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Role of Ingredients in Baked Products Manufacture-3: Leavening Agents

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Role of Ingredients in Baked Products Manufacture-3: Leavening Agents Paper No. 09 Paper Title: Bakery and Confectionery Products Module-04: Role of ingredients in baked products manufacture-3: Leavening agents 1.0 Leavening The word “leaven” can be tracked through Middle English’s “levain” and to the Latin “levare,” meaning “to raise”. The process of leavening involves creating and enlarging the gas cells in dough or batter, that expand under the influence of time and heat to increase the overall size of the dough piece before its starch-and-protein matrix gelatinizes and sets. Any material which brings this process is called leavening agent. It is a desirable process that lightens doughs, enhances the volume, texture, eating quality and often the flavor of baked foods. 2.0 Leavening agents The leavening agents are substances used in doughs and batters for leavening. These agents produce a gas which expands during baking, leave small holes in the baked product and lightens and softens the finished product. The gas produced may be air incorporated by mechanical means, but usually it is carbon dioxide produced by biological agents, or by chemical agents reacting with moisture, heat, acidity, or other triggers. When baked, the porosity translates into the crumb of the finished product. Leavening agents, thus, contribute significantly to the textural properties of baked products by expanding the batter or dough, sometimes during mixing and always during baking. These also tenderizes the crumb and contributes to the aesthetic enjoyment of the final product by giving it uniform cell structure, bright crumb color, soft texture and enhanced palatability. There are three types of leavening agents- mechanical (mixing), biological (yeast, air and steam) and chemical leavening agents (baking soda and baking powder). 2.1 Mechanical leavening agents Leavening can be achieved mechanically by integrating tiny air bubbles into the mixture using a mixer or whisk. Creaming, a process employed in cookie and biscuit production is such a process in which incorporation of air bubbles is achieved by beating fat and sugar crystals together in a mixer. Creamed mixtures are usually further leavened by a chemical leavener like baking soda. Beating of certain liquids like egg white or cream using a whisk is another method of air incorporation employed in cake manufacture. The air incorporated expands during heating resulting into raising in the baked products. 2.2 Chemical leavening agents The chemical leavening agents are chemical mixtures or compounds that release gases (usually carbon dioxide) when they react with moisture and heat. The gas produced is held by fat pockets, gluten and starch, which makes the baked product rise. Chemical leavening is used in quick breads, cakes, cookies etc. where a long biological fermentation is impractical or undesirable. There are various types of chemical leavening agents but some of the most frequently used include baking soda, baking powder, sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, hydrogen peroxide, etc. The amount of leavening agents in formulation has great effect on the final baked product quality. Too much leavening agent will make the bubbles too big, resulting into combination and bursting of these bubbles, leading to a flat cake or bread. Too little leavening agent will result in a heavy product, with soggy or damp layers. Baking soda: Baking soda also known as sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), produces carbon dioxide when it is heated. Upon heating baking soda release Co2 as shown below: 2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 Sodium bicarbonate Sodium carbonate Water vapour Carbon dioxide From the equation it is evident that only half of the available CO2 is released. Sodium carbonate (washing soda), one of the products of the reaction, gives baked products a bitter, unpleasant, soapy flavour as well as a yellowish colour. Although baking soda is a relatively cheaper and storage stable leavening agent but utilization of baking soda alone in baked products has some disadvantages also: 1. Only half of the available CO2 is released for bubble formation in the baked product. 2. Residual sodium carbonate (washing soda) can cause a bitter, "soapy" taste and a yellow colour in the baked product. 3. Upon intake sodium carbonate in such baked product may react with the HCl in the stomach to produce the other half of the available CO2 and may cause flatulence. Due to these reasons sodium bicarbonate is very rarely used on its own. To prevent the formation of the sodium carbonate, an acid is always included in a recipe that uses baking soda. The acid alters the chemical reaction so that sodium carbonate is not produced. However precaution is needed to avoid imbalance between the acidic and basic materials or the pH in formulation. Some of the acid ingredients that may be used along with baking soda include sour milk, buttermilk, yogurt, vinegar, lemon juice or cream of tartar. Baking powder comprising of an alkali and acid salt is more frequently used in baking. Baking powder: Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda, dry acids (usually low molecular weight organic acid) and a filler, usually corn starch or calcium carbonate. The acid salt prevents the production of sodium carbonate which causes bitterness, unpleasant, soapy flavour as well as a yellowish colour in the product. The filler serves following purposes: To keep the baking powder free flowing To provide bulk To keep the baking soda and the acid dry so that no reaction occurs while in storage. To help in releasing the standard amount of CO2. Sometimes powdered and dried egg albumen is also added to baking powder as filler. Egg albumen powder increases the viscosity of the dough which helps to hold gas bubbles in the dough. Hence the effectiveness of baking powder is increased. Baking powder is a very widely used ingredient in cooking and baking such things as buns, fruit loaves, crumpets, pikelets, pastries, cakes, pies, biscuits, omelettes, some savouries and some puddings. Baking powder when used in the formulation releases CO2 during baking according to the following equation: + + NaHCO3 + H (from the acid) → Na + H2O + CO2 Using cream of tartar (KHC4H4O6) also known as potassium bitartrate in a recipe along with baking soda, will produce CO2 by a two step reaction. In the first step, the cream of tartar and the baking soda react, producing sodium potassium tartrate and carbonic acid: NaHCO3 + KHC4H4O6 → KNaC4H4O6 + H2CO3 In the second step, the carbonic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide and water as follows: H2CO3 → H2O + CO2 The time and rate of gas evolution from baking powder can be regulated by the selection of different baking acids that react faster or slower with sodium bicarbonate. There are three different kinds of baking powder - fast acting, slow acting and double acting which differ in their gas (CO2) releasing action. Fast acting: Most of CO2 gas released during bench operation i.e. mixing operation and very little gas released during baking. Slow Acting: Little gas is released during bench operation and all the gas is released during baking. Double Acting: Part of gas during bench operation and remaining of CO2 gas is released in the oven during baking. Among these double acting baking powder is most widely used by bakers due to its added advantage. A double-acting baking powder contains two acids. The first acid dissolves in cold liquid (when batter is mixed) then quickly reacts with the baking soda to produce carbon dioxide resulting into increased fluidity of cake batter. This enables the baker to apportion the batter in moulds correctly in weighing operation. The second acid reacts to produce carbon dioxide gas when it is heated (during baking). The baking powders are named after the acid ingredient used in the powder i.e. tartrate powder, phosphate powder etc. The most commonly used acid components used in the baking powder formulation are as follows: S.No. Acid component Description 1 Tartaric acid or potassium hydrogen tartrate Tartrates (Mono Potassium Salt of Reacts readily at room temperature temperature and is Tartaric Acid) widely used as the fast acting component in double acting baking powders. Relatively expensive 2 Phosphates A number of sodium acid pyrophosphate powders are a) Sodium acid available pyrophosphate React somewhat slower than tartrates at room (Na2H2P2O7) temperature but still lose a high percentage of their gas b) Acid calcium before baking. phosphate Reacts readily at room temperature and is widely used (CaHPO4) as the fast acting component in double acting baking powders. Relatively inexpensive than tartrates. 3 Sulphates Reacts readily at high temperature only and hence used as the slow acting component in slow acting baking powders. 4 Ammonium At baking temperature CO2 and NH3 is released. carbonate or Commonly used as leavening agent in biscuits and bicarbonate crackers having a large surface to mass ratio. No solid left behind In baking, the rate at which CO2 is produced and the continuity of CO2 production are both important. If too much CO2 is produced initially and the reaction ceases, removal of the cake from the oven will cause the cake to "drop". Neutralization value (N.V.): The efficiency of the acids used in baking powder can be compared by their neutralising value. The neutralising value is defined as the number of parts of the acidic material required to neutralise 100 parts of baking soda or can be calculated using the following equation: Neutralising value = gm of NaHCO3 x 100/100 gm of acidic salt Ammonium carbonate or bicarbonate: Ammonium carbonate or bicarbonate is used as leavening agent in biscuits and crackers etc. that are to be baked at low moisture. Upon heating it produces CO2 and NH3 gases and no solid is left behind in this reaction. However if it is not removed completely it may impart detectable odours. Hence its use is limited to the biscuits and crackers which have large surface to mass ratio and ammonia will be escaped easily at high temperatures.
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