HISTORY OF EUROPE 1789 – 1914 Unit – I Europe on the eve of the French Revolution – French Revolution – Causes, Courses of the Revolution – Work of the National Assembly – The Reign of Terror – The Directory Rule Coalition against France, Napoleanic wars’ work of Napolean – Continental System and its Failure. Unit – II The Congress of Vienna, Mettermich Era – Holy Alliance, Concert of Europe – Louise XVIII Charles X of France – 1830 July Revolution and its Effects Louis Philippe 1848 – Revolution and its effects – Comparison of the 1830 and 1848 Revolutions. Unit – III Napolean III of France : Domestic and Foreign Policies – Unification of Italy – Policy of Kaiser Willaim II – Unification of Germany – Bismark – Foreign policy of Bismark – garibaldi – Young Italy Cavour, Mazzini, Victor Immanuvel Unit IV Eastern Question : Crimean War, Berlin Congress – Greek war of Independence – First Balkan War – Second Balkan War – Young Turk Movement – Mustafa Kamal Basha – Formation of Balkan League – Pansalv Movement – Italo – Turkish War. Unit – V First World War : Cuseses, Courses and Results. Russian Revolution of 1917 – League of Nations. Books for Reference: Anderson - Modern Europe in World Perspective Fisher.G.A. - History of Modern Europe David Thomson - Europe Since Napolean Fisher.H.A.L. - History of Europe Grant and Temporley - Europe in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries Haley.H - World Crisis, 1914 – 1919 Hayes and Gole - History of Europe since 1500 Hayes. C.I.H. Modern Europe upto 1870 Lipson.B Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries Philips.A Modern Europe, 1815 – 1899 South Gate A Text Book of Modern European History from 1789 – 1870, Vol.II. South Gate A Text Book of Modern European History from 1870 to the Present Day. HISTORY OF EUROPE 1789 – 1914 Unit – I Europe on the eve of the French Revolution – French Revolution – Causes, Courses of the Revolution – Work of the National Assembly – The Reign of Terror – The Directory Rule Coalition against France, Napoleonic wars’ work of Napoleon – Continental System and its Failure. Unit – II The Congress of Vienna, Metternich Era – Holy Alliance, Concert of Europe – Louise XVIII Charles X of France – 1830 July Revolution and its Effects Louis Philippe 1848 – Revolution and its effects – Comparison of the 1830 and 1848 Revolutions. Unit – III Napoleon III of France : Domestic and Foreign Policies – Unification of Italy – Policy of Kaiser Willaim II – Unification of Germany – Bismarck – Foreign policy of Bismarck – Garibaldi – Young Italy Cavour, Mazzini, Victor Immanuel Unit IV Eastern Question : Crimean War, Berlin Congress – Greek war of Independence – First Balkan War – Second Balkan War – Young Turk Movement – Mustafa Kamal Basha – Formation of Balkan League – Pansalv Movement – Italo – Turkish War. Unit – V First World War: Causes, Courses and Results. Russian Revolution of 1917 – League of Nations. 1 Books for Reference: Anderson - Modern Europe in World Perspective Fisher.G.A. - History of Modern Europe David Thomson - Europe Since Napoleon Fisher.H.A.L. - History of Europe Grant and Temporley - Europe in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries Haley.H - World Crisis, 1914 – 1919 Hayes and Gole - History of Europe since 1500 Hayes. C.I.H. Modern Europe upto 1870 Lipson.B Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries Philips.A Modern Europe, 1815 – 1899 South Gate A Text Book of Modern European History from 1789 – 1870, Vol.II. South Gate A Text Book of Modern European History from 1870 to the Present Day. 2 Introduction: The French Revolution was a great event in the History not only of France and Europe but also of mankind. The history of the 18th century of Europe was the history of one nation, one event and one man. The nation is France, the event is French revolution and the man was Napoleon. The French Revolution of 1789 was one the epoch-making events in the history of the world. The storm was simmering for a pretty long time. The revolution produced for-reaching results in the political, social and economic spheres. It put an end to the royal absolutism based on Divine Right theory, swept away the last vestiges of medievalism and accelerated the tempo of nationalism. It let loss the three ideas of ‘Liberty’, ‘Equality’ and ‘Fraternity’. It led to the despotism of Napoleon Bonaparte. The effect of the Revolution was felt not only in France but spread far and wide. Causes of the Revolution: The despotic nature of the French monarchy The Bourbon monarchs were despots. They believed in the “Divine Right Theory of Kingship” by which they considered themselves as representatives of God on earth and as such they were answerable to God and God alone and not to the people. The costly wars of Louis XIV led to the financial depression which stopped only after the Revolution. The successors of Louis XIV were thoroughly incompetent. Louis XV (1715- 1774) led a life of ease and pleasure. He squandered away the public money for private pleasures. The prophetic words of Louis XV-“After me the deluge came true”. Louis XVI (1774-1792) who succeeded Louis XV was anxious to set matters right. But he became a nerveless tool in the hands of his advisers, particularly his beautiful Queen Marie Antoinette. Louis XV and Louis XVI danced to the tune of their wives. Their beauty and charm 3 brought no help to save France from the deluge. On the contrary, they directed the ship of the state straight to the rocks. Social Cause: The most important cause of the French Revolution was the social cause. The revolution of 1789 was much less a rebellion against despotism than a rebellion against inequality. The French society was divided into the privileged and unprivileged. The first group consisted of Nobles and Clergies. They were only (5%) five percent of the total population they owned 90% of the total wealth of the nations. They led a worldly life. They were exempted from the taxpaying. The Nobles were addressed as ‘My Lord’. The men in the street were peasants and they starved. They craved for the Church. The Roman Catholic Church in France was a ‘state with in a state’. It was an intolerable despotism. The clergies occupied a privileged position. The competed with worldly man. The clergymen had possessed waste wealth and palaces. They were exempted from taxpaying; the highest ranks of the Church were often filled by Nobles who had no interest in religious affairs. Enjoying huge income, the church dignitaries paid subordinates to perform their duties. Condition of the Common People: The condition of the lower classes was miserable. The entire tax burden fell on them. They were ill-treated in many ways. The saying at the time was, ‘the nobles fight, the clergy pray, and the people pay’. It was the Third Estate which contributed to the bulk of the revenue in France. The taille or land tax was entirely borne by the peasants. The gabelle or salt tax was entirely borne by the peasants. The gabelle or salt tax hit hard the lower classes. 4 This was the most regressive of all the taxes. The price of the salt was about ten times of its real value. Nobody was allowed to use sea water to cook. The Contribution of French Philosophers Literature was a passionate champion of reform and through it a flood of new ideas swept over France. Another cause was the French intellectual giants. Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, Quesnay and many others stirred the intellectual world to its depths. Montesquieu (1689-1755) Since he was a lawyer he got an opportunity to review the work of the constitution of various countries. This champion’s great work ‘Sprit of Laws’ had an immediate and immense success. It was a product of a long period labour. He was also dead against the seventy of criminal laws and religious intolerance. He had neither the views nor the attitude of a revolutionary. He emphasized the necessity in any well regulated state of separating carefully the three powers of the government the legislative, the executive and the judicial. His view was that liberty was highly impossible without the separation of powers. His book was a study of political philosophy and analysis of various forms of government and their merits and demerits. He initiated a philosophic movement and unmasked the batteries of criticism and satire which were to strike at the foundations of the Ancient Regime in France. Voltaire: Voltaire was the most conspicuous and perhaps the most brilliant during the intellectual circle of 1694-1778. In his works, he criticized the institutions of his time in uncertain terms. He made slashing attacks on the 5 church and other pillars of the old Regime. He was a warrior all his life. By his intellectual activity, he had amassed a large fortune which had become one of the powers of Europe. His ideal of government was a benevolent despotism. But he denounced the abuses and iniquities of the laws and the judicial system of arbitrary punishment of torture. He could not tolerate tyranny of any form. He was always ready to take up the cause of the oppressed. According to Voltaire, the church was the enemy of freedom of thought, the persecutor of innocent man who differed from it, as the supporter of all kinds of narrow and bigoted prejudices. He headed the Roman Catholic Church and he constantly attacked it. He opined that "instead of ruling by 100 rats, let it be ruled by a lion". Rousseau (1712 - 1778) Another giant of the age was Rousseau, who was very different in tone and tendency. He was in favour of total re-organization of society because nothing less would render possible liberty. The political influence of Rousseau was incalculable not only in France but all over Europe.