PROCEEDINGs “The Contribution of Language, Literature, Art and Culture in Digital Era” 27-29 September 2019, Dompak, Province of Kepulauan Riau,

How Can Digital Technology be Relevant to the Arts and Social Sciences?

Vivienne Wee Singapore University of Social Sciences

Article Info Abstract

This paper identifies digital technology as a tool that is useful for the arts and social sciences, especially the study of language, literature, culture and art. It locates digital technology within a larger historical context from 5000 years ago when writing to the present. Two key characteristics continuous with previous tools used for writing are identified – durability and mass distribution. The last section of this paper proposes a comprehensive historical GIS website of as a long-term project documenting multiple cultural dimensions and requiring collaboration among many partners.

A. Are the arts and social sciences relevant in the era of digital technology?

People who ask this question assume that digital technology has little to do with the arts and social sciences, especially studies of language, literature, culture and art. But this question ignores human history. They forget that human beings use tools: digital technology is a tool. The use of tools has significantly impacted on the study of language, literature, culture and art for some 10,000 years. Therefore, the title of this paper asks instead: how can digital technology be relevant to the arts and social sciences? To address this question, let us consider some technological milestones that have been important in human history for the last 10,000 years or so.

B. Invention of writing First of all, there is the invention of writing. The earliest form of writing has been dated from 5000 years ago in Mesopotamia, located in what is now Iraq. One of the earliest forms of writing is associated with Uruk, which has been described as the first city in human history. Currently, the earliest authenticated writing is at least 5500 years ago or before, in Elamite, (what is now southern Iran) (Englund 2004).

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Proto-Cuneiform Inscription dated to 5000 years ago Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art 2000-2019

What was written? How was it written? What can we learn from the invention of writing? The earliest forms of writing were accounts to keep track of property, such as animals, grain supplies or land. The circular impressions on the top right of the tablet represent numbers. There are also pictorial depictions of animals (for example, on the bottom left corner) and grain (for example, on the right edge). What was written was to aid memory. The tablet was a mnemonic device to assist memory, which can be unreliable especially if different people remember different things, which can be a troublesome matter when property is concerned.

What was written was not expected to be read aloud. But we are able to study the written tablets of 5000 years ago because of the durability of the materials used. The writing was done with a reed pen or stylus on clay tablets, which were fired to produce permanent records.

That brings us to the first lesson we can learn from considering the invention of writing – that is, durability beyond a person’s life span. At this point, you may be wondering what the relevance of this to digital technology. What is relevant is durability is one point of relevance. Worldwide, there are now online services specialising in dealing with email and websites of people who have passed away. Like the clay tablets of 5000 years ago, digital technology is durable; it lasts beyond a person’s life span. It has even been said that the Internet is filling up with the digital content left by people who have died. Like the clay tablets of 5000 years ago, this kind of digital content may last for a long time to be studied at some future date.

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C. Earliest evidence of writing in Sumatra

Sites in Sumatra where earliest inscriptions are found Source: Geoffrey Benjamin (2018)

The earliest evidence of writing in Sumatra date from the late7th century CE. Some of the inscriptions contain actual dates.

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7th-century Telaga Batu inscription from South Palembang area, now at National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta: social contract between ruler and Orang Laut, cursing all who plot against king and kingdom, blessing those who submit to the rule of

Source: Situs Budya no date

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7th-century Kedukan Bukit, containing the date equivalent to 1 May 683, from Palembang, east coast of Sumatra, now at National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta: commemoration of king’s military victory freeing Srivijaya from external forces, a victory attributed to magical power

Source: Gunawan Kartapranata 2014

There are at least 87 separate inscriptions prasasti( ) found in Sumatra, dating from the 7th century CE to the 13th century CE – that is, from one and a half thousand years ago to eight hundred years ago. Although more than 3000 years separate prasasti of Sumatra from the earliest writing on clay tablets found in Mesopotamia, they nevertheless have one similarity. What is that similarity? With the exception of the inscriptions found in Karang Berahi and Kota Kapur, which are duplicates of each other, each of the other inscriptions is one of a kind. There is thus only one Telaga Batu and one Kedukan Bukit. Most of the prasasti or inscriptions do not have multiple copies.

D. Less Durable Materials Used for Writing

Although clay and stone were used for inscriptions, less durable materials were also used for writing. These include: 1. Papyrus, made from the pith of the papyrus plant (Cyperus papyrus) that was plentiful in the Nile River of Egypt, was used some 5000 years ago in Egypt.

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Cyperus papyrus

Source: Plants and Flowers 2010-2019

2. Leather, parchment and vellum, made from the skin of animals, were used for writing about four and a half thousand years ago in Egypt, Mesopotamia and elsewhere in the Middle East.

3. Wood and bamboo were used for writing in China more than two thousand years ago.

4. Linen, silk and other cloth were used for writing in Italy, Egypt and China also more than two thousand years ago.

5. Paper was invented in China more than 2000 years and came to be used widely. However, in Southeast Asia, writing on paper was more recent. In Indonesia, a variety of materials was used for writing on, including bamboo, horn, palm leaf, bark ‘paper’, and paper, probably only since European colonisation.

There are more than 500,000 clay tablets from Mesopotamia that have survived from more than 5000 years ago until today (Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative 2012: archived). Most of us do not read clay tablets or stone tablets. Instead, we read writing that has been printed on paper, a material that is much less durable than clay. Why was paper adopted for writing even though it is not durable? Because it was light and portable. It was easier to

ISBN - 978-623-92900-0-9 18 PROCEEDINGs SEMIRATA 2019: International Seminar & Annual Meeting, Field of Language, Literature, Arts, and Culture BKS PTN Wilayah Barat write on paper than to carve out inscriptions on stone. But the disadvantage is that paper does not last, perhaps at most four or five hundred years and that only in conditions that are conducive to preservation. This is unlike clay tablets that have lasted thousands of years.

E. Manuscripts on Less Durable Materials Written in Sumatra In the Province of Kepulauan Riau (KePri), there are 13 collections of about 450 items on 4 different islands: 1. Penyengat (off Tanjung Pinang), once the capital of the Yang Dipertuan Muda

2. Daik in the Lingga Archipelago (once the seat of the sultan), once the capital of the Yang Dipertuan Besar

3. Natuna

4. Karimun

These writings consist of handwritten manuscripts, printed archival materials (forms, receipts, grants) and a few printed books (The British Library [a] no date).

In Sumatra, there are also 405 manuscripts in Aceh, written between the 17th and 20th centuries, mostly on paper (The British Library [b] no date).

There are also 260 manuscripts in Kerinci, Jambi Province. Two hundred and forty of them are written mostly on six types of materials: 1. Bamboo: 34 manuscripts

2. Horn: 82 manuscripts

3. Paper: 97 manuscripts

4. Bark: 11 manuscripts

5. Palm leaf: 13 manuscripts

6. Bone: 1 manuscript

7. Other: 2 manuscripts

Most of these are from the 1700s, with some in such a bad condition that they cannot deciphered (Kozok 2015: 1-16). (Also The British Library [c] no date.)

The British Library has digitised these collections of manuscripts, leaving the originals with their private owners. ‘Digital copies have been given to the owners and have also been deposited with the British Library and local archival partners: the National Library of Singapore, Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia, and Yayasan Manuskrip Nusantara’ (The British Library [a] no date).

The British Library has digitised these manuscripts to save these endangered works, giving free access to anyone interested in them, rather than to have these documents lost without professional archival care.

The British Library has websites on these collections of manuscripts: 1. Riau manuscripts: the gateway to the Malay intellectual world (EAP153): https://eap.bl.uk/ project/EAP153 (The British Library [a], no date)

2. Digitising private collections of Acehnese manuscripts located in Pidie and Aceh Besar regencies (EAP329): https://eap.bl.uk/project/EAP329 (The British Library [b] no date)

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3. Digitising ‘sacred heirloom’’ in private collections in Kerinci, Sumatra, Indonesia (EAP117): https://eap.bl.uk/project/EAP117 (The British Library [c] no date)

The digitised manuscripts are made available to the public through the Internet. See, for example, Surat Akte Sultan Riau, which is dated 1325 in the Islamic calendar – that is, 1907 in the Gregorian calendar: https://eap.bl.uk/archive-file/EAP153-13- 3#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=1&xywh=- 888%2C-1%2C3803%2C2432 This manuscript is in the Raja Hamzah Yunus Collection at the Balai Maklumat Kebudayaan Melayu Riau (EAP153/13) (The British Library [d] no date).

Replica of the Gutenberg printing press Source: Wikiwand, https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Printing_press

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Moveable letters that can be arranged and re-arranged Source: Wikiwand, https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Printing_press

F. Mass Reproduction of Written Texts The problem of archiving old handwritten manuscripts arises because they were not mass reproduced. In the past, literacy was not widespread; texts could be read only by a few literate readers, who gave public reading of these texts, often with added embellishments. The texts written on paper and other less durable materials could only be copied by hand. It became possible for individual readers to read written texts by themselves only after the printing press was invented.

In the 6th century in China, woodblock printing was invented. Although this enabled more texts to be reproduced, nevertheless it required the words to be carved into the wood block. This restricted the number of texts that could be reproduced as the carving of words into the wood blocks required time and special skills.

The moveable-type printer was invented in Germany in the 15th century. In 1455, 180 copies of a book were printed in this way for the very first time in human history.

Moveable-type printing enabled the mass reproduction of written texts, which was previously impossible. Mass reproduction means the mass distribution of information. Every literate person could read a text by himself or herself. This led to a huge increase in demand for books.

In Western Europe, the production of books increased from less than 1 millionbefore 1450 to almost 1 billion by the end of the 1700s. The mass distribution of information is extremely relevant for understanding the power of digital technology.

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Source: Buringh and van Zanden 2009: 417, table 2

The printing press was introduced to Southeast Asia in the late 16th century. The first Malay book – a Malay-Dutch dictionary – was printed in Batavia (now Jakarta) in 1677. When the Dutch colonial government became aware of the power of the printing press, they imposed strict regulations on what was to be printed. As a result, very few Malay books were printed in the 1700s in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). The printing of Malay books took off only in the 19th century, with hundreds of books printed and distributed (Mazelan Anuar 2017). This also happened in other places in Southeast Asia. Printing and the mass distribution of information played an important role in the nationalist movements that emerged in the region.

G. The massive spread of information through digital Technology

The internet was invented in the United States of America in the 1960s as a weapon in the Cold War against the Soviet Union. At that time, American scientists and military experts were worried about what would happen if the Soviet Union were to attack on the country’s telephone system. In 1962, it was proposed that was a network of computers be developed that could talk to one another to ensure that communication could carry on even if the

ISBN - 978-623-92900-0-9 22 PROCEEDINGs SEMIRATA 2019: International Seminar & Annual Meeting, Field of Language, Literature, Arts, and Culture BKS PTN Wilayah Barat telephone system were to be destroyed. In the 1965, packet switching was developed whereby data is broken down into packets with each packet taking its route from sender to recipient. In 1969, only 4 computers were connected to each other in a network of communication (History.com Editors, https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/ invention-of-the-internet) As of 30 June 2019, more than 4.5 billion people were using the Internet. More than 2.3 billion of these users were in Asia (Internet World Stats, https://www. internetworldstats.com/stats.htm). As of 22 February 2019, there were more than 100 million users of the Internet in Indonesia. There is already a sizeable audience in Indonesia, in Asia, in the world. But the question is: what kind of information can the arts and social sciences make available to them, especially the study of language, literature, culture and art in Sumatra?

H. Building content about language, literature, culture and art

As I have mentioned, the earliest forms of writing were accounts to keep track of property, such as animals, grain supplies or land. Why? Because people at that time needed to keep track of property, rather than rely on unreliable memory. So writing was invented 5000 years ago for a specific purpose. What are our purposes in building content related to language, literature, culture and art? One purpose would be to make known what is not well known. How do we know what is not well known. Well, if we search using the key words bahasa, sastra, budaya, kesenian, Sumatra – that is, language, literature, culture and art in Sumatra, we may find a few websites related to Minangkabau in Sumatra Barat, Batak in Sumatra Utera, Aceh and Gayo, and Melayu in Riau and KePri. There is no comprehensive website about Sumatra, including the Riau Archipelago – about its archaeological sites, about the historical texts, about the different kingdoms that existed in the past, the different languages that are spoken, and so on. Is this too much to ask for? Let’s look at texts as an example. If we search for naskah kuno Sumatra – that is, old manuscripts in Sumatra, we do not find a comprehensive list. Furthermore, the websites that are about naskah kuno do not provide online access to these manuscripts. Let’s look at some international websites that provide comprehensive access to texts. I will give three examples of such websites: 1. Internet Sacred Text Archive: https://www.sacred-texts.com/index.htm This website states that it is ‘a quiet place in cyberspace devoted to religious tolerance and scholarship’. The texts of 14 world religions are featured on this website, including Islam. The website was set up by one person – John Bruno Hare – who died in 2010 but the website is still maintained and updated by others (Hare 2010).

2. Chinese Text Project: https://ctext.org/ This websites was also set up by one person– Donald Sturgeon – who states that it is ‘an online open-access digital library that makes pre-modern Chinese texts available to readers and researchers all around the world. The site attempts to make use of the digital medium to explore new ways of interacting with these texts that are not possible in print. With over thirty thousand titles and more than five billion characters, the Chinese Text Project is also the largest database of pre- modern Chinese texts in existence.’ (Sturgeon 2006-2019).

3. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI): https://cdli.ucla.edu// This website makes publicly available through the Internet the form and content of more than 500,000 cuneiform tablets dating from the beginning of writing 5,369 years ago until 2000 years ago. It is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, the University of Oxford, and the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin.

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One way of tagging the texts is to link them to places on a map. For example, although the 15th-century text, Sejarah Melayu (also known as Sulalatus Salatin) mentions sites in Sumatra, such as Indragiri, the narrative is largely about Melaka on the Malay Peninsula and was probably written there. Using a map and having sites marked in different layers according to different themes can be very useful. Let me illustrate with a project that is in process at the National University of Singapore. This project is called Singapore Historical GIS: http://shgis.nus.edu.sg/ A map of Singapore is used as the base. More than ten layers can be marked on this map. The layers are organised thematically. Let me illustrate. We could start by wanting to find out which kampungs existed in Singapore. The sites of these kampungs are marked with yellow dots. Let’s say we want to find out more about these kampungs. We click on the mouse while it is placed on a particular yellow dot. We then find out about the name of that kampung and when that kampung was last seen. If we click on every single yellow dot and take note of when they were last seen, we find out that almost all of the kampungs in Singapore have disappeared, mostly in the 1980s. We may wonder what happened to the sites where the kampungs were located. Were they taken over by blocks of public housing flats? In Singapore, the blocks of public housing flats are called HDB flats. Three years of HDB development are listed as three layers: 1959, 1989 and 2005. If we click on the layer called HDB 1959, we find that the development of the public housing flats was not very evident at that time. It is shown as blue patches that are hardly visible. Thirty years later, when we click on the layer called HDB 1989, we see that HDB flats occupy many of the sites where the kampungs were. Then when we click on the layer called HDB 2005, we see that the even more HDB flats have been built, leaving no space for the kampungs, which is why they have disappeared. If the kampungs in Singapore have disappeared as places for people to live in, what about the cemeteries? Are there spaces for the dead? To find out about that, we can first remove the three HDB layers, then click on the layer called Cemeteries. Then when we add the three HDB layers again, we see that the public housing estates have also taken over the sites where the Cemeteries were previously located. I. How to do it? Who can do it?

The Singapore Historical GIS Website uses Javascript and Open Source software. It is led by the Department of Chinese Studies at National University of Singapore and is carried out by teams of staff and students. Funding support comes from the Singapore Ministry of Education. Of course, Sumatra is many times bigger than Singapore. To create a comprehensive historical GIS website of Sumatra would require a great deal of collective work among many people. Perhaps SEMIRATA is a good opportunity for collaboration among universities in West Indonesia as it is an annual meeting and will enable yearly updates on the progress of a collective project. Such yearly updates are needed for a long-term project of this nature. Digital technology presents opportunities for universities in west Indonesia to work together to conserve and commemorate heritage and social memories. What is possible in digital technology goes beyond what was previously possible. Alfida (2014: 59-60), Senior Librarian of Islamic State University of Syarif Hidayatullah in Jakarta, proposes three levels of collaboration with the National Library of Indonesia (Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia -- Perpusnas) :

1. Collaboration with local institutions or scholars

2. Collaboration with foreign institutions or international funding agencies

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3. Collaboration with countries in regional setting

West Indonesian universities involved in SEMIRATA would the local institutions or scholars that could collaborate with the National Library. For a start, there can be a discussion of what the key themes should be for organising a comprehensive historical GIS website of Sumatra. In addition to texts, which I have mentioned, possible themes could include archaeological sites in Sumatra, former kingdoms and their locations, the different tribal societies, the different languages they speak, their performing arts, their cultural heritage. Building a comprehensive historical GIS website of Sumatra would be like building a comprehensive library of all relevant materials concerning Sumatra. One has to begin with what the categories are. Next, one takes stock of what exists, what has been written, what has been excavated, what has been studied, what performing arts are performed, what has been photographed, what has been filmed, and so on. Each category can be divided into multiple projects. What is very important is that oral traditions should be included. Digital technology enables audio-visual information to be distributed to the public. Yet when we go to YouTube, the only audio-visual information about Sumatra consists of information for tourists or about the fires burning in Sumatra. There seems to be no audio-visual information about the history and heritage Sumatra. The inclusion of audio-visual information is very necessary for oral traditions and the performing arts. Studies about these oral traditions and performing arts in different languages should also be included. The audio and visual recording of oral traditions and performing arts should be as comprehensive as possible, since some of them are endangered as younger people may not want to learn old cultural traditions. Audio-recorded interviews with the practitioners of oral traditions and performing arts should be included. In Singapore, there is an Oral History project: http://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/ oral_history_interviews/ This project makes available to the public audio-recorded interviews with persons who are knowledgeable about Singapore history, including history of the performing arts. For example, if we are interested about the history of the performing arts in Singapore, we can search for relevant interviews, such as this interview: http://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/oral_history_interviews/search-result The National Archives of Singapore also makes publicly available old photographs, old video recordings and old audio recordings. Some of these were donated by members of the public. Here are some examples: 1. Example of an old photograph of performing arts in Singapore: http://www. nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/photographs/record-details/56644aae-1162- 11e3-83d5-0050568939ad

2. Example of old audio-recordings: http://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/ audiovisual_records/highlights/f3f86c2d- 6764-11e5-ac2a- 0050568939ad?play=true

3. The National Archives of Singapore makes use of YouTube to upload old video- recordings: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCZ4WaEgKb1928lZBc6w- DHQ An example of a video about early painters in Singapore is https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=DgfPtfGVli0 The National Archives of Singapore has also uploaded the old videos on another platform, Toggle: https://video. toggle.sg/en/stories-of-yesteryear-10235878#dataChange

To make this audio-visual information publicly available, the old photographs audio recordings and video recordings have to be processed. There are three laboratories at the National Archives of Singapore (http://www.nas.gov.sg/Conservation- Preservation/Sound- and-Moving-Image-Laboratory):

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1. Archives Conservation Laboratory

2. Image Preservation Laboratory

3. Sound and Moving Image Laboratory

The National Archives of Singapore also makes publicly available old maps, old postcards, old posters, and so on. The total range of historical materials that have been collected and organised can be seen at http://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/ It is urgent that historical materials of all kinds are kept because we are living in an era of rapid changes. The landscape is undergoing huge changes. Forests and forest dwellers are disappearing. Habitats are lost to rising seas and spreading fires. Villages and the people living in the villages are no more. The irreversible transformation of the landscape and old ways of life is happening all over west Indonesia, all over the main island Sumatra and the smaller islands off the eastern and western coast, including the Riau Archipelago. Writing was invented 5000 years ago to aid unreliable human memory. Today, we can use digital technology to recover the past that existed and to record the present that still exists. Digital technology can assist our unreliable memory if we are not to forget how people used to live before change overtook them and how the landscape was before it was lost. It is even possible to document the processes of change as they happen. The documentation of past and present through digital technology would enhance public awareness of their heritage and how important it is for them to sustain that heritage. Conservation and commemoration of heritage through digital technology also enables public participation to a larger extent. Whereas only literate people can read books, oral interviews can be conducted with non-literate people who can speak. Audio-recordings of such interviews will enable them to speak to the public in a way that was not previously possible. Even those who cannot speak can be video- recorded and their messages translated through subtitles. The greater extent of public participation enables greater democratisation because all citizens will know more about the histories, traditions and practices of other citizens. People will not be limited to knowing their particular local history and heritage. As an anthropologist, I have found that there is sometimes a tendency among people to value only what they know and experience, while disparaging other ways of life. This situation often leads to competition and conflict among different groups of people with different knowledge, experience and ways of life. Making available different histories, languages, literatures, cultural traditions, and arts available to the public will thus enhance knowledge and acceptance of the diversity of Indonesia. In this way, citizens of Indonesia will be better able to practise the principles embodied in the national slogan Bhinneka Tunggal Ika ‘Unity in Diversity’.

J. References

[Note: all online references were accessed and found to be valid as of 22 September 2019.] Alfida. June 2014. The Role of Indonesian National Library in Preserving And Disseminating Manuscripts, Heritage of Nusantara 3(1): 47-62, http:// jurnallektur.kemenag.go.id/index.php/heritage/article/view/19/108 Buringh, Eltjo and van Zanden, Jan Luiten. 2009. Charting the ‘Rise of the West’: Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the

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Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries, The Journal of Economic History69(2): 409– 445, [Page 417, table 2, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:European_Output_ of_Printed_Books_ca._1450%E 2%80%931800.png] Benjamin, Geoffrey. 2018. Unpublished translation of Georges Coedès on Old Malay (1930), Pages 60–64 of his ‘Les inscriptions malaises de Çrīvijaya’, Bulletin de l’Ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient 30: 29–80. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative. 2012. A Digital Library for Cuneiform, archive. today, https://archive.is/UZTW#selection-89.0-89.31 Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI), https://cdli.ucla.edu// Englund, Robert K. 2004. The State of Decipherment of Proto-Elamite. In: Stephen D. Houston (ed.), The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pages 100-149. Gunawan Kartapranata. 2014. Kedukan Bukit inscription (7th century, Srivijaya, Palembang), displayed in “Kedatuan Sriwijaya” exhibition in November 2017. National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia, Wikimedia Commons, https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Prasasti_Kedukan_Bukit_1.jpg Hare, John Bruno. 2010. Internet Sacred Text Archive, https://www.sacred- texts.com/ index.htm History.com Editors. 2019. The Invention of the Internet,History , https://www. history.com/topics/inventions/invention-of-the-internet Kozok, Uli. 2015. Pusaka: Kerinci Manuscripts. In Uli Kozok with contributions by Thomas Hunter, Waruno Mahdi and John Miksic, A 14th-Century Malay Code of Laws. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2000 – 2019. Proto-Cuneiform tablet with seal impressions: administrative account of barley distribution with cylinder seal impression of a male figure, hunting dogs, and boars, ca. 3100–2900 B.C., The Met, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/329081 National Archives of Singapore. 2019. ArchivesOnline, http://www.nas.gov.sg/ archivesonline/ National Archives of Singapore. 2018. Oral History Interview, Archives Online, http:// www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/oral_history_interviews/ National Archives of Singapore. No date. Stories of Yesteryears, YouTube, https:// www.youtube.com/channel/UCZ4WaEgKb1928lZBc6w-DHQ National Archives of Singapore. 2019. Stories of Yesteryears (50), Toggle, https:// video.toggle.sg/en/stories-of-yesteryear-10235878#dataChange Plants and Flowers. 2010-2019. Cyperus papyrus, Plants and Flowers: A Comprehensive Database, https://www.plantsrescue.com/cyperus-papyrus/ Singapore Historical GIS. 2016. Singapore Historical GIS, http://shgis.nus.edu.sg/

Situs Budaya. No date. Prasasti Telaga Batu Kota Palembang, Situs Budaya,https:// situsbudaya.id/prasasti-telaga-batu/ Sturgeon, Donald. 2006 – 2019. Chinese Text Project, https://ctext.org The British Library [a]. No date. The Riau manuscripts: the gateway to the Malay intellectual world (EAP153), Endangered Archives Programme, https://eap.bl.uk/ project/EAP153 The British Library [b]. No date. Digitising private collections of Acehnese manuscripts located in Pidie and Aceh Besar regencies (EAP329), Endangered

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Archives Programme, https://eap.bl.uk/project/EAP329 The British Library [c]. No date. Digitising ‘sacred heirloom’ in private collections in Kerinci, Sumatra, Indonesia (EAP117), Endangered Archives Programme, https:// eap.bl.uk/project/EAP117 The British Library [d]. No date. Raja Hamzah Yunus Collection at the Balai Maklumat Kebudayaan Melayu Riau, Endangered Archives Programme, https://eap.bl.uk/ collection/EAP153-13 Wikiwand. No date. Printing press, Wikiwand, https://www.wikiwand.com/en/ Printing_press

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