Shining a spotlight on the biodiversity of New Zealand’s marine ecoregion

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 1 Shining a spotlight on the biodiversity of New Zealand’s marine ecoregion

Experts Workshop on Marine Biodiversity 27-28 May 2003 Wellington New Zealand

Allison Arnold, Editor

WWF-New Zealand TO CONTENTS➲ Shining a spotlight on the biodiversity of New Zealand’s marine ecoregion Experts Workshop on Marine Biodiversity. 27-28 May 2003, Wellington, New Zealand

Edited by Allison Arnold WWF-New Zealand PO Box 6237 Wellington New Zealand (64) 4 499 2930 www.wwf.org.nz

©2004 WWF-New Zealand

ISBN 0-9582592-1-6 (with corrections 2005) ISBN 0-9582592-0-8 (print version, reprinted with corrections 2005)

This publication should be cited as follows: Arnold, A. (ed.) 2004. Shining a spotlight on the biodiversity of New Zealand’s marine ecoregion: Experts workshop on marine biodiversity, 27-28 May 2003, Wellington, New Zealand. WWF-New Zealand, Welling- ton.

Reproduction, adaptation, or issuing of this publication for educational or other non- commercial purposes, by electronic or any other means, is authorised without prior permission of the copyright holder(s). Any reproduction in full or in part of this publication must mention the title and credit WWF-New Zealand as the copyright owner. Reproduction, adaptation, or issuing of this publication, by electronic or any other means, for re-sale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without the prior permission of the copyright holder(s).

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Cover images were kindly supplied by (clockwise from top): • northern royal albatross – ©2004 DOC, Te Papa Atawhai/AE Wright; • Hector’s dolphins – ©2004 Will Rayment; • yellow-eyed penguin – ©2004 DOC, Te Papa Atawhai/R Morris; • invertebrate assemblages – ©2004 Franz Smith; • blue cod – ©2004 DOC, Te Papa Atawhai/P Ryan; • eagle ray – ©2004 DOC, Te Papa Atawhai.

TO CONTENTS➲ Contents

Acknowledgments 2 Executive Summary 3 1.0 Introduction 5 1.1 The biological diversity of New Zealand’s marine ecoregion 5 1.2 Scope of this report and relation to other information initiatives in New Zealand 6 1.3 WWF and the Ecoregion Approach to Conservation 6 1.4 The New Zealand Marine Ecoregion 7 2.0 Methods 9 2.1 Defining and identifying key biodiversity areas and features 9 2.2 Identifying information gaps and other obstacles to assessing marine biodiversity 11 2.3 Identifying future steps for the assessment and conservation of biodiversity; and formulating a statement from the workshop participants 11 3.0 Results 13 3.1 The Oceanography of the New Zealand Marine Ecoregion 15 3.2 Cetaceans, seals, and seabirds 19 3.3 Fishes 33 3.4 Benthic invertebrates, algae, and plants 47 3.5 Information gaps and other obstacles to assessing marine biodiversity 74 3.6 Future steps for the assessment/conservation of biodiversity; and a common statement for the conservation of New Zealand’s marine biodiversity 74 4.0 Discussion 77 5.0 References 79 Appendix 1: WWF Methodology for selection of the Global 200 ecoregions 81 Appendix 2: Information-based initiatives underway for New Zealand’s marine environment 82 Appendix 3: Workshop reporting form (Biodiversity Assessment Site Form) 83 Appendix 4: Workshop participants 84

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 1 Acknowledgments

This report was prepared by Allison Robinson, Parker Jones, Michelle Cooper, Arnold, the co-ordinator for the New and Oli Helm of Eagle Technology; Zealand Marine Ecoregion. Vaughn Stagpoole and Kelly Beuth at the Institute of Geological and Nuclear The workshop was organised and funded Sciences (IGNS); Bronwen Golder of by WWF-New Zealand with contributions WWF International; Ruth Gregg, Jo from Oceans Policy and the WWF Breese, Chris Howe, Miriam Richardson, International Ecoregion Partnerships and Angela Heck of WWF-New Zealand, Grant. Kurt Buri of Buri Graphics; and Simon Childerhouse, Martin Cryer, Peter Publication of the workshop report was McMillan, Paul Sagar, Nick Shears, and funded by the Ministry of Fisheries. Franz Smith. The results of the workshop are due to the collaborative efforts of the marine Many other people contributed to experts (Appendix 4) who contributed the success of the workshop and the their scientific knowledge and committed preparation of the report. many hours to produce the outputs. Many thanks are due to the National Institute of This report aims to be an accurate Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA), record of the discussions and material The National Museum of New Zealand generated at the Marine Biodiversity – Te Papa Tongarewa, The Department Workshop held on the 27–28 May 2003, of Conservation (DoC), the University and during subsequent expert review. of Otago, Environment Waikato, and the The content of this publication does not Queensland Museum for releasing their necessarily reflect the views of WWF or staff, and to the individuals for their time. the workshop participants’ employers, or other organisations that have supported WWF-New Zealand would also like to this process. thank the following for their valuable contributions: Glen Lauder and Sarah Wilson of Common Ground; Peng Aik Lim, Nick

2 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Executive Summary

The distinctive nature of New Zealand’s literature. Biodiversity features that do marine biodiversity has led to its not lend themselves readily to discrete identification by WWF as one of 238 geographic representation were reported, ecoregions (collectively known as the but were not illustrated on the maps. The Global 200) that are global priorities for oceanographers worked separately to conservation action. An ecoregion is a report on the physical processes operating large area of land or water that contains in New Zealand’s marine environment. a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities that share a large Experts identified areas of deepwater majority of their species, ecological emergence in Fiordland and Marlborough dynamics, and environmental conditions. Sound where species are found at Planning at the large scale of the ecoregion unusually shallow depths due to the is consistent with an ecosystem-based unique physical characteristics of these approach to management. The ecoregion environments. They noted the high approach promotes conservation efforts in productivity of the hydrographically accordance with ecological processes and complex Chatham Rise, the remarkable systems rather than along administrative invertebrate diversity of Spirits Bay, and boundaries, thereby creating new the expanding coverage of mangroves conservation opportunities. in northern New Zealand. Seabird experts highlighted the importance of With the long-term aim of contributing to the subantarctic and Chatham Islands marine biodiversity conservation, WWF- as global hotspots for bird diversity, and New Zealand established the New Zealand the importance of migration corridors Marine Ecoregion Initiative in 2003, around New Zealand. Marine mammal which is part of WWF’s global approach experts marked the canyon and trench to mobilise conservation efforts in priority systems running from Kaikoura Canyon regions of the world. In response to northwards as attractive foraging areas the need for an independent, scientific for deep-diving cetacean species, such assessment of New Zealand’s marine as sperm whales. Overall, the work of biodiversity, WWF-New Zealand convened the marine scientists shines a spotlight marine scientists for an expert workshop on key areas for biodiversity in New that was held from 27-28 May 2003. The Zealand’s marine environment, contributes 22 workshop participants, who came to the greater body of knowledge of the from around the New Zealand region, ecoregion’s marine biodiversity, and hold expertise in taxonomy, ecology, makes such knowledge available in a oceanography, and conservation. They summarised and accessible form. collectively have specialist knowledge across a wide range of marine organisms The results of the workshop are and habitats in New Zealand. constrained by the limited biological sampling that has been conducted in New During the workshop participants divided Zealand’s marine environment. In addition into three subgroups that corresponded to identifying areas that are thought to with the types of biota for which they be important for marine biodiversity, had specialist knowledge: cetaceans, workshop participants identified some of seals, and seabirds; fish; and benthic the gaps in the knowledge base. Much invertebrates, algae, and plants. Guided effort has been put into research on the by a set of criteria that they had developed spatial distribution of marine organisms, in the first session of the workshop, and but there is still under-representation in furnished with bathymetric maps of the sampling efforts, such as for all species New Zealand region, the participants and habitats deeper than 1,500m, and for delineated key areas for the biodiversity specimens smaller than 2mm. Information of their respective biotic groups. Each deficiencies for ecosystem processes, area was coupled with a description of such as trophic interactions, population its physical and biological attributes, the dynamics, and recruitment are even state of information, and references to the greater. Participants expressed particular

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 3 concern about the challenge of addressing recognised that scientists have pathways information gaps given the scarcity and to key audiences, to whom they can declining number of specialists with communicate their passion for the marine taxonomic expertise in New Zealand. environment and translate it into action. Concern about the state of marine biodiversity knowledge in New Zealand This report provides a foundation on became the focus of a workshop statement. which more detailed conservation strategies for New Zealand’s marine During the workshop scientists also biodiversity can be developed. WWF- articulated ideas about what actions could New Zealand’s role will include helping be undertaken by the scientific community to identify the pressures placed on marine to promote conservation of marine bio- biodiversity through human activities, diversity. Among the actions identified and developing conservation goals and were: the need to train and recruit more targets in consultation with a wide group competent taxonomists; the need to raise of stakeholders. WWF-New Zealand awareness of the marine environment hopes that this report will serve not only among all New Zealanders; the need to as a useful information resource, but better classify marine habitats; and the as a catalyst to more widespread, co- need for a well-supported national plan of ordinated, and focused conservation of marine exploration that better reflects New New Zealand’s unique marine and coastal Zealand’s oceanic status globally. They environment.

The workshop participants’ statement on the state of knowledge for New Zealand’s marine biodiversity: We marine scientists of various specialisation, recognise New Zealand’s oceanic environment and ecosystems as unique and highly regionalised, with a level of biodiversity of global significance. A great deal remains unknown about New Zealand’s marine environment; vast regions are unexplored, interactions between species and their environments are not understood, and we lack the expertise to recognise and document many of the components of the biota. Consequently, the capacity to use and manage marine resources, or even identify possible human impacts is limited. If we New Zealanders are to live in a sustainable relationship with our oceanic environment and benefit from the use of the marine resources of our EEZ, we need more information. Our current lack of knowledge is alarming and does not represent a sound basis for reliable policy and management decisions. We urge immediate action by the Government and other stakeholders to ensure the capacity of relevant institutions to address this situation.

➲ TO CONTENTS 4 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION 1.0 Introduction

1.1 The biological diversity of New Zealand’s marine ecoregion

Marine biodiversity is among the great Ministry for the Environment 2000). taonga (treasures) of Aotearoa New The wealth of New Zealand’s marine life Zealand. The geological isolation, range and can be found living in such diverse habitats complexity of habitats, and number of major as mudflats, mangroves, seagrass and kelp ocean currents that influence New Zealand beds, rocky reefs, seamounts, canyons, have created diverse marine communities. fiords, open water pelagos, and deep sea New Zealand’s marine environment spans trenches. Some of these environments host over 30 degrees of latitude, from subtropical unusual species assemblages that reflect waters to the subantarctic, and extends from the convergence of warm and cold waters the shallows to the deep sea. Comprising or the influence of other physical forces. more than 4.2 million km2, the Territorial Conserving the fullest possible range of Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) biodiversity – genes, species, communities, are around 15 times the land area of New and ecological phenomena – at a scale that Zealand, making the country’s jurisdiction encompasses all of these environments is the predominately marine. ultimate goal of ecoregion conservation. An estimated 22,000-23,0001 species inhabit This document reports on the outcomes of the marine environment of New Zealand, an initial stage in New Zealand’s Marine but to date fewer than 12,000 have been Ecoregion Initiative: a workshop in which identified (Ministry for the Environment marine scientists delineated and described 2004). Among the known species are 126 key biodiversity sites and features in seabirds, 50 marine mammals, more than the ecoregion. The workshop served to 1,000 fish, 2,000 molluscs (e.g. snails, summarise and synthesise biogeographic shellfish, and squid), 696 sponges, 615 information on New Zealand’s marine echinoderms (e.g. kina, sea stars, sea biodiversity, which is otherwise widely cucumbers), 758 species of seaweed, and dispersed among various published and 700 species of micro-algae (Department unpublished sources. The result is a of Conservation and Ministry for the collection of maps and descriptions of key Environment 2000; A. Stuart, personal biodiversity areas in the ecoregion that can communication, 2004). New species are serve as an information resource for those being identified with almost every research seeking a greater understanding of New sampling effort, some of which are known to Zealand’s marine biodiversity. occur only in New Zealand. Marine scientists estimate that as much as 80% of New 1 If the parasitic protozoans expected to live with Zealand’s indigenous biodiversity is found multicellular hosts are considered, this estimate is in the sea (Department of Conservation and increased to 54,600-75,700 species (D. Gordon, personal communication, 2004). /P.J. Moore /P.J. Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te

Southern Royal Albatross,

Campbell Island DOC, ©2004 BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 5 1.2 Scope of this report and relation to other information initiatives in New Zealand

This report outlines the scope of the an assessment of threats posed to ecoregion project and relation to other biodiversity through human activities. In information initiatives in New Zealand, the New Zealand exercise threats to marine explains the methodology and criteria biodiversity were not formally assessed, employed by workshop participants to nor were threats used as a major criterion identify key marine biodiversity sites and for determining the key areas for marine features, presents the participants’ selected biodiversity. A subsequent process will areas and their attributes, identifies gaps in identify threats to New Zealand’s marine marine biodiversity knowledge, and explores biodiversity. Threat identification is likely future steps for conserving New Zealand’s to draw upon the outputs of the marine marine biodiversity. scientists’ workshop, but is a process that will involve a wider group of stakeholders The contents of this report reflect with interests in the marine environment. information generated by a group of marine scientists during a two-day workshop. The The marine ecoregion project initiated by outcomes of the workshop are meant to WWF-New Zealand complements other serve as a summary of marine biodiversity spatially based information initiatives in New Zealand and an indication of underway to aid understanding of New those areas and features, such as habitats, Zealand’s marine environment. Other species concentrations and assemblages, projects operating in New Zealand and unique ecological phenomena, that include the National Aquatic Biodiversity marine experts recognise as having special Information System (NABIS), The Marine physical and biological attributes. Due to the Environment Classification System (MEC), large spatial scale at which the assessment the Interim Nearshore Marine Classification was conducted, this report is not intended (INMARC), and the Estuary Environment to be a directory to the specific locations Classification (EEC). Lack of knowledge of marine species or assemblages in New about the marine environment is a major Zealand waters. References to more detailed impediment to effective management. information are provided where available Importantly, this collection of initiatives has for the key areas identified by workshop potential to bridge those information gaps participants. with the help of geographic information systems (GIS). A description of the projects Expert workshops led by WWF in other is included in Appendix 2. ecoregions of the world have included

1.3 WWF and the ecoregion approach to conservation

WWF’s mission is to stop degradation of the the scale at which we address biodiversity planet’s natural environment and to build a conservation. future in which humans live in harmony with An ecoregion is “a large unit of land or nature, by conserving biological diversity, water that contains a characteristic set of ensuring the sustainable use of resources, natural communities that share a large and reducing pollution and wasteful majority of their species, dynamics, and consumption. Scientists and conservationists environmental conditions” (Olson et worldwide have acknowledged that al. 2000: 2). Through identification of attainment of conservation goals requires 238 terrestrial, freshwater, and marine thinking, planning, and acting at the ecoregions as priorities for conservation appropriate spatial and temporal scales action, collectively known as the Global (IUCN, WRI, and WWF 1999). Adoption 200, WWF has taken a more comprehensive of the ecoregion as the spatial unit that best and representative conservation approach describes the patterns of biodiversity reflects than has ever been attempted on a global increasing recognition of the need to expand scale. The ecoregions of the Global 200

6 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION are a focus for conservation efforts because “they harbour the most outstanding and representative examples of the world’s diverse ecosystems” (Olson et al. 2000:1). Ecoregion conservation emphasises not only expansion of the geographic areas in need of consideration, but also the temporal horizon for planning, and engagement with a wide range of stakeholders. The methodology applied in selecting the Global 200 is outlined in Appendix 1. Ecoregional planning embraces an ecosystem-based approach to management, which requires the ability and authority to plan in accordance with ecological processes and systems. Both ecoregion- based conservation and the ecosystem- based approach anticipate, plan, and act beyond political boundaries. Even in ecoregions that have a well-developed Atawhai Papa Te government infrastructure for conservation

and sustainable use of the marine DOC, ©2004 environment, responsibility for various Seahorse, Fiordland marine management issues is often spread across departments with different, and sometimes conflicting, mandates. As a result, • Participants in the process have the co-ordination challenges continuously arise opportunity to exchange ideas independent for managing competing uses of the marine of political and funding considerations; environment. • Resources for conservation can be drawn from a wide range of stakeholders at Planning at the ecoregion scale presents various levels; and new conservation opportunities that might be neglected by approaches constrained by • Socio-economic issues that cross borders, political units. At the ecoregional scale: such as international demand for a particular commodity, can be addressed. • Patterns of biodiversity can be contemplated along spatial and temporal WWF-New Zealand has initiated ecoregion parameters that reflect ecosystem conservation in the hope of realising new processes rather than legal or jurisdictional conservation opportunities in New Zealand’s boundaries and timelines; marine environment.

1.4 The New Zealand Marine Ecoregion

The marine environment of New Zealand cold, nutrient rich, and less saline water was one of three Global 200 ecoregions of the subantarctic. To the west of New selected among the temperate shelf and Zealand, the Subtropical Front generally lies seas of the Southern Ocean2. The physical at Fiordland’s latitude, while to the east it environment of New Zealand is best follows the Chatham Rise. described as a large bathymetric platform The Deep Western Boundary Current is where the Pacific and Indo-Australian another major current that influences the plates collide. New Zealand intersects the region. It sweeps along New Zealand’s general west to east flow of the subtropical south-east continental margin, flowing below and subantarctic surface waters, deflecting 2000m depth, in consort with the overlying currents either northward or southward Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) off the west coast, and creating permanent eddies off the east coast of the North Island. 2 Other southern ocean ecoregions of the temperate The Subtropical Front is the circumpolar shelf and seas habitat type are the Patagonian boundary between the warm, nutrient-poor, Southwest Atlantic and the Southern Australia and salty waters of the subtropics and the Marine (Olsen et al. 2000). BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 7 Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te ©2004 DOC, DOC, ©2004 DOC, ©2004 Scallop, Fiordland Half-banded perch and sponge, Poor Knights Islands

(L. Carter 2004, personal communication). of sea floor” (62). The dearth of scientific The deep current then flows around the knowledge about the marine environment Chatham Rise, and along the Kermadec is attributed to inadequate sampling. There Ridge, infusing the Pacific with waters rich are more than 9,000 scientific sampling in oxygen and nutrients. The coincidence stations spread around New Zealand’s sea of these water masses contributes to the floor (Nelson and Gordon 1997), but they are diversity of marine habitats found in the New not representative of the full range of marine Zealand ecoregion. New Zealand’s currents habitats. For accessibility reasons, 80% of are illustrated on page 14. all scientific sampling has been carried out in the 0–1000m depth range, which represents The great diversity and productive nature 28% of the sea-surface area of the Exclusive of New Zealand’s marine environment Economic Zone (Nelson and Gordon 1997). among pacific south temperate and subpolar Furthermore, these stations do not include ecosystems led to its inclusion in the Global sampling of the water column above the 200 (Olson et al. 2000). Biological attributes sea floor, making the sampling effort seem that distinguish New Zealand include even more insignificant (Nelson and Gordon a rich diversity of aquatic plants, fish, 1997). bivalves, bryozoans, seabirds, and a diverse community of marine mammals (Olson et Compounding the difficulty of understanding al. 2000). The high levels of diversity, and New Zealand’s marine environment is possibilities for concerted conservation the relative inaccessibility of information action in the New Zealand marine ecoregion that has been collected on biodiversity. In make it a priority for WWF globally as part general, information about marine habitats of a subset of Global 200 ecoregions for and biodiversity is widely dispersed in immediate action. the published and unpublished literature. Despite an active research community, Compared with terrestrial ecoregions, biogeographical information for some marine ecoregions are considered to be marine areas has not been updated in more spatially and temporally dynamic decades (e.g. trenches). ecological and biogeographic units. Thus, precise boundaries were not defined for In light of the current information marine ecoregions during selection of deficiencies, WWF-New Zealand convened the Global 200. In New Zealand the 200 a group of marine scientists to convey nautical mile boundary of the Exclusive their knowledge of the distribution of New Economic Zone has served as a proxy for Zealand’s marine biodiversity. The aims of the ecoregion, although delineation of key the workshop were to: biodiversity areas during the workshop was • Delineate key biodiversity areas in New not constrained by this jurisdictional border. Zealand’s marine ecoregion through the Extensive data has been collected and consensus of scientific experts; literature published for New Zealand’s • Establish links with key experts on New marine environment as a whole, however, Zealand’s marine environment; there are still substantial gaps in the • Start a process of outreach to potential formal inventory of New Zealand’s marine users of the information; biodiversity. In their review of marine • Identify information gaps and other biodiversity research in New Zealand, obstacles to assessing marine biodiversity; Nelson and Gordon (1997) comment, • Agree on future steps for the assessment “qualitative knowledge of the New Zealand and conservation of New Zealand’s marine marine biota is still very much in the biodiversity; and discovery phase, even for macrobenthic • Formulate a common statement for the organisms, and quantitative knowledge of conservation of marine biodiversity in the ➲ TO CONTENTS distributions is restricted to very small areas New Zealand region. 8 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION 2.0 Methods

2.1 Defining and identifying key biodiversity areas and features

During this stage of the New Zealand Marine bivalves, polychaetes, and hydrothermal Ecoregion Initiative WWF-New Zealand vent communities were not the main areas sought the expertise of people involved with of specialisation of any of the workshop the gathering of formal information about participants. Although WWF endeavoured the marine environment. Formal informa- to cover all of the taxonomic areas at the tion originates from systematic, replicable workshop, some experts chose not to be research, while informal information comes involved, or were unable to attend. Substitute from the accumulated experience and obser- experts were generally not available because vations of people who interact regularly with taxonomic expertise in New Zealand is in the sea (Parliamentary Commissioner for the serious decline, resulting in only one, or in Environment 1999). some cases no, expert available for some taxonomic groups. WWF-New Zealand sought to assemble an expert group that collectively held formal A workshop format was preferred over specialist knowledge across the wide range other methods, such as surveys, to elicit of marine organisms and habitats in New information from experts. Workshops are Zealand. The 22 participants had expertise in interactive and may yield results that are taxonomy, ecology, oceanography, and con- superior to single step surveys, in terms of servation, and were recognised as experts on the quantity and quality of ideas produced New Zealand’s marine biodiversity based on (Gunton 2002). A potential flow-on benefit their academic qualifications, their publica- of workshops is the dialogue and knowledge tions, or their work in the field. Most par- sharing that they can foster among expert ticipants worked for institutions with marine participants. Furthermore, the workshop science capacity, but others were independ- approach is relatively inexpensive, can be ent. Participants were asked to represent their conducted in a short time frame, and is a own expertise rather than the views of the tool used by WWF in other ecoregions for institution for which they worked. gathering expert input on biodiversity. Expertise in some taxonomic groups and A vulnerability of the workshop habitats was not well represented at the approach, however, is the potential for workshop. For example, squid, echinoderms, ©2003 WWF-New Zealand WWF-New ©2003

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 9 ©2003 WWF-New Zealand WWF-New ©2003

certain personalities to dominate, thus • Meeting ground – overlap between overshadowing the input of other experts. biological regions (at national and global To minimise the risk of this, a professional regions level) facilitator with experience in marine issues • Links to global patterns conducted the workshop and encouraged Some of the criteria were difficult to apply feedback from all of the participants. for some groups. For example, it is diffi- Participants also had the opportunity to cult to characterise many invertebrates as independently revise their input after the endemic because scientific sampling of this workshop through a review process. group is incomplete. The workshop was convened at the offices After developing the criteria the participants of WWF-New Zealand in Wellington, New decided to break into three subgroups that Zealand on 27-28 May 2003. The workshop roughly corresponded with the types of biota began with presentations that reviewed the for which they had specialist knowledge. ecoregion concept and planning process and The oceanographers worked separately to a participant discussion about how to best report on the physical features of New Zea- proceed with the assessment. The experts land’s marine environment. The three biotic first developed a list of primarily biological subgroups were: criteria that could inform the delineation of key biodiversity areas and habitats. The fol- • cetaceans, seals, and seabirds; lowing criteria contributed to the selection of • fish; and key areas or habitats for biodiversity: • benthic invertebrates, algae, and plants. • Species diversity The experts from each subgroup worked • Species richness through consensus to delineate key areas • Endemism for biodiversity on bathymetric maps of the • Dependency for other species New Zealand region (see maps in results • Trophic/functional diversity section for extent of the area) and recorded • Representation (i.e. across physical types) the justification for their selection on a • Conservation status/threat classification standard form (Appendix 3). Selection and both nationally and globally delineation of the areas was an iterative • Cultural values process that involved considerable • Extremities of range and adaptation to deliberation. Each area identified was environment coupled with a description of its physical • Degree of disturbance and biological attributes, the state of • Special conditions and specialised information, and references to the literature. organisms Some biodiversity features of New Zealand’s • Species with a global distribution but New marine environment do not lend themselves Zealand is a stronghold/significant readily to discrete geographic representation • Seasonal/migratory importance (i.e. special habitats, for which geographic • Unusual degree/proportion of biomass locations are not comprehensively known). • Aggregations In such cases the information was recorded, • Special phylogenetic grouping but is not illustrated on the maps. At the • Relict/genetic lineages (i.e. “living end of the first day all of the workshop fossils”) participants reconvened and a spokesperson • Habitat complexity/diversity from each group reported on their progress.

10 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION The morning of the second day was dedi- assign greater importance to the biodiversity cated to further subgroup work. The par- of such locations. ticipants then reunited for a final session to Following the workshop WWF-New Zealand review the outputs of the workshop and dis- staff digitised the maps using geographic cuss a way forward. During the afternoon the information systems (GIS) software and three spokespersons presented the maps from transcribed the notes made by participants each subgroup to all workshop participants. about the attributes of the key biodiversity The participants then superimposed the three areas and features. The process of capturing maps to reveal the key biodiversity areas this data included detailed verification with they had in common. A discussion ensued workshop participants to ensure that the end about the meaning and usefulness of this result matched the material generated during approach. Ultimately, participants decided the workshop. The content of the workshop that distillation of key areas across the three also underwent external review by other groups did not add value to the outcomes of marine scientists in New Zealand who were the workshop. The general consensus among recommended by the workshop participants. participants was that overlap between the identified areas was not sufficient reason to

2.2 Identifying information gaps and other obstacles to assessing marine biodiversity

During the afternoon session participants and the processes and interactions between underscored the recognition that although them. The potential to fill these information they had contributed their best knowledge gaps was a topic of concern among par- to the workshop, most of New Zealand’s ticipants. They reported that the number of marine environment has not been sampled taxonomic experts who are able to interpret and remains unknown. The participants, and catalogue marine biodiversity in New based on their understanding of the literature, Zealand, and indeed globally, is diminishing outlined gaps in the knowledge base both in rapidly. terms of spatial distributions of organisms

2.3 Identifying future steps for the assessment and conservation of biodiversity; and formulating a statement from the workshop participants

The workshop concluded by generating suggestions from the experts on actions needed to proceed with further assessment and conservation of New Zealand’s marine biodiversity. The participants endorsed the development of a statement of concern for New Zealand’s marine environment. Several scientists volunteered to draft such a state- ment, which was circulated among partici- pants for approval after the workshop.

➲ TO CONTENTS Zealand WWF-New ©2003 BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 11 12 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION 3.0 Results

Benthic assemblage ©Franz Smith ©Franz

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 13 Surface currents in the New Zealand Region

Ocean surface currents in the New Zealand Region. Water (CSW). The fronts contain or generate East Cape Eddy; WE, Wairarapa Eddy) There are also The Tasman Front (TF), the Subtropical Front currents and there are several permanent eddies areas of tidal mixing in Foveaux Strait, between (STF), and the Subantarctic Front (SAF) approach off the eastern North Island (EAUC, East Auckland Stewart Island and the South Island, in Cook Strait, New Zealand from the west. The STF represents Current; WAUC, West Auckland Current; ECC, East between the North and South Islands, and North of the meeting of Subtropical Water (STW) and Cape Current; DC, D’Urville Current; WC, Westland Cape Reinga. (Carter et. al 1998) Image provided Subantarctic Water (SAW), while the SAF is formed Current; SC, Southland Current; ACC, Antarctic courtesy of NIWA. by the meeting of SAW and Circumpolar Surface Circumpolar Current; NCE, North Cape Eddy; ECE,

14 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION 3.1 The Oceanography of the New Zealand Marine Ecoregion

New Zealand is a relatively long, narrow and a narrow width of approximately 100 archipelago that lies athwart the West Wind km (Sutton 2001). Although the southern Drift and forms the western boundary to limits of the South Island are at latitudes the South Pacific Ocean south of 34ºS. The normally associated with SAW, in fact the position of New Zealand and the shape of entire coastal region is bathed in water of the bathymetric platform ensure that currents STW origin, with the transition to SAW (i.e. are guided by the topography (Carter et al. the STF) occurring at the continental shelf 1998). This results in shelf edge currents, break around the southern extreme of the uplift over shallow features, and oceanic South Island. eddies that interact with coastal waters. New Zealand’s semidiurnal tides (M Oceanic water maintains an intimate contact 2 and N ) have a complete 360º range of with coastal waters. Offshore currents are 2 phase around New Zealand (Walters et al. particularly important in maintaining shelf- 2001). The semidiurnal tides have been break fronts, e.g. the East Auckland Current characterised as a coastally trapped Kelvin and the Southland Current/Subtropical Front. wave travelling anticlockwise around the The South Pacific western boundary current, shelf. Tidal elevations increase towards the the East Australian Current, separates coast with a degenerate amphidrome situated from the coast of Australia and a flow of at the centre of New Zealand (Heath 1985). water crosses the Tasman Sea forming the A by-product of this geometry is that tides Tasman Front. A portion of this warm, salty are always 180º out of phase through Cook Subtropical Water (STW) flows adjacent Strait, resulting in very high tidal velocities to the northeast New Zealand landmass through the strait. High tidal velocities also to form the East Auckland Current, which occur north of Cape Reinga and in Foveaux transports water southwards along the north- Strait. These areas of strong tides are east continental shelf (Stanton et al. 1997, associated with tidal mixing (Bowman et al. Stanton and Sutton 2003). Most of this flow 1980). deflects south around East Cape as the East New Zealand is located on the pole-ward Cape Current before forming the northern boundary of the South Pacific subtropical side of the Subtropical Front (STF) (Tilburg gyre in the southwest Pacific Ocean. For et al. 2001, Carter et al. 1998, Heath 1985). this reason shelf edge (at 200m) nitrate Three permanent eddies lie offshore of this concentrations are modest (about 5-15mmol boundary current: the North Cape, East m-3) in comparison with many regions of Cape, and Wairarapa Eddies (Roemich and the world (Conkright et al. 2002) and are Sutton 1998). Currents probably uplift over similar in range to the northeast Atlantic certain bathymetric features such as Mernoo Ocean, although this statement is based Gap, East Cape Ridge, Puysegur Bank, and on very limited local data. The absolute Three Kings Rise (e.g. Bradford and Roberts concentrations of dissolved inorganic 1978, Bradford et al. 1991). nutrients in oceanic water around New New Zealand intersects the circumpolar STF Zealand depend on the water mass involved. which separates the subtropical gyres from Coastal water is mainly of subtropical origin, the Southern Ocean, i.e., warm, salty STW although SAW lies adjacent to the southeast from cold, fresh Subantarctic Water (SAW). South Island slope. These two water masses The STF passes south of Australia and have different nutrient characteristics that Tasmania and approaches New Zealand at result in a north to south gradient in mean around 45ºS off Fiordland (Heath 1985). The nitrate at 200m at the shelf break (Ridgway front deviates south, along the continental et al. 2002). The distribution of mean nitrate margin, before following the shelf break ranges from 10mmol m-3 in the northwest northwards along the east coast of the to 16mmol m-3 in the southeast. The South Island, where it is locally known as distribution on the west coast ranges from the Southland Front and has an associated 10mmol m-3 in the northwest to 12mmol m- current called the Southland Current. The 3 in the southwest, with a minimum off the Southland Current advects mainly SAW with central west coast of ≤6mmol m-3. peak surface speeds of 20–30cm per second STW has a typical mix of nutrients (Chiswell 1996, Sutton 2003). The STF turns (Tomczak and Godfrey 1994). Nitrate east along the crest of the Chatham Rise at (NO ) and dissolved reactive silica (DRSi) 43.5ºS where it is constrained by the shallow 3 are depleted more or less together (Zentara bathymetry to a limited depth of 300–350m

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 15 The dinoflagellate, Karenia brevisulcata, a and Kamykowski New Zealand phytoplankton species that produces a potent toxin. 1981). SAW, as well as being low in iron and copper (Sedwick et al. 1997, Croot and Hunter 1998), has an excess of

NO3 relative to DRSi (Zentara and Kamykowski 1981). The interaction of SAW and STW at the STF, especially over the Chatham Rise, results in this region being highly productive (Bradford-Grieve et al. 1999). In addition, atmospheric transport of iron from arid and semi-arid parts of Australia may be Chang ©NIWA/Hoe a source of iron to surface seawater in this contributors to the patterns of phytoplankton region (Kieber et al. 2001; Boyd et al. 2004). distribution as seen from space as sea colour It is thought that freshwater is generally (Murphy et al. 2001). not an important source of nutrients on the The dynamical signature of the warm- open coast, given the degree of dilution core eddies down the east coast of the (e.g. Hawke and Hunter 1992). Deep winter North Island results in deep, surface winter mixing and upwelling of deep waters are mixing (greater than would occur in the more likely to be dominant in enhancing adjacent water from which the eddies nutrients in surface waters. formed (Bradford et al. 1982, Bradford and The nutrient content of the oceans has Chapman 1988). These eddies contribute implications for ecosystem structure and to enhanced winter nutrient renewal, lower function. For example, the Southern Plateau winter phytoplankton biomass, and are behaves like a system that is low in nutrients probably responsible for the generally

(despite high NO3) and primary production, extensive spring phytoplankton bloom in with phytoplankton dominated by very the region (Murphy et al. 2001). Not only small cells. It is a low total biomass, low do these eddies change the seasonal pattern productivity system with high transfer of nutrient renewal but they can also retain efficiency (Bradford-Grieve et al. 2003). larvae of coastal organisms (Chiswell and In this region there is very little organic Booth 1999) or entrain coastal water taking matter arriving at the sea floor and most it offshore (Bradford and Chapman 1988). of the production occurs in the water Winds are important in driving upwellings column. This system is apparently tightly that bring nutrient-rich water to the surface. coupled. On the other hand, productivity is In the Southern Hemisphere winds blowing much greater in the STF over the Chatham parallel to a coast cause surface waters Rise, phytoplankton cells are much larger, to move to the left of the wind. Thus a and there is much more sedimentation of northwesterly wind blowing along the coast organic matter to the sea floor (Nodder and north of Auckland (Sharples and Greig 1998) Northcote 2001). and a southwesterly wind blowing off the It is not only the water mass that has west coast of the South Island (Stanton and significance for nutrient supply to Moore 1992) will move surface water away phytoplankton. Mesoscale processes that from the coast and bring nutrient-rich deeper influence the supply of nutrients to surface water to the surface inshore. A conspicuous waters and seasonal patterns of heating summer feature of western Cook Strait is a and cooling (as reflected in the depth of large upwelling plume that originates from the surface mixed layer) are significant Kahurangi Point (Bradford-Grieve et al.

16 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION 1986) that is responsible for considerable Chatham Rise often occur in a narrow band biological enhancement in the region. south of the Rise and tend not to extend as far as the Chatham Islands. At other times of The seasonal pattern of mixed-layer depth the year there was a broader and more com- varies from north to south with water plex region of increased chlorophyll stretch- mass and with the large-scale circulation ing across the whole length of the Rise and (Longhurst 1998). The seasonal pattern beyond the Chatham Islands. Chlorophyll of mixed layer depth interacts with the concentrations were higher in the STF east nutrient characteristics of the water masses, of New Zealand (mean 0.6mg m-3) with freshwater inflow, and light penetration some evidence of a spring and autumn peak (mainly through the depth of the sunlit in the seasonal cycle compared with the STF surface layer) to determine the seasonal to the west (mean of 0.4mg m-3) and without patterns of primary production, nutrient a consistent seasonal pattern across the years depletion, and ecosystem structure. analysed. A comprehensive overview of the There is no similarly extensive picture of the distribution of plankton is available only quantities of zooplankton present in the New for phytoplankton as observed from space Zealand region. Bradford and Roberts (1978) through the time period 1997–2000 (Murphy show that, using limited data for the whole et al. 2001). STW to the north and in the Tas- New Zealand region, there is a significant man Sea has a classical cycle of spring and positive correlation between zooplankton autumn chlorophyll blooms consistent with biomass and surface chlorophyll-a. production being co-limited by nitrate and Nevertheless, no such relationship is evident light. Chlorophyll-a concentrations varied for STW analysed separately. It is clear that annually between about 0.1 and 0.4mg m-3 to the zooplankton biomass picture is much the north and in the Tasman Sea, but east of more complicated than can be interpreted New Zealand the mean maximum was 0.8mg from the limited data that we have for the m-3. SAW has a low-amplitude annual cycle New Zealand region. Any understanding of chlorophyll abundance that peaks in early of the spatial and temporal distribution of autumn, consistent with production being zooplankton in the New Zealand region will limited predominantly by a combination of have to take into account the dynamics of iron and light. SAW chlorophyll-a concentra- the planktonic production system, ecosystem tions varied from 0.1 to 0.3mg m-3 and rarely structure, and trophic relationships among exceed 0.4mg m-3. Chlorophyll-a is gener- plants and animals in the system. ally greatest in the STF and has the greatest variability with concentrations varying from Contributors: ≤0.1mg m-3 to ≥1mg m-3. Through winter, Janet Bradford-Grieve and Philip Sutton. elevated chlorophyll concentrations over the M.D. Ohman, Pelagic Invertebrates Collection, Scripps Institution of Oceanography of Institution Scripps Collection, Invertebrates Pelagic Ohman, M.D. ➲ TO CONTENTS The copepod, Neocalanus tonsus, a common zooplankton species in New Zealand’s offshore waters. BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 17 References and further reading

Bowman, M.J., Kibblewhite, A.C., and Ash Chiswell, S.M. 1996. Variability in the Sedwick, P.N., Edwards, P.R., Mackey, D.J., D.E. 1980. M2 tidal effects in Greater Cook Southland Current, New Zealand. New Griffiths, F.B., and Parslow, J.S. 1997. Iron Strait, New Zealand. Journal of Geophysical Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater and manganese in surface water of the Research 85(C5): 2728–2742. Research 30: 1–17. Australian subantarctic region. Deep-Sea Research 44: 1239–1253. Boyd, P.W., McTainsh, G., Sherlock, V., Chiswell, S.M. and Booth, J.D. 1999. Rock Richardson, K., and Nichol, S. submitted. lobster Jasus edwardsii larval retention by the Sharples, J. and Greig, M.J.N. 1998. Tidal The relative contribution of atmospheric Wairarapa Eddy off New Zealand. Marine currents, mean flows, and upwelling on the and oceanic iron supply in enhancing Ecology Progress Series 183: 227–240. northeast coast of New Zealand. New Zealand phytoplankton stocks in New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research Conkright, M.E., Locarnini, T.A., Garcia, H.E., offshore waters. Global Biogeochemical 32: 215–231. O’Brien, T.D., Boyer, T.P., Stephens, C. Cycles. and Antonov, J.I. 2002. World Ocean Atlas Stanton, B.R., Sutton, P.J.H., and Chiswell, Bradford, J.M. and Chapman, B.E. 1988. 2001: objectives analyses, data statistics, and S.M. 1997. The East Auckland Current, 1994- Epipelagic zooplankton assemblages and a figures CD-ROM documentation. National 95. New Zealand Journal of Marine and warm-core eddy off East Cape, New Zealand. Oceanographic Data Center Internal Reports Freshwater Research 31: 537–549. Journal of Plankton Research 10: 601–619. 17, 17 p. http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/OC5/ Stanton, B.R. and Moore, M.I. 1992. WOA01F/nusearch.html. Bradford, J.M. and Roberts, P.E. 1978. Hydrographic observations during the Tasman Distribution of reactive phosphorus and Croot, P.L. and Hunter, K.A. 1998. Trace metal Boundary Experiment off the west coast of plankton in relation to upwelling and surface distributions across the continental shelf South Island, New Zealand. New Zealand circulation around New Zealand. New near Otago Peninsula, New Zealand. Marine Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Chemistry 62: 185–201. 26: 339–358. Research 12: 1–15. Hawke, D.J. and Hunter, K.A. 1992. Reactive Stanton, B.R. and Sutton, P.J.H. 2003. Velocity Bradford, J.M., Heath, R.A., Chang, F.H., and P distribution near Otago Peninsula, New measurement in the East Auckland Current Hay, C.H. 1982. The effects of warm-core Zealand: an advection-dominated shelf north-east of North Cape, New Zealand. New eddies on oceanic productivity off north system containing a headland eddy. Estuary Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater eastern New Zealand. Deep-Sea Research 29: Coast. Shelf Science 34: 141–155. Research 37: 195–204. 1501–1516. Heath, R.A. 1985. A review of the physical Sutton, P. 2001. Detailed structure of the Bradford, J.M., Lapennas, P.P., Murtagh, R.A., oceanography of the seas around New Subtropical Front over Chatham Rise, east Chang, F.H., and Wilkinson, V. 1986. Factors Zealand — 1982. New Zealand Journal of of New Zealand. Journal of Geophysical controlling summer phytoplankton production Marine and Freshwater Research 19: 79–124. Research 106 (C12): 31,045–31,056. in greater Cook Strait, New Zealand. New Kieber, R.J., Williams, K., Willey, J.D., Skrabal, Sutton, P.J.H. 2003. The Southland Current: A Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater S. and Avery, G.B. 2001. Iron speciation subantarctic current. New Zealand Journal Research 20: 253–279. in coastal rainwater: concentration and of Marine and Freshwater Research 37: Bradford, J.M., Cranfield, H.J., and Michael, deposition to seawater. Marine Chemistry 73: 645–652. K.P. 1991. Phytoplankton biomass in relation 83–95. Tilburg, C.E., Hurlburt, H.E., O’Brien, J.J., and to the surface hydrography of southern New Longhurst, A. 1998. Ecological geography of Shriver, J.F. 2001. The dynamics of the East Zealand and possible effects on the food the sea. Academic Press, London, 398 p. Auckland Current System: The Tasman Front, chain. New Zealand Journal of Marine and the East Auckland Current, and the East Cape Freshwater Research 25: 133–144. Murphy, R.J., Pinkerton, M.H., Richardson, Current. Journal of Physical Oceanography K.M., Bradford-Grieve, J.M., and Boyd, P.W. Bradford-Grieve, J.M., Boyd, P.W., Chang, 31: 2917–2943. 2001. Phytoplankton distribution around F.H., Chiswell, S., Hadfield, M., Hall, J.A., New Zealand derived from SeaWiFS remote- Tomczak, M. and Godfrey, J.S. 1994. Regional James, M.R., Nodder, S.D., and Shushkina, sensed ocean colour data. New Zealand oceanography: an introduction. Pergammon, E.A. 1999. Pelagic ecosystem structure and Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research London, 422 p. functioning in the Subtropical Front region 35: 343–362. east of New Zealand in austral winter and Walters, R.A., Goring, D.G., and Bell, R.G. spring 1993. Journal of Plankton Research Nodder, S.D. and Northcote, L.C. 2001. 2001. Ocean tides around New Zealand. New 21: 405–428. Episodic particulate fluxes at southern Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater temperate mid-latitudes (41-42ºS), in the Research 35: 567–579. Bradford-Grieve, J.M., Probert, P.K., Baker, Subtropical Front region east of New Zealand. A.N., Best, H.A., Boyd, P., Broekhuizen, Zentara, S.J. and Kamykowski, D. 1981. Deep-Sea Research 48: 833–864. N., Childerhouse, S., Clark, M., Hadfield, Geographic variation in the relationship M., Hall, J.A., Hanchet, S., Nodder, S.D., Ridgway, K.R., Dunn, J.R., and Wilkin, between silicic acid and nitrate in the South Safi, K., Thompson, D., Wilkinson, I., and J.L. 2002. Ocean Interpolation by Four- Pacific Ocean. Deep-Sea Research 28A: Zeldis J. 2003. Pilot trophic model for Dimensional Weighted Least Squares: 455–465. subantarctic water over the Southern Plateau, Application to the Waters around Australasia. New Zealand: a low biomass, high efficiency Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic system. Journal of Experimental Marine Technology 19: 1357–1375. Biology and Ecology 289(2): 223–262. Roemmich, D. and Sutton, P. 1998. The Carter, L., Garlick, R.D., Sutton, P., Chiswell, mean and variability of ocean circulation S., Oien, N.A., and Stanton, B.R. 1998. past northern New Zealand: determining Ocean Circulation New Zealand. NIWA Chart the representativeness of hydrographic Miscellaneous Series, 76. climatologies. Journal of Geophysical Research 103 (C6): 13041–13054.

18 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION 3.2 Cetaceans, seals, and seabirds

ew Zealand’s extensive coastline and inshore and offshore islands provide key habitats for seabirds and marine Nmammals. Three quarters of the world’s albatross, penguin, and petrel species and half of shearwater and shag species occur here, as well as a number of other groups. The erect-crested (Eudyptes sclateri) and yellow-eyed (Megadyptes antipodes) penguins are among the eight endemic penguins of New Zealand. Nine species of endemic albatross are also found here. There are 16 endemic petrels, shearwaters, and storm petrels. Almost half of the world’s cetaceans occur in New Zealand seas (Daniel and Baker 1986). The fauna includes the endemic Hector’s dolphin (Cephalorynchus hectori)3 and New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri). Workshop participants specialising in seabirds and marine mammals delineated 16 areas in New Zealand’s marine environment that are known to be key locations for cetaceans, seals, and seabirds. Contributors: Alan Baker, Mike Imber, Peter Moore, Chris Robertson, Anton van Helden, and Ian Wilkinson.

3 Hector’s dolphin is represented by two distinct subspecies. The populations of the South Island are known as Hector’s dolphins (Cephalorhychus hectori hectorii) and the North Island population is known as Maui’s dolphin, (C. hectori maui), which number around 100 individuals. /Dick Veitch /Dick Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te

New Zealand Fur Seal ©2004 DOC, DOC, ©2004

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 19 Key areas for cetacean, seal, and seabird biodiversity in the New Zealand marine ecoregion

Key Biodiversity Areas 1. Subantarctic Islands 2. Chatham Islands 3. Chatham Rise 4. Stewart Island 5. South Island southern and eastern shelf edge 6. Otago/Catlins shelf 7. Northeast South Island 8. West coast of the South Island 9. North coast of the South Island 10. Trench zone 11. Coastal shelf and edge of the southeast coast and East Cape of the North Island 12. Hauraki Gulf/northeast coast of the North Island 13. West coast of the North Island 14. Three Kings Islands 15. West coast basin 16. Kermadec Islands

Depth (metres) 0 - 250 250 - 500 500 - 1000 1000 - 2000 2000 - 3000 3000 - 4000 4000 - 5000 5000 - 6000 6000 - 8000 8000 - >10,000

20 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Subantarctic Islands Description of area: and Bounty Island shags). Table 1 indicates (and continental The fi ve subantarctic island groups are scat- the number of seabird and marine mammal tered across the Campbell Plateau and other species that breed on each of the subantarctic shelf areas to 500m submerged shelves of the southern New islands. depth) Zealand continental region. The plateau is a Criteria applied: major feature that sits just north of the Sub- Map ID number: Species richness; endemism; unusual degree/ antarctic Front, at the northern boundary of proportion of biomass (e.g. millions of sea- 1 the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that circles birds occupy the Snares). Location: Island groupings the Southern Hemisphere and connects all the to the south and southeast large ocean basins. Despite there being plenty Status and management: of terrestrial New Zealand of phytoplankton nutrients, such as nitrates, including Snares, Bounty, All islands are nature reserves and collec- Antipodes, Auckland, and the region has relatively low levels of phy- tively are a World Heritage Site, and the Campbell islands toplankton biomass and primary production Auckland Islands are surrounded by a marine (Bradford-Grieve et al. 2003, Peat 2003). mammal sanctuary and marine reserve. Sev- Approximate area: 104,113km2 Biological attributes: eral endemic species are considered to face a high threat of extinction under the IUCN The subantarctic islands are highly pris- and/or Department of Conservation threat tine and lack disturbance. Each island has a classifi cation schemes. For example, two unique faunal assemblage because of their penguin species (yellow-eyed penguin and wide geographic spread and diverse and pro- erect-crested penguin) are currently listed as ductive marine environment. Some islands endangered under the IUCN classifi cation.4 have no introduced pests (e.g. The Snares, Most albatross are classifi ed as at least “vul- and Adams Island in the Auckland Islands nerable” because of large population declines group), and on others the pest mammals have and small breeding areas. More widespread been removed (e.g. from Enderby Island and species have also shown greater than 90% Campbell Island). All islands provide excel- declines in population in the New Zealand lent seabird nesting and marine mammal region, such as the rockhopper penguin (Eud- breeding locations that are close to major yptes chrysocome), grey-headed albatross feeding areas. The Auckland and Campbell (Thalassarche chrysotoma), and southern islands are a winter breeding ground for a elephant seal (Mirounga leonine). remnant population of southern right whales (Eubalaena australis). The continental shelf State of information: is a productive area for inshore and shelf The breeding information for most species feeders, such as the yellow-eyed penguin of birds and mammals in the subantarctic (Megadyptes antipodes) and New Zealand region is very good. Population assessments sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri). are, however, of variable quality and reliabil- The islands are also good locations for alba- ity, depending upon the species. Knowledge trosses to access remote productive feeding of species relationships is good. Informa- areas in the subantartic. Forty seabird spe- tion on foraging is limited, therefore niche cies (11% of the world total) breed in the separations are not as well understood. New Zealand subantarctic and over 120 spe- There is detailed information available for cies have been observed at the islands or in some species, such as the New Zealand the surrounding oceans. These include 10 sea lion. Extensive information is available (42%) of the world’s 24 albatross species that from satellite telemetry of Buller’s albatross breed in the New Zealand subantarctic (5 are (Thalassarche bulleri), Gibson’s albatross endemic to the region), making the area a (Diomedea gibsoni), and Antipodean alba- centre of biological diversity for albatrosses. tross (Diomedea anipodensis) and to a lesser Furthermore, 21 (30%) of the world’s petrels, extent some other albatross species. shearwaters, fulmars, and prions are observed References and further reading: in the subantarctic islands. Four penguin spe- Childerhouse and Gales (1998, 2001), cies breed (Snares crested (Eudyptes robust- Childerhouse et al. (2001), Cunningham and us) and erect-crested (Eudyptes sclateri) are Moors (1994), Department of Conservation endemic) and there are three endemic shag (1997,1999a), Gales (1998), Gales and Table 1. Seabirds and marine species (Campbell Island, Auckland Island, mammals that breed on the Fletcher (1999), Hitchmough (2002), subantarctic islands IUCN (2002), Miskelly et al. (2001), Peat (2003), Parliamentary Commissioner for the Antipodes Auckland Bounty Campbell Snares Environment (1999), Robertson and Nunn Islands Islands Islands Island Islands Albatross 4 4 1 6 2 (1998), Stahl and Sagar (2000), Taylor and Flightless duck 0 1 0 1 0 Taylor (1989), Tickell (2000), Waugh et al. Penguin 2 2 1 3 1 (1999). Petrel 12 10 2 9 8 Tern/gull 3 4 1 4 2 4 The erect-crested penguin is also listed as Seal 2 2 1 3 0 endangered under the Department of Whale 0 1 0 1 0 Conservation’s threat classifi cation system.

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 21 Chatham Islands Description of area: the Chatham Islands, two of which (taiko or The Chatham Islands are the most easterly magenta petrel (Pterodroma magentae) and Map ID number: island group in the New Zealand marine Chatham Island petrel (Pterodroma axil- 2 zone. They sit atop the Chatham Rise, a sub- laris)) are endemic and endangered. The Location: 860 km east of marine plateau that extends eastward from islands are home to 2 cormorant species New Zealand’s south island on the South Island. In this zone subantarctic (Chatham Island and Pitt shags), both of the Chatham Rise and subtropical elements intermix. There are which are endemic, and 4 tern and gull spe- Approximate area: 14,334km2 complex currents and eddies associated with cies, one of which is endemic. The Chatham the shelf edges and subterranean features of Islands also have a fur seal population that is the area. recovering from signifi cant human impact to be one of the major New Zealand groups of Biological attributes: colonies. The habitat of this area provides island breeding locations close to productive feed- Criteria applied: ing areas for seabirds. Many species feed Endemism; species richness; species diver- close to the breeding islands. A mix of sity; conservation status/threat classifi cation. breeding species is found on the Chatham Status and management: Islands, with feeding ranges extending to the The Chatham Islands have the highest levels subtropical waters in the north, the subant- of endemism and greatest number of endan- arctic waters in the south, and to the pelagic gered seabird species of any New Zealand areas and over the submarine volcanic chains area. The endemism and endangered status to the east. The islands are known for mass- of these seabirds is primarily related to mod- strandings of whales and oceanic dolphins, ifi cation of habitat and introduced predators indicating large populations in the surround- combined with restricted breeding sites. ing waters. They are also the type-locality About 50% of the bird species (land and (the site where the specimen used to describe marine) present at the time of European con- the species originated) for two beaked tact are today either extinct, endangered or whales (Mesoplodon grayi and M. traversii). severely reduced in numbers. Approximately The ocean around the Chatham Islands is 20% of New Zealand’s threatened bird fauna rich in marine life, supporting valuable fi sh- occur on the Chatham Islands. ing resources for people and animals. There are internationally signifi cant populations of The main seabird fauna is confi ned to outer seabirds and nationally signifi cant popula- islands and islets after human modifi cation tions of whales, dolphins, and seals. of the two main islands. The three island groups with albatrosses are in private Maori There is a high level of endemism in the ownership while other signifi cant bird sites seabird fauna of the Chatham Islands. Seven are mostly island reserves or part of the main albatross species breed on the islands. One island reserve. There are no marine mam- of the species (Chatham Island albatross) mals endemic to the islands. On the main is a local endemic, and four are endemic Chatham Island there are predator control to the New Zealand region – two of which programmes to improve the productivity and have the vast majority of the population on survival of the endangered Chatham Island the Chatham Islands (northern royal and oystercatcher and taiko. Pacifi c albatrosses). The Chatham Islands blue penguin (Eudyptula minor chathamen- State of information: sis) is the islands’ only penguin species, and There is much information available for is a subspecies endemic to the islands. The endemic and endangered species currently Chatham Island oystercatcher (Haematopus under extensive conservation management chathamensis) is endemic and classifi ed as (e.g. Aikman et al. 2001, Aikman and endangered. Thirteen petrel species live in Miskelly 2004). References and further reading: Aikman et al. (2001), Aikman and Miskelly (2004), Bell and Robertson (1994), Department of Conservation Canterbury

/C.J.R. Robertson /C.J.R. Conservancy (1996), Department of Conservation (1996, 1999b), Holdaway (1994), Taylor (2000). Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te

©2004 DOC, DOC, ©2004 Chatham Island mollymawk on nest 22 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Chatham Rise Description of area: fore have different assemblages of foraging The Chatham Rise is a submerged platform animals. The northern slope shows the effects Map ID number: of approximately 500–1000 m depth, located of the subtropical current, while the southern 3 under the Subtropical Front, an intermixing slope shows the effects of the Subantarctic Location: A submarine area for subtropical and subantarctic waters. Front. extension of the New Zealand Biological attributes: Criteria applied: Plateau that extends eastward of the South Island for 1400km The conditions associated with the Chatham Species diversity; species richness (for sea- Rise make it a diverse and productive habitat. birds and mammals as a result of highly pro- Approximate area: 189,185km2 The extensive area of the rise is characterised ductive oceanographic features). Focal point by high primary production. Of particular for foraging for a wide range of species that note is the large calanoid copepod (Neocala- breed in subantarctic, New Zealand and the nus tonsus) which forms dense aggregations Chatham Islands. from late spring to early summer. Sei whales Status and management: (Balaenoptera borealis), and broad-billed The Chatham Rise is not managed specifi - prions (Pachyptila vittata), are known to feed cally for seabirds or mammals which use the on this zooplankton species (Imber 1981). area for foraging, other than benefi ting indi- Other marine mammals known to forage on rectly through the fi sheries quota management the Chatham Rise include sperm whales and system and observer programme. The fi sh- beaked whales. ing industry, conservation organisations, and The rise is an important foraging area for sea- government are working towards decreasing birds from the Chatham Islands, southern New the level of non-fi sh mortality during fi shing Zealand, and the subantarctic (e.g. the royal activities. albatross). Particularly concentrated feeding State of information: spots are located around the Chatham Islands and close to the New Zealand mainland, but Satellite-tracking of albatrosses is provid- are also found on the slope areas. The Mernoo ing evidence of widespread foraging on Bank, for example, is an important mixing the Chatham Rise. Information is inferred area close to the mainland that is an important for cetaceans following reported sightings feeding ground for seabirds including Buller’s (Gaskin, 1968). mollymawk (Diomedea bulleri) and sooty References and further reading: shearwater (Puffi nus griseus). The northern Imber (1981, 1999), Nicholls et. al (2002), and southern slopes of the rise are subject to Waugh et al. (2002) different hydrographic conditions, and there-

Stewart Island Description of area: Criteria applied: Stewart Island lies on the shallow continental Species richness; species diversity; endemism; Map ID number: shelf of the South Island, separated from the cultural values; habitat complexity/diversity 4 mainland by Foveaux Strait, and surrounded (offered by large area under protection). by many offshore islands and stacks. Although Location: Area includes Status and management: Southland coast, Foveaux there is a small human settlement the majority Strait, Stewart Island, Snares, is uninhabited and forested. Much of the coast in this area is in pristine and outlying islands. (The condition due to remoteness, climate, a low Snares are dealt with in the Biological attributes: human population density and consequent subantarctic section – map Stewart Island has a major proportion of lack of human disturbance. Stewart Island number 1) endemic and threatened species populations. It recently became a national park that includes Approximate area: 39,642km2 also has a high level of species richness with 3 pest-free nature reserves (e.g. Codfi sh Island), species of penguin (yellow-eyed (Megadyptes making it an important conservation area. antipodes), Fiordland (Eudyptes pachyrhyn- Much of this major natural heritage area is chus), and blue (Eudyptula minor)), 8 species accessible to the public. The area also has of petrel, and 1 endemic shag (Stewart Island high cultural signifi cance for local Maori. shag), which breed on islands and coasts. The For example, the privately owned Muttonbird New Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus for- Islands are important for customary harvest of steri), and several cetaceans including pilot the sooty shearwater (Puffi nus griseus). whales (Globicephala melas), beaked whales State of information: (Mesoplodon spp.), southern right whales (Eubalaena australis), and pygmy right Good information for seabird breeding sites. whales (Caperea marginata), are known from Foraging areas are less well known. the seas around Stewart Island. The Southland References and further reading: coast is an important mainland site for the Bejder and Dawson (2001), Department of endangered Hector’s dolphin (Cephaloryn- Conservation (1999c), DuFresne et al. (2001). chus hectori). BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 23 South Island Description of area: also the ‘home’ to one of the four subpopula- This area is strongly infl uenced by westerly tions of Hector’s dolphin (Cephalorynchus southern and eastern hectori). shelf edge drift and current in the south and subantarc- tic current in the east. Criteria applied: Map ID number: Biological attributes: Unusual degree/proportion of biomass; 5 The shelf edges and slopes along the south- trophic/functional diversity (as a foraging Location: Narrow zone of ern and eastern part of New Zealand’s South area link between the Snares and southern continental slope and edge Island provide major feeding zones for sea- New Zealand for several species); extremi- from Fiordland to Kaikoura. birds. This area serves as a linkage to other ties of range (birds); seasonal/migratory Also includes the pristine small importance (birds). island group at The Snares major foraging areas to the west and east of (this is generally regarded as the subantarctic. The feeding route is one of Status and management: part of the subantarctic group the major seabird “motorways” of the world. The Snares, a subantarctic island unmodifi ed of islands but has also been For some seabirds it is the start and fi nish of by humans, is a World Heritage site. There included in this section for its migration paths to the Northern Hemisphere. functional connection to these are no introduced mammals. waters). The area is part of the foraging range for at State of information: Approximate area: 42,844km2 least 2 albatross species, one of which is a local breeding endemic (Buller’s albatross), Bird species from The Snares Islands are 8 petrel species, 1 endemic penguin species well documented. Much distributional and (Snares crested (Eudyptes robustus)) and 3 behavioural data has been obtained from sat- gull and tern species. There is also 1 gannet ellite tracking of albatrosses, and logger and species that forms the most southern colo- satellite tracking of shearwaters. nies for that species (Morus serrator). The References and further reading: biomass of small seabirds in this area is one Miskelly et al. (2001), Pichler (2002), Stahl of the highest in the world, especially those and Sagar (2000a, 2000b) based at the Snares Islands where the largest regional colony of sooty shearwaters (Puffi - nus griseus) exists (2.75 million birds). The area is important for marine mammals, such as New Zealand fur seals and sea lions. Shep- herd’s beaked whale (Tasmacetus

shepherdi) and some Mesoplodon Veith /Dick species are known from this area. This area (Te Wae Wae Bay) is Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te

Description of area: DOC, ©2004 Otago/Catlins Shelf Sooty shearwater A narrow (less than 35km) margin of con- Map ID number: tinental shelf (mostly less than 80–120m 6 deep) and slope borders the southeast side of Location: Coast of southwest the South Island. important coastal wetlands in the area for South Island out to 200 m wading birds, and migratory waders gather Biological attributes: depth contour at these feeding sites at the southern end of The Otago/Catlins Shelf area is an important Approximate area: 6,610km2 their fl yway. The Otago/Catlins area is an mainland breeding location for a number important breeding location for yellow-eyed of species, given its proximity to highly penguins and New Zealand fur seals, and productive water on the continental shelf is the only mainland breeding site for New and on the shelf’s edge. The area provides Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri) and habitat for 2 seal species (New Zealand royal albatross. It is the only location in the fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri) and New world where albatross species hybridise and Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri)), are also viable (northern and southern royal Hector’s dolphin (Cephalorynchus hectori), albatross). Southern right whales (Eubalaena 2 albatross species (northern (Diomedea australis) migrate through this area in the sanfordi) and southern (D. epomophora) spring. royal albatrosses), 2 penguin species (yellow-eyed (Megadyptes antipodes) and Criteria applied: blue penguins (Eudyptula minor)), 1 petrel Conservation status/threat classifi cation; species (sooty shearwater (Puffi nus griseus)), species diversity; and cultural (community) and a variety of cormorants. There are values. 24 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Otago/Catlins shelf Status and management: Some of the seabird and marine mammal continued species in the Otago/Catlins area are clas- sifi ed as threatened with extinction under the IUCN and/or DoC threat classifi cations. Under the IUCN classifi cation, the northern royal albatross, yellow-eyed penguin and Hector’s dolphin are endangered, while the southern royal albatross and the New Zea- land sea lion are classifi ed as vulnerable. Introduced terrestrial predators are a threat to penguins. Under the DoC classifi cation the New Zealand sea lion and Hector’s dolphin are classifi ed as threatened. Morris /Rod The Otago Peninsula’s proximity to a large urban centre makes it an accessible and popular ecotourism destination for viewing Atawhai Papa Te iconic species. Yellow-eyed penguins can be

seen on the peninsula and albatrosses nest DOC, ©2004 at Taiaroa Head. New Zealand sea lions also Yellow-eyed penguin, Otago Peninsula occur on the peninsula and in the Catlins. References and further reading: State of information: Connel (ed.) (1999), Darby and Seddon Information is good for the New Zealand sea (1990), DuFresne et al. (2001), Hitchmough lion and fur seal. Population and foraging (comp.) (2002), IUCN (2002), Moore information for albatrosses and yellow-eyed (1999), Moore and Wakelin (1997), penguin is good. Robertson et al. (1998)

Description of area: out to a distance of four nautical miles – an Northeast South 2 Island Wide and shallow continental shelf and deep area of 1,140km . There is a total ban on inshore trenches. all set-netting from November to the end of Map ID number: February. During the rest of the year set-net- 7 Biological attributes: ting is permitted within the sanctuary area The northeast South Island is an important subject to some restrictions. Location: Coast and inshore mainland New Zealand breeding site for coastal waters from Banks several species of seabird, which are prob- State of information: Peninsula to Kaikoura ably remnant of a larger distribution before Information on Hector’s dolphin biology, 2 Approximate area: 2,494km human disturbance. For example, this area breeding behaviour and distribution is good. contains the only inland breeding site for References and further reading: Hutton’s shearwater (Puffi nus huttoni). Fur Challies and Burleigh (2004), Childerhouse seal, gulls, terns, and penguins also breed on et al. (1995), Cuthbert et al. (2001), Cuthbert this coast. Estuaries on either side of Banks (2002a, 2002b), Dawson et al. (2000), Peninsula are major national and interna- Dawson and Slooten (1993). tional migratory wader feeding sites. The coast is also an important breeding and feed- ing area for Hector’s dolphin (Cephaloryn- chus hectori), and is home to a small number Hutton’s shearwater of semi-resident sperm whales which feed in the deep local trenches. Criteria applied: Trophic/functional diversity; seasonal/ migratory importance Status and management: /Ian Flux /Ian A marine mammal sanctuary was declared around Banks Peninsula in 1988 with the specifi c purpose of pro- tecting Hector’s dolphin from fi sheries Atawhai Papa Te bycatch. The sanctuary extends from

Sumner Head to the Rakaia River, and DOC, ©2004

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 25 West coast of Description of area: South Island The west coast of the South Island has an open coast and continental shelf. The shelf Map ID number: widens toward the north. The southern end 8 of the region includes fi ord systems that are Location: out to the 500 m unique to New Zealand. depth contour, from Dusky Biological attributes: Sound in the south to western Kerr /A edge of Farewell Spit in the New Zealand’s largest population of the north endemic Hector’s dolphin (Cephalorynchus

2 hectori) is found on the west coast of the

Approximate area: 50,506km Atawhai Papa Te South Island. Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) are resident in the fi ords. A sig-

nifi cant proportion of New Zealand’s fur seal DOC, ©2004 (Arctocephalus forsteri) population lives on Fiordland crested penguin this coast, which is an important foraging area for this species. The Westland black pet- has a bycatch of fur seals. In contrast, the rel (Procellaria westlandica) also forages on fi sheries appear to benefi t Westland petrels the west coast and breeds there in the winter. which scavenge the discards of the harvest. The Fiordland crested penguin (Eudyptes State of information: pachyrhynchus) is a locally endemic species. Population estimates of Hector’s dolphins Criteria applied: and fur seals north of Fiordland are good Conservation status/threat classifi cation (e.g. Slooten et al. 2002). There are detailed (Hector’s dolphin). studies of Fiordland bottlenose dolphins, but poor information on fur seal populations in Status and management: the fi ords. Distribution information on pen- There are minimal land-based human guins is good, but abundance information for impacts on the west coast of the South Island these birds is poor. due to the low level of development in this area. Some of the marine fauna, however, References and further reading: is at risk from human activities at sea. For Freeman et al. (2001), Freeman and Wilson example, the continental shelf is an impor- (2002), Slooten et al. (2002), Bräger and tant commercial fi shing area for hoki, which Schneider (1999), Williams et al. (1993).

North coast of Description of area: Criteria applied: Continental shelf with shallow seas. Endemism; conservation status/threat South Island classifi cation. Map ID number: Biological attributes: Status and management: 9 The north coast of the South Island is home to many inshore species. The area is of major Takapourewa Island and others have iwi Location: Whanganui Inlet to importance for wading birds, which congre- involvement in management. There is human Cloudy Bay gate here in large numbers. Farewell Spit is disturbance on the islands as a result of Approximate area: 15,771km2 a key wintering ground for Northern Hemi- fi shing. sphere waders. Gannets are found along this State of information: coast, there are 6 petrel species, and a large Good. fairy prion (Pachyptila turtur) colony. There is also a population of the rare and endan- References and further reading: gered king shag (Leucocarbo carunculatus), Schukard (1994), Clement et al. (2001). which is restricted to the Marlborough Sounds. The area is habitat for a variety of small cetaceans, including Hector’s dolphins (Cephalorynchus hectori), bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncates), and orcas (Orcinus orca). There have been a Roderick /C.D. number of beaked whale strandings on this coast. Fur seals (Arctocephalus for-

steri) breed in this area. Atawhai Papa Te

King shag colony, Marlborough Sounds DOC, ©2004 26 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Trench zone Description of area: species such as striped dolphins, toothed Areas of deep water. Canyon and deep trench dolphins (Steno bredanensis), and dense Map ID number: (up to 11 km deep) systems. beaked whales (Mesoplodon densirostris). 10 Biological attributes: Criteria applied: Location: Canyon and trench Species diversity (whales). systems running from the New Zealand’s trench zone is an area of high Kaikoura Canyon in the south productivity and consequently an attractive Status and management: habitat for deep-diving species of cetacean, up the east coast of the North Marine mammals have high cultural sig- Island, taking in the Nicholson such as sperm whales. It is the primary New nifi cance in New Zealand. Sperm whales in Canyon, Hikurangi Trench, and Zealand habitat for pygmy sperm whales particular have great importance to Maori for north-eastward following the (Kogia breviceps) and beaked whales Kermadec Trench up to 25ºS bone carving and whale watching is cultur- (Mesoplodon peruvianus), which may 2 ally signifi cant to most New Zealanders. Approximate area: 169,495km use the trench as a north-south migration corridor. These whales forage in the trench State of information: zone, primarily for squid. There are at least Good. 10 species of beaked whale in the area, which contribute to making New Zealand References and further reading: the richest country in the world in terms of Baker (1999), Childerhouse et al. (1995), beaked whale diversity (Baker 1999). Other Jaquet et al. (2000). offshore species of dolphins and whales found in the corridor include pilot whales, Risso’s dolphins (Grampus griseus), and Sperm whale southern right whales (Eubalaena australis). In the north there are common (Delphinus delphis) and striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba), and Dusky dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obscurus) in the south. The Hikurangi Trench has the greatest number of pygmy sperm whales in New Zealand waters. In warm water years there are strandings of short fi nned pilot whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus) and more tropical ©WWF-Canon/Peter Lagendick ©WWF-Canon/Peter

Coastal shelf and Description of area: whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus and edge of the southeast Continental shelf, edge, and slope with vari- G. melas respectively), oceanic dolphins, ous current gyres infl uenced by subtropical and orcas (Orcinus orca). There is possi- coast and East Cape currents. bly a small population of Hector’s dolphins of the North Island (Cephalorynchus hectori). Biological attributes: Map ID number: The coastal shelf and edge off of the east Criteria applied: 11 coast of the North Island is a signifi cant feed- Seasonal/migratory importance. Location: southeast coast of ing area for a range of seabirds and marine Status and management: North Island mammals. The importance of this area for No specifi c management measures other 2 feeding is associated with areas of rich oce- Approximate area: 29,860km than protection afforded by the Exclusive anic mixing. The mixing zones near the East Economic Zone. Cape are foraging habitat for seabirds from the northern subtropical and east regions to State of information: the Chatham Islands. This zone is part of the Information on seabirds and mammals in seabird migratory route from the southern this area is poor except for gannet popula- islands and east coast of the South Island to tions at Cape Kidnappers, bycatch species North Pacifi c wintering grounds. data, and beaching records of various whales Mammals found in the area include pygmy in Hawke Bay. sperm whales (Kogia breviceps), beaked References and further reading: whales, sperm whales, common dolphins Adams (1992), Department of Conservation (Delphinus delphis), Risso’s dolphins (Gram- (2004), Robertson (1990). pus griseus), long- and short-fi nned pilot

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 27 Hauraki/northeast Description of area: coast of North Island The northeast coastal area is deeply dissected by inlets, harbours, and bays with numerous Map ID number: inshore and offshore islands. Marine habitats 12 range from oceanic to estuarine. Oceanic Location: Hauraki Gulf, islands habitat is strongly infl uenced by warm tropi- and coastal region north to the cal waters from the northwest and northeast. Cavalli Islands out to 100 m The main oceanographic infl uences are the depth contour East Australian current (south fl owing), and Approximate area: 14,878km2 adjacent deep water to 1000m. Promontories such as Cape Brett and Cavalli Island create eddying areas on their northern sides where ©WWF-Canon/Gustavo Ybarra ©WWF-Canon/Gustavo food concentrates. Bottle-nosed dolphin Biological attributes: in the area, 11 of which have major colonies. The Hauraki Gulf/Northeast coast provides A third of the petrel species are endemic. habitat for common (Delphinus delphis) Criteria applied: and bottlenose (Tursiops truncates) dol- phins, orcas (Orcinus orca), beaked whales Species richness; endemism; conservation (Mesoplodon spp.), dwarf minke whales status/threat classifi cation. (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), Bryde’s Status and management: whales (B. edeni), and tropical vagrant and The Bryde’s whale population is resident and migrating species. Large baleen whales small and is therefore classifi ed as nationally migrate through this area, foraging as they critical under the DoC classifi cation. This go. The high concentrations of prey species, area has signifi cant human impacts through especially fi sh, make the area attractive to ship traffi c, fi shing, pollution, and other many different marine mammals and sea- forms of disturbance. The Hauraki Gulf is birds, some of which breed there. designated as a marine park. Seabirds found in the area include 10 spe- State of information: cies of tern and a concentration of gannets. Information for this area is moderately good. It is also a major habitat for migrating wader Species information is accurate, as is ocea- birds. The area is characterised by species nographic information. It is one of the more richness, including some diversity in the researched areas of the New Zealand coast. form of vagrant tropical species, and marked seasonal occurrence. Birds from north and References and further reading: south, such as albatrosses and petrels, visit Baker (1999), Imber et al. (2003a, 2003b, the area to feed. There are 12 petrel species 2003c), O’Callahan (2002).

West Coast of Description of area: interaction. A ban on set-nets applies from North Island The west coast of the North Island has the shore to 4 nautical miles and a ban on exposed beaches with 4 bar-protected har- trawling applies from the shore to 1 nautical Map ID number: bours including large areas of Manukau mile to protect Maui’s dolphin. 13 and Kaipara harbours. The area lies mostly State of information: within the 100m depth contour. Location: Inshore coastal Information for this area is good, particularly zone between North Taranaki Biological attributes: with regard to accurate species information. and 90 Mile Beach out to approximately 10 nautical The west coast of the North Island is the References and further reading: only habitat for New Zealand’s endemic miles Baker et al. (2002), Ferreira and Roberts Maui’s dolphin (Cephalorynchus hectori Approximate area: 5,471km2 (2003), Russell (1999). maui), which is a subspecies of the endemic Hector’s dolphin (Cephalorynchus hectori). The estuaries in the area also provide over- winter habitat for migrating waders. Criteria applied: Conservation status/threat classifi cation. Status and management: The area has a wild, westerly impacted coastline with minimal land development and maritime use. Maui’s dolphin, however, is critically endangered due to a small ©2004 Will Rayment Will ©2004 population that is threatened by human Maui’s dolphin 28 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Three Kings Islands Description of area: mammals present. They are relatively undis- Environment infl uenced by cold water turbed, although humans and goats histori- Map ID number: upwelling in a subtropical/warm temperature cally occupied the islands. 14 area. State of information: Location: Offshore islands 25 Biological attributes: Information for this area is good, particularly nautical miles north of North Cape consisting of 3 main The Three Kings Islands represent the limits with regard to accurate species and oceano- island groups and surrounding of the range of several species. They are the graphic information. oceans most northern haul-out for the New Zealand References and further reading: 2 fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri), the most Approximate area: 12,479km Buddle (1949), Ramsay and Watt (1971), northern breeding ground in the Exclusive Wright (1984). Economic Zone for Australasian gannets (Morus serrator), and the extremity of range for fl uttering shearwater. The Australasian gannets islands are the most northern breeding locality for Pacifi c albatross (Thalassarche platei), 3 petrel species, and fl uttering shearwaters (Puffi nus gavia).

Criteria applied: Blok /Peter Extremities of range and adapta- tion to environment

Status and management: Atawhai Papa Te The land areas of the islands are

in their natural state, with no DOC, ©2004

West coast basin Description of area: whales (Globicephala melas), Gray’s beaked The head of the New Caledonia Trough is whale (Mesoplodon grayi), and Maui’s Map ID number: a major re-entrant that leads directly to the dolphin (Cephalorynhus hectori maui). 15 continental margin off the west coast of Globally the region is important for pygmy Location: Offshore Basin the North Island. The ocean circulation is right whales. system – particularly the not well known, but the shallow rim of the Criteria applied: southern end of New trough may be affected by an ephemeral Caledonia Basin and inshore West Auckland Current. Sediments become Species diversity (indicative for cetaceans, to Kaipara in the north to progressively fi ner grained and carbonate not known to be a key area for seals or sea- Wanganui in the south enriched with distance and depth from the birds). Approximate area: 134,312km2 edge of the continental shelf, marking the Status and management: rim of the trough. Thus, at 1,600m water No specifi c management measures other depth, the predominantly muddy sediments than protection afforded by the Exclusive contain about 50% biogenic carbonate com- Economic Zone. posed mainly of planktonic foraminifers and possible coccoliths. This compares to less State of information: than 10% on the continental shelf and upper From stranding data this was suggested as slope where the main carbonate contribu- an important area for Shepherd’s beaked tion is from molluscan shells (L. whales and pygmy Carter, personal communication right whales, but is not 2004). supported with strong data. The ?-mark on Biological attributes: Area 15 (p20, West The west coast basin is likely Coast Basin) refl ects to contain foraging and this uncertainty. breeding grounds for rarely seen and unusual cetaceans. References and further reading:

Species include pygmy right Simpson /P. whales (Caperea marginata), Department of Shepherd’s beaked whale Conservation (2004). (Tasmacetus shepherdi) (type specimen from Wanganui), Atawhai Papa Te false killer whales (Psuedorca

crassidens), long-fi nned pilot DOC, ©2004 Shepherd’s beaked whale BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 29 Kermadec Islands Description of area: The subtropical Kermadec Map ID number: Islands are clustered 16 in 3 groups along the Location: 3 island groups along Kermadec Ridge and span the Kermadec ridge approximately 150 nautical Approximate area: 23,565km2 miles from north to south.

Biological attributes: Veitch /D. Seven petrels breed on the Kermadec Islands, 2 of

which are endemic. Many Atawhai Papa Te petrels and shearwaters that breed in the Kermadecs also breed elsewhere across DOC, ©2004 similar latitudes of all Kermadec petrel southern oceans. Other seabirds found on the islands include inshore seabirds, such as Criteria applied: terns, noddies, and boobies, and transient Endemism (birds). waders. Status and management: Migrating large whales are found over the The two main islands of the Kermadecs are deep waters of the Kermadec Trench season- highly modifi ed by pests. ally. Also, beaked whales have been reported State of information: from the area, as have striped dolphins (Stenella caeruloalba). A small resident Poor population of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops References and further reading: truncates) lives around the main islands. Veitch et al. (in press).

➲ TO CONTENTS 30 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION References and further reading

Adams, J.S. 1992. “Hawke’s Bay Conservancy Cunningham, D.M. and Moors, P.J. 1994. The Department of Conservation. 1999c. Coastal Bird Survey, February 1992”. decline of rockhopper penguins (Eudyptes Conservation Management Strategy for Unpublished report. Reference copy on file chrysocome) at Campbell Island, Southern Stewart Island – Rakiura, 1997–2007. Department of Conservation, Napier. Ocean and the influence of rising sea Department of Conservation, Invercargill. temperatures. Emu 94: 27–36. Aikman, H., Davis, A., Miskelly, C., O’Connor, Department of Conservation. 2004. New S., and Taylor, G. 2001. “Chatham Islands Cuthbert, R., Fletcher D., and Davis, L.S. Zealand Whale Stranding Database threatened birds recovery and management 2001. A sensitivity analysis of Hutton’s maintained by the Museum of New Zealand, plans.” Department of Conservation, shearwater: prioritizing conservation research Wellington. Wellington. and management. Biological conservation. Department of Conservation Canterbury 100(2): 163–172. Aikman, H.A. and Miskelly, C.M. 2004. Birds Conservancy. 1996. The Chatham Islands of the Chatham Islands. Department of Cuthbert, R. 2002a. The role of introduced – heritage and conservation. Canterbury Conservation, Wellington. 128 p. mammals and inverse density-dependent University Press/Department of Conservation. predation in the conservation of Hutton’s Baker, A.N. 1999. Whales and Dolphins of New DuFresne, S., Dawson, S., and Slooten, E. 2001. Biological conservation Zealand and Australia. Victoria University shearwater. 108 (1): Line-transect survey of Hector’s dolphin Press, Wellington. 133 p. 69–78. abundance between Timaru and Long Point, Baker, A.N., Smith, A.H., and Pichler, F.B. Cuthbert, R. 2002b. The impact of predation by and effect of attraction to survey vessel. DOC 2002. Geographical variation in Hector’s introduced stoats on Hutton’s shearwaters, Science Internal Series 1, 19 p. New Zealand. Biological conservation 108 dolphin: recognition of a new subspecies Ferreira, S.M. and Roberts, C.C. 2003. (1): 79–92. of Cephalorhynchus hectori. Journal of “Distribution and abundance of Hector’s the Royal Society of New Zealand. 32(4): Daniel, M. and Baker, A. 1986. Collins Field dolphins along the North Island west 713–727. Guide to the Mammals of New Zealand. coast.” Unpublished report, Department of Bejder, L. and Dawson, S.M. 2001. Abundance, Collins Auckland & London, 228 p. Conservation, Auckland. residency and habitat utilisation of Hector’s Darby, J.T. and Seddon, P.J. 1990. Breeding Freeman, A.N.D., Wilson, K.J., and Nicholls, dolphins in Porpoise Bay, New Zealand. New biology of yellow-eyed penguins (Megadyptes D.G. 2001. Westland Petrels and the Hoki Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater antipodes). In: Davis, L.S. and Darby, J.T. fishery: determining co-occurrence using Research 35: 277–287. (eds.) Penguin Biology. Academic Press, New satellite telemetry. Emu 101: 47–56. York. Bell, B.D. and Robertson, C.J.R. 1994. Seabirds Freeman, A.N.D., and Wilson, K.J. 2002. of the Chatham Islands. Birdlife Conservation Dawson, S.M. and Slooten, E. 1993. Westland Petrels and hoki fishery waste: Series No. 1: 219–228. Conservation of Hector’s dolphins: The case opportunistic use of a readily available Bräger, S. and Schneider, K. 1998. Near-shore and process which led to establishment of the resource? Notornis 49: 139–144. Banks Peninsula Marine Mammal Sanctuary. distribution and abundance of dolphins along Gales, R. 1998. Albatross populations: status Aquatic Conservation 3: 207–221. the West Coast of the South Island. New and threats. In: Robertson, G. and Gales, R. Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Dawson, S.M., DuFresne, S., Slooten, E., Albatross biology and conservation. Surrey Research 32: 105–112. and Wade, P. 2000. Line-transect survey Beaty & Sons, Chipping Norton. p. 20–45. of Hector’s dolphin abundance between Buddle, G.A. 1949. Birds of Three Kings and Gales, N.J. and Fletcher, D.J. 1999. Abundance, Motunau and Timaru. Published client report neighbouring waters. Notornis 3: 147–150. distribution, and status of the New Zealand on contract 3072 funded by Conservation sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri). Wildlife Challies, C.N., and Burleigh, R.R. 2004. Services Levy. Department of Conservation, Research 26: 35–52. Abundance and breeding distribution of the Wellington. white-flippered penguin (Eudyptula minor Gaskin, D. 1968. The New Zealand Cetacea. Dawson, S., Pichler, F., Slooten, E., Russell, albosignata) on Banks Peninsula, New Fishery Bulletin No. 1, 92 p. Zealand. Notornis 51: 1–6. K., and Baker, C.S. 2001. The North Island Hector’s dolphin is vulnerable to extinction. Hitchmough, R. (comp) 2002. New Zealand Childerhouse, S.J., Dawson, S.M., and Slooten, Marine Mammal Science 17 (2): 366–371. threat classification lists – 2002. Threatened E. 1995. Abundance and seasonal residence species occasional publication 23, Department of Conservation. 1996. The of sperm whales at Kaikoura, New Zealand. Department of Conservation, Wellington. Chatham Islands, Heritage and Conservation. Canadian Journal of Zoology 73: 723–731. 210 p. Canterbury University Press in association Childerhouse, S., Dix, B., and Gales, N. 2001. with the Department of Conservation. Holdaway, R.N. (ed.) 1994. Chatham Islands Diet of New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos ornithology. Notornis (Supplement) 41: Department of Conservation. 1997. Subantarctic hookeri) at the Auckland Islands. Wildlife 1–208. Research 28: 291–298. Islands Heritage: nomination of the New Zealand subantarctic islands by the Imber, M.J. 1981. Diets of storm petrels Childerhouse, S. and Gales, N. 1998. Historic Government of New Zealand for inclusion Pelagodroma and Garrodia and of prions and modern distribution and abundance of in the World Heritage List. Department of Pachyptila (Procellariiformes). In: Cooper, New Zealand sea lions. New Zealand Journal Conservation, Wellington. J. (ed.) Proceedings of a Symposium on birds of Zoology 25:1-16. of sea and shore. 1979. Cape Town: African Department of Conservation. 1999a. Seabird Group. p. 63–88. Clement, D., Slooten, E., Dawson, S., and Conservation management strategy, DuFresne, S. 2001. Line-transect survey Subantarctic Islands 1998–2008. Department Imber, M.J. 1999. Diet and feeding ecology of of Hector’s dolphin abundance between of Conservation, Invercargill. the royal albatross Diomedea epomophora Farewell Spit and Motunau. Department of — king of the shelf break and inner slope. Department of Conservation. 1999b. Chatham Conservation Internal Science Series 22. Emu 99: 200–211. Department of Conservation, Wellington. Island conservation management strategy, Department of Conservation, Wellington. Connell, J. (ed).1999. Otago Conservation Management Strategy. Department of Conservation, Dunedin.

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 31 Imber, M.J., Harrison, M., Wood, S.E., and Peat, N. 2003. Subantarctic New Zealand – a Stahl, J.C. and Sagar, P.M. 2000b. Foraging Cotter, R.N. 2003a. An estimate of numbers rare heritage. Department of Conservation, strategies and migration of southern Buller’s of grey-faced petrels (Pterodroma macroptera Invercargill. albatrosses (Diomedea b. bulleri) breeding on gouldi) breeding on Moutohora (Whale the Solander Islands, New Zealand. Journal Pichler, F. 2002. Genetic assessment of Island), Bay of Plenty, New Zealand during of the Royal Society of New Zealand 30: population boundaries and gene exchange in 1998-2000. Notornis 50: 23–26. 299–318. Hector’s dolphin. Department of Conservation Imber, M.J., McFadden, I., Bell, E.A., and Internal Science Series 44. Department of Taylor, R.H. and Taylor, G.A. 1989. Scofield, R.P. 2003b. Post-fledging migration, Conservation, Wellington. Reassessment of the status of southern age of first return and recruitment, and elephant seals (Mirounga leonine) in New Ramsay, G.W. and Watt, J.C. 1971. Notes on results of inter-colony translocation of black Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and the birds of Great Island, Three Kings Islands. petrels (Procellaria parkinsoni). Notornis 50: Freshwater Research 23: 201–213. Notornis 18: 287–290. 183–190. Taylor, G.A. 2000. Action plan for seabird Robertson, C.J.R. 1990. The Gannets of Cape Imber, M.J., West, J.A., and Cooper, W.J. 2003c. conservation in New Zealand. Part A: Kidnappers. In: Gill, B.J. and Heather, B.D. Cook’s petrel (Pterodroma cookii): historic threatened seabirds. Threatened Species A flying start. Random Century, Auckland, p. distribution, breeding biology and effects of Occasional Publication No. 16. Department 152–153. predators. Notornis 50: 221–230. of Conservation, Wellington. Robertson, C.J.R. and Nunn, G.B. 1998. IUCN 2002. IUCN red list categories. IUCN, Tickell, W.L.N. 2000. Albatrosses. Pica Press, Towards a new taxonomy for albatrosses. In: Gland. http://www.redlist.org. Sussex. Robertson, G. and Gales, R. Albatross biology Jaquet, N., Dawson, S.M., and Slooten, E. and conservation. Surrey Beaty & Sons, Veitch, C.R., Miskelly, C.M., Harper, G.A., 2000. Abundance, occupancy and seasonal Chipping Norton. p.13–19. Taylor, G.A., and Tennyson, A.J.D. (in press). distribution of male sperm whales off The birds of the Kermadec Islands, south- Russell, K. 1999. “The North Island Hector’s Kaikoura, New Zealand. Canadian Journal of west Pacific. Notornis. dolphin: a species in need of conservation.” Zoology 78: 407–419. MSc thesis, University of Auckland, Waugh, S.M., Weimerskirch, H., Moore, P.J., Miskelly, C.M., Sagar, P.M., Tennyson, A.J.D., Auckland. 136 p. and Sagar, P.M. 1999. Population dynamics and Scofield, R.P. 2001. Birds of the Snares of black-browed and grey-headed albatrosses Schneider, K. 1999. “Behaviour and ecology Islands, New Zealand. Notornis 48: 1–40. (Diomedea melanophrys and D. chrysostoma) of bottlenose dolphins in Doubtful Sound, at Campbell Island, New Zealand, 1942–96. Moore, P.J. 1999. Foraging range of the yellow- Fiordland, New Zealand.” Unpublished PhD Ibis 141: 216–225. eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes). Thesis, University of Otago, 211 p. Marine Ornithology 27: 49–58. Waugh, S., Troup, C., Filippi, D, and Schukard, R. 1994. New Zealand Shag Weimerskirch, H. 2002. Foraging zones of Moore, P.J., and Wakelin, M.D. 1997. Diet of (Leucocarbo carunculatus) on Duffers Reef, southern royal albatrosses. The Condor 104: yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes), Marlborough Sounds. Notornis 41: 93–108. 662–667. South Island, New Zealand, 1991–1993. Slooten, E., Dawson, S., and Rayment, W. Marine Ornithology 25: 17–29. Williams, J.A., Dawson, S.M., and Slooten, 2002. Quantifying the abundance of Hector’s E. 1993. Abundance and distribution of Nicholls, D.B., Robertson, C.J.R., Prince, P.A., dolphins between Farewell Spit and Milford. bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Murray, M.D., Walker, K.J., and Elliot, G.P. Department of Conservation Internal Science Doubtful Sound, New Zealand. Canadian 2002. Foraging niches of three Diomedea Series 35. Department of Conservation, Journal of Zoology 71: 2080–2088. albatrosses. Marine ecology press series 231: Wellington. 269–277. Wright, A.E. 1984. Buller’s Mollymawks Stahl, J.C. and Sagar, P.M. 2000a. Foraging breeding at the Three Kings Islands. Notornis O’ Callahan, T. 2002. Hauraki Gulf Summer strategies of southern Buller’s albatrosses 31: 203–207. Cetacean community with Special (Diomedea b. bulleri) breeding on the Snares, Reference to Bryde’s Whales. Department New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of of Conservation Internal Science Series 55. New Zealand 30: 299–318. Department of Conservation, Wellington. Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (Te Kaitiaki Taiao a Te Whare Päremata). 1999. Setting Course for a Sustainable Future; The Management of New Zealand’s Marine environment. Office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, Wellington.

➲ TO CONTENTS 32 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION 3.3 Fishes

ew Zealand’s diverse fi sh assemblage is a globally unique mix of widespread, Indo-Pacifi c, Australasian, subantarctic, Nand endemic faunas. Approximately half of the species are widespread and about 18% are endemic to New Zealand. Many coastal species are widespread around the North and South islands, with northern species (ca 15% of coastal fi shes) reaching southern limits between East Cape and Cook Strait, and southern species (ca. 8% of coastal fi shes) reaching northern limits between Banks Peninsula and Cook Strait. Oceanic and deepwater species show a similar mix of northern and southern distributions, with the Chatham Rise marking the distributional limit for many species. Workshop participants specialising in fi sh taxonomy and ecology delineated 12 areas in New Zealand’s marine environment that are regarded as key locations for fi sh biodiversity. They also identifi ed categories of fi sh that are an important component of New Zealand’s marine biodiversity, but whose locations cannot be easily represented on a two-dimensional map, or whose distributions are unknown. These categories include deepwater and pelagic fi shes and hoki (Macruronus novaezelandiae). Contributors: Clinton Duffy, Malcolm Francis, Bob McDowall, Chris Paulin, and Rob Murdoch. References and further reading: Paulin and Roberts (1992), Francis (1996), Anderson et al. (1998). Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te

Blue moki ©2004 DOC, DOC, ©2004 BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 33 Key areas for fish biodiversity in the New Zealand marine ecoregion

Key Biodiversity Areas 1. Kermadec Ridge 2. Three Kings Islands 3. Northeastern New Zealand 4. West coast of the North Island 5. West coast of the South Island 6. Fiordland 7. Eastern Stewart Island 8. Estuaries 9. Marlborough Sounds 10. Pegasus Bay/Canterbury Bight 11. Subantarctic 12. Chatham Rise

Depth (metres) 0 - 250 250 - 500 500 - 1000 1000 - 2000 2000 - 3000 3000 - 4000 4000 - 5000 5000 - 6000 6000 - 8000 8000 - >10,000

34 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Kermadec Ridge Description of area: phylogenetic grouping; habitat complexity/ The Kermadec Islands are geographically diversity; meeting ground – overlap between Map ID number: isolated from New Zealand and other sub- biological regions (at national and global 1 tropical and tropical islands that may serve regions level); links to global patterns. Location: Northeastern New as source areas for planktonic larvae. The Status and management: Zealand area is characterised by steep rocky islets Spotted black grouper are vulnerable to 2 and seamounts. The Kermadec Ridge con- Approximate area: 661,885km exploitation because of their longevity and nects the deeper waters of the New Zealand large size (up to 2 m), their sex-changing mainland with tropical waters to the north. population dynamics, their existence in The neighbouring Kermadec Trench is the shallow water (to 50 m), and their territo- deepest region in New Zealand’s Exclusive rial behaviour. They are protected by the Economic Zone, and one of the deepest in Wildlife Act (1953). The waters around all the world. the Kermadec Islands are protected by a Biological attributes: marine reserve. The reserve extends out to The Kermadec Ridge has a diverse fi sh fauna 12 nautical miles and encompasses an area that includes several endemic species. The of 7,450km2. area is isolated from mainland New Zea- State of information: land waters by the Tropical Convergence The ?-mark on Area 1 (Kermadec Ridge) and there are biogeographic affi nities with indicates uncertainty in placement of this Norfolk Island and the Lord Howe Rise, boundary due to insuffi cient sampling to with a large subtropical species component determine how far along the ridge the dis- not found elsewhere in New Zealand. The tinctive elements of the fauna extend. This Kermadec Islands are home to the world’s boundary fl uctuates with the seasonal move- largest population of spotted black grouper ment of the convergence zone. Basic knowl- (Epinephelus daemelii), which is a protected edge exists of the fauna, but the ecology is species. virtually unstudied. Criteria applied: References and further reading: Species richness; endemism; representa- Cole (2001), Cole et al. (1992), Francis tion; conservation status/threat classifi cation (1993, 1996, 2001), Francis et al. (1987). both nationally and globally; extremities of range and adaptation to environment; special

Three Kings Islands Description of area: Tidal mixing around the Three Kings Islands Map ID number: causes uplift of cold subsurface water. Steep 2 rock faces, caves and archways are notable Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te Location: Northern New habitats found around the islands. Zealand Biological attributes: Approximate area: 6,411km2 DOC, ©2004 The Three Kings Islands have a moderate School of trevally level of biological diversity. Blue-fi nned butterfi sh (Odax cyanoallix) is endemic and specialised organisms; aggregations; to the islands except for a few stragglers special phylogenetic grouping; meeting recorded near Cape Reinga and on the east ground – overlap between biological regions Northland coast. (This species has one of the (at national and global regions level). most restricted geographical distributions of any fi sh species in the New Zealand Status and management: region.) The protected spotted black grouper Populations of reef-associated fi shes such (Epinephelus daemelii) is more common as hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios), bass (P. here than anywhere else in New Zealand americanus), and king tarakihi (Nemadac- except the Kermadec Islands. The uplift of tylus sp.) are impacted by commercial and nutrient-rich subsurface water supports a rich recreational fi shing. community of plankton, pelagic fi shes (e.g. State of information: trevally Pseudocaranx dentex) and seabirds Basic knowledge exists of the fauna, but the (especially red-billed gulls). ecology is virtually unstudied. Criteria applied: References and further reading: Species richness; endemism; trophic/func- Brook (2002), Francis (1996), Hardy et al. tional diversity; representation (i.e. across (1987). physical types); extremities of range and adaptation to environment; special conditions

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 35 Northeastern Description of area: shark (Prionace glauca) are common in the New Zealand This northeastern quadrant of the North area from mid to late summer. Island has many offshore islands and rock Criteria applied: Map ID number: stacks. The warm East Auckland Current Species richness; trophic/functional diver- fl ows through the region. There is a high 3 sity; representation (i.e. across physical diversity of habitat types, from estuaries and Location: North Cape to types); degree of disturbance; seasonal/ sandy beaches to steep rocky cliffs, arch- Poverty Bay migratory importance; unusual degree/pro- ways, caves, and islands. Approximate area: 37,240km2 portion of biomass; aggregations; habitat Biological attributes: complexity/diversity; meeting ground – over- The highest regional species richness for lap between biological regions (at national reef fi shes is found in this area, especially and global regions level); links to global pat- around offshore islands and coastal terns. headlands. A high proportion of the fi shes Status and management: found here are subtropical species. In the Inshore waters are among the most heavily spring and summer there is an immigration fi shed in New Zealand. The region supports of larvae and juveniles of subtropical and several marine reserves and other protected tropical species from areas outside New areas. The presence of major ports and asso- Zealand’s Exclusive Economic Zone. ciated shipping routes in the region are con- Oceanic migratory species such as whale tributing factors in alien species invasions. shark (Rhincodon typus), manta rays (Manta birostris, Mobula japanica), marlins, tunas, State of information: mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus), and blue Probably the best-studied inshore fi sh fauna in New Zealand. References and further reading: Brook (2002), Francis (1996, 2001), Francis and Evans (1993), Francis et al. (1999), Kendrick and Francis (2002), Willis et al. (1999).

Whale shark ©WWF-Canon/J. Ordóñez ©WWF-Canon/J.

West coast of Description of area: Status and management: The west coast of the North Island has a There are large fi sheries for snapper and North Island mixture of volcanic and sedimentary rocky trevally in inshore waters. Map ID number: reefs on a high-energy shore, and the sea is State of information: 4 usually turbid. Sedentary organisms are sub- ject to burial by sand. Basic knowledge exists of the fauna, but the Location: Tongaporutu (White ecology is virtually unstudied. Cliffs) to Maunganui Bluff (less Biological attributes: than 30 m depth) References and further reading: The benthic reef fi sh of this area Approximate area: 1,937km2 are dominated by the giant triplefi n C. Duffy (unpubl. data), Francis (1996), (Blennodon dorsale) and the robust triplefi n King et al. (1985), C. Paulin (unpubl. data). (Grahamina gymnota). Some species, such as sweep (Scorpis lineolatus), red moki (Cheilodactylus spectabilis), and snapper (Pagrus auratus), are more abundant here than they are in the cooler waters of the west coast of the South Island. Trevally (Pseudocaranx dentex) form large schools along this coast. Criteria applied: Trophic/functional diversity; representation (i.e. across physical types); degree of dis- Atawhai Papa Te turbance; special conditions and specialised organisms; unusual degree/proportion of bio- ©2004 DOC, DOC, ©2004 mass; aggregations. Red moki 36 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION West Coast of Description of area: importance; unusual degree/proportion of South Island The west coast of the South Island is a high- biomass; aggregations. energy shore with scouring by sand and cob- Status and management: Map ID number: bles, and high turbidity. The pre-eminence of the whitebait fi shery 5 Biological attributes: has probably been accentuated historically Location: Kahurangi Point to This area has low fi sh biomass and by the fact that the this coast remains Cascade Point diversity. It is habitat for the giant triplefi n relatively well covered by indigenous forest Approximate area: 5,167km2 (Blennodon dorsale), which is rare in other and has suffered less wetland damage than regions. A possibly endemic clingfi sh lives other areas of New Zealand. Major coastal on this coast. The west coast has always and offshore fi sheries targeting various fi sh had the biggest New Zealand whitebait species operate in the area. (Galaxias maculatus) fi shery, which has State of information: national importance, especially in the Moderately well studied, especially the south. It also features large offshore winter fi shes of the continental shelf and upper spawning aggregations of hoki (Macruronus continental slope. novaezelandiae). References and further reading: Criteria applied: Francis (1996), McDowall (1990), Endemism; representation (i.e. across McDowall and Eldon (1980), Roberts et al. physical types); cultural values; extremities (2001). of range and adaptation to environment; degree of disturbance; special conditions and specialised organisms; seasonal/migratory

Fiordland Description of area: Fiordland has deeply

Map ID number: Richardson Zealand/M. WWF-New ©2004 indented fi ords with a Whitebait 6 surface freshwater layer that creates “estua- Location: Southwest New rine” circulation. The fi ords have deep inner Zealand basins protected by shallow sills near the adaptation to environment; special condi- Approximate area: 7,214km2 entrances that isolate the fi ords from each tions and specialised organisms; habitat other and from the open sea. complexity/diversity. Biological attributes: Status and management: Fiordland has fi sh assemblages typical of Historically, there were large rock lobster southern New Zealand but with “deepwater (Jasus edwardsii) fi sheries in the fi ords, and emergent” species: some deepwater species associated fi shing for bait. This fi shery is live at shallower depths than in other regions. now largely confi ned to the outer fi ords. A The strong environmental gradients gener- management strategy for Fiordland prepared ate marked longitudinal and depth patterns by The Guardians of Fiordland’s Fisher- in fi sh assemblages and abundance. Pelagic ies proposes a complete ban on commercial species, such as albacore tuna (Thunnus fi shing within the inner fi ords. Recreational alalunga), butterfl y tuna (Gasterochisma fi shing for blue cod (Parapercis colias) is melampus), thresher sharks (Alopias vul- common in the fi ords. Two marine reserves pinus), and blue sharks (Prionace glauca) occur in Fiordland. occur inside fi ords. It is unusual to fi nd these State of information: species in enclosed waters. There is limited recruitment in the waters of Fiordland, and Good information on fi sh communities, limited exchange of recruits among fi ords some information on distribution and abun- because of the water circulation patterns. The dance, but little is known of fi sh ecology. only fi sh known to be endemic to the fi ords References and further reading: is the brotula, Fiordichthys slartibartfasti. Francis et al. (1989), Guardians of Fiord- Criteria applied: land’s Fisheries (2001), Ryan and Paulin Species richness; endemism; trophic/func- (1998), Teirney (2003). tional diversity; representation (i.e. across physical types); extremities of range and

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 37 Eastern Description of area: Stewart Island Deeply indented bays and harbours, exposed rocky coastlines, and offshore islands. Pris- Map ID number: tine inlets and estuaries with large sea grass 7 (Zostera sp.) and red algal (Lenormandia Location: Stewart Island chauvini) beds. Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te Approximate area: 2,925km2 Biological attributes: Eastern Stewart Island has sand-dwelling

fi sh species such as sand divers (Tewara DOC, ©2004 cranwellae, Limnichthys spp.), and high Trumpeter, Paterson Inlet, Stewart Island population densities of blue cod (Parapercis colias), butterfi sh (Odax pullus), wrasses, ing ground – overlap between biological blue moki (Latridopsis ciliaris), trumpeter regions (at national and global regions level). (Latris lineata), and southern pigfi sh (Congi- Status and management: opodus leucopaecilus). Estuary headwaters There is a low level of exploitation on this have abundant galaxiids and smelt (Retro- part of the island, with “pristine” unmodifi ed pinna retropinna). Paterson Inlet, and pos- catchments at the head of estuaries. A marine sibly the other large inlets along the eastern reserve and a mataitai have been declared in side, appear to be important nursery areas for Paterson Inlet. trumpeter – large schools of juveniles are a feature of rocky reefs inside the inlet. State of information: Some fi sh survey work has been done in Criteria applied: estuaries and coastal waters. Representation (i.e. across physical types); extremities of range and adaptation to envi- References and further reading: ronment; habitat complexity/diversity; meet- Francis (1996).

Estuaries Description of area: are the sole habitat for a range of mainly Estuaries have been classifi ed into eight small species such as estuarine triplefi n Map ID number: categories (e.g. tidal lagoon, drowned (Grahamina nigripenne) and gobies 8 valley, sound, coastal embayment) based on (Favonigobius lentiginosus, F. exquisitus), Location: Throughout New climate, oceanic and riverine conditions, and some of which are endemic. Zealand, except for the smaller catchment characteristics. Criteria applied: offshore islands Biological attributes: Endemism; dependency for other species; 2 Approximate area: 79,040km trophic/functional diversity; representation (summation of the surface Estuaries are critical habitat for areas of all New Zealand diadromous fi shes because they serve as (i.e. across physical types); conservation sta- estuaries at high water)5 conduits between freshwater and marine tus/threat classifi cation both nationally and environments. Estuaries are a key habitat for globally; cultural values; extremities of range spawning by diadromous species (species and adaptation to environment; degree of that migrate between fresh and salt waters). disturbance; seasonal/migratory importance; Some species deposit their eggs among aggregations; habitat complexity/diversity. terrestrial plants when spring tides fl ood this Status and management: marginal vegetation. For juveniles of many Many estuaries are heavily impacted by commercial fi sh species, such as fl ounders humans, but some that are nearly pristine (Rhombosolea spp.), mullets (Aldrichetta include Parengarenga, Whanganui, Catlins, forsteri, Mugil cephalus), snapper (Pagrus and several on Stewart Island. Catchment auratus), rig (Mustelus lenticulatus), red and estuarine development are major threats gurnard (Chelidonichthys kumu) and others, to this habitat type. estuaries are essential nursery habitat. They State of information: Northern North Island estuaries and southern South Island estuaries have been studied in some detail.

/W. Farelli /W. References and further reading: Hartill et al. (2003), Hicks et al. (2004), Hume et al. (2003), McDowall (1990, 1998),

Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te Morrison et al. (2002).

5 Source for estuarine areas: http://fi nz.niwa.co.nz/

Red gurnard DOC, ©2004 NewZealand/viewer.htm 38 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Marlborough Sounds Description of area: grounds for elephant fi sh (Callorhinchus The Marlborough Sounds are a complex milii). The Marlborough Sounds are the Map ID number: drowned valley system spanning strong gradi- southern range limit for pink brotula (Brosmo- 9 ents in depth, tidal mixture, temperature, and dorsalis persicinus): Queen Charlotte Sound Location: Cloudy Bay to wave exposure. As a result of these physical and Port Hardy are the only sites south of East Croiselles Harbour, Tasman infl uences there are a wide range of habitats, Cape where this species has been recorded. Bay including stream mouths and large estuaries, Criteria applied: 2 sheltered rocky shores with low algal biomass, Approximate area: 4,450km Dependency for other species; trophic/func- shallow sand and mud habitats, and exposed tional diversity; representation (i.e. across eastern shores subject to high wave exposure physical types); extremities of range and and strong tidal currents. adaptation to environment; degree of dis- Biological attributes: turbance; special conditions and specialised Small pelagic fi shes, such as sprats (Sprat- organisms; habitat complexity/diversity. tus spp.), anchovy (Engraulis australis), Status and management: and pilchards (Sardinops neopilchardus) are The Marlborough Sounds are major recrea- abundant in the Marlborough Sounds. These tional fi shing grounds, particularly for blue are important prey for seabirds such as shear- cod. However, rocky habitat is limited to a waters and gannets, and for bottlenose, dusky, thin strip around the sides of most sounds, and Hector’s dolphins. Estuaries and streams which means that overfi shing is a problem. in the area are important for diadromous fi shes Allowable catches for both commercial and (fi shes that migrate between fresh and salt recreational fi sheries have been reduced in waters). Bryozoan beds at Chetwode, Titi, response. In the outer sounds and Cook Strait Trio, and Rangitoto islands support diverse there is an important commercial and recrea- assemblages of small benthic fi shes (includ- tional hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) fi shery. ing juvenile commercial species such as blue There were historical fi sheries for this species cod (Parapercis colias)). Large schools of inside both sounds. planktivores (predominantly butterfl y perch Caesioperca lepidoptera) also live among State of information: the bryozoan beds. Deepwater emergence is Moderately well studied. observed at Port Underwood where lantern fi shes, rat tails, and dark ghost sharks (Hydro- References and further reading: lagus novaezealandiae) are found shal- C. Duffy (unpubl. data), Hurst et al. (2000b), lower than in other regions. The inner Queen Johnston (1983). Charlotte and Pelorus Sounds are spawning

Pegasus Bay/ Description of area: in shallow water. Red cod also form large Canterbury Bight Long, exposed, soft-shore coastline with a aggregations in some years. major rocky headland, Banks Peninsula. There Criteria applied: Map ID number: is high primary productivity at times in the Species richness; endemism; dependency for Canterbury Bight. 10 other species; trophic/functional diversity; Location: Waitaki River to north Biological attributes: representation (i.e. across physical types); of Waimakariri River Stokell’s smelt (Stokellia anisodon) is degree of disturbance; seasonal/migratory Approximate area: 22,288km2 endemic to the eastern South Island. It is the importance; unusual degree/proportion of only diadromous freshwater fi sh species that biomass; aggregations; habitat complexity/ does not have a New Zealand-wide range. The diversity; meeting ground – overlap between reasons for this restricted range are not under- biological regions (at national and global stood, but may relate to enclosure of a trian- regions level. gular area of sea inside the current system that Status and management: passes north from Otago and along the Can- There are major fi sheries along this coast, and terbury coast. Interestingly, this is the same some estuaries and bays are heavily impacted area inhabited by the introduced Chinook by human shore-based activities. salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) popula- tion, which undergoes natural dispersion in the State of information: sea. Other notable species found in this area The fi sh fauna has been intensively studied, include basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus), especially on the continental shelf and upper elephantfi sh (Callorhinchus milii), and red continental slope. cod (Pseudophycis bachus). Basking sharks are common in spring and summer from the References and further reading: edge of the shelf to the coast, and even in Lake Beentjes and Renwick (2001), Beentjes Ellesmere. During this period elephantfi sh et al. (2002), Francis (1997), Francis and form spawning aggregations and lay their eggs Duffy (2002), Gorman (1963), McDowall (1990). BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 39 Subantarctic Description of area: proportion of biomass; aggregations; special Large plateau punctuated with extremely phylogenetic grouping; habitat complexity/ Map ID number: exposed rocky islands, some of which have diversity; meeting ground – overlap between 11 sheltered bays and harbours. biological regions (at national and global regions level). Location: Campbell Plateau Biological attributes: and associated islands There are few endemic fi sh species, but Status and management: 2 Approximate area: 451,862km they represent a high proportion of the There are extensive fi sheries for squid, fauna overall. The area has low species southern blue whiting, and other species. diversity and abundance, but hosts a unique A 12-nautical mile marine reserve around assemblage of reef fi sh species. Mesope- the Auckland Islands protects shallow lagic species such as southern blue whiting inshore areas and also deep ocean environ- (Micromesistius australis) are abundant over ments down to 3000m deep. It encompasses the whole Campbell Plateau, and basking an area of approximately 4,840km2. sharks (Cetorhinus maximus) and arrow State of information: squid (Nototodarus spp.) are abundant in The biological attributes are poorly known, aggregations on the western edge. The area although the southern blue whiting stock has is isolated from mainland New Zealand been well studied. waters by the subtropical convergence zone. References and further reading: Criteria applied: Anderson et al. (1998), Francis (1996), Endemism; representation (i.e. across Francis and Duffy (2002), Kingsford et al. physical types); extremities of range and (1989), Hurst et al. (2000a, 2000b). adaptation to environment; seasonal/ migratory importance; unusual degree/

Southern blue whiting ©NIWA

Chatham Rise Description of area: between biological regions (at national and Long submarine ridge connecting the South global regions level). Map ID number: Island and Chatham Islands. 12 Status and management: Biological attributes: The Chatham Rise is one of the most heavily Location: East of South Island The Chatham Rise is a highly productive trawled parts of the New Zealand Exclusive Approximate area: 261,904km2 area, which results in high abundance of Economic Zone. many species, especially hoki (Macru- State of information: ronus novaezelandiae), orange roughy The fi sh fauna has been intensively studied (Hoplostethus atlanticus), and oreos (Oreo- by research trawl surveys somatidae). The northern and eastern mar- gins of the rise are diversity hotspots. There References and further reading: is a strong north-south gradient in fi sh abun- Anderson et al. (1998), Bull et al. (2001), dance across the rise. Some species occur Hurst et al. (2000a, 2000b), Livingston et al. only on northern and eastern margins, while (2003), O’Driscoll et al. (2003). some are only found on the southern margin. Criteria applied: Species diversity; species richness; trophic/ Orange Roughy functional diversity; representa- tion (i.e. across physical types); degree of disturbance; species with a global distribution but New Zealand is a stronghold/ signifi cant; seasonal/migratory importance; unusual degree/ proportion of biomass; aggrega- tions; meeting ground – overlap ©NIWA

40 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Intertidal reefs Description of area: fins, New Zealand is the global “hotspot” of Hard substrates adjacent to rocky land. diversity, with around 30 species recorded Not mapped during (28 of these are endemic). the workshop Biological attributes: Location: Throughout New A high percentage of endemism (60%) has Criteria applied: Zealand been recorded for intertidal fishes. Most Species richness; endemism; representation Approximate area: Not species are widespread from North Cape to (i.e. across physical types); cultural values; recorded during the workshop Stewart Island, but some are restricted to extremities of range and adaptation to envi- northern waters. The reef-dwelling cling- ronment; degree of disturbance; special con- fishes belong to endemic genera. For triple- ditions and specialised organisms; special phylogenetic grouping. Status and management: Vulnerable to land-based disturbance and fishing. State of information: Good knowledge in some parts of New Zea- land but not others. References and further reading:

Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te Francis (1996, 2001), Paulin and Roberts (1992).

Yellow-black triplefin DOC, ©2004

Hoki Description of area: species with a global distribution but New Not mapped during the workshop. Zealand is a stronghold/significant; seasonal/ Not mapped during migratory importance; unusual degree/ the workshop Biological attributes: proportion of biomass; aggregations. Location: Throughout New Hoki (Macruronus novaezelandiae) is the Zealand except in the dominant fish species in depths of Status and management: Kermadec Islands region; most 200-800m. On the Chatham Rise, hoki bio- Hoki are heavily exploited and populations abundant south of East Cape mass is equal to that of all other fishes com- are currently declining. There has been Approximate area: Not bined. It occurs in around 97% of research a reduction in the allowable commercial recorded during the workshop trawl tows. There are massive hoki spawning catch from 250,000 tonnes/year in 2001 to aggregations off Hokitika Canyon, in Cook 100,000 tonnes/year in 2004. Strait, Conway Trough, and Mernoo Sad- State of information: dle. Adult and juvenile hoki are important Hoki are one of the most intensively studied prey for a variety of large marine predators New Zealand species. including ling (Genypterus blacodes), hake (Merluccius australis), New Zealand fur seal References and further reading: (Arctocephalus forsteri) and dusky dolphin Anderson et al. (1998), Bull et al. (2001), (Lagenorhynchus obscurus). Hurst et al. (2000a, 2000b), Livingston et al. Criteria applied: (2003), O’Driscoll et al. (2003). Dependency for other species; trophic/ functional diversity; degree of disturbance; Hoki ©2004 Whale Watch Kaikoura Watch Whale ©2004

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 41 Seamounts Description of area: Criteria applied: Over 500 submarine seamounts with an Species diversity; species richness; Not mapped during the workshop elevation greater than 250 m above the sea endemism; dependency for other species; floor, and a further 300 between 100 and trophic/functional diversity; representation Location: Throughout the 250m, have been identified in the New Zea- (i.e. across physical types); conservation New Zealand Exclusive land region. These seamounts vary in shape status/threat classification both nationally Economic Zone and size and occur singly or in groups. Some and globally; degree of disturbance; special Approximate area: Not have steep slopes with rugged tops, while conditions and specialised organisms; recorded during the workshop others are more knoll-like with large, rela- seasonal/migratory importance; unusual tively flat tops. degree/proportion of biomass; aggregations; special phylogenetic grouping; habitat Biological attributes: complexity/diversity. Many seamounts have endemic species, but there has been insufficient sampling effort Status and management: to confirm whether this endemism is con- Trawling is prohibited on 19 seamounts in fined to particular seamounts, or groups of New Zealand’s Exclusive Economic Zone. seamounts. There are aggregations of some State of information: fish species around bathymetric features, especially Beryciform fishes including Little information is available, but seamounts orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus). are a subject of increasing research. Upwellings and tidal eddies concentrate References and further reading: phytoplankton biomass over seamounts and Clark et al. (2000), Tracey et al. (2004). attract larger numbers of fish.

Deepwater Description of area: tinental slope (200-2500m depth). All but Depths greater than 1500m. one of the 14 chimaera species normally Not mapped during occur below the shelf break. Fifteen spe- the workshop Biological attributes: cies of sharks (20% of the fauna) inhabit Location: Throughout the There is a high diversity of deepwater fish the outer continental shelf and upper slope, New Zealand Exclusive species in New Zealand. They are often slow and 32 species (44%) are found only on the Economic Zone growing with high longevity. Fish sizes gen- continental slope (below about 200m depth). Approximate area: Not erally decrease from coastal waters to the Twelve percent of rays inhabit the outer recorded during the workshop lower continental slopes, however, at depths shelf and upper slope, and 56% are restricted below 800-1000m there is an increase in to the slope. The latter include 15 species the average size of demersal species. Below of skates and two small, blind electric rays 1500 m there is a further decrease in the (Typhlonarke spp.). Endemism is particu- size of most demersal species, while some larly high among the skates (94%), which species take on gigantism (e.g. giant cods includes 8 undescribed species of Notoraja. (Lepidion spp.), purple chimaera (Chimaera lignaria), sleeper shark (Somniosus sp.)). Criteria applied: These deepwater species tend to be more Endemism; dependency for other species; specialised feeders, in part because of their representation (i.e. across physical types); morphological and functional adaptations to extremities of range and adaptation to great depth, low light levels, and low food environment; special conditions and availability; populations have lower densi- specialised organisms; species with a global ties and communities with less diversity. distribution but New Zealand is a significant These environments are more stable than the stronghold; special phylogenetic grouping. coastal environment, so they are less able to Status and management: recover from anthropogenic disturbances. There is no specific management for Diversity of sharks, rays, and chimaeras deepwater habitat, but see Seamounts above. (chondrichthyans) is greatest over the con- State of information: New Zealand’s deep waters are poorly sampled, especially below 1500m. References and further reading: Anderson et al. (1998), Francis et al. (2002), Merrett and Haedrich (1997), O’Driscoll et al. (2003).

Dark ghost shark ©NIWA 42 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Epipelagic fishes Description of area: significant; seasonal/migratory importance; Surface waters to depths of approximately unusual degree/proportion of biomass; Not mapped during aggregations; links to global patterns. the workshop 400m. Location: Throughout Biological attributes: Status and management: New Zealand’s Exclusive Numerous epipelagic fish species, especially The southern bluefin tuna population is Economic Zone southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii), severely depleted and other pelagic fishes Approximate area: Not bigeye tuna (T. obesus), porbeagle shark are being increasingly fished by the tuna recorded during the workshop (Lamna nasus), blue shark (Prionace longline fishery. Southern bluefin tuna glauca), albacore (Thunnus alalunga), is managed internationally through the skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) and Convention for Conservation of Southern moonfish (Lampris spp.) migrate seasonally Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT), which allocates in and out of the New Zealand Exclusive quota for fishing nations. Many species will Economic Zone. There are hotspots of come under the Quota Management System abundance off East Cape and the southwest in October 2004. coast of the South Island. State of information: Criteria applied: There is good information on the tuna Trophic/functional diversity; representation longline fishery, but not on population sizes (i.e. across physical types); extremities and status. of range and adaptation to environment; References and further reading: degree of disturbance; special conditions and Bagley et al. (2000), Francis et al. (2000). specialised organisms; species with a global distribution but New Zealand is a stronghold/ ©NIWA/Malcolm Francis ©NIWA/Malcolm Moonfish

➲ TO CONTENTS BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 43 References and further reading

Anderson, O.F., Bagley, N.W., Hurst, R.J., Francis, M. 2001. Coastal fishes of New Hicks, M., Shankar, U., McKerchar, A., and Francis, M.P., Clark, M.R., and McMillan, Zealand: an identification guide. Third Hume, T. 2004. Definitions of hydrological P.J. 1998. Atlas of New Zealand fish and edition. Auckland, Reed Books. 103 p. and catchment parameters for New Zealand squid distributions from research bottom estuaries. NIWA Internal Data Archive Report Francis, M.P. and Duffy, C. 2002. Distribution, trawls. NIWA Technical Report 42. 303 p. 2004/02. 11 p. seasonal abundance and bycatch of basking Bagley, N.W., Anderson, O.F., Hurst, R.J., sharks (Cetorhinus maximus) in New Hume, T., Snelder, T., Weatherhead, M., Francis, M.P, Taylor, P.R., Clark, M.R., and Zealand, with observations on their winter Liefting, R., Shankar, U., and Hicks, M. Paul, L.J. 2000. Atlas of New Zealand fish habitat. Marine Biology 140: 831–842. 2003. A new approach to classifying New and squid distributions from midwater trawls, Zealand’s estuaries. Paper No. 66 in Kench, Francis, M.P. and Evans, J. 1993. Immigration tuna longline sets, and aerial sightings. NIWA P. and Hume, T. (eds.) Proceedings of Coasts of subtropical and tropical animals into Technical Report 72. 171 p. and Ports Australasian Conference 2003, north-eastern New Zealand. In: Battershill, Auckland, New Zealand. 9 p. CD-ROM. Beentjes, M.P., Bull, B., Hurst, R.J., and Bagley, C.N., Schiel, D.R., Jones, G.P., Creese, R.G., N.W. 2002. Demersal fish assemblages and MacDiarmid, A.B. (eds.) Proceedings Hurst, R.J., Bagley, N.W., Anderson, O.F., along the continental shelf and upper slope of the Second International Temperate Reef Francis, M.P., Griggs, L.H., Clark, M.R., of the east coast of the South Island, New Symposium. Wellington, NIWA Marine. Paul, L.J., and Taylor, P.R. 2000a. Atlas of Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and p.131–136. juvenile and adult fish and squid distributions Freshwater Research 36: 197–223. from bottom and midwater trawls and tuna Francis, M.P., Grace, R.V., and Paulin, C.D. longlines in New Zealand waters. NIWA Beentjes, M.P., and Renwick, J.A. 2001. The 1987. Coastal fishes of the Kermadec Technical Report 84. 162 p. relationship between red cod, Pseudophycis Islands. New Zealand Journal of Marine and bachus, recruitment and environmental Freshwater Research 21: 1–13. Hurst, R.J., Stevenson, M.L., Bagley, N.W., variables in New Zealand. Environmental Griggs, L.H., Morrison, M.A., and Francis, Francis, M.P., Griggs, L.H., Baird, S.J., Murray, Biology of Fishes 61: 315–328. M.P. 2000b. Areas of importance for T.E., and Dean, H.A. 2000. Fish bycatch in spawning, pupping or egg-laying, and Brook, F.J. 2002. Biogeography of near-shore New Zealand tuna longline fisheries, 1988-89 juveniles of New Zealand coastal fish. Final reef fishes in northern New Zealand. Journal to 1997-98. NIWA Technical Report 76. 79 p. Research Report for Ministry of Fisheries of the Royal Society of New Zealand 32: Francis, M.P., Hardy, G.S., Ward, C., and Research Project ENV1999/03, Objective 1. 243–274. Williams, M.W. 1989. “Survey of 302 p. Bull, B., Livingston, M.E., Hurst, R., Fiordland reef fish populations, Johnston, A.D. 1983. The southern Cook Strait and Bagley, N. 2001. Upper-slope fish 1986–1987.” Unpublished report, Leigh groper fishery. Ministry of Agriculture and communities on the Chatham Rise, New Marine Laboratory. 26 p. Fisheries, Fisheries Technical Report 159. Zealand, 1992–1999. New Zealand Journal of Francis, M.P., Hurst, R.J., McArdle, B.H., 33 p. Marine and Freshwater Research 35: Bagley, N.W., and Anderson, O.F. 2002. 795–815. Kendrick, T.H. and Francis, M.P. 2002. Fish New Zealand demersal fish assemblages. assemblages in the Hauraki Gulf, New Clark, M.R., Anderson, O.F., Francis, R.I.C.C., Environmental Biology of Fishes 65: Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and and Tracey, D.M. 2000. The effects of 215–234. Freshwater Research 36: 699–717. commercial exploitation on orange roughy Francis, M.P., Worthington, C.J., Saul, P., and (Hoplostethus atlanticus) from the continental King, K.J., Bailey, K.N., and Clark, M.R. 1985. Clements, K.D. 1999. New and rare tropical slope of the Chatham Rise, New Zealand, Coastal and marine ecological areas of New and subtropical fishes from northern New from 1979 to 1997. Fisheries Research 45: Zealand. Department of Lands and Survey, Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and 217–238. Wellington. 47 p. Freshwater Research 33: 571–586. Cole, R.G. 2001. Patterns of abundance and Kingsford, M.J., Schiel, D.R., and Battershill, Gorman, T.B.S. 1963. Biological and economic population size structure of herbivorous fishes C.N. 1989. Distribution and abundance aspects of the elephant fish Callorhynchus at the subtropical Kermadec Islands and in of fish in a rocky reef environment at the milii Bory in Pegasus Bay and the Canterbury mainland New Zealand. New Zealand Journal subantarctic Auckland Islands, New Zealand. Bight. New Zealand Marine Department of Marine and Freshwater Research 35: Polar Biology 9: 179–186. Fisheries Technical Report 8. 54 p. 445–456. Livingston, M.E., Clark, M.R., and Baird, S.J. Guardians of Fiordland’s Fisheries. 2001. Cole, R.G., Creese, R.G., Grace, R.V., Irving, P., 2003. Trends in incidental catch of major Beneath the reflections. Fiordland’s fisheries and Jackson, B.R. 1992. Abundance patterns fisheries on the Chatham Rise for fishing and the marine environment – a bibliography. of subtidal benthic invertebrates and fishes years 1989–90 to 1998–99. New Zealand 74 p. at the Kermadec Islands. Marine Ecology Fisheries Assessment Report 2003/52. 74 p. Progress Series 82: 207–218. Hardy, G.S., Grace, R.V., and Francis, M.P. McDowall, R.M. 1990. New Zealand 1987. Fishes observed at the Three Kings Francis, M.P. 1993. Checklist of the coastal freshwater fishes: a natural history and guide. Islands, northern New Zealand. Records of the fishes of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and Kermadec Heinemann Reed, Auckland. Auckland Institute and Museum 24: 243–250. Islands, Southwest Pacific Ocean. Pacific McDowall, R.M. 1998. Driven by diadromy: Science 47: 136–170. Hartill, B.W., Morrison, M.A., Smith, M.D., its role in the historical and ecological Boubee, J., and Parsons, D.M. 2003. Francis, M.P. 1996. Geographic distribution biogeography of New Zealand freshwater Diurnal and tidal movements of snapper of marine reef fishes in the New Zealand fishes. Italian Journal of Zoology 65 (suppl. (Pagrus auratus, Sparidae) in an estuarine region. New Zealand Journal of Marine and S): 73–85. environment. New Zealand Journal of Marine Freshwater Research 30: 35–55. and Freshwater Research 54: 931–940. Francis, M.P. 1997. Spatial and temporal variation in the growth rate of elephantfish (Callorhinchus milii). New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 31: 9–23.

44 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION McDowall, R.M. and Eldon, G.A. 1980. The Paulin, C. and Roberts, C. 1992. The rockpool Tracey, D.M., Bull, B., Clark, M.R., and ecology of whitebait migrations (Galaxiidae, fishes of New Zealand. Museum of New Mackay, K.A. 2004. Fish species composition Galaxias spp.). N.Z. Ministry of Agriculture Zealand/Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New on seamounts and adjacent slope in New and Fisheries, Fisheries Research Bulletin Zealand. 177 p. Zealand waters. New Zealand Journal of 20: 1–171. Marine and Freshwater Research 38: Roberts C.D., Stewart A.L., and Paulin C.D. 163–182. Merrett, N.R. and Haedrich, R.L. 1997. Deep- 2001. “Regional diversity and biogeography sea demersal fish and fisheries. Chapman and of coastal fishes in the West Coast Willis, T.J., Saunders, J.E.H., Blackwood, D.L., Hall, New York. 282 p. Discontinuity (Milford Sound to Jacksons and Archer, J.E. 1999. First New Zealand Bay). Survey, Inventory and Analysis (Project record of the Australian bridled goby, Morrison, M.A., Francis, M.P, Hartill, B.W., 2360).” Museum of New Zealand Te Papa, Arenigobius bifrenatus (Pisces: Gobiidae). and Parkinson, D.M. 2002. Diurnal and tidal unpublished report. New Zealand Journal of Marine and variation in the abundance of the fish fauna of Freshwater Research 33: 189–192. a temperate tidal mudflat. Estuarine, Coastal Ryan, P.A. and Paulin, C.D. 1998. Fiordland and Shelf Science 54: 793–807. Underwater: New Zealand’s Hidden Wilderness. Exisle Publishing. 192 p. O’Driscoll, R.L., Booth, J.D., Bagley, N.W., Anderson, O.F., Griggs, L.H., Stevenson, Teirney, L. 2003. “Fiordland Marine M.L., and Francis, M.P. 2003. Areas of Conservation Strategy.” Guardians importance for spawning, pupping or egg- of Fiordland’s Fisheries and Marine laying, and juveniles of New Zealand Environment Inc. 138 p. deepwater fish, pelagic fish, and invertebrates. NIWA Technical Report 119. 377 p.

➲ TO CONTENTS BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 45 46 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION 3.4 Benthic Invertebrates, Algae, and Plants

he workshop group with expertise in marine invertebrates, algae, and plants arguably faced the greatest challenge in trying Tto summarise and highlight the biodiversity of New Zealand’s oceans. The challenge stems from the fact that invertebrates make up 33 of the world’s 34 animal phyla and have more species than all other domains and kingdoms combined (Ministry for the Environment 1997). There are an estimated 15,300-16,400 marine invertebrates in New Zealand, of which 7,462 have been described (D. Gordon, personal communication, March 2004). For protista, algae, fungi, and plants, there are estimated to be 17,900-32,900 species, of which 2,700 have been described (D. Gordon, personal communication, March 2004). Many marine invertebrates, algae and plants are so small, or live in such obscure or isolated habitats that their existence has so far gone unnoticed. Sampling efforts are regularly uncovering new species. At the current rate of new species descriptions, it will take at least 90 years to complete an inventory of the New Zealand marine biota6, not including unicellular organisms (D. Gordon, personal communication, March 2004). Marine invertebrates, algae, and plants occupy all marine habitats, from the sea fl oor to the sea surface, with the photosynthetic organisms restricted to the euphotic zone. The marine scientists at the workshop concentrated on benthic invertebrates and plants that dwell on, near, or are attached to the sea fl oor because their expertise centred on the benthic environment. During several work sessions the participants identifi ed 24 important areas for marine biodiversity in New Zealand. While the group was able to delineate certain locations that are known to host special invertebrate, and algal, or plant communities, other important features of the marine environment were more diffi cult to represent geographically. These features include habitats such as kelp forests, mangrove forests, and rock wall suspension feeding assemblages, which are critical places for marine biodiversity, but have patchy distributions around the country. Participants decided to include these features as a list of “special habitats”, which are represented in the last nine entries of this section, although all known locations for such habitats are not depicted on the map. Contributors: Peter Batson, Dennis Gordon, Ken Grange, Michelle Kelly, Daphne Lee, Alison MacDiarmid, Patricia Mather, Wendy Nelson, Mike Page, and Stephanie Turner.

6 Including the Protozoa (and prokaryotes) the task of inventorying New Zealand’s marine biota could take up to 400 years (D. Gordon, personal communication, March 2004). Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te

Bladder kelp ©2004 DOC, DOC, ©2004

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 47 Key areas for benthic invertebrate, algal, and plant biodiversity in the New Zealand marine ecoregion

Key Biodiversity Areas 1. Kermadec Ridge 2. Trench environments 3. South Norfolk Ridge and Three Kings Rise 4. The Three Kings Islands and shelf, Spirits Bay, and Pandora Bank 5. Cavalli seamounts 6. West coast harbours of the North Island 7. Rocky coast of the northeast North Island 8. Active submarine volcanoes and hydrothermal vents 9. Hauraki Gulf/Bay of Plenty estuaries 10. Ranfurly Bank 11. Convergent margin cold seeps 12. Deep sea wood habitats 13. Rocky coast seagrass habitats 14. Marlborough Sounds 15. Cook Strait 16. Bryozoan coral beds 17. Farewell Spit region 18. Kaikoura shallow water 19. Chatham Rise and Chatham Islands 20. Fiordland 21. Fouveaux Strait/Stewart Island/Snares Plateau shelf 22. Subantarctic plateaus and islands 23. Southeastern continental margin/Deep Western Boundary Current 24. Macquarie Ridge

Depth (metres) 0 - 250 250 - 500 500 - 1000 1000 - 2000 2000 - 3000 3000 - 4000 4000 - 5000 5000 - 6000 6000 - 8000 8000 - >10,000

48 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Kermadec Ridge Description of area: The Kermadec Ridge is Map ID number: composed of a string of 1 volcanoes and vents, with Location: Ridge extends north associated bacteria and from New Zealand’s North other components. Some Island of the volcanoes breach Approximate area: 197,998km2 the summit to form four island groups, the Kerma- /RodgerGrace dec Islands. The area is fl anked by the Kermadec

Trench to the east (10km Atawhai Papa Te deep) and the South Fiji Basin to the west (4 km ©2004 DOC, DOC, ©2004 deep). Plate coral Biological attributes: 12 nautical miles (22km) from each island The Kermadec Ridge is New Zealand’s win- group. Benthic fi sheries are severely con- dow into the marine fauna of the Indo-Pacifi c strained in some parts of this area by nomi- in that it is the southernmost limit for many nal catch limits and special permit access taxa. Marine invertebrates found on the ridge provisions. include brachiopods, corals, and sponges. The rocky reef fauna and macroalgal fl ora of State of information: the Kermadecs are distinct from that of the Information for the Kermadecs is patchy. rest of New Zealand. Some major taxa have been thoroughly stud- ied; others have been little studied or not all. Criteria applied: There is no information on bottom habitats Species diversity; species richness; ende- beyond those at shallow diveable depths. mism; representation; extremities of range Some bottom photographs exist for deeper (southern limit of some tropical taxa); meet- habitats. ing ground; links to global patterns. References and further reading: Status and management: Brook (1999), Cole et al. (1992), Gordon In 1990 a marine reserve was established (1984), Nelson and Adams (1984), Schiel around the Kermadec Islands, extending et al. (1986).

Trench (hadal) Description of area: Biological attributes: environments Trenches are massive linear depressions Trench faunas, in general, exhibit a high found throughout the world’s oceans. They degree of regional endemism, possess Map ID number: are formed at subduction zones, regions specialised ecological and physiological 2 where one tectonic plate slides beneath adaptations, and exist within a community Location: Two trenches are another and is recycled into the earth’s structure that differs from adjacent areas of located in the New Zealand interior. Bottom sediments in trenches are abyssal sea fl oor. region: the Kermadec and dominated by muds and fi ne sands of mixed Trenches are widely separated from each Puysegur, which lie to the pelagic/terrestrial origin. The “hadal” zone is other, and in geological terms are long-lived northeast and southwest of defi ned operationally by biologists as depths features. These characteristics have sig- the New Zealand landmass exceeding 6,000m; only trenches contain respectively nifi cant evolutionary and biogeographical ocean this deep. Approximate area: 381,424km2 implications for trench faunas, including The Kermadec Trench trends northeast from the generation and maintenance of species East Cape. It is approximately 2,000km endemic to a single trench. It is reasonable long, with a maximum depth exceeding to expect trench endemism to be high among 10km in places. The Kermadec Trench is hadal benthic taxa. On this basis, New Zea- narrow and steep in comparison with other land’s trench habitats probably contain many trenches, being about 40km wide on average, species found nowhere else in the region. with a wall gradient of about 1:6. The Puyse- Levenstein (1991) reviewed the world’s gur Trench originates off southern Fiordland known hadal polychaete fauna (120 spe- and trends southwest. The hadal portion of cies) and found that about 30% of species this feature is not as deep or as extensive as recorded from trenches were restricted to that of the Kermadec Trench. hadal environments (the rest co-occur in the

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 49 Trench (hadal) abyssal zone). Of this fraction, about half Status and management: environments were endemic to a single trench. For hadal Trenches are perhaps the most pristine of invertebrates found in multiple trenches, New Zealand’s marine environments in continued intra-specific differences among populations terms of direct anthropogenic disturbance. have been demonstrated (France 1993). Indirect impacts are harder to gauge, but Trench organisms rely on particulate fluxes potentially could be significant. For exam- from the upper ocean as well as large food ple, the removal of large epipelagic fish falls, including terrestrially derived plant biomass from the world’s oceans by fishing matter. Deep camera and trap deployments (cf. Christensen et al. 2003) could reduce the indicate that highly mobile scavenging inver- food supply to hadal scavengers, many of tebrates adapted to exploit large food falls which appear adapted to exploit large natural are an important component of the trench food falls. epifauna. Chemosynthetic communities are Hadal environments in the New Zealand likely to be present in New Zealand trenches. region lie partly within, and partly outside Trenches contain the ocean’s deepest the Exclusive Economic Zone. They are not habitats. By definition they represent the spatially managed or protected by focused lowest possible limits of depth distribution management plans, and have no commer- for aquatic life. Special conditions in cial fishing potential. Presently there are no trenches include extreme pressure and cold, direct activities that pose a special risk to and a highly variable food supply, which are ocean trenches. In addition, benthic fisheries conducive to chemoautotrophic organisms. are severely constrained in some parts of this Most higher metazoan taxa cannot survive area by nominal catch limits and special per- deeper than mid-hadal depths, so deeper mit access provisions. trench environments do exceed genuine State of information: biological endurance limits for many groups. Poor. Hadal zone research in the New Fishes, for example, have never been Zealand region has focused on the Kermadec recorded deeper than 8.2km. Trench. The Danish Galathea and Soviet Physiological adaptations to extreme hydro- Vityaz Expeditions sampled fauna from static pressures have been documented for this trench in 1952 and 1958 respectively, a number of trench bacteria, a number of trawling to a depth of 10,000m. Hadal which only survive under high environmen- collections included many hundreds of tal pressures (e.g. Yayanos and Dietz 1983). specimens, among them polychaete worms, Other hadal microbes are reported to have hydroids, gastropod and bivalve molluscs, extreme thermophilic or cold-optimised echinoderms, crustaceans and fishes (e.g., adaptations. Similar adaptations are hypoth- Belyaev, 1966). An unpublished Australian esised to exist for hadal invertebrate taxa. Navy collection of bottom photographs of the Kermadec Trench to a depth of 10km No data exists for the New Zealand region may contain further ecological data. about the proportion of biomass contained in trenches. Comparative evidence, however, References and further reading: indicates that trench communities generally Belyaev (1966), Bourne and Heezen (1965), differ considerably from surrounding deep- Christensen et al. (2003), Danovaro et al. sea environments in this regard. For exam- (2002), France (1993), Galathea committee ple, anomalously high concentrations of (1957), Levenstein (1991), Lewis and organic matter in the Atacama Trench con- Marshall (1996), Nielsen (1964), Yayanos tributed to meiofaunal densities an order of and Dietz (1983). magnitude higher than those of the surround- ing abyss (Danovaro et al. 2002). Criteria applied: Endemism; trophic/functional diversity; extremities of range and adaptation to environment; degree of disturbance; special conditions and specialised organisms; unusual degree/proportion of biomass.

50 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION South Norfolk Ridge Description of area: Information about this area increases and the The South Norfolk Ridge and Three substantially with each sampling effort. Kings Rise is characterised by numerous References and further reading: Three Kings Rise seamounts. The NORFANZ voyage explored deep sea Map ID number: Biological attributes: habitats around seamounts and abyssal 3 This area has an ancient sponge fauna that plains around Lord Howe and Norfolk Location: Northwest of the offers a window into the Cretaceous period. Islands through to northern New Zealand. New Zealand landmass There is “a nest of living fossils” of marine The joint Australia-New Zealand research Approximate area: 269,180km2 invertebrates at mid-depth (400-700 m). cruise took place in May-June 2003. Find- ings are summarised at: Criteria applied: www.oceans.gov.au/norfanz/ Species diversity; species richness; Kelly (2000b, 2001a, 2001b, 2003), Kelly endemism; relict/genetic lineages (i.e. “living and Buckeridge (2003), Kelly et al. (2003, in fossils”); special phylogenetic grouping; press), Pomponi et al. (2001). extremities of range and adaptation to environment; links to global patterns. Lithistid sponge, Three Kings Rise. Status and management: No specifi c management status known other than EEZ protection. State of information: Knowledge of sponge fauna of the area is current, relatively comprehensive, and based on examination of all recent and most historical NIWA and National Museum of New Zealand (NMNZ) collections. ©NIWA/Helena Armiger, Crispin Middleton Crispin Armiger, ©NIWA/Helena

The Three Kings Description of area: dredging (M. Cryer, NIWA Auckland, Islands and shelf, The Three Kings Islands and the surrounding personal communication). No other specifi c area provide a diversity of marine habitats. management status is known other than EEZ Spirits Bay, and The islands have walls and shallow intertidal protection. Pandora Bank caves while the shelf has bryomol calcareous State of information: gravel. Map ID number: Knowledge of sponge fauna of the area is 4 Biological attributes: current, relatively comprehensive, and based Location: Immediately off This area is considered to be the New upon examination of all recent and most the northwestern tip of New Zealand marine biodiversity hot spot. High historical NIWA and NMNZ collections. Zealand’s North Island diversity of suspension feeding taxa, such as Information about this area increases Approximate area: 26,156km2 molluscs and ascidians, has been observed substantially with each sampling effort. here. Diversity is extraordinarily high for References and further reading: bryozoa and sponges. Endemism is high for Adams and Nelson (1985), Cryer et al. bryozoans, sponges, ascidians, and other (1999, 2000), Kelly (2000a), Kelly et al. (in suspension feeders. Macroalgal diversity press), Nelson and Adams (1990), Nelson and endemism is high around the Three (1999a), Nelson et al. (1999), Taylor and Kings Islands. Even within the area there Gordon (2003). are pockets of endemnicity. For example, the sponges found around the Three Kings Islands are distinct from those found in Siliceous golfball sponge (Tethya australis) with buds, Three Kings Islands. Spirits Bay. Criteria applied: Species diversity; species richness; ende- mism; relict/genetic lineages (i.e. “living fossils”); special phylogenetic grouping; extremities of range and adaptation to envi- ronment; links to global patterns; representa- tion; habitat complexity/diversity. Status and management: Previously fi shed areas of Spirits Bay are presently under protections from scallop ©NIWA/Malcolm Francis ©NIWA/Malcolm

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 51 Cavalli seamounts Description of area: State of information: The Cavalli seamounts are formed from No published information on taxa at the Map ID number: continental crust (as opposed to volcanic species level. 5 seamounts). References and further reading: Location: East of Northland on Biological attributes: New Zealand’s North Island Clark et al. (2000), Rowden et al. (2004). The Cavalli seamounts have a diverse 2 Approximate area: 3,817km suspension feeding fauna, including deepsea sponge and bryozoan assemblages. They have the richest fauna observed on New Zealand seamounts so far. Criteria applied: Species diversity; species richness; endemism. Status and management: Cavalli seamount has been closed to trawling since 2001 under Ministry of Fisheries regulations. Five trawls occurred on Cavalli Seamount between 1992-1997, with a total

orange roughy catch of 310 kg (Clark et. al Middleton Crispin Armiger, ©NIWA/Helena 2000). Lithistid sponge, Cavalli seamounts.

West coast harbours Description of area: communities of benthic invertebrates, which of the North Island The west coast of the northern North Island are an important food source for many fi sh is characterised by exposed, high energy, and birds, as well as having other signifi cant Map ID number: long open sand beaches often backed by ecological functions. 6 extensive dune systems (e.g., Ninety Mile The intertidal sand and mudfl ats of the Location: Includes Whangape, Beach, Hokianga North Head, Muriwai, west coast harbours are important feeding Hokianga, Kaipara, Manukau, Whatipu, Taharoa, Aotea Harbour), as well grounds, and breeding and roosting sites Waikato River, Raglan, Aotea, as cliffs and intertidal rock platforms which for large numbers of wading birds and and Kawhia harbours and the support a diverse range of marine algae and adjacent coastline. shorebirds – including internationally invertebrates (e.g. Muriwai to Karekare). The migratory and New Zealand endemic species 2 Approximate area: 1,375km West Coast also has several large tidal estu- and a number of threatened species. The (summation of the surface aries which provide many important natural areas of the above estuaries at vegetated margins of these estuaries also high water)7 habitats for plants and animals. provide habitat for threatened coastal fringe Biological attributes: birds, particularly where areas of adjoining The west coast estuaries are highly terrestrial vegetation provides shelter for productive ecosystems, and are of signifi cant roosting and breeding. environmental and economic importance. The estuaries are important feeding and A range of habitat types are found in and breeding areas for a number of fi sh species around the west coast estuaries, including and are also important migration pathways coastal shrublands and forest, freshwater between marine and freshwater habitats for a wetlands, saltmarsh, mangroves, seagrass, variety of native freshwater fi sh. sand and mud fl ats, rocky reefs and tidal channels. The extensive estuarine The dunes, open coast beaches and rocky intertidal fl ats support abundant and diverse cliffs and platforms also comprise important and complex habitat for a variety of plant and animal communities. Criteria applied: Species diversity; spe- cies richness; dependency for other species; trophic/ functional diversity; con- /LesMolloy servation status/threat clas- sifi cation both nationally Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te 7 Source for estuarine areas: http://fi nz.niwa.co.nz/

Hokianga Harbour DOC, ©2004 NewZealand/viewer.htm 52 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION West coast harbours and globally; cultural values; degree of dis- vation Value” under regional council coastal turbance; special conditions and specialised plans. of the North Island organisms; habitat complexity/diversity. continued Improved catchment management (mini- Status and management: mising erosion, reducing runoff and nutri- The west coast harbours have come under ent leaching) will help to protect estuaries. signifi cant threat as a result of catchment Regional councils, in conjunction with the activities which, in particular, have been Minister of Conservation, are responsible responsible for increased rates of sedimen- under the Resource Management Act 1991 tation. These estuaries are also under threat for the management of the effects of activi- from coastal development (reclamation and ties in the coastal marine area. Territorial infi lling, foreshore structures, roading, etc.), authorities are responsible for managing stock grazing, introduced species etc. land-use effects above mean high water springs. Many of the west coast harbours have been designated as “Areas of Signifi cant Conser- State of information: Variable for the different harbours. For example, there is considerable information available for the Manukau Harbour; but for some of the other harbours there is relatively limited information available. / References and further reading: Auckland Regional Council Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te (2003), Grange (1979), Prid- more et al. (1990), Turner et al.

Pukepuke Lagoon DOC, ©2004 (1995)

Rocky coast of Description of area: State of information: the northeast Principally hard greywacke outcrops or Variable. softer mudstones, but outcrops of volcanic References and further reading: North Island origin in some places, especially offshore Map ID number: islands. Limestone outcrops at Langs Beach Ayling and Babcock (2003), Ayling and near Waipu. Schiel (2003), Ballantine et al. (1973), 7 Ballantine and Gordon (1979), Battershill Location: Reefs to about Biological attributes: and Stocker (1993), Gordon and Ballantine 30–50m deep around rocky This coastal area of the North Island has (1977), Grange (1986), Grange et al. (1992), headlands and offshore islands a high diversity of suspension-feeding Nelson and Adams (1987), Smith and from North Cape to East Cape molluscs and a reasonably high diversity of Gordon (2003). Approximate area: 1,178km2 tunicates. There is an abundance of shallow- Large number of unpublished theses held by water brachiopods. Occasionally, incursions the University of Auckland and unpublished of tropical and subtropical species are found DoC reports. here, at the southern limit of their range. The offshore islands are stepping stones for natural introductions of new warm water species. The islands are surrounded by deep reefs and have a high diversity of suspension-feeding rock wall invertebrates. Criteria applied: Species diversity; species richness; extremi- ties of range and adaptation to environment. Status and management: Most species are not exploited or threatened. Some areas are protected within marine reserves at Poor Knights Islands, Cape Rod- ney Okakari Point (Leigh), Tuhua (Mayor

Island), and Tawharanui Marine Park. Denny ©Chris Blue bell ascidians, Poor Knights Islands BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 53 Active submarine Description of area: faunas with global patterns of distribution is volcanoes and Hydrothermal vents are zones of fl uid of great interest. hydrothermal vents expulsion from the sea fl oor, normally Given the unique nature of their chemotrophic associated with sea fl oor spreading or tectonic ecosystem, vent faunas represent a signifi cant Map ID number: plate subduction. Minerals contained within addition to New Zealand’s marine trophic and 8 the expelled fl uids are utilised as an energy functional diversity. In terms of conservation source for vent bacteria. These specialised status, vent habitats merit priority because of Location: Known features microbes form the basis of a unique class are north of North Island’s their uniqueness, restricted range and vulner- Bay of Plenty, located in of ecosystem operating independently from ability (e.g. the potential commercial signifi - the Kermadec Ridge/Havre the photosynthetically driven system that cance of the mineral deposits associated with Trough area. Shallow-water dominates the rest of the biosphere. In the venting sites). hydrothermal venting also New Zealand region, undersea volcanism occurs on the Bay of Plenty and hydrothermal venting are associated with Hydrothermal vents possess a cultural appeal continental shelf. Vent extensive back-arc basinal volcanism in the that transcends their inaccessibility. Despite organisms have been collected their limited distribution, vent ecosystems from shelf depths, with Kermadec subduction zone. fi gure highly in the popular conception of offshore biological sampling Biological attributes: concentrated between the deep-sea environment, perhaps because 200-2,500m on the Kermadec New Zealand hydrothermal vent ecosystems of their inherent strangeness and aesthetic Ridge/Havre Trough. are in their early phase of investigation, but appeal. Approximate area: 105,584km2 preliminary results indicate that their faunas are diverse and disparate (i.e. little overlap Criteria applied: with the inhabitants of adjacent non-vent habi- Species diversity; species richness; endemism; tats). Endemism at New Zealand vents appears trophic/functional diversity; conservation sta- to be high, with recently published records of tus/threat classifi cation both nationally and (apparently) regionally endemic vent polycha- globally; cultural values; extremities of range etes (Branchipolynoes); molluscs (the mussel and adaptation to environment; special con- species Bathymodiolus tangaroa and Gigan- ditions and specialised organisms; unusual tidus gladius, the latter a new genus); barna- degree/proportion of biomass; special phylo- cles (Neolepas osheai); several new shrimp genetic grouping; habitat complexity/diver- species (including Alvinocaris niwa), and a sity; links to global patterns. large and as-yet undescribed asteroid. The Status and management: aforementioned taxa are mainly large, con- Two areas of active hydrothermal venting spicuous organisms, and overseas experience were closed to commercial trawling in 2001: suggests that a wealth of smaller, more cryp- the Rumble 3 and Brothers Seamounts. These tic, vent organisms are likely to be discovered closures were framed in terms of seamount at New Zealand hydrothermal vents. closures under the auspices of the 1996 Fish- At a fi ne scale, New Zealand vents have yet to eries Act (as two of 19 seamounts closed). In be properly categorised. It is likely, however, this sense there is still no specifi c manage- that a range of vent environmental conditions ment of hydrothermal vent ecosystems. How- will be found (e.g. variation in temperature ever, benthic fi sheries are severely constrained and chemical composition of fl uids), and in some parts of this area by nominal catch that this habitat complexity will give rise to a limits and special permit access provisions. small-scale variability in vent communities. State of information: Vent organisms display unique and highly Research is in its early stages. Offshore sam- specialised physiological adaptations to a pling of New Zealand hydrothermal vents has physical and chemical environment that only been undertaken seriously in the last 15 would be lethal to most other forms of years. At least seven active venting localities life. Due to the highly productive nature are known from Kermadec Ridge seamounts, of vent ecosystems, local biomass of vent in addition to the Brothers and Rumble sites. primary producers and consumers is usually Upcoming submersible-based investigations elevated, sometimes to a level several orders will dramatically increase knowledge of the of magnitude greater than the surrounding distribution, biodiversity and ecology of New environment. Special phylogenetic groupings Zealand vents. in vent ecosystems include particular polychaete, crustacean, and molluscan taxa. References: Buckeridge (2000), Clark and O’Shea (2001a, Biogeographically, New Zealand’s hydrother- 2001b), de Ronde et al. (2001), Kamenev mal vents are signifi cant, as demonstrated by et al. (1993), Rowden et al. (2003), von Cosel several past and forthcoming international and Marshall (2003), Webber (2004), Wright research expeditions intended to document the (1994). vents’ geology and fauna. Subduction-related venting has been less studied than spreading- axis venting, and the comparison of regional

54 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Hauraki Gulf/Bay of Description of area: activities which, in particular, have been Plenty estuaries The Firth of Thames is a large, shallow responsible for increased rates of sedimen- coastal embayment supporting a range tation. These estuaries are also under threat Map ID number: of coastal habitats and plant and animal from coastal development such as marinas 9 communities. There are four estuaries and canal developments, subdivisions, aqua- culture, reclamation and infi lling, foreshore Location: Includes Firth (Manaia, Te Kouma, Coromandel, and of Thames, Coromandel Colville) on the western coast of the structures, roading, stock grazing, introduced estuaries, and Bay of Plenty Coromandel Peninsula and several on the species, and fl ood control works. estuaries eastern coast of the Coromandel Peninsula Criteria applied: 2 (e.g., Whangapoua, Tairua, Wharekawa, Approximate area: 217km Species diversity; species richness; (summation of the surface and Whangamata). There are a number of dependency for other species; trophic/ areas of the above estuaries at estuaries along the Bay of Plenty coast (e.g., high water)8 functional diversity; conservation status/ Tauranga, Maketu, Whakatane, and Ohiwa) threat classifi cation both nationally Biological attributes: and globally; cultural values; degree The Firth of Thames, Coromandel estuar- of disturbance; special conditions and ies, and Bay of Plenty estuaries are highly specialised organisms; habitat complexity/ productive ecosystems, and are of signifi cant diversity. environmental and economic importance. Status and management: A range of habitat types are found in and The southern Firth of Thames is listed as a around these estuaries, including coastal wetland of international importance under shrublands and forest, freshwater wetlands, the Ramsar Convention. The site includes saltmarsh, mangroves, seagrass, sand and approximately 78km2 of shallow estuarine mud fl ats, rocky reefs, and tidal channels. waters, intertidal mudfl ats, mangrove and The extensive estuarine intertidal fl ats sup- saltmarsh, and graded shell beach ridges. port abundant and diverse communities of The Firth of Thames is considered to include benthic invertebrates – including extensive nationally signifi cant mangrove and mudfl at shellfi sh beds, which are an important food communities. source for many fi sh and birds, as well as having other signifi cant ecological functions. The Firth of Thames and Coromandel estu- aries are included within the Hauraki Gulf The intertidal sand and mudfl ats are impor- Marine Park which was established in 2000 tant feeding grounds, and breeding and with the aim of enhancing the integrated roosting sites for large numbers of wading management of the Hauraki Gulf. birds, coastal and freshwater birds, includ- ing a number of rare and threatened species. Many of the Coromandel and Bay of Plenty The Firth of Thames is one of New Zealand’s estuaries have been designated as “Areas most important coastal stretches for wading of Signifi cant Conservation Value” under and shore birds. The area forms a key site regional council coastal plans. for migratory birds from the Arctic Circle Improved catchment management to Australasia (the “East Asian-Australasian (minimising erosion, reducing runoff and fl yway”). nutrient leaching) will help to protect The estuaries are also important feeding and estuaries. Regional councils, in conjunction breeding areas for a number of fi sh species with the Minister of Conservation, are and are the subject of current Foundation for responsible under the Resource Management Research, Science and Technology (FoRST) Act 1991 for the management of the effects funded research (conducted by M. Morrison, of activities in the coastal marine area. NIWA). Territorial authorities are responsible for managing land-use effects above mean high The Firth of Thames, Coromandel estuaries, water springs. and Bay of Plenty estuaries have come under signifi cant threat as a result of catchment State of information: Variable for the different harbours. References and further reading: Auckland Regional Council (2002a, 2002b, 2003b, 2003c, 2003d), Brejaart

/C.Rudge and Brownell (2001), Cromarty and Scott (1996), Cole et al. (2000), Environment Bay of Plenty (1999, 2000), Hartill et al. (2003), Park (2000), Thrush (1993), Turner and Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te Carter (2004). 8 Source for estuarine areas:

Whitianga Harbour DOC, ©2004 http://fi nz.niwa.co.nz/NewZealand/viewer.htm BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 55 Ranfurly Bank Description of area: Criteria applied: The Bank rises from about 130m depth to a Endemism. Map ID number: minimum of 25m and is bathed by the East Status and management: 10 Cape Current as it sweeps around the cape Not recorded during the workshop Location: Ranfurly Bank is on its southward passage along the North located on the continental Island margin. This stong fl ow, together State of information: shelf, 17km east-north-east of with the tides, is liable to inhibit accumula- Collections that have been made to date are East Cape. tion of muddy sediment discharged from the few. The area warrants closer attention and a 2 Approximate area: 17,437km nearby Waiapu River – by far New Zealand’s well-structured sampling programme. largest river in terms of sediment discharge (L. Carter, personal communication, 2004). References and further reading: Phillips (2002). Biological attributes: Sampling undertaken so far has revealed unusual/unexpected distributions. Observations of this area indicate that there are endemic species of algae. For example, Adamsiella lorata is known only from Lottin Point and A. melchior is known only from the Three Kings Islands.

Convergent margin Description of area: Status and management: cold seeps Cold seeps are methanogenic and Not managed. methylotrophic ecosystems. In buried sea State of information: Map ID number: fl oor sediments, organic compounds derived 11 from marine life are chemically altered by Only the following paper has been published on New Zealand convergent-margin seeps. Location: Convergent margin heat, pressure, and bacteria. The compounds cold seeps are found on percolate upwards through the sediments to References and further reading: the East Coast of the North be released as organic-enriched fl uids and Lewis and Marshall (1996). Island and the southeast and gases, e.g. methane. southwest coasts of the South Island. Biological attributes: Approximate area: Not Methane-rich seeps are home to siboglinid precisely known. Probably tubeworms and highly adapted suspension- less than 300km2 in total feeding bivalves, most of which are endemic. aerial extent for all 13 known sites. (Area 11 on the map is Criteria applied: 6,534km2) Endemism; trophic distinctiveness; adaptation to extreme environment; special conditions and special organisms.

56 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Deep sea wood Description of area: habitats A supply of riverine drift wood, which is contingent on land-based practices, supports Map ID number: a special assemblage of organisms. 12 Biological attributes: Location: Wairarapa and Habitat-restricted fauna based on the Hokitika Canyons (at 1000m) bacterial decay of wood cellulose include Approximate area: Not Concentricycloidea (sea daisies), gastropods, precisely known; probably and small crustaceans only a few hundred square kilometres in total aerial Criteria applied: extent (Area 12 on the map is 6,219km2) Endemism; dependency for other species; special conditions and specialised organisms. Status and management: Not managed. ©1988 Rowe, Baker, and Clark and Baker, Rowe, ©1988 State of information: Sea daisy (Xyloplax turnerae) No information has been published on the actual habitat in New Zealand waters, only the presence of unusual organisms. References and further reading: Baker et al. (1986), Rowe et al. (1988).

Rocky coast seagrass Description of area: important connections for seagrasses in habitats A series of extensive siltstone intertidal the isolated estuaries along this coast, and platforms between about 70-120m wide, are important feeding areas for variable Map ID number: interrupted by extensive sand and gravel oystercatcher (Haematopus unicolor), white- 13 beaches in Poverty Bay, Hawke Bay, and faced heron (Ardea novaehollandiae), and bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica). Location: East Coast of at Porangahau. Each platform is typically North Island between East backed by steep coastal hills of Tertiary Criteria applied: Cape and Cape Turnagain. siltstone, and topped by a narrow sand or Extremities of range and adaptation to (South of Cape Turnagain boulder beach. All of the platforms are dotted environment; representation (i.e. across the rock platforms tend to be with fi ssures, channels, and pools ranging up lower on the shore, often at 2 physical types). or just below low water and to more than 1,500m surface area. In some consequently they generally do places the seaward edges of the platforms are Status and management: not support extensive beds of higher than the mid-sections. No exploitation, but some seagrass seagrass (Zostera capricorni)). Biological attributes: populations close to the high tide sand/ Approximate area: 811km2 gravel shelf are vulnerable to the increasing These platforms are characterised by vehicular traffi c on coastal reefs. Driving extensive turfs of coralline algae (Corallina vehicles onto the platforms between offi cinalis), Neptune’s necklace (Hormosira Kairakau and Blackhead Point in Central banksii), large beds of seagrass (Zostera Hawke’s Bay is prohibited under the capricorni), and the golden limpet (Cellana Hawke’s Bay Regional Coastal Plan. fl ava). These reef populations may form Populations are protected within the Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve north of Gisborne and Te Angiangi Marine Reserve south of Cape Kidnappers. State of information: Seagrass populations in these habitats are generally poorly described or understood. References and further reading: Central Fishery Management Planning Team (1987), Creswell and Warren (1990), Department of Conservation (1994), Glassey Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te (2002), Haddon (1993), Haddon and Anderlini (1993), Henriques et al. (1990),

The algae, Neptune’s necklace DOC, ©2004 Morton and Miller (1968). BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 57 Marlborough Sounds Description of area: fauna and fl ora from that typical of exposed The Marlborough Sounds are formed from rock reefs and sandy sediments to those Map ID number: drowned river valleys resulting in a complex typical of sheltered shores. The sounds 14 coastline with a large variety of habitats. ecosystem also supports a large number of Location: North coast of the High velocity semidiurnal tidal fl ows marine farms, which farm mainly suspension South Island characterise the entrance of the sounds. feeding mussels. Approximate area: 2,299km2 In central New Zealand they represent the Criteria applied: largest extent of sheltered harbour habitats. Representation (across physical types); Biological attributes: meeting ground. The sounds have a reasonable diversity of Status and management: native suspension feeders and muddy benthic Some of the area is zoned for marine communities in unmodifi ed habitats. There farming, which requires resource consent is a mix of northern and southern brachiopod and fi sheries permits. Sediment runoff from species and other invertebrates. Over their forestry operations and roads poses a threat length the sounds show a strong transition in to water quality. State of information: Not recorded during the workshop References and further reading: Bardsley (1976), Cole et al. (2001), Estcourt (1967), Farhey and Coker (1992), Grange (1991a), Nelson et al. (1992), Ogilvie (2000), Struik (1979). Sea anenomes, sea cucumbers,

and ascidians Grange ©NIWA/Ken

Cook Strait Description of area: Status and management: The Cook Strait has high velocity semi- Most benthic species are not exploited but Map ID number: diurnal tidal fl ows. There are deep canyons may be subject to bycatch in bottom trawling 15 at the Strait’s eastern end bringing deep operations. A protected area of shallow Location: Between North and water faunas close to one of New Zealand’s waters lies within the Cook Strait power South Island largest urban areas. Vertical mixing of the cable zone. water column and associated increased Approximate area: 17,022km2 State of information: productivity in and around the canyons helps to sustain a more varied and abundant mid- Not recorded during the workshop. water and bottom dwelling fauna than the References and further reading: adjacent shelf. Foster (2001), Nelson et al. (1992). Biological attributes: The Cook Strait is a mixing zone for fauna and fl ora of northern and southern waters. Intertidal organisms, Cook Strait The rocky reefs of the area have high algal diversity. The largest known rhodolith beds (free-living crustose coralline red algae), are found in Cook Strait. Dense aggregations of brittle stars are found at the head of the Cook Strait Canyon. Criteria applied: Species diversity; meeting ground; representation. Allison Arnold Allison

58 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Bryozoan coral beds Description of area: Status and management: The bryozoan coral beds comprise erect Only the area off Abel Tasman National Park Map ID number: bryozoan growths and molluscan shell, is protected from bottom trawling (since 16 associated with a high diversity of sessile and 1980) but regeneration of the bryozoan Location: Tasman Bay/D’Urville mobile epibiota, forming a nursery ground habitat appears to be slow. Island, Otago Shelf, Foveaux for juveniles of commercial fi sh. Strait State of information: Biological attributes: Some published papers and a report to the Approximate area: Originally patchily distributed over Celleporaria agglutinans (“Tasman Bay Ministry of Fisheries have been produced. 2 coral”) and Hippomenella vellicata are the around 410km , now probably References and further reading: less than 140km2 in extent off predominant habitat-forming species off Abel Tasman National Park. northern South Island. Cinctipora elegans Bradstock and Gordon (1983), Gordon et al. Other areas exist off D’Urville (1994). Island and Otago Shelf in is the predominant habitat-forming species which the bryozoan habitat is on the Otago Shelf, but H. vellicata is Bryozoan colony, Stewart Island probably patchily distributed common there too. over several hundred square kilometres in a number of The Cinctiporidae is areas. (Area 16 on the map is an endemic bryozoan approximately 2,289km2.) family having gigantism – i.e. exhibiting the largest zooids in the class Stenolaemata. Criteria applied: Species diversity; species richness; dependency for other species; aggregations; threatened habitat; habitat complexity. ©NIWA/Ken Grange ©NIWA/Ken

Farewell Spit region Description of area: Criteria applied: The Farewell Spit Region is infl uenced Dependency for other species; representation Map ID number: by nutrient-rich cold water upwellings off (of a physical type), seasonal/migratory 17 Kahurangi Point. The area has a highly importance; aggregations. productive shallow-water soft-bottom habitat Location: Northwest corner of Status and management: the South Island including the that yields food for migratory birds. Karamea Estuary and Parapara The area is a Ramsar site, which is a Inlet. Biological attributes: wetland of international signifi cance. Extensive areas of sand and mud, including Approximate area: 1,372km2 State of information: extensive areas of seagrass habitat charac- terise the Farewell Spit Region. The area is Not recorded during the workshop. a Ramsar site, which is a wetland of interna- References and further reading: tional signifi cance. For example, it is interna- Cuddihy (1992), Foster and Battaerd (1985), tionally important for migratory birds. Nelson et al. (1992). Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te

Eel-grass, Farewell Spit Ramsar site DOC, ©2004 BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 59 Kaikoura shallow Description of area: Kaikoura Peninsula. Trawling is localised Limestone base rock. to sea fl oor areas between scattered low reef water outcrops. This activity impacts ascidians Map ID number: Biological attributes: and sponges growing on shell and cobble 18 Kaikoura’s shallow water environment substrata. has high algal diversity, some of which Location: Northeast coast of have cultural uses. It is a locality for the State of information: South Island relict red seaweed of the order Bangiales. Ecology of subtidal sessile benthic Approximate area: 2,022km2 Between the coastal siltstone reefs there invertebrates is not well studied. A large are localised areas of seagrasses. Kaikoura amount of unpublished data exists from shelf and subtidal reefs are highly productive extensive subtidal collections of ascidians areas subject to periodic upwelling of deep and sponges made by the University of nutrient-rich water. Steep reef walls, varied Canterbury Marine Chemistry Group topography and high currents offshore between 1992 and 1997 in the Kaikoura support diverse communities of sessile fi lter region. This information should be published feeders, including ascidians and sponges. in a biogeographic context. However, there The area has rich ascidian diversity (43 is need for taxonomic revision and more recorded species) and represents the southern extensive collections to interpret with limit of at least eight, and the northern limit certainty faunistic relationships in the New of at least three described endemic species. Zealand ascidiacea. Criteria applied: References and further reading: Species richness; extremities of range; Broom et al. (2004), Chiswell and Schiel habitat complexity/diversity. (2001), Millar (1982), Nelson et al. (1990), Page (1993), Stocker (1985), Woods and Status and management: Page (1999), Schiel and Hickford (2001). Some commercial trawling for sea perch (Heliocolenus percoides) occurs from 40-100m on the shelf approximately 1km southeast of

Chatham Rise Description of area: /C.S.Robertson Map ID number: The Chatham Rise 19a occurs underneath

Location: A submarine the Subtropical Atawhai Papa Te extension of the New Zealand Convergence, a Plateau that extends eastward major oceanic front of the South Island for with high surface DOC, ©2004 1400km. productivity. It is a classic mixing zone of Seaweeds, Kaikoura Approximate area: 248,955km2 north and south biogeographic elements. The crest of the rise is of geologic interest. Status and management: It is a locality for nodules of the mineral The Chatham Rise supports commercial phosphorite, as well as areas of glauconite. fi sheries for a considerable number of The crest is the northernmost settling ground species, each of which is controlled by the for iceberg-rafted rocks from Antarctica. Quota Management System. Six seamounts are closed to trawling on the Chatham Rise. Biological attributes: The Chatham Rise is the southern limit in State of information: New Zealand for stony sponges (“lithistids”). The rise has been the focus of considerable There are thickets of stony corals on the crest research focus by NIWA and other research of the rise. Seamounts found on the Rise providers. have variably diverse assemblages of deep- References and further reading: sea biota. Dawson (1984), Haywood et al. (2002), Criteria applied: Nodder et al. (2003), Probert et al. (1996), Species diversity and richness; trophic Probert and McKnight (1993, 1997), Probert functional diversity; aggregations; meeting et al. (1997), Rowden et al. (2002). ground.

60 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Chatham Islands Description of area: Status and management: The Chatham Islands has a complex marine The low human impact on some shores Map ID number: habitat of intermixing currents and eddies allows protection of crustose coralline 19b associated with shelf edges and subterranean habitat and delicate fossil sponges. features. Location: The Chatham State of information: Islands are at the eastern end of the Chatham Rise and Biological attributes: Not recorded during the workshop The islands have a good diversity of are an intermixing zone of References and further reading: subantarctic and subtropical seaweeds and crustose coralline algae elements. They are the most species. There is reasonably high endemism Hay (1989), Knox (1957), Nelson et al. easterly island group in the of ascidians, molluscs, and seaweeds. (1991), Schiel et al. (1995), Schiel and New Zealand marine zone. Hickford (2001). Approximate area: Not Criteria applied: delineated by benthic group Endemism; species richness; representation; during the workshop. extremities of range; meeting ground; habitat complexity/diversity. Chatham Island Te Papa Atawhai Papa Te ©2004 DOC, DOC, ©2004

Fiordland Description of area: Sound. A comprehensive management This area contains New Zealand’s only strategy has been developed to protect the Map ID number: fi ords. There are a variety of physical fi sheries resources and marine environment, 20 gradients among them. Notable features of but this has yet to be formally approved in Location: Southwest region of the area include a very narrow continental legislation. the South Island shelf and a near-permanent, low-salinity State of information: 2 surface layer within the fi ords. Approximate area: 5,196km Large number of scientifi c papers. University Biological attributes: of Otago holds a living bibliography of Fiordland is a special marine environment in studies. that species normally found in deep water, References and further reading: such as sea pens, glass sponges, and certain Glasby (1978), Grange (1985, 1988, 1990, corals, emerge in shallow water. The area 1991b), Grange and Goldberg (1992, 1993a, has high cnidarian faunal diversity includ- 1993b), Grange and Singleton (1988), ing habitat-forming black corals (Antip- Nelson et al. (2002), Schiel and Hickford atharia) and red corals (Stylasteridae). (2001), Skerman (1964), Wing (2003). Bryozoan thickets (Adeonellopsis) are found on entrance sills of the fi ords. Fiordland also Red coral, Fiordland has high algal diversity, a fact that has been largely overlooked until recently. Crustose coralline algae are important in the rock wall communities. Criteria applied: Species diversity; special conditions and specialised organisms.

Status and management: Atawhai Papa Te There are two marine reserves, one in

Milford Sound and the other in Doubtful DOC, ©2004 BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 61 Foveaux Strait/ Description of area: diversity, productivity, and biomass, with The area encompassing Foveaux Strait/ signifi cant endemics. The area has some Stewart Island/ major estuaries with extensive seagrass beds. Snares plateau shelf Stewart Island/Snares plateau shelf is rich in biogenic carbonate (shell gravel). There is Criteria applied: Map ID number: low sedimentation from Stewart Island rivers Species diversity; species richness; and the area includes “pristine estuaries”. 21 endemism; trophic/functional diversity; Location: South of the Biological attributes: representation; unusual proportion/degree of South Island The shell gravel biogenic carbonate is biomass; habitat complexity/diversity. 2 Approximate area: 52,014km produced by abundant Stewart Island rock Status and management: wall suspension feeders, especially by The Foveaux Strait oyster fi shery and Snares bryozoans and molluscs, along with serpulid Plateau fi shery are managed in terms of polychaetes and brachiopods on the shelf. “stock” but not yet from a holistic ecosystem The three-dimensionality of the habitat is perspective. created by bryozoans, sponges, ascidians, and cnidarians. In shallow water some State of information: macroalgal species are habitat formers. A See references below. high diversity of fi sh is associated with such three-dimensional habitats. References and further reading: Cranfi eld et al. (1999, 2001, 2003), Head There are high levels of local endemnicity (1985), Willan (1981) across many taxa. There is high algal

Anenomes, Stewart Island Cooper ©Sean

Subantarctic Description of area: has not been adequately sampled or plateaus The subantarctic plateaus and islands have documented. extensive areas of deep continental shelf. In References and further reading: and islands places it is rich in biogenic shell gravel. Anderson et al. (1998), Bradford-Grieve Map ID number: Biological attributes: et al. (2003), Hay et al. (1985), Nelson 22 The area has high algal productivity and (1999b). Location: South of biomass with signifi cant endemics. There are New Zealand land mass rock wall faunas associated with emergent Approximate area: 342,544km2 islands, deep canyons, and seamounts. Criteria applied: Endemism; trophic/functional diversity. Status and management: The Southern Plateau supports commercial fi sheries for a considerable number of species, each of which is controlled by the Quota Management System. Fishing is banned within the 4,840km2 of the Auckland Islands Marine Reserve. State of information: ©Sean Cooper ©Sean There are large areas in which the benthos Paua, Campbell Island 62 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Southeastern Description of area: Status and management: continental margin/ Along the southeastern continental margin Bollons Seamount and Seamount 401 are there is an abrupt transition from deep shelf among the 19 seamounts that were closed Deep Western to abyssal sea fl oor. The margin constrains to trawling in 2001 under the Fisheries Act Boundary Current the fl ow on its northern side of the Deep 1996. Western Boundary Current, which is the Map ID number: State of information: biggest “river” in the world. 23 Biologically unexplored. Biological attributes: Location: The margin of the References and further reading: Campbell Plateau off the Biologically unexplored. southeast coast of the South No benthic biological references in NIWA’s Island Criteria applied: library. Approximate area: 269,762km2 Representation (across physical types); biologically unknown.

Sea cucumber (Psolus neozelanicus) ©Tim O’Hara, Museum Victoria Museum O’Hara, ©Tim

Macquarie Ridge Description of area: maintain ecological processes and protect The Macquarie Ridge is a tectonically Australia’s marine biodiversity. The island Map ID number: generated volcanic ridge. It acts as a barrier and surrounding waters out to 12 nautical 24 to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current because miles were listed as a World Heritage Location: South of the of its north-south trend. Area in December 1997. Furthermore, South Island the Macquarie Island Nature Reserve, Biological attributes: which includes the marine and terrestrial Approximate area: 73,550km2 The ridge is a transition zone between environments, is one of 12 UNESCO neozelanic and Antarctic biotic elements. “biosphere reserves” in Australia, and the It is variably and locally rich in echinoderms only one in the Southern Ocean (Australian and bryozoans. Department of the Environment and Criteria applied: Heritage 2004). Representation (across physical types); Bottom midwater trawling to target extremeties of range; biologically unknown. Patagonian toothfi sh occurs along the Status and management: western edge of the ridge west of Macquarie Island and Judge and Clerk Islands. Fishery The northern section of the Macquarie operations are subject to environmental Ridge lies within New Zealand’s Exclusive standards (Australian Department of the Economic Zone, while the southern section Environment and Heritage 2004). is part of Australia’s marine jurisdiction. The Australian Government established State of information: the Macquarie Island Marine Park in The Macquarie Ridge is not yet adequately 1999, which comprises 162,000km2 of characterised biologically. Commonwealth waters to the southeast of Macquarie Island. The state waters References and further reading: immediately surrounding the island are a Australian Department of the Environment marine reserve. The marine park is part and Heritage (2004), Butler et al. (2000), of the National Representative System of Dawson (1970, 1988), Cairns (1991), Marine Protected Areas, which aims to McKnight (unpublished).

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 63 Biogenic carbonate/ Description of habitat type: The endemic, habitat forming bryozoan bryozoan habitats Bryomol gravel environments are rich corals of Tasman Bay, Celleporaria in three-dimensionality created by erect agglutinans and Hippomenella vellicata, Map ID number: bryozoans, corals, hydroids, sponges, and have existed in the northwest region of the 16, 4, 21, for example. ascidians. This three-dimensionality is co- South Island since the early Miocene period. Location: Chief areas are associated with high diversity of mobile Criteria applied: the Three Kings Shelf and epibiota and fish. The highest macrobenthos Species diversity; species richness; Snares Plateau for extensive diversities are found in these habitats, with bryomol (Bryozoan-Mollusca) endemism; representation; unusual degree/ nurseries for commercial fish associated with shell gravel. Large bryozoan proportion of biomass; habitat complexity/ at least some of them. colonies forming habitat occur diversity. in Tasman Bay, Otago Shelf, Biological attributes: and parts of Foveaux Strait. Status and management: New Zealand’s currently known marine Smaller areas include Mernoo One small area off Spirits Bay is protected Bank on the eastern Chatham biodiversity hot spot, Spirits Bay, is from bottom trawling. Rise, Stephens Hole in Cook associated with bryomol habitat. Of all Strait, Otago Shelf, and parts known bryozoan localities in the world, State of information: of Foveaux Strait and the Campbell Plateau. Spirits Bay has the highest bryozoan See references below. The state of diversity per unit area. The 300 species information for bryozoan taxonomy is good, Approximate area: 10,000km2 found in just the 200km2 region of the bay but the “ecology” is only partially described are equivalent to the diversity of the entire (i.e. for places like Spirits Bay). bryozoan fauna of the British Isles. Spirits Bay, and other areas in the world, can have References and further reading: high local endemism at species and even Battershill et al. (1998), Bradstock and genus level. Gordon (1983), Carter et al. (1985), Head (1985), Nelson et al. (1982, 1988a, 1988b), One habitat-forming bryozoan species, Probert et al. (1979). Cinctipora elegans, and the related north- restricted Attinopora zealandica, are the only living species of the endemic family Cinctiporidae. This family has giant zooids – the largest in the entire Stenolaemata class.

Topographic Description of habitat type: generated soft- This habitat is comprised of remnant areas of shelf slope sediments that have remained sediment refugia free of bottom trawling by virtue of their Not mapped during proximity to topographic features. The the workshop areas are undisturbed and unfished, but are Location: Bay of Plenty and otherwise representative of shelf and slope ©NIWA/Ken Grange ©NIWA/Ken potentially throughout the sediment habitats. The sizes of the refugia Horse mussel and soft-sediment refugia, Fiordland Exclusive Economic Zone at exist on a range of scales, from less than various depths 1 km to tens of kilometres. Such areas are Approximate area: Not likely to occur throughout the New Zealand uncontested areas for conservation status. recorded during the workshop Exclusive Economic Zone at various If not conserved, these refugia are likely depths. Examples of features that prevent to decrease in number and size as fishing trawling include rocky outcrops or canyons, technology develops to allow trawling in cableways, and explosives dumping grounds. areas with some rocky outcrops. Biological attributes: State of information: Soft sediment refugia have high species The fisheries trawl database (owned by diversity (including muricid gastropods) the Ministry of Fisheries, administered and the full range of population size and age by NIWA) has good records of trawling structures. intensity on scampi grounds on different Criteria applied: areas. Interrogation of this database in Degree of disturbance; unusual degree/ combination with the latest NIWA swath proportion of biomass. map should identify the exact location of refuges from trawling. Status and management: The refugia are probably now the only sites References and further reading: in northeastern New Zealand that contain Cryer et al. (2002). unmodified slope fauna and are likely to be 64 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Non-geniculate Description of habitat type: activities. Coralline algae are slow-growing, coralline algae Coralline algae encrusts rock walls and cob- which makes it them vulnerable to human bles, and other marine plants and animals impacts such as modification of coastal envi- Not mapped during (epiphytic and epizoic). It is also found in a ronments through sedimentation and nutrient the workshop free-living form as rhodoliths, which are also enrichment. Removal of particular species Location: Non-geniculate in fossil deposits. may have a significant impact on recruitment coralline algae are widespread of particular invertebrates. from the intertidal to the deep Biological attributes: subtidal. They are found Coralline algae are implicated in the settle- State of information: throughout New Zealand, ment of invertebrates, particularly paua (aba- Information on non-geniculate coralline from the Kermadecs (to algae is very poor, but an initial study was approximately 200m) to the lone) species and kina (sea urchins). Algae subantarctic islands. release materials that result in the settling of started in 2002 with funding from the Min- planktonic phases. Rhodolith beds are rec- istry of Fisheries. Very little is known about Approximate area: Not the distribution of rhodolith beds. Only one recorded during the workshop ognised internationally as significant (and vulnerable) habitat for fish juveniles and rhodolith bed is well identified between invertebrate hot spots of diversity. Kapiti Island and mainland New Zealand, although others have been recorded, predom- Criteria applied: inantly from northeastern North Island sites. Species richness; endemism; representation; habitat complexity/diversity. References and further reading: Nelson and Farr (2001), Nelson (2002), Status and management: Woelkerling and Nelson (2004). Rhodoliths are vulnerable to disturbance/har- vest as bycatch from trawling or other fishing

Kelp forests Description of habitat type: commercialisation would have implications The presence of a particular kelp species for associated species and habitat change. Not mapped during the workshop indicates a particular environment type. For D. antarctica is used to make poha titi (stor- example, Macrocystis is found on the open age bags for mutton birds) and has cultural Location: Different kelp coast where there is current/water exchange, significance for Mäori, particularly Ngai species have specific but not in wave-exposed areas. Durvillaea, distributions: Tahu. by contrast, is found in areas with extreme Ecklonia radiata is found around mainland State of information: New Zealand and Stewart Island, but not wave exposure. the Chatham Islands. This alga is found The data that are currently available are very elsewhere in the world9, but the New Biological attributes: local and restricted. Little is known about Zealand populations represent the eastern Kelps are major components of coastal Lessonia ecology. Ecklonia data are avail- and southern limits of the species. systems. They provide three-dimensional able for New Zealand’s northeast North Macrocystis pyrifera is found around the northern Cook Strait to the subantarctic structure and shape coastal rocky reef envi- Island and Fiordland, but little elsewhere. and on the Chatham Islands. ronments. Both invertebrates and fish depend References and further reading: Lessonia variegata is found around the on the kelp canopy and the shade it provides. North, South, and Stewart Islands. L. Macrocystis, commonly known as “giant Durvillaea: Hay (1979a, 1979b, 1994), Hay adamsiae is restricted to the Snares kelp”, is recognised as a major “forest-form- and South (1979), Kelly and Brown (2000), Islands, L. tholiformis is found only on the South and Hay (1979). Chatham Islands, L. brevifolia is found ing” taxon globally. Kelps are also major in the New Zealand subantarctic islands sources of productivity in the coastal envi- Ecklonia: Andrew and Choat (1985), – Bounty, Antipodes, Auckland, and ronment. Macrocystis has the highest growth Andrew and MacDiarmid (1991), Babcock Campbell. The Lessonia species found et al. (1999), Choat and Ayling (1987), in New Zealand are all endemic to New rate measured for any seaweed. Zealand, and some species are unique Choat and Schiel (1982), Cole and Babcock to particular island groups, such as the Criteria applied: (1996), Jones (1984, 1988), Novaczek Snares and the Chathams.10 Species richness; endemism; representation; (1984a, 1984b), Schiel (1981, 1982, 1988, Durvillaea, known commonly as bull habitat complexity/diversity 1990), Schiel and Hickford (2001), Schiel kelp, is an iconic genus with southern hemisphere distribution. New Zealand is Status and management: and Nelson (1990), Shears and Babcock (2002), Trenery (1985). the world centre of Durvillaea diversity Kelps are vulnerable to human impacts. with four species: Lessonia: Choat and Schiel (1982), Hay For example, research conducted at Leigh D. antarctica – found around mainland (1987, 1989), Schiel and Hickford (2001), New Zealand to the subantarctic and Marine Lab demonstrates cascades between Schiel et al. (1995). Chatham Islands; top predators, herbivores, and forest cover D. enchathamasis – found only on the Macrocystis: Brown et al. (1997), Hay with very significant shifts in vegetation Chatham Islands; (1990), Kain (1982), McCleneghan and cover within the no-take marine reserve. D. willana – found on the South Island Houk (1985), Moore (1942), Nyman et al. and Stewart Island; and Commercial exploitation of kelp is D. sp. – found on Antipodes Island. (1990, 1993) developing. It has been proposed that four Approximate area: Not 9 Ecklonia radiata is also found in South Africa, recorded during the workshop. genera (Ecklonia, Lessonia, Macrocystis, Australia, and Oman upwelling zones. and Durvillaea) be introduced into 10 The Lessonia genus is also in Tasmania and South the Quota Management System. Such America, but the species are different to those of New Zealand. BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 65 Mangroves Description of habitat type: Some areas of mangroves currently receive The mangrove (Avicennia marina subsp. some level of protection (e.g. mangroves in Map ID number: australasica)11 is a broadleaf evergreen tree the southern Firth of Thames Ramsar site). Examples include 6, 9 that flourishes in estuarine and sheltered With the increase in the spatial extent of Location: Mangroves occur in coastal areas. The trees grow between mid- mangroves in a number of estuaries there many estuaries and shallow- tide and high spring tide levels on sheltered has been an increased demand for active water coastal areas north of management of mangrove areas. 38ºS. (This corresponds with accretive shores with low energy wave Raglan/Whaingaro on the action. They have a number of physiological State of information: west coast of the North Island adaptations that aid survival in these areas. and Ohiwa on the east coast.) There is some historical information on There is some evidence from Biological attributes: mangroves. Currently there is a demand analysis of pollen samples Mangroves are highly productive in terms for increased information related to the that mangroves have occurred of litter production (e.g. May 1999). They biodiversity of mangrove forests and the further south in the past (e.g. are thought to contribute substantially to changes in estuarine biodiversity associated Mildenhall 1994). the organic material available to estuarine/ with the increase in extent of mangroves in Approximate area: Unknown coastal food chains. Mangroves provide New Zealand. – there is some historical information available (e.g. habitat structure for high and mid-intertidal References and further reading: areas, but there is little information on the Crisp et al. 1990) and more Crisp et al. (1990), May (1999), Mildenhall recently, mangrove extent has biodiversity value of mangrove habitat in (1994). been mapped at a number of New Zealand. Mangroves also contribute to individual locations by different The Mangrove Steering Group has compiled prevention of shore erosion and act as sedi- agencies/organisations. a bibliography of New Zealand mangrove ment and contaminant retainers. publications. In many New Zealand localities mangroves are reported to be increasing in spatial 11 The New Zealand variety is considered to be the same as species found between Adelaide and extent, which is a unique phenomenon glo- southern Queensland. bally. This expansion is generally considered to be a consequence of catchment activities. In some areas the expansion of mangroves is considered by some to be having undesir- able consequences, conflicting with other estuarine resources and values, both natural and human. Criteria applied: Trophic/functional diversity; conservation status/threat classification both nationally and globally; extremities of range and adaptation to environment; special conditions and specialised organisms; habitat

complexity/diversity. /C.Rudge Status and management: The 1994 New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement identifies the protection of areas Atawhai Papa Te of significant indigenous vegetation as a

national priority for the preservation of DOC, ©2004 natural character of the coastal environment. Mangrove

Seagrasses Description of habitat type: Biological attributes: Seagrass (Zostera capricorni)12 is mainly Seagrasses are flowering plants which are Map ID number: intertidal in New Zealand, forming extensive restricted to shallow coastal and estuarine Examples include 6, 9, 17, 18, 21 monospecific beds on estuarine sandflats. waters because they have high light require- The beds may extend as subtidal fringes ments. Seagrasses possess morphological Location: Around mainland into the shallow subtidal areas of estuaries. adaptations unique for submerged marine New Zealand and Stewart Island Permanently submerged beds of seagrass plants such as linear grass-like leaves and an have been recorded around offshore islands extensive root-rhizome system. Approximate area: Unknown (e.g. Grace and Grace 1976). Seagrass beds Seagrasses are generally considered to be also occur on open coast intertidal platform highly productive, with their high biomass reefs (e.g. Woods and Schiel 1997, Ramage and Schiel 1998, 1999). 12 There is currently considered to be one species of seagrass in New Zealand, Zostera capricorni Asch (Les 2002). 66 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Seagrasses and production directly linked to the impor- Zealand Coastal Policy Statement identifies tant roles they play in coastal and estuarine the protection of areas of significant continued ecosystems. Recent studies have established indigenous vegetation as a national priority the importance of New Zealand estuarine for the preservation of natural character of seagrass habitat to benthic macrofauna the coastal environment. Limited areas of communities (e.g. Turner et al. 1999, van seagrass currently receive some level of Houte-Howes et al., under review) as well protection (e.g. Whanganui (Westhaven) as recreationally and commercially impor- Inlet and Te Angiangi marine reserves tant fish species (e.g. Morrison and Francis include areas of seagrass). 2001). State of information: Criteria applied: Information on seagrass in New Zealand is Species diversity; species richness; depend- relatively limited – in particular for perma- ency for other species; trophic/functional nently submerged beds. There is some infor- diversity; conservation status/threat classifi- mation on the physiology and ecology of cation both nationally and globally; cultural seagrass and some information on associated values; degree of disturbance; special condi- biological communities. tions and specialised organisms; habitat com- References and further reading: plexity/diversity. Grace and Grace (1976), Inglis (2003), Les Status and management: et al. (2002), Morrison and Francis (2001), Seagrasses are vulnerable to human impacts Ramage and Schiel (1998, 1999), Turner such as changes in sedimentation, coastal et al. (1999), Turner and Schwarz (under modification, increased nutrients, and review), van Houte-Howes (under review), direct physical disturbance. The 1994 New Woods and Schiel (1997).

Photic zone rock wall Description of habitat type: threatened. Rock walls have high human suspension feeding The photic zone, or the depth to which light appeal (e.g. for scuba divers). Populations penetrates, is up to 200m. Rock walls have a are protected in New Zealand’s marine assemblages vertical relief or a very high gradient. They reserves. Not mapped during are typified by strong to moderate currents. State of information: the workshop Biological attributes: Some rock wall sites are very well known, Location: Rock wall especially in northeast New Zealand and assemblages are widespread Rock walls are home to many iconic taxa in northeast New Zealand, including black corals, red coral, and Fiordland. Other sites are only locally offshore islands, and Fiordland. brachiopods. They have a high biomass known. They are best known within SCUBA Other examples along the rest and surface cover of benthic species and a range, but other deeper rock walls are known of New Zealand’s coastline high biomass of planktivorous fishes. Such to occur. include rock stacks, pinnacles, biomass is sustained by energy transfer and similar formations. References and further reading: from the surrounding ocean ecosystem. Battershill and Stocker (1993), Grange Approximate area: Not The habitat is characterised by very high recorded during the workshop (1986). feeding upon pelagic energy sources – by benthic/demersal species such as sponges, tunicates and/or bryozoans, brachiopods, hydroids, soft and hard corals, and a variety of planktivorous fishes. The environment is also a carbonate sediment “factory” for surrounding soft bottoms (Nelson et al. 1988). Non-geniculate coralline algae are particularly important as they cover very large areas of rock walls and are implicated in invertebrate settlement and recruitment. Criteria applied: /M. Francis /M. Species diversity; species richness; ende- mism; dependency for other species; trophic/ functional diversity; representation (i.e. across physical types) Atawhai Papa Te Status and management: ©2004 DOC, DOC, ©2004 Most species are not exploited or directly Hydroid, Cape Karikari BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 67 Deep rock wall/high Description of habitat type: coral communities and boulder fields. Many gradient hard bottom Steep gradient areas with a rocky substratum long-lived species are attached to rock beyond the photic zone, from 200m to walls at these depths including the giant habitats deeper than kilometers in depth. This environment bubblegum coral (Paragorgia arborea), 200m experiences a range of current conditions, and Gorgonian corals, including bamboo Not mapped during from weak to very strong. corals, Antipatharians, Scleractinians, and the workshop hydrocorals. Biological attributes: Location: This habitat type is Biodiversity on deep rock walls can be high, Status and management: located throughout the New and differs significantly from surrounding Coral communities are susceptible to Zealand Exclusive Economic even light trawling, with recovery time Zone, but is especially communities. A wide range of sub-habitats associated with continental are encompassed by the category, including measured in centuries. Such communities margins, seamounts, ridge have become iconic globally. These areas features, submarine canyon are becoming increasingly impacted with walls, and fiord walls. advances in fishing technology. Trawling Approximate area: Not is moving from “flat” features to adjacent recorded during the workshop hills and seamounts and is able to access progressively deeper sites. State of information: The location of deep rock walls is increasingly better known through swath-mapping exercises, but biological characteristics have been investigated only in a small subset of seamounts and canyons. Taxonomic work is required by many specialists.

Deep-water coral thicket and References and further reading: orange roughy ©NIWA Clark et al. (2000), Rowden et al. (2004).

Brachiopod Description of habitat type: found in shallow water (intertidal less than communities Brachiopods are usually attached to hard 20m), and brachiopods account for a large substrates, such as rock, other brachio- portion of the biomass in many areas. For Not mapped during pods, and dead shells, although one species example, they are a dominant or conspicuous the workshop (Neothyris) is free-living as an adult. member of the benthic communities in the Location: Brachiopod fiords, the Marlborough Sounds, Paterson communities are widespread Biological attributes: Inlet on Stewart Island, and in patches on the in New Zealand from shallow Brachiopods are sessile suspension feeders Otago Shelf and subtidal eastern Northland. depths to beyond 2000m. that range in size from less than 1mm to Approximate area: Not 50mm. They are solitary animals, and are Criteria applied: recorded during the workshop probably long-lived. They are abundant in Species diversity; species richness; unusual the New Zealand fossil record. In fact, the degree/proportion of biomass; relict/genetic brachiopod record for the past 40 million lineage; endemism; special phylogenetic years is the best in the world. grouping. There are several other reasons why New Status and management: Zealand brachiopods are particularly Brachiopods are not protected as a species, significant in a global context. New Zealand but communities of brachiopods are included has high brachiopod diversity and richness, within marine reserves such as Poor Knights, a high proportion of brachiopod species are Long Island, Milford Sound, and Doubtful Sound. State of information: Not recorded during the work- shop References and further reading: Grange et al. (1981), Richardson (1981a, 1981b, 1981c), Stewart (1981), Willan (1981).

Brachiopod community, Stewart Island Grange ©NIWA/Ken ➲ TO CONTENTS 68 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION References and further reading

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Deep-sea Petrology 52: 717–732. Research 50: 959–585. Probert, P.K., McKnight, D.G., and Grove, S.L. Nelson, C.S., Hyden, F.M., Keane, S.L., Leask, 1997. Benthic invertebrate bycatch from a Novaczek, I. 1984a. Development and deep-water trawl fishery, Chatham Rise, New W.L., and Gordon, D.P. 1988a. Application phenology of Ecklonia radiata at two depths of bryozoan zoarial growth-form studies in Zealand. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and in Goat Island Bay, New Zealand. Marine Freshwater Ecosystems 7: 27–40. facies analysis of non-tropical carbonate Biology 81: 189–197. Ramage, D.L. and Schiel, D.R. 1998. deposits in New Zealand. Sedimentary Novaczek, I. 1984b. Response of gametophytes Geology 15: 301–322. Reproduction in the seagrass Zostera of Ecklonia radiata (Laminariales) to novazelandica on intertidal platforms in Nelson, C.S., Keane, S.L., and Head, P.S. temperature in saturating light. Marine 1988b. Non-tropical carbonate deposits on southern New Zealand. 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72 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Ramage, D.L. and Schiel, D.R. 1999. Patch Schiel, D.R. and Nelson, W.A. 1990. The Turner, S.J., Thrush, S.F., Pridmore, R.D., dynamics and response to disturbance of the harvesting of macroalgae in New Zealand. Hewitt, J.E., Cummings, V.J. and Maskery, seagrass Zostera novazelandica on intertidal Hydrobiologia 204/205: 25–33. M. 1995. Are soft-sediment communities platforms in southern New Zealand. Marine Schiel, D.R., Kingsford, M.J. and Choat, J.H. stable? An example from a windy harbour. Ecology Progress Series 189: 275–288. 1986. Depth distribution and abundance Marine Ecology Progress Series 120: Richardson, J.R. 1981a. Brachiopods in mud: of benthic organisms and fishes at the sub- 219–230. resolution of a dilemma. Science 211: tropical Kermadec Islands. New Zealand Turner, S.J., and Carter, N. 2004. Regional 1161–1163. Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research estuary monitoring programme: benthic Richardson, J.R. 1981b. 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➲ TO CONTENTS BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 73 3.5 Information gaps and other obstacles to assessing marine biodiversity

Experts identified multiple deficiencies incomplete information on ocean currents; in spatial information about the marine and ignorance about the history of marine environment and the challenges of filling processes and floral/faunal composition, such gaps. These include: significant gaps particularly how the environment has in the distribution of intertidal organisms; changed since human settlement. under-representation of sampling for all Workshop participants voiced a high level species and habitats deeper than 1,500m; of concern about the scarcity of specialists a sampling bias for specimens larger with taxonomic expertise in New Zealand. than 2 mm, since smaller organisms can Taxonomy is the integrative basis for escape from the net; the ability of nekton understanding, use, and management of to avoid sampling efforts by swimming marine biological resources. Fundamentally, away, resulting in under-representation in taxonomic capacity dictates the speed at sampling; only recent knowledge of deep-sea which organisms can be identified and features; a fisheries bias in the information classified. The taxonomic deficiency source, resulting from a large portion of is particularly severe for the benthic data that is generated through commercial environment. Amelioration of the taxonomic fishing activities and research; and specialist shortage is not foreseen in the virtually complete ignorance about trench near future because the subject is not a environments. fundamental component of the biology Deficiencies in information about ecosystem curriculum at tertiary institutions. The process and interactions that workshop shrinking level of taxonomic expertise has participants identified include: very sparse implications for New Zealand at a national interactive studies; limited understanding level because taxonomy has wide application of trophic interactions; gaps in population in areas such as biosecurity, biotechnology, dynamics and recruitment studies; fishing impacts, and conservation.

3.6 Future steps for the assessment/ conservation of biodiversity; and a common statement for the conservation of New Zealand’s marine biodiversity

During the discussions concerning the iden- fund a national plan of marine exploration; tification of future steps for the assessment effectively direct adequate and appropriate and conservation of biodiversity, the follow- biological information to government sci- ing actions were widely supported by all ence-funding agencies; appraise appropri- workshop participants: train and recruit more ate national authorities of the results of the competent taxonomists; raise public/govern- present workshop; harness the passion that ment awareness of marine environment and scientists and others have for the marine promote an ethic for its care; make greater environment and translate it into action. use of geographic mapping techniques to The workshop participants’ statement on identify areas of ecological importance; the state of knowledge for New Zealand’s increase the amount of the marine environ- marine biodiversity: ment scheduled for protection; develop and

➲ TO CONTENTS 74 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION e marine scientists of various specialisation, recognise WNew Zealand’s oceanic environment and ecosystems as unique and highly regionalised, with a level of biodiversity of global significance.

A great deal remains unknown about New Zealand’s marine environment; vast regions are unexplored, interactions between species and their environments are not understood, and we lack the expertise to recognise and document many of the components of the biota. Consequently, the capacity to use and manage marine resources, or even identify possible human impacts is limited.

If we New Zealanders are to live in a sustainable relationship with our oceanic environment and benefit from the use of the marine resources of our EEZ, we need more information. Our current lack of knowledge is alarming and does not represent a sound basis for reliable policy and management decisions.

We urge immediate action by the Government and other stakeholders to ensure the capacity of relevant institutions to address this situation.

BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 75 76 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION 4.0 Discussion

Ecoregion conservation is a process that Knowing the biogeographic distribution of requires stakeholder collaboration and marine biodiversity, however complete, is action at ambitious spatial and thematic only one dimension of understanding the scales. The compilation of data provided by marine environment. Equally important is marine scientists during this workshop is understanding how biodiversity functions, an important step in the effort to conserve and how dynamic temporal processes, New Zealand’s marine biodiversity. Experts both geological and hydrologic, created identified areas of deepwater emergence the patterns that are observed today. One in Fiordland and the Marlborough Sounds workshop participant pointed out that 20,000 where species are found at unusually years ago, many of New Zealand’s marine shallow depths due to the unique physical habitats did not exist. Historical baselines characteristics of these environments. for the marine environment are unknown, They noted the high productivity of the but would be immensely valuable for setting hydrographically complex Chatham Rise, conservation and management targets. Such the remarkable invertebrate diversity of baselines are also critical for anticipating Spirits Bay, and the expanding coverage of how changes in environmental conditions mangrove forests in northern New Zealand. (e.g. those associated with climate change) Seabird experts highlighted the importance will shape the distribution of marine of the subantarctic and Chatham Islands organisms in the future. as global hotspots for bird diversity, and The next steps for the New Zealand the importance of migration corridors Marine Ecoregion Initiative will involve around New Zealand. Marine mammal determination of how the sites and features experts marked the canyon and trench deemed important for marine biodiversity systems running from Kaikoura Canyon intersect with human uses of the marine northwards as attractive foraging areas for environment. Spatial representation and deep-diving cetacean species, such as sperm characterisation of human activities that whales. Overall, the work of the marine impact on the oceans would likely help to scientists has helped to shine a spotlight identify the pressures on marine biodiversity. on the most important areas and features This process would involve not only of New Zealand’s marine environment and scientists, but stakeholders with expertise contributed to the greater body of knowledge in the human uses of the environment about the ecoregion’s marine biodiversity. including tourism, fishing, shipping, mining, The focus of the workshop on defining the bioprospecting, and other uses. key biological elements provides a platform WWF-New Zealand is committed to making for long-range dialogue, planning, and information on marine biodiversity more action among a range of stakeholders. The accessible to stakeholders and the larger gaps that workshop participants identified public, and to promoting conservation action in the marine biodiversity knowledge base, in the region. Achievement of conservation however, are a reminder that the workshop success in New Zealand’s marine ecoregion results are biased toward representation of will require collaboration between many the places that have been sampled and by partners – communities, Mäori, research the sampling methods that have been used. institutes, environmental managers, and For example, the workshop results shine a resource users. As the ecoregion consultation brighter spotlight on areas shallower than process develops, goals, objectives, and 1,500m, since there are fewer observations targets for marine biodiversity will be of the deep. The continuous process of defined in consultation with stakeholders. marine discovery will involve observation Such benchmarks are central to ecoregion at larger spatial scales and depths and the conservation for measuring the performance use of different sampling techniques. As of conservation strategies, plans, and new information on marine biodiversity partnerships. WWF-New Zealand hopes that distribution comes to light, other places may this document will be a useful information be recognised as key areas for biodiversity source for other organisations and within the ecoregion. individuals and will help to catalyse further interest in and support for conservation in ➲ TO CONTENTS the ecoregion. BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION ■ 77 78 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION 5.0 References

References and further reading for the individual sections are included in the sections: 3.1 Oceanography page 18 3.2 Cetaceans, seals and seabirds page 31 3.3 Fishes page 44 3.4 Benthic page 69

Department of Conservation and Ministry for the Environment. 2000. The New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy: Our Chance to Turn the Tide (Whakaköhukihukitia Te Tai Roroku Ki Te Tai Oranga). Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Gunton, T. 2002. Establishing environmental priorities for the 21st Century: Results from an Expert Survey Methodology. Environments 30(1): 71-98.

Hume, T., Snelder, T., Weatherhead, M., Liefting, R., Shankar, U., and Hicks, M. 2003. A new approach to classifying New Zealand’s estuaries. Paper No. 66 in Kench, P. and Hume, T. (eds.) Proceedings of Coasts and Ports Australasian Conference 2003, Auckland, New Zealand. 9 p. CD-ROM ISBN 0-473-09832-6.

IUCN, WRI, and WWF. 1999. Conservation in the 21st century. Joint statement for distribution at the Global Diversity Forum, Montreal, June 1999.

Ministry for the Environment. 2004. http://www.mfe.govt.nz/indicators/marine. Accessed 1 March 2003.

Nelson, W. A. and Gordon, D.P. 1997. Assessing New Zealand’s marine biological diversity — A challenge for policy makers and systematists. New Zealand Science Review. 54(3-4): 58–66.

Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E., Abell, R., Allnutt, T., Carpenter, C., D’Amico, J., Hurley, P., Kassem, K., Strand, H., Taye, M., and Thieme, M. 2000. The Global 200: A representation approach to conserving the earth’s distinctive ecoregions. Conservation Science Program. World Wildlife Fund, Washington D.C., U.S.A. http://www.worldwildlife.org/science/pubs2. cfml. Accessed 1 February 2004.

Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment. 1999. Setting Course for a Sustainable Future; The Management of New Zealand’s Marine Environment. Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, Wellington.

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Ecoregions were derived using a hierarchical boundaries are intended to encompass an WWF methodology in which biodiversity was area within which important ecological and stratified by the terrestrial, freshwater, and evolutionary processes strongly interact. Methodology marine realms, major habitat types, and Compared with the terrestrial realm, marine biogeography. In the terrestrial realm 14 ecoregions are considered to be more for selection major habitat types were identified, such as dynamic ecological and biogeographic of the mangroves, flooded grasslands and savannas, units both spatially and temporally. Thus, temperate coniferous forests, and tundra. the ecoregion boundaries for the marine Global 200 Among the seven major freshwater habitats environment were not as clearly defined. types are large rivers, small lakes, and xeric Of the ecoregions identified, 238 were ecoregions basins. The marine realm includes a total of considered to be globally outstanding in nine major habitats types: polar, temperate terms of their biological distinctiveness and shelf and seas, temperate upwelling, tropical were selected as the subset known as the upwelling, tropical coral, pelagic trades, Global 200. The parameters used to define pelagic westerlies, abyssal, and hadal (Olson 13 biological distinctiveness were species et al. 2000). richness, endemism, higher taxonomic In order to represent the unique biota on uniqueness, extraordinary ecological or different continents or ocean basins each evolutionary phenomena, and global rarity major habitat type was further subdivided of the major habitat type (Olson et al. by biogeographic realm, such as nearctic, 2000). Inclusion of ecoregions in the Global southern ocean, Indo-Malayan, or 200 based on these criteria estimates the Afrotropical. Consultation with regional “urgency” for action in these areas based on experts, supplemented with extensive opportunities for conserving distinct units literature reviews led to the identification around the world. and evaluation of ecoregions. Ecoregion 13 Although nine major habitat types were identified for the marine realm, four were not assessed for the Global 200 marine analysis: pelagic trades, pelagic westerlies, abyssal, and hadal habitats. These habitat types differed in scale from other Global 200 ecoregions and have particularly limited biodiversity information.

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National Aquatic Biodiversity Information System (NABIS) Information- The National Aquatic Biodiversity Informa- access to maps showing the boundaries of the tion System (NABIS) is a website application areas used in the management of New Zea- based using GIS (geographic information system) land’s living marine resources and displays initiatives tools to provide spatial and visual represen- some commercial catch effort. Information tation of New Zealand’s marine biological sources for NABIS include Ministry of Fish- underway and fisheries management data. The system eries databases, field collections, published displays geographic distributions of various and unpublished reports, museum holdings, for New marine organisms on a species-by-species and expert discussion. NABIS is adminis- basis, including an indication of where spe- tered by the Ministry of Fisheries and can be Zealand’s cies are concentrated. NABIS also provides accessed at www.nabis.govt.nz.

marine The Marine Environment Classification (MEC) System environment The Ministry for the Environment has been The end result of the classification will be leading the development of a marine envi- maps that represent areas of similarity or dif- ronments classification system. The MEC ference for marine ecosystem properties, and system development is based on the principle as such infer how the effects of resource use that ecosystem properties are broadly deter- could correspond with the characteristics of mined by the interplay between biophysical the areas. The Exclusive Economic Zone has processes and physical factors in the marine been classified on the 1km scale. Pilot clas- environment. The classification groups the sifications on a finer scale, such as 200m in physical factors and maps them as ecologi- the Hauraki Gulf, are being developed to cally relevant environmental units, or areas test the ecosystem relevance of the classifi- with similar biophysical characteristics that cation through biological ground truthing. are likely to reflect different ecological com- Ultimately, the MEC system will be applied munities. Some of the physical factors that to measure the effectiveness of marine poli- have been mapped are depth, slope, tidal cur- cies and manage marine issues at the regional rent, and mean annual solar radiation. council level.

The Interim Nearshore Marine Classification (INMARC) Development of the interim nearshore The classification comprises information at environment classification scheme has been two scales, the mesoscale (100–1000km) led by the Department of Conservation to which describes eight marine biogeographic provide a spatial framework of large marine regions and the micro-scale (10–100km) biogeographic regions and smaller units. which describes coastal, shelf, and offshore The INMARC focuses on relatively shallow island units. The marine biogeographic water (approximately 50–100m depth) where regions and units were determined using sampling of the marine environment is most relevant information from the literature and concentrated. It comprises an inventory the advice of specialists with expertise on the of physical and biological information distribution patterns of marine invertebrates, relating to New Zealand’s nearshore marine fish, and algae. The INMARC information environment. is represented in a geographic information systems (GIS) format. The Estuary Environment Classification (EEC) The Estuary Environment Classification has based on a model of the processes that deter- been developed by scientists at the National mine estuarine characteristics, which makes Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research it applicable to broad scale environmental Ltd (NIWA) as a new method of classify- management applications. For example, the ing estuaries. The classification is based on Exclusive Economic Zone can be used to the “factors” or broad scale environmental extrapolate the results of studies between circumstances such as climate, oceanic and estuaries, to stratify environments accord- riverine conditions, and catchment charac- ing to their susceptibility and vulnerability teristics that cause or “control” differences to the effects of development, and to develop and similarities in the physical and biologi- broad-scale management strategies and policy ➲ TO CONTENTS cal characteristics of estuaries. The EEC is (Hume et al. 2003). 82 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION AppendixAppendix 3

Site code Workshop reporting Biodiversity Assessment Site Form form Site name Breakout group and authors

General description of location

General description Attributes of features

Attribute

Attribute

Information quality

Attribute State of information

Attribute

Attribute

References

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Alan N Baker Dennis Gordon Workshop Area of expertise: cetacean biology Area of expertise: bryozoan systematics and New and echinoderm systematics Zealand biodiversity participants Mailing address: Organisation: National Institute of Water and Fairview, 8 Waters Lane RD2, Kerikeri, Atmospheric Research, National Centre for Aquatic Bay of Islands, New Zealand Biodiversity and Biosecurity Telephone: +64 9 407 1964 Mailing address: E-mail: [email protected] Private Bag 14-901 301 Evans Bay Parade, Greta Point, Wellington, Peter Batson New Zealand Area of expertise: deep-sea biodiversity and ecology, Telephone: +64 4 386 0300 habitat mapping Fax: +64 4 386 0574 Organisation: Department of Marine Science, E-mail: [email protected] University of Otago Mailing address: Michelle Kelly PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand Area of expertise: sponge systematics and ecology E-mail: [email protected] Organisation: National Centre for Aquatic Biodiversity and Biosecurity, National Institute of Janet Bradford-Grieve Water and Atmospheric Research Area of expertise: copepod systematics and pelagic Mailing address: ecosystem functioning Private Bag 109-695 Organisation: National Centre for Aquatic 269 Khyber Pass Road, Newmarket, Auckland, New Biodiversity and Biosecurity, National Institute of Zealand Water and Atmospheric Research Telephone: +64 9 375 2050 Mailing address: Fax: +64 9 375 2051 Private Bag 14-901 E-mail: [email protected] 301 Evans Bay Parade, Greta Point, Wellington, New Zealand Mike Imber Telephone: +64 4 386 0300 Area of expertise: marine ornithology Fax: +64 4 386 0574 Organisation: Science and Research Unit, E-mail: [email protected] Science and Technical Centre, Department of Conservation Clinton Duffy Mailing address: Area of expertise: marine biology – fish, sharks PO Box 10-420, Wellington, New Zealand Organisation: Science and Research Unit, Telephone: +64 4 471 0726 Department of Conservation, Northern Regional Fax: +64 4 471 3279 Office E-mail: [email protected] Mailing address: PO Box 112, Hamilton, New Zealand Daphne Lee Telephone: +64 7 858 0000 Area of expertise: paleobotany, paleoclimatology, Fax: +64 7 858 0001 brachiopods E-mail: [email protected] Organisation: Department of Geology, University of Otago Malcolm Francis Mailing address: Area of expertise: Shark and coastal fish population PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand biology, ecology, and fisheries Telephone +64 3 479 7525 Organisation: National Institute of Water and Fax: +64 3 479 7527 Atmospheric Research E-mail:[email protected] Mailing address: Private Bag 14-901 Alison MacDiarmid 301 Evans Bay Parade, Greta Point, Wellington, New Area of Expertise: coastal ecology Zealand Organisation: National Institute of Water and Telephone: +64 4 386 0300 Atmospheric Research Fax: +64 4 386 0574 Mailing address: Private Bag 14-901 E-mail: [email protected] 301 Evans Bay Parade, Greta Point, Wellington, New Zealand Ken Grange Telephone: +64 4 386 0300 Area of expertise: Fiordland ecology Organisation: Fax: +64 4 386 0574 National Institute of Water and Atmosphere E-mail: [email protected] Mailing address: PO Box 893, 217 Akersten Street, Nelson, New Zealand Telephone: +64 3 548 1715 Fax: +64 3 548 1716 E-mail: [email protected] 84 ■ BIODIVERSITY – NEW ZEALAND’S MARINE ECOREGION Patricia Mather Mike Page Area of expertise: ascidians Area of expertise: coastal ecology and ascidian Organisation: Queensland Museum taxonomy Mailing address: Organisation: National Institute of Water and PO Box 3300, South Bank 4101, Queensland, Atmosphere Australia Mailing address: Telephone: +61 7 3840 7555 PO Box 893, 217 Akersten Street, Port Nelson, New E-mail: [email protected] Zealand Telephone: +64 3 548 1715 Bob McDowall Fax: +64 3 548 1716 Area of expertise: freshwater fish systematics and E-mail: [email protected] ecology Organisation: National Institute of Water and Chris Paulin Atmospheric Research Area of expertise: fish taxonomy and systematics Mailing address: Organisation: Museum of New Zealand Te Papa PO Box 8602, Tongarewa 10 Kyle Street, Riccarton, Christchurch, Mailing address: New Zealand PO Box 467, Wellington, New Zealand Telephone: +64 3 348 8987 Telephone: +64 4 381 7000 Fax: +64 3 348 5548 Fax: + 64 4 381 7070 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Peter Moore Christopher Robertson Area of expertise: marine ornithology Area of expertise: marine ornithology Organisation: Science and Research Unit, Mailing address: Science and Technical Centre, Wild Press, PO Box 12-397, Wellington, Department of Conservation, New Zealand Mailing address: E-mail: [email protected] PO Box 10-420, Wellington, New Zealand Telephone: +64 4 471 0726 Stephanie Turner Fax: +64 4 471 3279 Area of expertise: benthic ecology, seagrass ecology E-mail: [email protected] Organisation: Environment Waikato Mailing address: Rob Murdoch PO Box 4010, Hamilton, New Zealand Area of expertise: pelagic ecology Organisation: National Institute of Water and Anton van Helden Atmospheric Research Area of expertise: marine mammal biology and Mailing address: taxonomy Private Bag 14-901 Organisation: Museum of New Zealand Te Papa 301 Evans Bay Parade, Greta Point, Wellington, Tongarewa New Zealand Mailing address: Telephone: +64 4 386 0300 PO Box 467, Wellington, New Zealand Fax: +64 4 386 0574 Telephone: +64 4 381 7000 E-mail: [email protected] Fax: + 64 4 381 7070 E-mail: [email protected] Wendy Nelson Area of expertise: macroalgae systematics and Ian Wilkinson ecology Area of expertise: marine mammal Organisation: National Centre for Aquatic behavioural/population ecology Biodiversity and Biosecurity, National Institute of Organisation: Science and Research Unit, Water and Atmospheric Research Science and Technical Centre, Mailing address: Department of Conservation, Private Bag 14-901 Mailing address: 301 Evans Bay Parade, Greta Point, Wellington, PO Box 10-420, Wellington, New Zealand New Zealand Telephone: +64 4 471 0726 Telephone: +64 4 386 0300 Fax: +64 4 471 3279 Fax: +64 4 386 0574 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

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