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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(9): 1812-1817

International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences ISSN: 2319-7706 Volume 9 Number 9 (2020) Journal homepage: http://www.ijcmas.com

Review Article https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2020.909.227

Leavening Agents for Food Industry

B. Neeharika1, W. Jessie Suneetha2*, B. Anila Kumari1 and M. Tejashree3

1PJTS Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030, India 2Krishi Vigyan Kendra, PJTS Agricultural University, Wyra – 507165, Khammam Dt., India 3Department of Agricultural Microbiology & Bioenergy, College of Agriculture, PJTS Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030, India

*Corresponding author

ABSTRACT

K e yw or ds Leavening agents cause expansion of and batters by the release of

Biological gases within food mixtures, producing baked products with porous leavening, structure. Leavening agents are used in food products to help create Chemical leavening structure and texture through gas expansion because of a chemical reaction agents, , , or as the nucleation seed for gas formation. Leavening can be achieved by Mechanical various methods including fermentation, by mechanical incorporation leavening of air through mixing and , formation of vapour during

Article Info baking and creation of and/or ammonia by chemical

leavens. Water vapour is important in leavening , , Accepted: puffs and is assisted by air, especially in pastry. However, creation of the 15 August 2020 Available Online: initial air bubbles during the mixing phase is critical before any of the other 10 September 2020 leavening agents can take effect.

Introduction often supported further by proteins like or polysaccharides like pentosans or xanthan A leaven / / raising agent is gum. The gelatinizes and sets on any one of a number of substances used in heating leaving gas bubbles. The leavening doughs and batters that cause foaming action agents increase the volume of products (gas bubbles) to lighten and soften the making them tender, lighter and enhance mixture. An alternative or supplement to digestibility. They make foam out of batters leavening agents is mechanical action for air as they fill air pockets or cells, contributing to incorporation. The leavening agents can be the “grain” of product. They improve the biological or synthetic chemicals. When a crumb colour, softness (can be chewed or is mixed, the starch in the easily), taste and smell (Vickie and Elizabeth, and water in the dough form a matrix 2007).

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Types of leavening increases, the vapour pressure of water increases and expands the gas bubbles in the The sensory properties of leavened products batter or dough. Steam causes an appreciable depend on amount of leavening gas in the leavening action because volume of water in a mixture, rate and time of gas formation. The batter or dough expands 1800 times when it is three principal leavening gases are: converted to steam during baking (Vickie and Elizabeth, 2007). Steam leaven products are Carbon dioxide is a major leavening agent in heated at fast rate like saltine crackers, batters and dough. It is produced chemically extruded breakfast cereals and snacks where by the reaction of with an the temperature exceeds 1000C (Miller, 2016). acid (wet or dry) or biologically bacteria or yeast by fermenting . The amount of Biological leavening agents carbon dioxide required in a formulation is proportional to the amount of flour used. Leavening may be the result of fermentation, the biological process where Air like bacteria or yeast metabolize ferment organic matter in food. The most important function of air bubbles in leavening is that they serve as nuclei for other Bacteria leavening gases, which diffuse and expand them. Air may be incorporated by creaming Lactobacillus sanfrancisco is responsible and sugar for a , by beating egg along with a nonbakers’ yeast Saccharomyces whites/whole eggs for by sifting exiguus for forming . The ingredients or by folding (lifting and turning) bacteria degrade maltose, yielding acetic, the airy egg into the mixture. lactic acids and producing CO2 (Vickie and Elizabeth, 2007). The number and size of air bubbles incorporated into the dough or batter are Yeast important for texture of the final product. A low number of large-sized air bubbles The most common strain of yeast used in produce a final product with an open, coarse bread making is . crumb grain, while a large number of small- Yeast releases zymase to metabolize sized bubbles produce a fine, uniform crumb fermentable yielding ethanol and CO2. grain. Most of the alcohol is volatized in baking

andCO provides leavening. It gives distinct If a small and large bubbles are positioned 2 aroma and flavour to product. near one another in the batter or dough, the gas will diffuse from the smaller one into the Commercial applications larger one causing the larger one to expand and the smaller one to disappear. This Brewing phenomenon is called disproportionation or

Ostwald ripening (Miller, 2016). Saccharomyces cerevisiae used for brewing Steam beer called top-fermenting or top-cropping yeast because during fermentation process its Steam is produced as the water in the dough hydrophobic surface causes the flocs to or batter is heated. As the temperature adhere to CO2 and rise to the top of the

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fermentation vessel. Top-fermenting ginger and nutmeg greatly increase are fermented at higher temperatures than yeast activity. The use of dry mustard lager yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus has the opposite effect and decreases resulting in beers with different flavour. yeast activity (Vickie and Elizabeth, "Fruity esters" may be formed if the 2007). temperature of the beverage fluctuates during fermentation process. Types of yeast

Baking 's yeast is available in different forms and the main difference being the moisture Baker yeast ferments monosaccharides, content (Linda and Stanley, 2007). Dry yeast disaccharides, trisaccharide and forms are good choices for longer-term tetrasacharides but cannot fermentlactose storage without significant loss of viability. ( sugar).In bread making, yeasts raise the The different types are cream, compressed, dough improving palatability by producing active dry, instant, rapid rise and deactivated alcohol, aldehydes, ketones and acids that yeasts (Peter, 2001). contribute to its aroma and taste(Miller, 2016). Methods of using yeast

Factors affecting reaction of yeast In general, a yeast flavour in the baked bread is not noticeable when the ' percentage Sugar: Sugar is food for yeast that helps yeast of added yeast is less than 2.5% (Stanley, to raise the dough. Ideally sugar 2003). concentration should not exceed 10.0%of flour in dough. If sugar is method: 1.0% of yeast is used above this level, yeast cells are used and all the ingredients are destroyed due to high osmotic pressure incorporated in one long process of exerted by sugar (Elizabeth and mixing and . Dough is Vickie, 2003). allowed to rise four times. : Salt controls the activity of yeast during No time dough method: About 2.0-6.0% of fermentation with tightening action on yeast is used when in a hurry. The flour protein. It should be dissolved bread may have a strong yeast flavour completely before use as powdered salt due to more quantity of yeast present or too much salt inhibits yeast activity. in the dough. Water: Lukewarm water provides favourable temperature for activity of yeast Chemical leavens whereas higher temperature of water can kill yeast resulting in no leavening. Chemical leavens are mixtures or compounds Proving chamber: Proving chamber is a that release gases when they react with each cupboard where temperature is set for other, with moisture or heat. Most of them are yeast. Yeast grows best at 25-33˚C and based on a combination of acid (usually a low slows down below 10˚C. molecular weight organic acid) and a salt of Acidic environment: Yeast grows and bicarbonate (HCO3−). After they act, these ferment best in acidic environment compounds leave behind a chemical salt. tolerating acidities as low as pH 2. Chemical leavens are used in quick , Spices: Spices such as cardamom, cinnamon, , and numerous other

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applications where a long biological reaction can be generically represented as fermentation is impractical or undesirable shown: (Harold, 2004; Linda, 2017). + + NaHCO3 + H → Na + CO2 + H2O Baking soda A typical formulation by weight contains about 30% sodium bicarbonate, 5-12% It chemically produces CO2when heated as follows: monocalcium phosphate and 21-26% sodium aluminium sulphate (Brodie and Godber, 2007). It also liberates the same gas when mixed with an acid, either hot or cold. When used Classification alone, baking soda reacts quickly with heat and CO2 may escape from raw batter before it Baking powders are classified in several is able to leaven. It even reacts with the manners. One method is according to the type shortening and a residual flavour is felt of acid component. The acids differ in besides causing unpleasant taste, brown strength, and thus each determines the rate of colour and alkaline odour. Therefore, baking CO2 release. While in the past, tartrate and soda must be combined with suitable quantity phosphate were used as the dry acid, now of acid so that neutral residue is formed. consumers use the more common SAS phosphate (sodium aluminium sulphate If a batter or dough is made too alkaline with phosphate). addition of baking soda, sodium carbonate is produced in food product and forms soapy Baking powders also are also classified flavour, spotty brown colour and yellowing of according to their action rate or how quickly flavonoid pigment. This may occur in they react with water and heat to form CO2. (soda-acid) if soda is The time and rate of gas evolution from present in greater amounts than the acid with can be regulated by the which it reacts. In contrast to alkalinity, the selection of different baking acids that react pH is too acidic, baked products such as faster or slower with sodium bicarbonate. biscuits exhibit whitening in colour (Vickie When the chemical reactions in baking and Elizabeth, 2007). powders involve only one acid, they are known as “single-acting”. Baking powder A fast-acting acid reacts in a wet mixture with Baking powder contains sodium bicarbonate, baking soda at room temperature and releases dry acid and inert corn starch filler. The starch most of its CO2 gas during bench operation filler keeps the soda and acid from reacting and very little during baking. A slow-acting with each other prematurely and standardizes acid does not release much of gas during the weight in baking powder canister (Brodie bench operation but is released when it comes and Godber, 2007; Sarah, 2018). Commercial in contact with heat (Brodie and Godber, baking powder yield at least 12.0% 2007). availableCO2 gas by weight and home-use powders yield 14.0% CO2. When the chemical reactions in baking

When combined with water, the sodium powders involve both fast- and slow-acting bicarbonate and acid react to produce acids, they are known as "double-acting". gaseous carbon dioxide. The acid-base They are most widely used and available to 1815

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consumers today. Double-acting baking with the amount of baking soda used in powders work in two phases. formulating a product. If all of the soda reacts with the leavening acid, the They release part of gas during bench finished product should be close to neutral in operation (while mixing), increasing fluidity pH, which is desired in most products. of cake batter. The remaining gas is released during baking, which gives volume to the end Larger amounts of leavening acids with low product, e.g. SAS phosphate (Corriher, 2008). NVs are required for a given amount of soda than for those leavening acids with higher Neutralizing value (NV) NVs. The NVs for commonly used leavening acids are listed below: NV is the term used to describe the amount of leavening acid needed to react completely Leavening acid NV Leavening acid NV Monocalcium phosphate 80 Dimagnesium phosphate 40 monohydrate Anhydrous monocalcium phosphate 83 Sodium aluminium sulphate 104 Sodium acid pyrophosphate 74 Cream of tartar 45 Sodium aluminium phosphate 100 Glucono-δ-lactone 45 Dicalcium phosphate dihydrate 33 (Vetter, 2003) Potassium bicarbonate

Ammonium bicarbonate decompose during Potassium bicarbonate can be used as a baking and release ammonia and carbon substitute for sodium bicarbonate to lower the dioxide without reacting with leavening acid. sodium content of the finished product. It is Unlike sodium bicarbonate, ammonium soluble in water and partly decomposes upon bicarbonate leaves no residue when it heating to give partial release of available decomposes by heat. Therefore, it has no CO2, thus requiring a leavening acid in order effect on pH of baked product and hence does to yield complete release of CO2. Potassium not require a leavening acid. Because bicarbonate is seldom used because it has a ammonia gas dissolves in water, if there is bitter aftertaste and is highly hygroscopic, more than about 5.0% moisture in the baked making it difficult to store: product, it imparts an ammonic flavour to product and making it inedible.

For this reason, it is used only in low- (Miller, 2016) moisture products such as crackers and dry cookies. Further, ammonia bicarbonate does Mechanical leavening not produce salts, which have an adverse effect on dough rheology Creaming

It is the process of beating sugar crystals and solid fat (typically ) together in a . This integrates tiny air bubbles into the (Vetter, 2003) mixture, since the sugar crystals physically

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cut through the structure of fat, which expand References under the action of heat and in the process give volume to the products. Brodie, J and Godber, J. 2007. Bakery Processes, Chemical Leavening Agents. Kirk-Othmer Creamed mixtures are usually further Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology.1-14. leavened by a chemical leaven like baking Corriher, S.O. 2008. BakeWise: The Hows and soda before heating. This process is often Whys of Successful Baking with Over 200 Magnificent Recipes. Scribner. used in preparation of cookies. Elizabeth, C.W and Vickie, V. 2003. Essentials of food science. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Whisking or whipping Publishers,New York, USA. p. 323. Harold, G. 2004. On Food and . Scribner- Using a whisk on certain liquids, notably Simon & Schuster. p. 533. cream or egg whites can also create foams Linda, C. 2017. Baking powder wars: the through mechanical action. This method cutthroat food fight that revolutionized employed is in the making of sponge cakes, cooking. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, where an egg protein matrix produced by Illinois. pp. 45, 70–74. vigorous whipping provides almost all the Linda, Y and Stanley, P.C. 2007. Technology of structure of the finished product. Breadmaking. Springer, Berlin. p. 79. Miller, R. 2016. Leavening agents. In Caballero,

B., Finglas, B.M and Toldra, F. In conclusion the leavening agents are used to Encyclopedia of Food and Health. Elsevier, achieve a light and crunchy texture and to USA. 1(A): 523-528. increase the volume and porosity of baked Peter, R. 2001. The bread baker's apprentice: foods like cakes, breads and cookies. They mastering the art of extraordinary bread. include air, steam, yeast, baking powder, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley. p. 61. baking soda, etc. Sarah, R. 2018. Baking up a Storm: When crime and politics influenced American baking Their characteristics and potential habits. Distillations. 4 (3): 46-47. applications in food industry were described. Stanley, P.C. 2003. Bread making: improving The batter and dough products are leavened quality. CRC Press, Boca Raton. Vetter, J.L. 2003. Leavening agents. In Caballero, by water vapour, air, carbon dioxide and B. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and sometimes ammonia. The gases are Nutrition. 2nd ed. Elsevier Science. pp 3485- distributed as small bubbles in batters and 3490. doughs and the fineness of their dispersion is Vickie, A.V and Elizabeth, W.C. 2017. Baked responsible for the grain of the baked Products: Batters and Dough. Essentials of products. food science.3rd ed. Springer, New York, USA. pp. 357-369.

Wayne, G. 2008. Professional baking. John Wiley, New York.

How to cite this article:

Neeharika, B., W. Jessie Suneetha, B. Anila Kumari and Tejashree, M. 2020. Leavening Agents for Food Industry. Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci. 9(09): 1812-1817. doi: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2020.909.227

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