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Explaining Coexistence and Conflict

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EXPLAINING COEXISTENCE AND CONFLICT IN EASTERN ANATOLIA, 1800-1878 by Brad Ronald Dennis A dissertation submitted to the faculty of The University of Utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History The University of Utah December 2015 Copyright © Brad Ronald Dennis 2015 All Rights Reserved The University of Utah Graduate School STATEMENT OF DISSERTATION APPROVAL The dissertation of Brad Ronald Dennis has been approved by the following supervisory committee members: Peter John Sluglett , Chair 06/11/2015 Date Approved Peter Von Sivers , Member 05/20/2015 Date Approved M. Hakan Yavuz , Member 05/20/2015 Date Approved Leonard C. Chiarelli , Member 05/20/2015 Date Approved Edward Erickson , Member 05/20/2015 Date Approved Walter P. Reeve , Member 05/20/2015 Date Approved and by Isabel Moreira , Chair/Dean of the Department/College/School of History and by David B. Kieda, Dean of The Graduate School. ABSTRACT It is a common assumption in much of the scholarship on Eastern Anatolia that groups in the region, both today and throughout the past, primarily defined and distinguished themselves in terms of their ethnicity and religious affiliations and that such distinctions were the primary causes of tension and conflict throughout history. However, an in-depth investigation of government documents, firsthand accounts, memoirs, interviews, court records, official and private investigations, and travelogues written in Ottoman Turkish, Armenian, Russian, French, German, and English reveals that tensions in Eastern Anatolia between 1800 and 1878 ran along a number of different lines besides religion and ethnicity and that groups did not appear to even imagine a conflict along such lines until the Great Powers became more involved in Ottoman politics. This study traces the major tensions and conflicts in Eastern Anatolia between 1800 and 1878 and seeks to understand what factors escalated and mitigated these. It contributes the growing body of literature that shows how groups who experienced large- scale violent ethnic and religious conflicts at different periods in history managed to coexist even amid tension before said conflicts. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii PRONUNCIATION GUIDE FOR TURKISH WORDS AND NAMES ......................... vii GLOSSARY OF TERMS ................................................................................................ viii INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1 Historiography: Modernist and Structuralist Frames of Understanding ......................... 4 Sources .......................................................................................................................... 15 Methodology and Contributions ................................................................................... 18 Layout............................................................................................................................ 19 Chapters 1 TOLERANCE, RESISTANCE, AND DISTRIBUTION OF POWER IN EASTERN ANATOLIA BEFORE 1829: NON-MUSLIMS .............................................................. 23 The Theoretical Basis for the Ottomans’ Tolerance of Religious Diversity ................. 25 Realpolitik and Ottoman Treatment of Non-Muslims 1500-1736 ................................ 30 The Relationship Between the Ottomans and the Christian Clergy in the East ............ 38 Loyalty and Opposition to the Ottoman State and Iran Among the Armenian Clergy . 42 Power-Sharing Between Local Muslims and non-Muslims .......................................... 59 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 63 2 EASTERN ANATOLIA 1800-1829: INTERNATIONAL WARFARE, CENTRALIZATION, AND THE POLITICS OF STABILITY ...................................... 65 The Politics of Decentralization in Eastern Anatolia .................................................... 66 Zones of Administrative Control over Muslim Lands .................................................. 70 Initial Centralization Efforts in Eastern Anatolia .......................................................... 82 Waning Central Control and Political Uncertainty ....................................................... 88 Suppression of Resistance: Recapturing the East ......................................................... 91 1821-1823 Ottoman-Iranian War and its Aftermath ................................................... 100 The 1828-1829 Russo-Ottoman War .......................................................................... 107 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 117 3 REFORM, CENTRALIZATION, AND THE CHANGING NATURE OF CONFLICTS IN EASTERN ANATOLIA: 1829-1847 ........................................... 120 Renewed Attempts at Centralization ........................................................................... 121 Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia in the 1830s .................................... 125 Uprising in the Southeast ............................................................................................ 132 Hafız Paşa's Military Campaign .................................................................................. 143 Bedr Khan: The Sources of His Power ....................................................................... 149 Reasons for the Massacres of Assyrian Christians...................................................... 153 The Invasion of Diz, Tiyari, and Aşita ........................................................................ 171 Negotiating New Power Sharing ................................................................................. 176 Further Loss of Control ............................................................................................... 181 Declining Power in the East ........................................................................................ 186 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 193 4 STATE AND LOCAL MANAGEMENT OF ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS TENSIONS, 1847-1869 .................................................................................................. 198 Competing Visions over Eastern Anatolia .................................................................. 199 New Centralization: The Eyalet of Kurdistan ............................................................. 202 Ottoman-Christian Relations 1847-1853 .................................................................... 207 The Crimean War 1853-1856 ...................................................................................... 212 The Revolt of Yezdan Sher ......................................................................................... 221 Diverse Kurdish Loyalties ........................................................................................... 230 Dissolution of Power Among the Kurds After the Crimean War ............................... 232 The Assyrians and Conflict ......................................................................................... 238 Postwar Transformations in the Eastern Anatolian Armenian Community ................ 244 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 263 5 LATENT POLARIZATION ALONG RELIGIOUS AND ETHNIC LINES, 1868-1878 ....................................................................................................................... 265 Crisis at the Head ........................................................................................................ 266 The New Administrative Reform Effort, Cause and Effect ........................................ 270 Relations Between the Ottoman Administration and the Locals ................................ 276 Continued Power Struggles ......................................................................................... 280 Seeking Recourse ........................................................................................................ 286 v Abuses of Armenians .................................................................................................. 296 Reverberations of Conflict .......................................................................................... 299 Dersim: A Last Frontier in Eastern Anatolia? ............................................................. 309 The Russo-Turkish War 1877-1878 ............................................................................ 314 Negotiating the Future ................................................................................................. 324 Revolt and Disorder .................................................................................................... 328 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 339 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 341 APPENDIX ..................................................................................................................... 350 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..........................................................................................................
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  • To Appear in Kurdish Studies Language

    To Appear in Kurdish Studies Language

    To appear in Kurdish Studies Language attitudes and religion: Kurdish Alevis in the UK Birgul Yilmaz1 2 Abstract In this article I report on results of a Matched Guise Tests (MGT) study investigating attitudes towards Bohtan (BHKr) and Maraş Kurmanji (MRKr) spoken among the UK diaspora. I focus on BHKr, which I use to refer to the Kurmanji that is identified as “good Kurmanji”, also referred to as “academic”/ “proper”, and MRKr to refer to the Kurmanji that is referred to as “bad Kurmanji” by Kurmanji speakers in the UK (Yilmaz, 2018). The MGT, and questions pertaining to perceptual dialectology such as respondents’ perceptions of region, religion, gender and class in this study, show that attitudes towards what is perceived as BHKr and MRKr differ significantly. By concentrating on language attitudes towards Kurmanji which have never been studied in the UK context before, this paper investigates negative and positive evaluations of both BHKr and MRKr in relation to religious affiliation. Keywords Language attitudes, religion, matched guise tests, Kurdish-Kurmanji, Alevis 1 Birgul Yilmaz is a British Academy Postdoctoral Researcher at UCL Institute of Education in London Centre for Applied Linguistics | 20 Bedford Way, London WC1H 0AL Email: [email protected] 2 I wish to thank Michael Chyet, Ruth Kircher, Jeff Izzard and the reviewers of this special issue for their feedback on earlier versions and thoughtful suggestions. 1 Introduction Sociolinguistic studies have dealt with social factors such as social status, gender and age (Labov, 1966), and the ways in which these are intertwined with change and variation (Eckert 2012).