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1 MEDIEVAL INDIA 2 3 MEDIEVAL INDIA FROM SULTANAT TO THE MUGHALS PART ONE DELHI SULTANAT: (1206-1526) SATISH CHANDRA HAR-ANAND PUBLICATIONS PVT LTD 4 HAR-ANAND PUBLICATIONS PVT LTD F-1211, Chittranjan Park, New Delhi -110 019 Tel.: 8603490 Fax:26270599 E-mail: [email protected] Copyright © Satish Chandra, 1997 Second Edition, 2000 First Reprint, 2001 Second Reprint, 2002 Third Reprint, 2003 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without the prior written permission of the publishers. Distributed by Jawahar Book Centre 15, DDA Market, Ber Sarai New Delhi-110016 PRINTED IN INDIA Published by Ashok Gosain and Ashish Gosain for Har-Anand Publications Pvt Ltd and printed at H.S. offset. 5 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION I am happy that this work which has been reprinted twice since its first publication in 1997, is now in its second edition. A few textual corrections have been carried out in the new edition, and a few modifications made where considered necessary. SATISH CHANDRA 6 PREFACE This work has been in the offing for a long time. During the past several years, friends, both within the country and outside, have been asking me to write a book on Medieval India which would bring together recent thinking and research on the subject, and could be of use both to the general readers and to the students. However, 1 could not get down to the work in real earnest till I had finished my third trilogy, Historiography, Religion and State in Medieval India (1996); the two earlier ones being Medieval India: Society, Jagirdari Crisis and the Village (1982), and Mughal Religions Policies, the Rajputs and the Deccan (1993), The present work covers only the Sultanat period from 1206 to 1526. I have adopted the traditional division, but have tried to bring out the continuities so that the self-imposed demarcation of periods does not affect an understanding of the broader movement of history. The present book would hardly have been possible without the friendly, prompting and personal interest of Shri Narendra Kumar, Chairman, Har-Anand Publications Pvt Ltd. I am grateful to Shri B. Sahay, Librarian, Indian Council of Historical Research; the Librarian, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, and Dr. A.P. Srivastava, the then Director of Libraries, Delhi University, for their constant help in providing books and reference materials. I am also grateful to Shri J.K. Gosain of the Society for Indian Ocean Studies, assisted by Ms. Monika Moorjani, who have gone through the difficult task of reducing the pages of my manuscript to fine type- written pages, and carrying out the corrections. Lastly, I am grateful to my wife, Mrs. Savitri Chandra, for her constant help and support, and bearing with me at all times while 1 was busy with my writing. SATISH CHANDRA 7 CONTENTS 1. West and Central Asia Between the 10th and 12th Centuries, and Turkish Advance towards India 13 i. Developments in West and Central Asia 14 ii. The Turkish Advance towards India:the Hindushahis 16 iii. Rajput Kingdoms in North India (10th- 12th centuries), and the Ghaznavids 19 iv. The Rise of the Ghurids and their Advance into India: the Battles of Tarain—Turkish Expansion into the Upper Ganga Valley—Comparison of Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghuri and Mahmud Ghazni 22 v. Causes of the Defeat of the Rajputs 29 Map: Delhi Sultanat (13th Century) 35 2. Establishment and Territorial Consolidation of the Delhi Sultanat (1206-1236) 36 i. Qutbuddin Aibak and Iltutmish: 38 Establishment of the Delhi Sultanat: (a) Punjab and Sindh (b) Turkish Conquest of Bihar and Lakhnauti 38 ii. Internal Rebellions, Conquest of Ranthambhor and Gwaliyar, and Raids into Bundelkhand and Malwa 44 iii. Estimate of Iltutmish as a Ruler 45 3. Struggle for the Establishment of a Centralized Monarchy (1236-1290) 47 i. Razia and the Period of Instability (1236-46) 47 8 ii. The Age of Balban (1246-87) 51 (a) Balban as naib—struggle with the Chihalgani (b) Balban as a ruler iii. Struggle for the Territorial Integrity of the Sultanat 58 iv. Assessment of Balban 62 4. The Mongol Threat to India during the 64 13th-14th Centuries i. The Mongol Incursions (upto 1292) 64 ii. The Mongol Threat to Delhi (1292-1328) 68 Map: India (Century 1200) 74 5. Internal Restructuring of the Delhi Sultanat, and its Territorial Expansion (1290-1320) 75 i. Jalaluddin and Alauddin Khalji's Approaches to the State 77 ii. Agrarian and Market Reforms of Alauddin 78 iii. The Territorial Expansion of the Delhi Sultanat (upto 1328): (a) Gujarat— (b) Rajasthan—(c) Malwa— (d) Maharashtra and South India (a) First Phase: Conquest (b) Second Phase: Annexation 86 6. Problems of a Centralised All-India-State— Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1320-1351) 96 i. Problems and Approaches 97 ii. Experiments and Reforms 99 (a) Administrative and Political Measures: Exodus to Deogiri—The Khurasan and Karachil Expeditions (b) Economic and Agrarian Reforms: Token Currency—Agrarian Reforms iii. Rebellions and Changes in the Ruling Class 108 7. Reassertion of a State Based on Benevolence—Disintegration of the Delhi Sultanat 113 i. Firuz's Concept of Benevolence and Peoples' Welfare 113 9 ii. Military Expeditions of Firuz and the Impact of their Limited Success: The Bengal Campaigns—Jajnagar (Orissa) and Nagarkot—The Thatta Campaign (1365-67) 116 iii. Reorganisation of the Nobility and the Administration 119 iv. Developmental Activities—Agrarian and Urban 122 v. Disintegration of the Delhi Sultanat and its Causes 126 8. Government and Administration under 129 the Delhi Sultanat (13th-14th Centuries) i. The Sultan—the Ministries: The Wazir, Diwan-i-Arz, Diwan-i-Insha, Diwan-i- Risalat, Other Ministries 129 ii. Court and the Royal Household 139 iii. Provincial and Local Governments 140 9. Economic and Social Life in North India 144 Under the Delhi Sultanat a. Economic Life i. Agricultural Production, Village Society and the Revenue System 145 ii. Non-agricultural Production: Textiles, Metallurgy, Building Industry, Other Crafts including Paper- making 151 iii. Trade: (a) Domestic Trade (b) Foreign Trade 154 b. Social Life i. The Ruling Classes: (a) The Nobility (b) The Chiefs—Emergence of Zamindars 158 ii. Adjuncts to the Ruling Class: Judicial and Junior Administrative Officers, and the Ulema 164 iii. The Trading and Financial Classes 166 iv. Standard of Living 167 v. Towns and Town Life—Artisans and slaves 169 vi. Women, Caste, Social Manners and custom 172 10 10. Politics, State, Society and the Economy in South India under Vijayanagar and Bahmanid Rule 175 (c. 1350-1565) i. The Vijayanagar Empire—its Nature and Conflict with the Bahmani Kingdom 175 ii. The Bahmani Kingdom—its growth and disintegration—Age of Mahmud Gawan (1463-82) 183 iii. Climax of the Vijayanagar Empire and its Disintegration 188 11. Establishment of Portuguese Control in the Indian Seas and its Economic and Political Impact 192 i. The Asian Oceanic Trade Network before the Coming of the Portuguese 194 ii. The Portuguese Estado da India 199 iii. The Portuguese Impact on the Indian Ocean Trade Network 202 12. Rise of Regional Kingdoms in North India and a System of Balance of Power 208 i. Eastern India: Bengal, Assam and Orissa 209 ii. Western India: Gujarat, Malwa and Rajasthan 215 iii. North-West and North India: the Sharqis, the Lodi Sultans and Kashmir 222 13. Religious and Cultural Life Under the Delhi Sultanat 288 i. Architecture 230 ii. Religious Ideas and Beliefs: (a) The Sufi Movement: Early Origins— The Chishti and The Suhrawardi Silsilahs (b) The Bhakti Movement: Early Origins— The Popular Bhakti in North India— The Vaishnavite Movement 234 iii. Literature and Fine Arts: Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian, and Regional Languages; Music 257 11 14. The State in India under the Sultanat 263 i. Legal, Political and Social Character of the State 264 ii. Relations with the ulema 269 iii. Position of the Hindus 271 iv. Despotism, benevolence and development 275 Glossary 279 Index 283 MAPS 1. India c.1200 35 2. Delhi Sultanat 13t h Century 74 12 13 1 WEST AND CENTRAL ASIA BETWEEN THE 10TH AND 12TH CENTURIES, AND TURKISH ADVANCE TOWARDS INDIA West and Central Asia are connected to India geographically across mountain barriers which demarcate India from Central and West Asia but do not pose an insurmountable barrier, like the Himalayas to the north. In consequence, nomadic and semi-nomadic hordes have constantly tried to enter India through these mountain passes, attracted by India's well watered plains with fertile soil, extending from the Punjab to the eastern borders of Bengal, its rich and flourishing cities and ports, and its fabulous wealth generated by the hard working peasants and skillful artisans, and experienced traders and financers. The rise of Islam, its conquest of West Asia and Iran, and its slow expansion into Khurasan, and Central Asia, particularly the fertile tract called Mawara-un-Nahar or Transoxiana, i.e. the areas between the rivers Amiv (Oxus) and Syr, led to a gradual contraction of India's cultural and political influence in the area, which was largely Buddhist. It also adversely effected India's over-land trade with China and West Asia. Trade from the sea-ports of Western India was also effected for some time. However, this trend was soon countered by the rise of Arab sea traders who revived and strengthened India's sea trade, both with West Asia and with the countries of south-east Asia and China. There is no reason to believe that the Indian traders were displaced from this sea trade, or kept themselves away on account of the growth of the sentiment in some quarters that travel across the salt-seas or beyond the areas where 14 the munj grass grew would lead to the loss of one's caste.
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  • 154 EXPANSW)N Unwl the KHALJIS

    154 EXPANSW)N Unwl the KHALJIS

    ' 15.0 objectives 15.1 In- 15.2 ExpcrasionuntkrtheKhaljis 15.2.1 Wat md Ceadnl 15.2.2 North-West md Nath Indis 15.2.3 Dccan +SoutLnud Exp.luioa 15.3 Exprnsioaundcrthe~u~s 15.3.1 'Lhe South 15.3.2 Eest Iadir 1%3.3 NntbWatmd North 15.4 Let Us Sum Up 15.5 Keywads 15.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises You have rdin Unit 14 that after military conquests, the rulers of the Delhi Sultmate ad thanadvc8 on the t& of ddatingthe Sultanate. 'Ihe first buadrea years of the -Ddbi Sultanate did not thus witness any- large-scale expansion of tbeiaiCbl~~oftheSultsartc.Itwasoalyaftcrfirstesta~gtheroots d the SulClraate that attention was paid to the expansion of the boundaries of the Mtmmc in the fommcath century. Aha reading this Unit you will know about: a the tedtorial expamion of the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century in the north, north-west and north-east, and '. 'Ibe initial surge of occupation untkr the early Turkish Sultans died down about the middle of the tbtenth century. Now the primary obj&ve,of the hter Sultans hrrune.theconsold.bon. of the Sultanate. Tbus, it was not until the establishment of the Kbslji rule that the boumhies of the Sultanate expanded beyond the early gains. 'ibe werthmw of the Turtirh hegemony at the end of the thirteenth century and its replacement with the Khaljis, under whom the exclusive racial character of the ruling dass was thoroughly diluted, is thus an event not without significance. 'Ihe opening up of the Sultanate and diveparticipation of ruling groups in managing the &firs of the !Wauate made ~~expansion a feaaiMe propsition.