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This electronic thesis or dissertation has been downloaded from the King’s Research Portal at https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/ How realistically can contemporary platoon-level infantry combat be simulated using First-Person Shooter (FPS) video games? Bennett, James Henry Awarding institution: King's College London The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without proper acknowledgement. END USER LICENCE AGREEMENT Unless another licence is stated on the immediately following page this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ You are free to copy, distribute and transmit the work Under the following conditions: Attribution: You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Non Commercial: You may not use this work for commercial purposes. No Derivative Works - You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work. Any of these conditions can be waived if you receive permission from the author. Your fair dealings and other rights are in no way affected by the above. Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 11. Oct. 2021 How realistically can contemporary platoon-level infantry combat be simulated using First-Person Shooter (FPS) video games? James H. Bennett Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2016 King’s College London 1 Abstract This research thesis investigates the degree to which first-person computer games are capable of simulating tactical infantry engagements, with a view to enhancing their utility for future infantry training and informing subsequent academic and military studies. This field of research is becoming increasingly relevant within the modern military establishment, as budget cuts brought about by the general economic downturn are compelling armed forces to seek more cost effective methods of training soldiers. Because modern games are highly technologically advanced and costly to develop as stand-alone products, the usage of Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) video games as training aids is becoming increasingly common. Since these games have applications in both the military and commercial spheres, developers are able to try to obtain double value by selling them concurrently to both markets. The innate tension between realism and entertainment inevitably leads to compromises in the verisimilitude of the product, and this thesis argues that achieving such double value is tenable only in relation to specific aspects of infantry training. There has been little academic research to date examining the effectiveness of COTS game usage within the military, largely due to their recent development and acceptance as legitimate training tools. However, three main strands of related research undertaken by two distinct professions have been identified: Militaries have invested considerable resources into understanding infantry combat modelling and dynamics, and to a lesser extent how bespoke virtual environments can be employed to enhance training regimes, while social scientists have assessed the characteristics inherent to simulated environments in order to examine psychological immersion.1 This thesis will link together – and expand upon – these areas of research, which examine hitherto discrete aspects of commercial video games and military simulations. Combining these approaches will provide an evaluation of how realistic commercial game products are from a military perspective, in conjunction with an examination of their relationship to the sociological aspects of the intent of the designers and needs of the market. This will pave the way for an assessment of how 1 ‘Virtual environments are computer generated domains which create a perception of traversable space and afford the exertion of player agency. They are populated by objects and often human or AI [Artifical Intelligence] controlled entities with whom players can interact’. – Calleja (2009), p.2. 2 successfully COTS video games can be adapted to suit the needs of armed forces, specifically in relation to creating combat environments suitable for training infantry soldiers in particular aspects of combat. This research will bridge the gap between the professional military and simulation communities, equipping simulation professionals with an understanding of combat, and military professionals with the skills to utilise First-Person Shooter (FPS) environments effectively as training tools. 3 Acknowledgements I am indebted to all of the interviewees who committed their time to participate in this research. Amongst them, I am particularly grateful to Major Tom Mouat and Nicholas Edwards, who have both made significant contributions in terms of contributing their own expertise and providing valuable further contacts from within their respective professional spheres. There is no doubt that this thesis would not have come to fruition without the exceptional efforts proffered by my Supervisor, Professor Philip Sabin. His input across the last seven years has consistently served to guide me towards the highest of standards, and I have no doubt that the work you are about to read would not have existed in anything like its current form without his expertise to guide my efforts. I am indebted and extremely grateful to him for his patience and support. My friends and colleagues have offered me endless encouragement across the years, and I thank each and every one of you for believing in me. In particular I would like to thank Emma Trevayne for her love, support, and proofreading abilities. Above all, I would like to thank my parents. They have encouraged and supported me throughout every step of this research, and there is no doubt in my mind that without them this project would never have been completed (or even started!) JHB – 25/05/2016 4 Contents ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................. 4 CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................... 5 GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................................... 8 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 11 RESEARCH QUESTION .......................................................................................................................... 11 Sub‐Questions .......................................................................................................................... 11 Methodology and Chapter Outline ........................................................................................... 14 Secondary Literature ................................................................................................................ 19 Primary Literature .................................................................................................................... 24 PART 1: MODELLING CONTEMPORARY INFANTRY COMBAT ........................................................ 29 CHAPTER 1: COMBAT MODEL AIMS AND OVERVIEW .................................................................................. 29 The Reliability of Enemy Combatant Fatality Statistics ............................................................. 33 Historical Combat Models in a Contemporary Framework ....................................................... 35 CHAPTER 2: THE MORAL COMPONENT ................................................................................................... 48 a) The Psychology and Physiology of the Combatant ............................................................... 48 b) Group Cohesion ................................................................................................................... 57 c) Rules of Engagement ........................................................................................................... 63 d) Suppression ......................................................................................................................... 65 e) Surprise & Shock .................................................................................................................. 70 CHAPTER 3: THE PHYSICAL COMPONENT ................................................................................................. 73 f) Combined Arms Integration .................................................................................................. 73 g) Cover and Concealment ....................................................................................................... 77 h) Dispersion ............................................................................................................................ 82 i) Logistics ................................................................................................................................ 85 j) Numerical Preponderance....................................................................................................