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Precolonial Beja: a Periphery at the Crossroads GUDRUN DAHL Stockholm University, Sweden and ANDERS HJORT-AF-ORNAS Linkoping University, Sweden

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Precolonial Beja: a Periphery at the Crossroads GUDRUN DAHL Stockholm University, Sweden and ANDERS HJORT-AF-ORNAS Linkoping University, Sweden Nordic Journal of African Studies 15(4): **–** (2006) Precolonial Beja: A Periphery at the Crossroads GUDRUN DAHL Stockholm University, Sweden and ANDERS HJORT-AF-ORNAS Linkoping University, Sweden ABSTRACT The Beja, or Bedawiye, people speaking the Northern Cushitic language called “Bedawiet”, have literally since “time immemorial” occupied the Eastern deserts of Sudan, Egypt and possibly Eritrea. They today consist of the subgroups Ababda, Bishariin, Atmaan/Amar´ar, Hadendowa and sections of the Beni Amer. These subgroups are relatively loosely integrated confederations of endogamous lineages based on assumptions of shared descent and cohabitation in an ancestral territory. In this hot and arid land, where there is little evidence of large-scale climatic change the last 2500 years, they have eked out a livelihood presumably originally as hunters of wild game and gatherers of wild grain, later as herders of small stock in the drier areas and of cattle in the delta lands, combining pastoralism with some take-a- chance cultivation. Some centuries after Christ they also acquired camels and became mounted brigands, guides and sycesin relation to the caravan trade. The present paper is an attempt to trace what can be said about the way larger context of empires, trade routes and security impinged on their lives in pre-colonial times. Keywords: climatic change, Beja, pastoralism, caravan trade, Eastern deserts 1. INTRODUCTION The Beja, or Bedawiye, people speaking the Northern Cushitic language called “Bedawiet”, have literally since “time immemorial” occupied the Eastern deserts of Sudan, Egypt and possibly Eritrea. They today consist of the subgroups Ababda, Bishariin, Atmaan/Amar´ar, Hadendowa and sections of the Beni Amer. These subgroups are relatively loosely integrated confederations of endogamous lineages based on assumptions of shared descent and cohabitation in an ancestral territory. In this hot and arid land, where there is little evidence of large-scale climatic change the last 2500 years, they have eked out a livelihood presumably originally as hunters of wild game and gatherers of wild grain, later as herders of small stock in the drier areas and of cattle in the delta lands, combining pastoralism with some take-a-chance cultivation. Some centuries after Christ they also acquired camels and became mounted brigands, guides and sycesin relation to the caravan trade. The present paper is an attempt to trace what can be said about the way larger context of empires, trade routes and security impinged on their lives in pre-colonial times. Nordic Journal of African Studies There are many reasons why the history of the Beja is difficult to capture. Firstly, they never were a political unit, and hardly even an “imagined community”. Local history relates mainly to the level of the lineage, which represents a striking degree of collective and corporate identification. Stories are thus not joined into any major unified narrative. Some stories are hitched to the above-named lineage confederations but the nature of Beja society is one of fission, fragmentation and feuding and consequently also of reformulation even in relation to the most important form of local history, which relates to ancestry. Secondly, a premium is put on information control, not the least against strangers. Travellers through the desert have been thoroughly dependent on Beja guidance and hospitality. The latter however have age-old strategies of sealing off external contacts. They constrain the access guests have to the Beja community with the help of the role of the hospitable, semi-urban specialist mediator. Few visitors over the years have been able to (or been interested in) sorting out the finer distinctions the Beja make among themselves. Thirdly, in many sources the category Beja is used for a wider number of people than the pastoral Bedawiet-speakers proper. The concept is expanded in the direction of the Eritrean border, where Khasa and Beni Amer have often been included. Fourthly, similar to what is the case with many other nomadic groups, the buildings, tools and utensils of the herding Beja household is light-weight, and materially ephemeral in the perspective of history. They do not leave many traces for the archaeologists. Beja have been and are still depicted in popular, external representations as an extremely archaic and conservative society. The sources however do not actually say much about if and how the Beja society has changed internally during the millennia. To think of them as isolated, one would nevertheless have to rewrite the sources. For, in distinction to other African peoples, the Beja lived in the periphery of successive centres with literate traditions, but close enough for them to be mentioned over and over again over the millennia, even if in deplorable lack of detail. Their land, situated between the Red Sea and the Nile valley, provided a tempting door to riches of slaves and ivory further inland in Africa – and also had its own attractions, notably gold. Because of that, we have to acknowledge their position at the crossroads of history rather than as totally unconnected. The centres to which they were peripherally tied, however, changed, and their land was of varying interest to these successive centres, depending on changes in geopolitical structures spatially and temporally out of reach for local consideration. The available sources are rarely interested in them for their own sake, so tracing their history involves correlating what is mentioned en-passant by texts focussing on the surrounding kingdoms and major trade routes. The Beja nonetheless must have been affected by the waxing and waning of empires and by the redirection of trade routes1. It is not easy to 1 One can surmise that this was also the case for people further into the African interior, in the traditional slave-supplying aras, but there identifiable references to particular groups are even more scanty Precolonial Beja: A Periphery at the Crossroads say whether these changes were for better or worse for the Beja pastoralists. Certainly different needs for defence against the slave trade and against the pillaging of herds and people, varying access to prestigious goods and opportunities for booty, and changing demands for desert and seashore produce must have left their traces on local forms of organization. Such conditions would reflect the larger regional contexts into which the Beja were inscribed during different periods. The present paper is thus concerned with what we can ascertain about the framework within which the Beja were situated, with the modest hope to at least raise some intelligent questions. 2. BEJA LANDS IN ANTIQUITY Beja lands span the region between the Nile Valley and the Red Sea shore. Both are areas that have brought more interest to them than the Beja area itself, being located in outskirts from both viewpoints. We have to consider the conditions first to the west, then to the east of the latter. Very roughly around 1000 BC a group of people, referred to in the archaeological texts as the ”C-group”, migrated from Lower Nubia (the area between present-day Aswan and Wadi Halfa) and settled in Upper Nubia (the Nile Valley north of Dongola in Sudan) where they developed the kingdom of Napata from about 750 BC. For some time this kingdom controlled Egypt too, supplying its 25th Dynasty. Contemporary with them are the archaeological remains of another cultural group, “the pan-grave people”. They have been suggested to have a likely direct link to the Beja of later periods, and been identified with the Medjayu of written sources (Bietak 1986: 17 f). Sites related to them have been found at Khor Arba´at and Erkowit in the heartland of present-day Beja (Arkell 1955: 78). The evidence suggests that only a minority of “the pan-grave people” lived in the Nile Valley, where they existed in small enclave communities among the Egyptians and C-group populations, being periodically used as desert scouts, warriors or mine workers (Bietak, ibid.) The majority were probably desert nomads, breeding donkeys, sheep and goats. After 600 BC, the Napatan, C-group dynasty lost control over Egypt as well as the then rather desolate Lower Nubia. The latter area subsequently remained more or less without permanent settlements for four centuries. The main explanation offered by science for the hiatus of sedentary population from Lower Nubia has been a drying up of this part of the world (ibid: 18–19), making river valley agriculture difficult. Due to climatic change, the level of the Nile had been lowered to a degree which could only be compensated for at the time of Christ, when the sagia waterwheel was developed (Carlsson and Van Gerven 1979: 55). Until then, the area was only sparsely populated by desert nomads. Politically, it was “a sort of no-man´s land where caravans, unless they were provided with considerable escort, were delivered to brigands “ (Török 1986: 15). Nordic Journal of African Studies Antique references to brigands in these areas usually talk about the Noubadae and the Blemmye. The latter category, to which later several Roman texts refer, have been regarded as identical with the Beja. They were first mentioned in an inscription describing a raid undertaken at the time of King Anlamani (623–593 BC) (Stela Copenhagen NGC (1709) quoted by Wenig 1978: 81). In this raid, Blemmye women, children and cattle, but no men, had been captured. What were then the conditions at the eastern side of the Beja area, the Red Sea shore? The Beja coast is characterized by several alternative small natural harbours. When the first Greek sources mention them, Egyptian, Himyarite and Sabaean traders in spices and myrrh had already used them for many generations, sailing during monsoon time between Egypt and the Indian Ocean. The Red Sea however has strong northerly winds and dangerous reefs that make it difficult to sail.
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