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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-25484-7 - A Social History of the Deccan, 1300-1761: Eight Indian Lives Richard M. Eaton Index More information

INDEX

Abdali, Ahmad Shah (Afghan monarch), ëAli ëAdil Shah I, Sultan 197 forms pact with Rama Raya, 96, 97 ëAbd al-Razzaq Samarqandi (traveler), 102 ëAli ëAdil Shah II, Sultan, 188 Abhang Khan (Habshi commander), 115, 118 Almeida, Manuel de (Jesuit), 109 Abuìl-Hasan (artist), 121 Alvares, Father Francisco (Portuguese priest), Abuìl-Hasan Qutb Shah, Sultan, 158 105, 108–09 Achyuta Raya (Vijayanagara king), 90–91 Amar Chitra Katha (comic books), 3, 4 ëAdil Shahi (dynasty) Amin Khan (Qutb Shahi noble), 142 see Bijapur (sultanate) Amir Khusrau (poet), 19, 34 Adoni (fort), 91 amirs (“commanders”) Afghanistan, 24 local chieftains integrated as, 38–39, 71 Afzal Khan (diplomat) Andhra, 6, 87 confronts Mughals, 113–14 a distinct cultural region, 13 Ahmad Bahmani I, Sultan, 61 Andugula Venga Kavi (poet), 95 ascends Bahmani throne, 54 Aravidu (dynasty) Deccani–Westerner conflict, 69 see under Vijayanagara (kingdom) patronizes shrine and family of Gisu Daraz, Asad Beg (Mughal envoy), 120 55 Aurangabad (Khirki), 123 recruits Sufi shaikhs from Iran, 55–56 Aurangzeb (Mughal emperor), 159, 172, 177 recruits Westerners, 61, 88 annexes Bijapur and Golkonda, 158 relations with Gisu Daraz, 52, 54 captures and holds Shahu, 180 shifts capital to Bidar, 63 checked by Tarabai, 182 Ahmad Bahmani II, Sultan, 61, 68, 111 death, 184 Deccani–Westerner conflict, 69–70 settles in the Deccan, 178–79 receives Mahmud Gawan, 60, 65 Aëzam, Prince (a son of Aurangzeb), 184 segregates Deccanis and Westerners, 59, 69 Ahmadnagar (city), 96–97 Babur (Mughal emperor), 79, 112 falls to Mughals, 115 Badrkot (fort), 11 recovered by Malik Ambar, 118 see Bidar Ahmadnagar (sultanate), 106, 142 Baghdad, 106 as nurturer of new power-groups, 127–28 Bahadur Shah (Mughal emperor), 164, 166, disintegration, 124 167, 184 Habshi influence in, 119–20 Bahina Bai (poetess), 151 Mughal pressure on, 112–13 Bahmani (dynasty), 22, 28 recruitment of Marathas, 122–23 decline, 79 Ahrar, ëUbaid Allah al- (Sufi), 66 early architecture, 45 Akbar, Jalal al-Din (Mughal emperor), 48–50, founding, 42 51, 112, 113 integration of local chieftains, 71 Akbar, Prince (son of Aurangzeb), 178 remembered origins, 30 ëAla al-Din Bahmani (prince), 54, 61 royal primogeniture, 74 see also Ahmad Bahmani II struggles with Vijayanagara, 88–90 ëAla al-Din Gwaliori, Maulana, 53 textile trade, 75–76 ëAla al-Din Hasan Bahman Shah, Sultan, 42, 45, see also Bidar, Gulbarga 57 Baji Rao I (second Maratha Peshwa), ëAla al-Din Khalji (sultan of Delhi), 17, 18 192, 193 Albuquerque, Afonso de (Portuguese viceroy), Balaji Baji Rao 79 see Nana Saheb

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Balaji Vishvanath (first Maratha Peshwa), 186, Burhan al-Din Janam (Sufi poet), 144 192 Burhan Nizam Shah II, Sultan, 112, 118 Ballala IV (Hoysala king), 42 Burhan Nizam Shah III, Sultan, 119 Banjara (grain transporter caste), 165 Burhanpur (city), 122 Bapaji (litigant), 145–50 Bursa (city), 76 Barani, Zia al-Din (historian), 34 Belgaum (fort), 71 caste Bellary (district), 170 among cultivators of the Desh, 140 Berar (sultanate), 96 pride in, denounced by Tukaram, 132–33 Bhagavad Gita, 131, 152 relatively unelaborated in the Desh, 153–54 Bhima River, 51, 137, 190 unimportant in early Andhra, 15–16 Bhimsen (chronicler), 182 Chakan (fort), 69–70 Bhongir (fort), 166 Chalukya (dynasty) Bidar (city), 41, 60, 95, 101 borders compared to Bahmanis’, 64 architecture, 64–65 last imperial formation before Bahmanis, 64, as imperial center, 63–64, 73 99 fort and citadel, 64, 79 overlords of Kakatiyas, 13 transfer of Bahmani capital, 63 Rama Raya’s association with, 94–95, 99 Bidar (sultanate) rivalry with Cholas, 99 control of Kalyana, 95 see also Kalyana Bijapur (city), 96 Chand Bibi (Deccan heroine), 113 Bijapur (sultanate), 88 Chanderi (town), 183 end of military slavery, 125 Chandragiri (fort), 86, 95, 99, 100 interstate marital alliances among Habshis, Charminar (monument), 157 119–20 Chaul (seaport), 51, 59 Malik Ambar in service, 115 silk industry at, 75 biographical writing Chengiz Khan (Habshi peshwa), 106, 115, 120 Great Man Theory, 5 Chishti (Sufi order) hagiography, 5–6 and legitimacy of Bahmani state, 45–47, 57 in popular and academic traditions, 3–4 association with Tughluq power, 34–35 Karl Marx, 3–4 Chitpavan (Brahmin caste), 186, 192, 196 positivism, 5 Chitre, Dilip, 141 socially constructed, 5 Chokhamela (poet-saint), 132 Boyle, J. A., 170 Chola (dynasty) Brahmanical ideology, 12, 15 rivalry with Chalukyas, 99 Brahmins Coromandel coast, 40, 85–86 and Pratapa Rudra, 27 and Varkari poet-saints, 132, 153 Dabhol (seaport), 59, 70 ascendancy in sultanate bureaucracies, 91, Dakani (language), 68 144–45 and Sufi institutions, 144 as fort commanders, and the Deccani class, 69, 143 90 literature patronized at Deccan courts, 142, as village bankers and accountants, 191–92 143–44 dismissed from high posts by Mughals, 158 Dalrymple, William, 4 influence in Bijapur government, Daulatabad (city), 38, 42, 43, 47–48, 57, 95, 145 158, 184 in Golkonda’s government, 159 anti-Tughluq rebellion at, 41 in Kakatiya society, 15 as colony and Tughluq co-capital, 33, 37–38, in politics, 48 41, 46 in Shahu’s government, 185–86, 191–92 captured by Mughals, 123 in sultanates’ judicial systems, 145, 149 coinage at, 26 socio-religious power, 130, 139 lay-out, 101 see also Chitpavan migration of northerners to, 30, 33–34, 68 Bukka (son of Sangama), 39, 40 Nizam Shahi capital under Malik Ambar, and launching of Vijayanagara, 42–43 118–19, 129 Burhan al-Din Gharib, Shaikh, 46, 47, 57 Dawani, Jalal al-Din (scholar), 66

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Deccan Faruqi, Shamsur Rahman, 143 geographical limits, 1–2 Fath Khan (son of Malik Ambar), 119, 123 lacking a master narrative, 1, 2 Faujdar (military governor), 162, 172, 174 relation to north India, 6, 9 Federici, Cesare (traveler), 98 Deccani (social class), 7 Finch, William (merchant), 120, 126 a colonial conception, 76 Firishta, Muhammad Qasim (historian), 33, 52, growth of regional identity, 112 59 mutual hostility with Westerners, 67, 111 definition of the Deccan, 2 political and socio-cultural meaning, 68–69 on popularity of Gisu Daraz, 54 see also Westerner on the Deccani–Westerner conflict, 72 Dehu (village of Tukaram), 129, 131, 135, Firuz Bahmani, Sultan, 57, 111 151–52 and Persian influence, 51, 61 Deleury, G. A., 152 his harem and imperial pretensions, 74 Delhi, 68, 95 intellectual attainments, 48 as imperial center, 2, 11, 51, 63 invites Gisu Daraz, 47–48 road connections with Deccan, 34 marital alliance with Deva Raya I, 48–50, 74 sacked by Timur, 36–37, 51 obliges Gisu Daraz to shift residence, Delhi Sultanate 52 and military slaves, 23 Firuzabad (palace-city), 51, 70, 73 conquest of Andhra, 17–21 Timurid artistic motifs at, 64 establishment, 23 military technology, 19 Gajapati (Orissan dynasty), 88 Desh (upland Maharashtra) Ganapati (Kakatiya king), 13, 17 caste stratification, 140 builder of the state, 17 economy, 137 remembered, 28 growth of farming communities, 137–38 Gandikota (fort), 91 historical sociology, 137–38 Gawan, Mahmud, 102, 111 prominence of pastoralists, 137 as “Prince of Merchants,” 65, 72, 75 religious evolution, 138–39 attempts to resolve Deccani–Westerner Deshmukh (hereditary territorial chiefs) conflict, 70 see military labor conspiracy against, 72–73 Devagiri (city), 20, 26 correspondence with foreign sovereigns, see also Daulatabad 65–66 Deva Raya I (Vijayanagara king) execution, 73, 79 marital relations with Firuz Bahmani, his madrasa in Bidar, 66–67, 77 48–50 invites literati to Bidar, 66 patronizes Ramachandra temple, 82 leaves his native Gilan, 62–63 Deva Raya II (Vijayanagara king), 86, 104 organizes long-distance commerce, 75–76 Persianized court, 102 reaches India, 59 recruits “Turkish” cavalry, 87, 104 welcomed at Bahmani court, 60, 65 Dhanaji Jadhav (Maratha general), 182, 186 Geertz, Clifford, 80 Dhangar (pastoralist community), 138, 139, Ghatge (Maratha family), 188 200 Ghazali, Ahmad (mystic), 53 Digby, Simon, 57 Ghaznavid (Afghan dynasty), 24 Dilawar Khan (commander), 167, 168, 172 Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, Sultan, 20, 21 Dwarasamudra (Hoysala capital), 38 Gisu Daraz, Shaikh Muhammad, 6 and teachings of Ibn al- ëArabi, 53–54 Eknath (poet-saint), 132, 151 arrival and reception in Gulbarga, 47, 51–52 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 1, 3 his title, 35–36 Ethiopia (Christian kingdom) importance of career, 33 early history, 107 importance of shrine, 33, 54–55, 166 king identified with Prester John, obliged to shift residence, 52 107 predicts/appoints future Bahmani rulers, 54 source of slaves, 107–10 succeeds Shaikh Nasir al-Din Mahmud, Ethiopians, 72 36 see also Habshis supports Ahmad Bahmani, 52

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theological controversies, 53 Havart, Daniel (Dutch traveler), 159 see also Firuz Bahmani Hawkins, William (traveler), 126 Goa (city), 51, 70 Herat (city), 102 captured by Mahmud Gawan, 71 hero stones, 137, 138 captured by Portuguese, 79 Hobsbawm, Eric, 156, 169–70, 173–74, Godavari delta, 13, 157 175 Golkonda (city), 87, 95, 157 Hodgson, Marshall, 102 Golkonda (sultanate) Holkar, Malhar Rao (Maratha commander), diamond production, 157 200 employs Rama Raya, 79, 87 Honavar (seaport), 40, 180 inherits Kakatiya traditions, 156–57 horse-trade, 62 joins alliance against Rama Raya, 97 and Mahmud Gawan, 59, 71 Gordon, Stewart, 128, 187, 191 at Vijayanagara, 102 Grant Duff, James, 1, 59 Bahmani dependence on, 59–60, 65, 71, Guha, Sumit, 150, 179 74–75 Gujarat (region), 37, 41, 51, 183 captured by Portuguese, 79 Gulbarga (city), 41 Deccani and Mughal patterns, 190 and international trade, 75 Hoysala (dynasty), 88, 99 and shrine of Gisu Daraz, 33 and Kannada language, 13 architecture, 64 disintegration, 38–39, 42 as Bahmani capital, 43, 51, 63 tributaries of Tughluqs, 38 as Yadava fort, 22, 25, 63 Humayun Bahmani, Sultan, 65 captured by Krishna Raya, 89 Husain Nizam Shah I, Sultan falls to anti-Tughluq rebels, 42 attacked and humiliated by Rama Raya, gunpowder 96–97 earliest use in the Deccan, 71 desire for revenge against Rama Raya, 97 “gunpowder thesis,” 73 efforts to recover Kalyana, 97 Guntur (district), 170 executes Rama Raya, 98 Gutti (fort), 91, 95 Husain Nizam Shah III, Sultan, 123 Gwalior (city) Hyderabad a Mughal prison, 124 economic dislocations, 159 visited by Gisu Daraz, 37 established, 157 Mughal administration, 158–59 Habshis (Ethiopians), 105, 113 alliance with Deccanis, 112 Ibn al- ëArabi (Fusus al-hikam), 53–54 and metaphors of salt, 114 Ibn Battuta (Arab traveler), 34, 39, 40, 190 armies of, 120 Ibrahim Adilë Shah I, Sultan at Janjira, 127 dismisses Westerners, 91 in Bahmani service, 111–12 replaces Persian with vernaculars, 91, 145 inﬂuence in Ahmadnagar, 119–20 Ibrahim Adilë Shah II, Sultan (Kitab al-Nauras), interstate marital alliances, 119–20 146, 147 recruited as military slaves, 106, 110 allied with Malik Ambar, 129 social integration, 124–26 depth of authority in village society, 148–49 the term “Habshi,” 105 patron and author of Dakani literature, see also Abhang Khan, Chengiz Khan, 143–44 Hamid Khan, Malik Ambar, Saëadat Ibrahim Qutb Shah, Sultan, 157 Khan, Yaqut Khan adopts style of a Kakatiya raja, 156–57 Haﬁz (poet), 61 patronizes Telugu literature, 142–43 Hamadhani, Aynë al-Qudah al- (Tamhidat), 53 received at Vijayanagara, 142 Hambir Rao Mohite (father of Tarabai), 178, ëInayat, Shah (an honorable gentleman), 167, 179 173 Hamid Khan (Habshi commander), 123 Indo-Persian cultural axis, 9, 11 Harihara (son of Sangama), 43 Indrayani River, 129, 135, 137 asserts independence, 40, 41 iqta ë(land assignment), 25, 26, 41 in Tughluq service, 39, 40 see also sultanates Hasan Bahmani (prince), 52 iqta ëdar (holder of an iqtaë),

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Iranian plateau Kaveri delta source of military technology, 19 tax rebellion, 86 source of personnel, 61 textile production, 85 source of political culture, 22 Khaﬁ Khan (Muntakhab al-lubab), 155, 160, ties with Deccan, 9, 11 162, 163, 171, 172, 177, 182, 183 Iranians Khalji (Delhi dynasty), 20, 24, 40–41 recruited to the Deccan, 60–62 see also Alaë al-Din Khalji, Khusrau Khan, withdraw from Golkonda, 159 Malik Kafur see also Westerner Khandesh (region) Isami,ë Abdë al-Malik (historian), 39, 45–46 invaded by Tarabai, 183 relations with Bahmanis, 74 Jahangir (Mughal emperor), 125 Khandoba (deity), 197 obsession with Malik Ambar, 118, 121–22 Khed (town), 185 Jahangir Khan (general), 96–97 khil atë (robe of honor), 18 Jami, Abdë al-Rahman (poet), 66 Khirki (Aurangabad), 123 Janjira (sea-fort), 127 Khuldabad (necropolis), 46 Jejuri (town), 197 Khurasan (northeastern Iranian plateau), Jinji (fort), 180 61, 63 Jnanadev (poet-saint), 131, 132, 151 Khush Mahal (palace), 21, 50 Junaidi Khusrau Khan (Khalji general), 19 see Siraj al-Din Junaidi Koilkonda (fort), 88 Junnar (fort), 97, 118, 129 Kolff, Dirk, 190 Kolhapur (city), 182 Kabul, 79 Kolhapur (state), 194 Kakatiya (dynasty), 9, 88, 99, 156 Kondapalli (fort), 88 emergence, 13 Kondavidu (fort), 88, 95 growth and dynamic character, 14–16, 138 Konerunatha Kavi (poet), 94 tributary relations with Delhi, 25 Konkan coast, 61, 62, 67–68, 71, 127, 179 Tughluq conquest, 20–21 Bahmani trade, 74–75 Kalyana (city) Chitpavan Brahmins of, 192 Chalukya imperial capital, 94 economy, 137 control passes from Bidar to Bijapur to Kanhoji Angria lord of, 186 Ahmadnagar, 96 Mahmud Gawan’s campaign, 71, 72 identiﬁed with Rama Raya’s family, 94–95 pirates, 71 nexus of linguistic frontiers, slave trade, 106 64, 99 Krishna delta, 13, 88 Rama Raya as sovereign of, 95, 97 Krishna Raya (Vijayanagara king), 79, 90 temple repaired by Tughluqs, 24 claims to pan-Deccan sovereignty, Kam Bakhsh (son of Aurangzeb), 164, 166, 89–90 184 coinage under, 84 Kambata (region of Ethiopia), 105, 108 military successes, 88–90 Kampamna (son of Sangama), 38 Krishna River, 37, 38, 40, 152 Kampili (kingdom), 39 and Battle of Talikota, 98 Kanchipuram (city), 18 dividing a Muslim north and Hindu south, Kanhoji Angria (coastal lord), 186 78, 87 Kannada (language) dividing Bahmani and Sangama states, 42 and Chalukya inscriptions, 13 kshatriya (class), 15, 191 and Vijayanagara inscriptions, 82, 104 and Bhosle family, 196 used by Rama Raya, 97 and Pratapa Rudra, 16, 27 Kapaya Nayaka (chieftain), 50 and Tarabai’s son, 181 Karimi (mercantile group), 75 Kulpak (town), 162, 172 Karnataka, 6 Kunbi (caste) and Kannada language, 13 demographic ascendance as farmers, 137 as Sangama base, 42, 50 identity merging with Marathas, 191, 200 Karve, Irawati, 152 Tukaram, 133, 140 Kaulas (fort), 162 Kurnool (fort), 91

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language usage rise of Brahmins in politics, 191–92 and revenue/judicial business, 91, 144–45 roots in Nizam Shahi sultanate, 128, 185 and sovereign authority, 82, 141 state intervention in Hindu society, 192–93 and transactional inscriptions, 13, 82, 141–42 successors to Mughal imperium, 194, 197–98 see also vernacular languages taste for Mughal culture, 194 Lele, Jayant, 152 see also Kolhapur (state) Marathi (language) Machal (fort), 71 and regional identity, 13, 141, 149–50 Mahabharata (epic), 142 championed by Maratha state, 154 Mahar (community), 132–33 see also Tukaram, vernacular languages Maharashtra, 6 Marx, Karl, 3–4 and Marathi, 13 Masulipatnam (seaport), 70, 157, 171 Varkari movement, 152 decline, 159 Yadava dynasty, 13, 20 migration corridors Mahipati (biographer), 135, 136 to north India, 24 Mahmud Bahmani, Sultan, 50, 73, 79, 88, 89 to the Deccan, 24–25 Mahuli (fort), 124 military labor Malabar coast, 40, 171 recruited by Malik Ambar, 6 Bahmani sultans, 122, 188 administrator, 120, 127 Bijapur sultans, 187, 188 as free lancer, 115 local chiefs (sardar), 189 death and tributes, 122 Malik Ambar, 122–23, 127–28 defeats and imprisons rival Raju Dakhni, Mughals, 188–89 116–18 Shahu and Tarabai, 189 domestic problems, 119 Shivaji, 188–89 early life as a slave, 105–06 role of deshmukhs in, 187–89 his name “Chapu”, 105, 126–27 villagers providing, 189 manumission on master’s death, 115, 126 Miranji Shams al-ëUshshaq (Suﬁ poet), 144 observers’ descriptions, 120–21 Morrison, Kathleen, 85 peshwa, 119, 120, 127 mosques raises puppet-sultan to throne, 115–16 and Bahmani authority, 51 recruits Marathas, 122–23, 127–28 and Tughluq authority, 20, 26 repels Mughals, 118, 129 in Vijayanagara, 104 shifts capital to Daulatabad, 118–19 Muddamna (son of Sangama), 38 survival of African identity, 126–27 Mudgal (fort), 95 use of guerrilla warfare, 122 Mughal (dynasty) Malik Kafur (Khalji general), 17–18, 38 arbiters between rival Maratha houses, 184, Maloji (Maratha chieftain), 123 185 Malwa (region), 41, 51, 183 character of army, 189–90 Mane (Maratha family), 188 conquest of Golkonda, 157–58 mansabdar (ranked ofﬁce-holder), 158 contempt for Deccanis, 113 Marappa (son of Sangama), 42 racial arrogance, 114, 121, 125 Maratha (community), 154 Muhammad Bahmani I, Sultan, 46–47, 50 as a linguistic community, 190–91 Muhammad Bahmani II, Sultan, 61 as military service elites´ to sultans, 191 Muhammad Bahmani III, Sultan, 70, 72–73 changing meaning, 190–91, 200 Muhammad bin Tughluq, Sultan, 20, 41, 45, martial ethos, 191 46, 48, 101, 177 their investment in Nizam Shahi cause, 128 colonization of the Deccan, 7 see also Maratha (kingdom), military labor co-opts former Hoysala chiefs, 38–39 Maratha (kingdom) repairs Siva´ temple, 24 agrarian economy, 190, 193–94 strategic vision, 33–34 character of armed forces, 189, 193–94 Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, Sultan, 157 horse-breeding in, 190 establishes Hyderabad, 157 invasions of north India, 193–94 patronizes and authors Dakani literature, militarization of society, 187–90 143–44 origins, 154 patronizes Telugu literature, 142

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Muhibb Allah Kirmani, Shah, 60 padmanayakas (Telugu chieftains), 28–30 Murad (Mughal prince), 113, 125 Paithan (town) Murtaza Nizam Shah II, Sultan, 116, 118, 119 Husain Nizam Shah retreats to, 96 Murtaza Nizam Shah III, Sultan, 123 renowned as Brahmanic center, 132, 147, 149 Muslims Pampa (goddess), 81–83, 99 accommodated to Deccani society, 27–28 Pandharpur (city), 131, 151–52 among Papadu’s supporters, 171–72 its pastoral associations, 139 among Tukaram’s spiritual predecessors, 133 see also Varkari movement, Vithoba high-born urban-dwellers, 173 Pandhya (dynasty), 18 Mutamadë Khan (Iqbal-nama-yi Jahangiri), 122 Panhala (fort) Mysore (city), 171 association with sultans of Bijapur, 180 description, 180 Nagpur (town), 152 Tarabai’s base, 185 Nalgonda (fort), 65 Panipat, Battle of (1761), 8, 177, 198 Namdev (poet-saint), 151 Papadu, Sarvayi inspires Tukaram, 131 adopts style of a raja, 165–66 Nana Saheb (third Maratha Peshwa), 196 as a “Hindu warrior,” 171 dies soon after Panipat, 198 audience with Bahadur Shah, 166–67 gains court’s recognition of right to rule, 197 builds stone fort, 163 moves Maratha administration to Pune, 196 capture and execution, 169 Nandgiri (fort), 196 career as recounted by balladeers, 160 Nandyal (fort), 91 confronts Mughal authorities, 162, 163–64 Nannaya (poet), 142 final siege at Tarikonda, 168 Narasoji (litigant), 145–50 sacks Warangal, 164–65 Narayana Rao, Velcheru, 171 seizes neighboring forts, 163 Narmada River, 21, 181 supporters, 170–72 Nasir al-Din Mahmud, Shaikh, 35–36 uprising at Shahpur, 167–68 nayakas (chieftains), 173 paper-making, 150 in Mughal Hyderabad, 158–59 Parenda (fort), 116 Kakatiya warriors, 15, 156 pastoral nomadism, 14 under Ganapati, 28 and hero stones, 137 under Ibrahim Qutb Shah, 157 and Vithoba cult, 140 under Pratapa Rudra, 16 persistence in the Deccan, 24 Nellore (town), 18 prominence in the Desh, 137 Nikitin, Afanasy (Russian merchant), 39–40, Pemgiri (fort), 123 71, 72, 74 Penukonda (fort), 88, 91, 99 Ni ëmat Allahi (family of shaikhs), 58, 61, 74 becomes Vijayanagara capital, 98, 100 Ni matë Allah Wali, Shah, 60 Persepolis (city), 101 defies Timur, 55–56 Persian (culture) invited by Sultan Ahmad Bahmani, 55–56 diffusion in the Deccan, 9, 11–12, 51, 59, Nimbalkar (Maratha family), 188 100–02 Nimbalkar, Mudhoji Naik (Maratha chief), see also Vijayanagara (city): assimilation of 196 Persian culture Nizam al-Din Auliya, Shaikh, 55 Persian (language) and Bahmani royal authority, 45, 46 and “Westerner” status, 68, 112 and Tughluq imperial authority, 34–35, 45 declining vocabulary in Marathi, 154 death, 35, 45–46 words assimilated in Deccan vernaculars, 102 Nizam al-Mulk (Seljuk minister), 110 peshwa (chief minister) Nizam of Hyderabad, 196 a Nizam Shahi office, 106 Nizam Shahi (dynasty) evolution of the office among Marathas, see Ahmadnagar (sultanate) 185–86 Nur Allah Ni matë Allahi, Shaikh, 56 Fath Khan as, 123 Nusrati Bijapuri (poet), 143 growth of power, 192 Malik Ambar as, 119, 120 O’Hanlon, Rosalind, 189 see also Baji Rao I, Balaji Vishvanath, Nana Orissa, 88 Saheb

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Pires, Tome´ (traveler), 107–08, 110 makes Sada´siva a puppet king, 92 Pollock, Sheldon, 141 patronizes Tirupati shrine, 91 Portuguese policy toward sultanates, 95 assessments of Tarabai, 182 recruits Westerners, 91 mercenaries assist Krishna Raya, 88, 90 rise to power, 91–92 strategic goals, 79 sends/leads armies against sultanates, 96 Pratapa Rudra, 6, 50 ties to Krishna Raya, 79–80, 88, 90, 91 and Persian culture, 9–11 Ramaswamy, Vijaya, 140, 153 in biographical literature, 16 Ramayana (epic), 82 in inscriptional evidence, 16 Ramchandra Nilkanth (Maratha minister), 181, in local memory, 26–31 182, 201 in Persian chronicles, 16 Rameshvar Bhatt (Brahmin), 135, 136 nobility under, 16 Rame´svaram (temple-city), 87 reign as Golden Age, 17, 28 Ramraja (grandson of Tarabai), 195, 196, sent as captive to Delhi, 21 197 submits to Delhi Sultanate, 11–12, 17, 22 Ravesteijn, Pieter Gielis van (Dutch traveler), suicide, 21 120 Prataparudra Caritramu, 9, 28–30, 32 Rawwasi, Sadr al-Din (scholar), 66 Prester John (legendary king), 107, 109 Reddi (caste), 156, 158 Prolaya Nayaka (Telugu chieftain), 26–27 regional kingdoms, 9, 24 Pulicat (seaport), 85 in the Deccan, 31, 43 Pune (city) Kakatiyas as, 31 in jagir of Maloji and Shahji, 123 tributary relations with Delhi, 26 see also transregional sultanates Qaba, 11, 17, 19, 51 reservoirs see also robe of honor built by Ibrahim Qutb Shah, 156 Qutb Shahi (dynasty) in Vijayanagara, 84 see Golkonda (sultanate) of Kakatiya period, 14, 15 Qutlugh Khan (Tughluq governor), 41 Richards, John, 157 Riza Khan (bandit), 163 Racakonda (fort), 87 robe of honor/investiture, 11, 18, 22, 51 Rafi ëal-Din Shirazi (historian), 30 launching of Bahmani state, 46–47 Raichur (fort) to Papadu by Bahadur Shah, 167, 173 in a contested region, 88–89 to Tarabai’s ancestors by Bijapur court, 188 Raigarh (fort), 179–80 transfer of Sufi authority, 36 Raingna (fort), 71 see also Khil atë, Qaba Rajadhiraja (Chola king), 99 Roghair, Gene, 170 Rajahmundry (fort), 88 Rudrama Devi (Kakatiya queen), 16, 17 Rajaram (Maratha king), 178, 179 Rustam Dil Khan (deputy governor of flight to Jinji, 180 Hyderabad) returns to rebuild Maratha state, 181 besieges Papadu’s fort, 162 Rajas Bai (a wife of Rajaram), 181, 186 Raju Dakhni (commander), 116–18, 129 Saadatë Khan, 116–18 Rama (deity), 82–83 Sada´siva (Vijayanagara king), 92 Ramachandra temple, 82–83 reconstitutes Vijayanagara state, 98, 100 Rama Raya, 78 Sagar (fort), 41, 95 association with Chalukya dynasty, 94–95 Sahyadri (mountain range), 59, 69, 123, 137, association with Chola power, 99 154, 181 autocratic rule, 92 and Panhala, 180 dismissed from Golkonda, 88 hill-forts of, 179 executed, 98 Saiva´ traditions, 83 his claimed sovereignty over Kalyana, 95, 99 as substrate in the Desh, 138 hosts Ibrahim Qutb Shah, 142 at Pandharpur, 139 humiliates Husain Nizam Shah, 97 in Kakatiya-period Andhra, 156 images of, 103 see also Pampa, Siva´ , Virupaksha, Vithoba in the service of Golkonda, 79, 87 Sakwar Bai (Shahu’s senior wife), 195

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Salakraja (Vijayanagara regent), 91, 92 Sholapur (fort), 96 salt Siraj al-Din Junaidi, Shaikh, 55 and Habshi ex-slaves, 114, 118 and defeat of Kakatiyas, 30–31 as political metaphor, 114, 118 and origins of Bahmanis, 30 Saluva (dynasty) patronized by Bahmanis, 46–47 see under Vijayanagara (kingdom) Siva´ (deity) Saluva Narasimha (Vijayanagara king), 83, identified with tribal deities, 138 86–87 identified with Virupaksha, Samani, Muhammad Alië (hagiographer), 82 53 manifested as Pratapa Rudra, 29 Samarqand (city), 51, 64, 76, 88, 101, 102 temples in the Desh, 138 Samarqandi Sivasamudram´ (fort), 88 see Abdë al-Razzaq Samarqandi slaves, military Sambhaji (son of Rajas Bai), 186 brought by Mahmud Gawan, 59 Sambhaji (son of Shivaji), 179 disappearance under Mughals, 114, 124–26 San atië Bijapuri (poet), 143 history of, and rationale for, 110 Sangama (chieftain), 38 in Bahmani kingdom, 111–12 Sangama (dynasty) integration into host societies, 111–12, see under Vijayanagara (kingdom) 125–26 Sangameshwar (fort), 69, 71, 74 manumission, 112, 125–26 Sanskrit, 14 recruited by sultanates, 88 Brahmins controlling access to, 130 upward mobility, 120 imperial titles in, 43 see also Habshis prestige language, 12, 13 slave trade, Vijayanagara inscriptions, 82 and Central Asia, 23 Sanskritization, 82, 139 commercial basis, 108–09 Satara (fort), 194 from Ethiopia to India, 107–10 Maratha capital under Rajaram, 181 legal basis, 109 Tarabai’s court driven from, 185 political basis, 110–11 “segmentary state” to the Americas, 109 see under Vijayanagara (kingdom) social banditry, 8, 169–70 Sewell, Robert, 92, 103 see also Hobsbawm, Eric; Papadu Shah Jahan (Mughal emperor), 158 Sontheimer, Gunther-Dietz,¨ 137, 139, 190, Shahji Bhosle (Maratha chieftain) 197 acquires land rights, 188 Sringeri (Saiva´ center), 42 joins Bijapur’s service, 124 Srirangapattan´ (fort), 88 reconstitutes Nizam Shahi state, 123–24, 128 Stein, Burton, 86, 103 Shahpur (village), 155, 175–76 Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, 75 Shahu (Maratha king), 181 sudra (class) crowned king, 185 Kakatiya chiefs and kings, 15, 29 elevates office of Peshwa, 195 Namdev, 131 escorts Tarabai to Satara, 195 Tukaram, 130, 131 in Aurangzeb’s camp, 180 Sufi shaikhs released from Mughal captivity, 184 and state legitimacy, 56–57 Sharif (class of Muslims), 173, 175 and state power, 45–47 Shi ëi Islam shrines as centers of literary production, 144 rites officially replaced by Sunnism, 145 Suhurawardi, Shihab al-Din (mystic), 66 Shinde (Maratha family), 188 Sultan (title) Shiraz (city), 102 appropriated by Deccani rulers, 43, 50, Shirazi 100–101 see Rafiëal-Din Shirazi, Zain al-Din Shirazi assimilated in Deccani languages, 100 Shivaji (son of Tarabai), 181, 186 early usage in the Deccan, 11 Shivaji Bhosle (Maratha king), 123 meaning of, 23, 100–101 captures Panhala, 180 “sultan among Indian kings,” 42–43, 100 founds Maratha state, 178, 179 sultanates Shivneri (fort), 123 characteristics, 23–24, 25

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historical origins, 23 Telugu (language) iqta ësystems in, 25, 26 and Andhra regional identity, 13 military recruitment in, 88 patronage of literature, 142–43 secular nature, 23, 32 Perso-Arabic terms assimilated in, 11 separation of sacred and royal domains, temples 100 diffusion in the Desh, 138 Sultanpur, 21, 26, 34, 101 in Vijayanagara kingdom, 84 anti-Tughluq uprising in, 50 Kakatiya period, 14–15 see also Warangal repaired by Tughluq officials, 24 Svayambhusiva temple (Warangal), stereotypes, 15 attacked by corrupt nayakas, 28 see also Ramachandra, Svayambhusiva, demolished by Tughluqs, 20 Tirupati, Virupaksha, Vithoba, Vitthala textiles Tabataba, Alië (Burhan-i ma athirì ), Bahmani production, 75–76 67–68 consumption in upland Vijayanagara, 86 Talbot, Cynthia, 12, 14, 16, 27, 28 exports to: Talikota, Battle of (1565), 83, 98 Egypt, 75 conventional interpretation, 92–94 Ethiopia, 109 political consequences, 99–100 Iran and Central Asia, 76 sequence of events, 98 southeast Asia, 85 Tamil country, 180 western Anatolia, 76 Chola heartland, 99 production on Tamil coast, 85–86 conquered by Vijayanagara, 81 silk industry in Konkan, 75 Rama Raya’s power-base, 95 “theatre state” textile production, 85–86 see under Vijayanagara (kingdom) see also Coromandel coast Timur (Turkish king), 55, 66 Tapti River, 152 illustrious ancestor of Mughals, 113 Tarabai, 6 model of Persian sovereignty, 51, 61, 64 administrative competence, sacks Delhi, 36–37, 51 182–83 Timurid influence and pro-Maratha, anti-Brahmin sentiment, at Vijayanagara, 102 196 in Bidar’s royal architecture, 64 and the rise of Peshwa power, 201 in Mahmud Gawan madrasa, 67 conspires against Nana Saheb, 196 Tirumala (brother of Rama Raya), 90, 91, estimate by historians, 200–01 92 family ties to Bijapur sultanate, 188 founds Aravidu dynasty, 100 flight to Jinji, 180 reconstitutes Vijayanagara state, 98 house arrest in Satara, 186–87, 195 Tirupati (temple-shrine), 83, 86–87, 91 imprisoned in Panhala, 186 inscription praising Rama Raya’s family, imprisons and disavows Ramraja, 196 94 installs son as Maratha king, patronized by Rama Raya, 91 181 transregional sultanates, 9, 23–25, 64 marriage, 178 triumph in the Deccan, 31–32, 43 northern policy, 183 see also regional kingdoms, sultanates promotes Ramraja as king, 195 Tughluq (Delhi dynasty) quasi-sovereign dowager, 197 architecture in the Deccan, 20–21 reaction to news of Panipat, 198 authority in the Deccan, 25–26, 39–40, rivalry with Shahu, 184–85 56 Tarikonda (village), 160, 162, 173, 175 conquest of Kakatiya kingdom, 20–21 Tehrani, Abu Bakr (scholar), 66 overthrow of Khaljis, 20 Telangana (region in Andhra), 47, 156, 170–71, revolts against, 40–42 172 successor-states in the Deccan, 22, 43 as Kakatiya heartland, 13, 14 see also Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, frontier character, 14, 15, 16 Muhammad bin Tughluq under Kapaya Nayaka, 50 Tughluqabad (city), 64, 101 see also Papadu see also Delhi

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Tukaram vernacular languages a Kunbi, 133 and community identity, 141, 149–50 challenge to Brahmins, 134–35, 153 in revenue/judicial systems, 144–45 cult, 151 patronized by northern sultanates, 142–44 disappearance of, 151 see also Dakani, Kannada, language usage, disdain for pride of caste, 132–33 Marathi, Telugu early tribulations, 130 Vidyanatha (Prataparudra-sobhusama), 27 his place in the Varkari tradition, 151–52 Vidyaranya Kalajnana˜ (Sanskrit chronicle), 39 his retreat, 131 Vijayanagara (city) humble origins, 130 architecture, 80–81, 101 literary output, 132 as an imperial center, 78 signiﬁcance of the river episode, 136 assimilation of Persian culture submerging and resurfacing of his books, aesthetic, 101 135–36 political, 100–01 use of vernacular speech, 131–32, 136, 141 throne hall, 101 Tuluva (dynasty) urban-planning, 101 see under Vijayanagara (kingdom) growth, 82 Tungabhadra River, 22, 42, 81, 99 looted and partially destroyed, 98 Turquoise Throne, 50, 54, 63, 64–65 Royal Center, 82, 100, 101 Sacred Center, 81, 100 Udayagiri (fort), 87, 88, 95 Vijayanagara (kingdom), 22, 47, 71 Ulugh Khan (son of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq), Aravidu (dynasty), 90, 94, 100 as remembered, 29 as Hindu bulwark against Islam, 7, 78, 103 conquest of Warangal, 20 as “segmentary state,” 80 crowned Tughluq sultan, 33 as “theatre state,” 80–81 see also Muhammad bin Tughluq coinage, 83, 84–85 Untouchable (communities) conquest of Tamil country, 81 among Tukaram’s spiritual predecessors, Delhi sultan and sovereign authority at, 30 132–33 drought-induced famines, 85 oppression of, 132–33 founding, 40, 81 see also Mahar patronage of Telugu literature, 142 production of material culture, 84 Vaishnava traditions recruitment of Westerners, 101 and the founding of Vijayanagara, 82 religious traditions, 81–83 patronized at Vijayanagara, 83 rise of Telugu warriors in, 28, 29–30 see also Bhagavad Gita, Pandharpur, Rama, rivalry with Bahmani kings, 88–90 Ramachandra temple, Ramayana, Saluva (dynasty), 83, 87, 94 Venkate´svara, Vishnu, Vithoba, Vitthala Sangama (dynasty), 22, 50, 81, 82, 94 Valama (caste), 156, 158 scholarship on, 7, 80, 103–04 Van den Broecke, Pieter (Dutch traveler), tributary relations with Bahmanis, 90 120–21, 126 Tuluva (dynasty), 87, 90, 91, 94 Varkari movement, Vijayavada (fort), 88 cultural unity of Maharashtra, 152 Vijnane˜ ´svara (Mitaksara), 148 growth, 151–53 Vindhya Mountains, 18, 37 non-Brahmin character, 132–35 Virupaksha (deity), 99 social goals, 152–53 growth of cult, 82 traced to Namdev’s time, 131–32 Sangama family deity, 42 see also Pandharpur temple, 82 Varna, Treaty of (1731), 194 Vijayanagara’s state-deity, 43, 82 Varna River, 194 Vishalgarh (fort), 181 Vellore (fort), Vishnu (deity) Venkatadri (brother of Rama Raya), manifested as Delhi sultan, 29 92, 96, 98 manifested as Vithoba, 130, 139 Venkate´svara (deity), 83, 86 Vithoba (cult), 131 Venkat Rao (chieftain), 162, 172 Brahmin control of Pandharpur shrine, 132 Vermeer, Johannes (Dutch artist), 2–4 egalitarian ethos, 140–41

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pastoral origins, 139, 140 Western Ghats popularity, 139 see Sahyadri (mountain range) shrine in Dehu, 130, 135 Wink, Andre,´ 111 see also Pandharpur, Varkari movement women Vithoba (deity) among Gisu Daraz’s followers, acquires Vaishnava identity, 139 and Bahmani marital politics, 74 image, 139 and Habshi marital patterns, 124–25 inspires Tukaram to write, 131 and Suﬁ folk literature, 144 Saiva´ associations, 139 in Firuz Bahmani’s harem, 74 Vitthala (deity), 83 in Kakatiya inscriptions, 12 Vitthala (temple) victims of highway robbery and ransom, 162, construction, 83 166, 173 desecration, 99–100

Wagoner, Phillip, 100, 101 Yadava (dynasty), 20, 22, 88, 99 Warangal (city), 95, 172, 176 and colonization in the Desh, 138 bastions defended by padmanayakas, 28 and Marathi language, 13 invaded by Delhi Sultanate armies, 11 Yaqut Khan (Habshi noble), 119 Yazdi, Sharf al-Din (Zafar-nama), 66 Kakatiya capital, 16–17 ë lay-out, 101 Yusuf Adil Shah, Sultan, 88 sacked by Papadu, 164–65, 174 Yusuf Khan (governor of Hyderabad), 167, 168, see also Sultanpur 169, 173 Westerner (social class), 7, 61, 63 a cultural conception, 76 Zafar Khan (rebel leader), 41, 42, 45 as a political category, 68 coronation, 42 dismissed by Ibrahim I of Bijapur, 91 see also Alaë al-Din Hasan Bahman Shah favored by Mughals, 158 Zain al-Din Shirazi, Shaikh, 46, 47, 57 origins and ethnic basis, 67, 112, 113 zamindar (hereditary land-holder), 158, 162, recruited by Rama Raya, 91 172–73, 175 see also Deccani Ze’evi, Dror, 126

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