayists. He worked in many administrative posts and did not shy away from expressing his opinions. Su Dongpo was forced into domestic exile up to twelve times in his lifetime, which was not a severe punishment in the time of the Song Dynasty. In the peacefulness of the countryside, far from the hustle and challenges of the administration, exiled public servants were able to immerse themselves in calligraphy, poetry and painting, all with a of rice wine in hand. That was exactly what Su Dongpo did, and 3000 of his poems have remained. Su Dongpo’s career development was fast. In the year 1070 and at the age of 32, Su Dongpo was already leading the history institute in Kaifeng. Su strongly criticised the then Minister Wang Anshi’s methods of making economic policy reform. Wang Anshi normally dismissed anyone who disagreed with him. Despite this fact, these two scholars - Su and Wang - remained on friendly terms and even exchanged their poetry. Su Dongpo was allowed to say what he had to say and the emperor appointed him the assistant governor of Hangzhou. Su Dongpo also served as governor in Meizhou, and Huzhou. In 1079, Su Dongpo was accused of ridiculing the emperor and was banished to a poorly paid position in Hangzhou. However, he thrived in the city and wrote many of his most renowned works there. In the year 1086, Su Dongpo was invited back to the capital and became a member of the . In 1094, he was once again banished, first to and then to Hainan Island. He died in the year 1101 on the way to his new post, having just been pardoned. Su Dongpo’s poem about the birth of a child summarises a typical feature of poetry in the Song culture; it is blunt poetry about joy and suffering.

“Families, when a child is born Want it to be intelligent. I, through intelligence, Having wrecked my whole life, Only hope the baby will prove Ignorant and stupid Then he will crown a tranquil life By becoming a cabinet minister.”[1]

THE CONQUEST OF KAIFENG Su Dongpo died the same year Emperor Huizong came into power. While no ruler of the Song Dynasty was an actual despot, its last leader, Huizong, came close. Nowadays one might call him a “micromanager”. Emperor Huizong was a great admirer and collector of paintings. He also painted well. Huizong was so inspired by his own excellence that he forced others to conform to his painting style. He established an arts academy in which members’ sole task was to copy the emperor’s works. For talented artists, Huizong’s academy was an artistic catastrophe as he viewed art on fairly singular terms. Painters had to paint their subjects just as they were, with precise detail in the shapes and colours. No departures into originality were permitted. Huizong was so enchanted by his own art that state affairs ceased to be of interest. In addition to painting, he spent his time with the ladies of the court and sacrificed much of his time to the design of his garden. The administration was unable to make decisions. When Huizong made decisions, he acted impulsively. He formed a dangerous confederation with the Jin state. When Huizong allied with these ancestors of the Manchu people, he ultimately lost his power. The alliance proved short. In 1125, the Jin state conquered Kaifeng and the emperor was imprisoned. It is the irony of fate that Song’s most artistic emperor had to face the forces of their neighbouring country, to which art could not have been less important. The next year, Jin burnt Kaifeng down, famed for its palaces and temples. Huizong, his son and the entire court were evacuated to the North. Fifty thousand women were forced into slavery in the Jin capital of Shangjing, current-day Harbin. Song Dynasty Kaifeng fell victim to a lack of realism. Educated civil servants were incapable of seeing the simple and brutal goals of the Jin state’s rulers. The civil servants were also unable to understand their value system, in which there was no room for peaceful coexistence. The Jin rulers’ logic was a zero-sum game in which there is only one winner and that winner takes all. Huizong’s second son, Gaozong, fled with his troops 740 kilometres to the South and established a new court in Hangzhou. In the year 1138, Hangzhou became the new capital of the Song Dynasty.

TRADE ENABLED BY THE WORLD’S LARGEST SHIPS The mighty River created a new border between the Jin state and Song to the South. With its nimble warships, large catapults and weaponry, Song was able to effectively defend this border. Southern Song was in many ways a wealthier state than the earlier Song Empire. The public servants who came from Kaifeng were astounded by Hangzhou’s economic activity. Hangzhou’s location was excellent for trade. It is only a short journey to the sea from the city, located on the Qiantang River. Hangzhou is also the ending point of China’s largest . The canal is the world’s largest manmade waterway and is the connection to cities as far away as . In the year 609, the canal allowed cargo ships to transport trade goods an average of 75 kilometres per day, twice as fast as an ox cart. Transporting goods on ships was also considerably less expensive. The canal was connected North of Hangzhou to the Yangtze, by which ships were able to travel to all the way . Hangzhou received visitors from Japan, Korea and . Representatives of all religions inhabited the city; there were Nestorians, Zoroastrians, Hindus, Jews and Muslims. The high level of education made for a great base for trade with foreigners. Foreigners were even given tax concessions to increase trade. They were also able to move to China, settle and marry Chinese people. Some foreigners were recruited into the Chinese administration. The extensive trade network of the Arabs and Persians transported spices and perfumes to China. They were exchanged for silk, porcelain and copper products. Hangzhou’s trade also advanced the drafting of maps and seafaring. One of the most notable researchers from Hangzhou was Shen Kuo (1031-1095), who had travelled extensively. He was especially interested in the of the Daihang Mountains. Shen Kuo had come to understand that these mountains had previously been part of the floor. Shen Kuo furthered many branches of , such as , , , medicine and . He drew up the first precise of China, calculated contours extremely precisely and understood the difference between the geographic North and magnetic North. His extensive collection of essays from the year 1088 is a tribute to the talented civil servant’s all-round knowledge. For example, the collection includes the first Chinese description of work at a dry-dock. In the 11th Century, Chinese ships were masterpieces of engineering and subjects of great astonishment on the world’s seas. Large sailing ships contained watertight compartments, nested hulls, four decks and they could accommodate up to one thousand men. The ships had wheels that were attached to the rudder. Six enormous masts were attached overlapping in such a way that the sails did not cover one another. This way they were able to efficiently make use of the wind. The ships also had sea . The Chinese had already realised during the Han period (206 BCE - 220 CE) that arranged metal particles into a North-South formation. Thanks to this discovery, they realised they needed to place iron pins into a water dish on a wooden pedestal. During the Song Dynasty, this invention started to be used as a sea . At the same time came an understanding of magnetic declination, the difference between what the compass shows and the true direction, which improved the precision of . The maps of China and the shoreline were astonishingly accurate. In a map from the year 1137, China’s rivers and shoreline are clearly distinguishable and placed on a grid of coordinates. Ocean ships transported Chinese silk, tea, copper and ceramics from Hangzhou to Korea and Japan. Aided by well-designed sails and monsoon winds, the ships also sailed to Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East and Africa. In 1973, the contents of a shipwreck found in the South Chinese shoreline revealed the nature of the world trade of the past. Findings on-board the ship, which sank in 1277, included incense wood from Southeast Asia, pepper, areca nuts and cinnamon from South India as well as ambergris from Somalia. Because trade was flourishing, the administration realised that taxes should be collected in cash as opposed to as work done by citizens. Before the Song Dynasty, coins made from three kinds of metal were in use in China: copper in the North and in the South iron and lead. The Song regime introduced a single to the Chinese: the copper . But the state’s expenditures caused a great shortage of copper, so an attestation of recording was invented, fei qian, flying money. It was the predecessor of paper money. The printing of actual paper money in China started in 1024. It served as inspiration for the invention of money instruments like bonds and bills of exchange. The numbers of merchants and craftsmen in the cities increased, which created an elegant lifestyle that confounded foreigners for centuries. There were 13000 civil servants in total and 8000 of them lived in Hangzhou. The educated population grew and, in addition to accessing posts with the state, found employment as barristers or food provisions experts. The city’s culture was in full bloom with its refined restaurants and tearooms.

TEA, SILK AND PORCELAIN In Hangzhou, tea culture was at its peak. Fortunes could be spent on a perfectly glazed porcelain teacup. Gourmets sat for hours speaking about the best sorts of tea, just like wine enthusiasts at a Michelin restaurant. Tea was enormously significant to China’s blossoming. Not only was tea farmed in Hangzhou, it was transported along the canal from the southern regions of China, Yunnan and Guangdong. Tea was not only a tasty and refreshing drink, but also extremely healthy. During the Song Dynasty, tea was drunk more often steeped in boiling water and as a result the population ingested contaminated drinking water less often.

PICTURE: EARLY PAPER MONEY FROM THE NORTHERN SONG DYNASTY ERA. THE PRINTING OF PAPER MONEY IN CHINA BEGAN IN THE YEAR 1024.

The production of cotton was another significant innovation that greatly improved the living conditions of the population. Cotton was not as expensive as silk and it was a significantly more comfortable material than hemp. Cotton could be washed and clean clothes also protected against bacteria. Improvements in hygiene led to population growth. In the Southern Song region, there were numerous cities with a population of one million or more along the waterways. Fifty million people lived in the empire. By the year 1200, Hangzhou was likely the largest city in the world with its population of over a million, or even two million, residents. It was at least forty times larger than London, where there were 25000 residents at that time. When Marco Polo told the Italians about the beauty and size of Hangzhou, Europeans found it impossible to believe how developed China was. The iron and industries in Hangzhou were hundreds of years ahead of the Europeans. Iron was smelted in coal-heated ovens. The smelting of carbon iron for steel saw a major increase during the Song Dynasty. The steel production in the year 1078 was double what it was in Britain at the end of the 18th Century. Hangzhou has been called the Silk Capital. Nowadays this is justly commemorated by the world’s largest silk museum. Hangzhou’s silk production has been able to be traced back 4700 years to a decomposed silk garment found in the ruins of the city of Liangzhu. A notable achievement in Song Dynasty silk production was the improvement in the quality of kesi. Kesi is a very fine fabric that is woven with a small loom. The first stage of silk production is the laborious unwinding of the silk from the casings. A silk coiling machine, which likely used water flow as its power source, was developed for this purpose. The Song Dynasty was the golden age of China’s ceramics production. Song dishes are known for their simple shapes and austere colouring. Emperor Zhenzong founded the famous ceramics factory in the city of Jingdezhen in 1004. It continuously produced porcelain for 900 years until the fall of the in 1911, which would be the end of the imperial dynasties. The city remains China’s centre of porcelain production and is home to a ceramics research facility. During the Song Dynasty, the production of porcelain was at its peak both in terms of quality and quantity. Starting in the 12th Century, production moved to Hangzhou and the surrounding area. Some of the most beautiful porcelain was produced in Hangzhou’s kilns. World famous monochrome green and glazed porcelain, celadon, is a good example of this. Beautifully cracked porcelain, made by breaking the glaze through quick cooling, also became popular. It influenced the ceramics used in Japanese tea ceremonies and many considered it to be the best ceramics work ever produced. Porcelain of the Song Dynasty has been found as far away as East Africa. The Chinese traded everything but one item. In the year 1067, a decree was made that banned the sale of products containing sulphur and saltpetre to foreigners. The Song administration was well aware of the possibility to produce gunpowder with them. The Arabic word for saltpetre was “Chinese snow”, the Persians called it “Chinese salt”.

THE COLLAPSE OF SONG Inventions, philosophy and poetry: all of them could be translated into beautiful calligraphy with the stroke of a civil servant’s brush. During the Song Dynasty, civil servants were unlike those of today, executors hung up on statutes and meticulously adhering to directives. A civil servant’s task in the Song Dynasty was to be inspired and inspire others. The weakness of the Song Dynasty, however, was its firm belief in only its own virtues and excellence. Rulers and civil servants should have known the plans and power aspirations of neighbouring countries and better understand their soldiers. Southern Song made the same error as Northern Song. In 1233, the dynasty decided to recklessly ally itself with the Mongols to attack the Jin Kingdom in the North. When Jin was conquered, the Song Dynasty was forced to face its new bordering neighbours, the Mongols. Kublai offered Song good conditions if it would agree to be subordinate to Mongol rule. When the Mongols’ messenger was imprisoned, war broke out. For five years, ’s army sieged Xiangyang and Fancheng. Emperor Duzong was in practice the last Song Dynasty emperor. Duzong had an indifferent attitude toward his duties and delegated all of the tasks related to care of the empire to others. Instead of his duties, he concentrated on drinking, women and a luxurious life. According to the rules of the court, every one of the emperor’s lovers had to make a courtesy visit to him each morning. On one morning, thirty women arrived to visit the emperor. When the Mongols conquered the city of Xiangyang in 1274, Duzong was not told of what had happened. He died shortly thereafter. In 1276, the Mongols conquered Hangzhou and the Song Dynasty ceased to be. It had lasted 319 years. It was not, however, the end of the city of Hangzhou. Kublai proved to be more lenient than other Mongol rulers. He was not a psychopath, like his grandfather, Genghis, who had enjoyed slaughter and rape. Hangzhou was saved from the bloodbath and the court of the Song rulers was even able to enjoy some privileges. Although Kublai Khan moved the capital to Beijing in the North, Hangzhou remained one of the ’s most important trade cities. It was a subject of astonishment for both Marco Polo and Moroccan explorer, Ibn Battuta. Both considered the city to be the most refined and largest they had ever been in. It was clear, however, that the brilliance of the city’s intellectual activity had begun to subside. The nomadic culture of the Mongols revered the alpha-male approach and the status of women weakened significantly. Women were no longer seen in the tearooms. The Mongols were not interested in culture, either. Mainly paintings with a horse motif were of interest. In Hangzhou, many creative people retreated voluntarily and left the horse paintings to the Mongols. Tang and its successor, Song, had been astoundingly open-minded to foreign influences. Mongol power, however, left a permanent mark on the Chinese spirit. The that followed was more suspicious of foreigners and from time to time would cut off all contact with the outside world. Emperor Hongwu placed severe restrictions on foreign trade. The construction of great seafaring ships was stopped at the end of the 15th Century and in the following century foreign trade was banned altogether. Administrative civil servants of the Ming Dynasty became allergic to all things foreign. Marco Polo took the stories of his travels to Italy, where his tellings of Hangzhou’s riches were hardly believed. Polo was given the mocking epithet of “Il Millione”. The Polo family however, one of the wealthiest in Venice, funded the explorations of other merchants. They brought new inventions and ideas to Italy. Italian family businesses like that of the Polos created a new concentration of activity, in which these ideas continued to be refined. This time, the place was Florence.

BOX:

So, let us drink a cup of tea. Kakuzo Okakura, the author of the Book of Tea, laments the rebellion of the Mongolian tribes in the thirteenth century not because it brought death and desolation but because it destroyed one of the creations of the Song dynasty, the most precious among them, the art of tea. Like Okakura, I know that tea is no minor beverage. When tea becomes ritual, it takes its place at the heart of our ability to see greatness in small things. Where is beauty to be found? In great things that, like everything else, are doomed to die, or in small things that aspire to nothing, yet know how to set a jewel of infinity in a single moment?

The tea ritual: such a precise repetition of the same gestures and the same tastes; accesion to simple, authentic and refined sensations, a license given to all, at little cost, to become aristocrats of taste, because tea is the beverage of the wealthy and of the poor; the tea ritual, therefore, has the extraordinary virtue of introducing into the absurdity of our lives an aperture of serene harmony. Yes, the world may aspire to vacuousness, lost souls mourn beauty, insignificance surrounds us. Then let us drink a cup of tea. Silence descends, one hears the wind outside, autumn leaves rustle and take flight, the cat sleeps in a warm pool of light. And, with each swallow, time is sublimed.

Muriel Barbery: The Elegance of the Hedgehog. Translation: Alison Anderson