From Victim to Empowered: The Liberation of Women During the French Revolution By: Emma Jedan

About the author: Emma Jedan is in her third year at the University of Guelph and is pursuing a major in International Development, with an area of emphasis in Gender and Development. Her research is influenced by her passion for women’s rights issues and her interest in history, and how the two correlate. Her essay focuses on the liberation of women during the French Revolution and was written for the course HIST*2240 Women, War and Nation. In the future, she hopes to have an opportunity where she is able to combine her love for traveling along with her passion for learning and writing.

66 The French Revolution can be described as a critical event in European history that has helped influence and shape the nations of today. By the end of the 18th century, France was on the brink of bankruptcy. The citizens of France were frustrated with the current state of the nation, which included centuries-old institutions such as monarchy, the feudal system, and its poor economic policies. 1 Over the course of around the next decade, riots, strikes and violence ensued as individuals fought for a drastic change in the workings of France. It culminated during the infamous Reign of Terror, where over 17,000 people were executed based on suspicion of being an enemy of the revolution – including King Louis XVI and his wife Marie-Antoinette.2 By 1799, the French Revolution drew to a close as Napoleon Bonaparte appointed himself France’s “first consul”, which marked the beginning of the Napoleonic era. 3 The French Revolution led to the precedent of a democratic government, which can be seen around the world today. It also showed the strength and determination of a nation. Specifically, it gave women in France an opportunity to have a voice during a time where they were rarely allowed to do so. It can be argued that women were victims during this time, but it is important to recognize how they helped to liberate women. Despite the multitude of barricades that women had to face in their fight for liberation during the French Revolution, they ultimately were able to make their voices heard, which can be seen through their participation in the French Revolution, such as working-class women’s efforts in fighting for economic fairness, and their striving for education and having a voice in politics. It is imperative to fully grasp what everyday life was like for women during this period in order to fully understand how liberation was ultimately achieved. During the time period of the French Revolution, women in France, as well as many other nations, had very little rights or ability to participate in society. Due to a long history of a patriarchal society, women were often viewed as ‘lesser than’ to their male counterparts. They had very specific expectations and duties to fulfill that left little room for women to engage in outside activities and experiences. Furthermore, women were not encouraged to have their own thoughts and aspirations, so it was much easier to accept their fate of having little rights, as that was all that was known. During this time, women were expected to maintain the home and care for the family. 4 It was a widespread belief that their responsibilities should be limited to only these two things. The housewife’s role was ultimately to be a nurturer and to

1 “French Revolution,” History.com Editors, A&E Television Networks, accessed November 8th, 2019, https://www.history.com/topics/france/french-revolution. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. 4 Dominique Godineau, The Women of Paris and Their French Revolution (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998), 28.

67 keep the family alive, more so than it was to clean and keep the home tidy. In this time period, homes were often furnished with just the bare necessities, making it difficult to create too much of a mess. 5 Additionally, women were encouraged to stay at home and to never seek news but rather to wait and receive it, but even still only from their fathers, children, brothers or husbands.6 Paternal love for children was not uncommon and mothers worked their absolute hardest to guard them, by bringing them along anywhere they went or in some cases, even sending them away to nurses for the first year or two of their lives, to ensure full protection. 7 During the Revolution, mothers were given higher value as they were seen as the mothers of future republicans and revolutionary combatants, for the future of the Republic depended on for soldiers.8 During the French Revolution, women, too, had their own beliefs on the politics of France’s state. However, they were told that the best and most helpful thing they could do for the Revolution was to comfort their husbands and instill Republican principles and values into their children and home. 9 In terms of rights, women had very little, if any at all. A single woman would be under her father’s authority until she married, which then transferred her rights over to her husband’s rule where she would have no control over her person or property.10 There were some women who worked in order to make ends meet. The jobs were low-paying and consisted of domestic service and heavy labour, but they were crucial for lower-class families. In the years leading up to the start of the French Revolution, these ideologies slowly began to quiver. Feminist theory had emerged and became evident in pamphlets that stated that humans are naturally equal and therefore women should have the same rights as men, including having a better education, access to higher-paying jobs, and demands for marital and economic equality.11 This was one of the first widespread appearances of feminism, and although many ignored it at first, it did find success in having their demands heard. There are records of everyday, working mothers agreeing with these pamphlets and in specific asking for better jobs.12 This can be viewed as the start of women in France not only realizing that they deserve more rights, but wanting to do something about it. In the midst of a huge political upheaval, they wanted to have the ability to play a role in the future of France. Many women’s main

5 Ibid, 26. 6 Ibid, 27. 7 Ibid, 28. 8 Ibid 29. 9 Ibid 270. 10 Jane Abray, Feminism in the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, 1975,) 43. 11 Ibid, 45. 12 Ibid, 46.

68 priority was her family. Women likely wanted to ensure a safe country for their children to grow up in, which can be a reason as to why they were no longer able to hold back on having their voices heard. Perhaps it was the fact that as more and more women began to speak out, others found safety in doing so too. Either way, it is undeniable that before the French Revolution, women’s role and rights in society were minimal, but the Revolution played a key role in flipping the narrative. As stated earlier, women had the role of being the nurturer of the home. It was their job to take care of the family, by all means necessary. In a variety of households, the housewife was even responsible for managing the household funds. The man brought home his earnings, gave them to his wife, in which she would transform the coins into a hot meal to place on the dinner table every night.13 If the food was not hot enough upon the husband’s arrival home from work, arguments would break out. Or, if he could not make it home for dinner on a particular night, the wife would visit him at work and deliver the meal to him. Bread was a dietary staple for the large majority of the French population. A household of four would typically consume at least two loaves per day, and the price of a loaf sold for roughly around eight to nine sols. 14 In August 1788, the prices rose to 9.5 sous and nearly doubled by February 1789, with an increase in price to 14.5 sous.15 This rise in price had an immediate effect on the population of France. Economist Camille Ernest Labrousse calculated that during the normal time period of bread costing around nine sols alone, families would spend around half of their household income on bread.16 The price increased due to an array of influencing factors. Firstly, poor grain harvests occurred. Poor grain harvests in France date as far back as 1529 during the Grande Rebeyne, causing riots and not improving by the late 1700s.17 Secondly, The King was being counseled by Physiocrats, who were a group of economists that advised that the wealth of nations come solely from the value of land development and that agricultural products should be priced higher.18 That, along with the poor harvest, is what ultimately led to the surge in bread prices. Additionally, this situation worsened with an increase in the nation’s population. In France in 1789, there was around five to six million more people than there was in 1720.19 It is clear that with the bread prices increasing, a growing population and unemployment being

13 Godineau, “The Women of Paris,” 26. 14 Lisa DiCaprio, The Origins of the Welfare State: Women, Work, and the French Revolution (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2007,) 18. 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 History.com Editors, “French Revolution,” accessed accessed November 8th, 2019, https:// www.history.com/topics/france/french-revolution. 18 Ibid. 19 Ibid.

69 on the rise, it would leave many families to face hunger and poverty. This single event is one of the most influential factors in driving women to speak out and begin to participate in the revolution, despite their expectation to not partake in politics. Women wanted to take care of their families, but without being able to afford the staple food item in their diet, it became difficult to do so. Bread riots first broke out in August 1788, with the initial rise of .5 sous, and by December they were occurring all over France.20 The women of France were deeply concerned by these issues, so they began to act on them in unconventional ways, such as protesting. The morning of October 5th began with women protesting the high bread prices, but their demonstrations quickly turned into a mob of thousands as revolutionaries and allies joined them.21 They ransacked the city for weapons then marched their way into the Palace of Versailles, where the King was. After a few violent incidents, the women and their allies were able to convince The King to return to Paris under surveillance, which marked the end of The King’s independence and an overturn in power. The women were also successful in in their demands, and The King agreed to assure a regular supply of bread to Paris.22 This is a critical moment in history for women’s liberation. The march of Versailles marks not only the beginning of the French Revolution, but also one of the first times where women in France participated in politics and were listened to. In a society where they were raised to only listen and believe what they were told, it is extraordinary that these women had the courage to protest in the first place. The fact that they were able to have such an impact played a key role in empowering women to continue to have a voice in politics, and instilling in them that they were capable of being the change that they wished to see. The bread riots marked just the beginning of the decade long Revolution. Similarly, it also marked just the beginning of the female empowerment in France. They were shown first-hand the influence they could have, even when it seemed impossible to do so. Furthermore, with heightened political tensions and the well-being and survival of their families at stake, many women struggled to stay silent. Despite previously not having much of an access to education, due to the expectation for them to simply be a housewife or work low-paying, dismal jobs, many women picked up interest in politics and wanted to become more informed. Rightly so, they saw what was happening in their homes and wished to play an active role in the future of their country. As stated previously, the norm was that women did not belong in political

20 Ibid, 19. 21 Darlene Gay Levy, Harriet Branson Applewhite, Mary Durham Johnson, Women in Revolutionary Paris 1789-1795 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1980,) 15. 22 Ibid.

70 affairs. They were to listen to what they were told by their male relatives, and that was that. This meant that it was not necessarily easy to become politically educated. In fact, nonconformist acts of self-assertion by women were seen as acts of deviance and rejection of their naturally assigned roles. Society criticized these women that dared to challenge the status quo, and responded to their behaviour by accusing them of “desensitization” and lacking in femininity.23 It is undeniable how difficult it would have been for the women of this time to stand firm and speak out on their beliefs, thus criticizing the ways of French society. However, their inherent will for safety and equality led some of them to achieve it. Political clubs in France during this time were therefore predominately male and largely excluded women. Slowly, women’s clubs began to form and although they were often done so in the name of supporting their husbands. Nonetheless, some clubs had ulterior motives and their agenda was to fight alongside the men.24 It is important to note that many of these women did not align with a specific political party, but were rather just seeking the defence of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness for women. Etta Palm d’Aelders is an example of an outspoken feminist that spoke out during the French Revolution. She founded the first exclusively all-female club, which was named the Society of Friends of the Truth.25 In 1792, d’Aelders made a plea to the Legislative Assembly for complete equality between the sexes, on the basis that equality is a natural right.26 During the Reign of Terror, d’Aelders was announced as a spy and she fled to Holland.27 Olympe de Gouges is another clear example of a woman that became politically involved, despite the fate that it would lead her to. De Gouges developed her ideas about women’s rights through the use of writing and ultimately wrote The Declaration of the Rights of Women and Citizen, which was presented as a development of The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.28 De Gouges presented this to the National Assembly in 1792, and in it she made demands for full equality for women in all areas of civic life.29 Furthermore, she demanded that women be given the rights to full participation in education, government, employment, the judicial system, and that they ultimately share the same rights of inheritance, adoption, and divorce as men.30 Finally, Manon Roland is another example of a political woman in the French Revolution. Manon aspired to enact social

23 Lisa Beckstrand, Deviant Women of the French Revolution and the Rise of Feminism (Madison [N.J.]: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 2009,) 15. 24 Ibid, 16. 25 Ibid. 26 Ibid. 27 Ibid. 28 Joshua Rivas, The Radical Novelty of Olympe de Gouges, Nottingham French Studies, 345. 29 Ibid 17. 30 Ibid.

71 change, but did so more indirectly than the prior. Manon transformed her home into a salon for a meeting place for deputies of the National Assembly. She was also a writer but did so under her husband’s name.31 However, unlike d’Aelders and de Gouges, Manon did not actually advocate for political rights for women. She held onto the belief that women should play a very modest role in politics.32 Despite the fact that she was not actually fighting for the rights of women and their liberation, she is still relevant, as she was a woman that became involved in politics during a time where it was not the norm for them to do so. All of these women, along with a multitude of others, were publicly denounced and arrested or exiled. Etta Palm d’Aelders was accused of being a Dutch spy, but was able to escape to Holland.33 Olympe de Gouges and Manon Roland were both arrested and executed for allegedly “conspiring against the unity and the indivisibility of the Republic” and for having “attempted to introduce civil war”.34 De Gouges was guillotined on November 3rd 1793 and Madame Roland on November 8th 1793. 35 They were portrayed as failed women and their public execution served as a reminder to all women of what would happen to them if they also attempted to change gender-based social structures.36 Shortly after, the revolutionary press pointed out that women’s desire for political and intellectual independence had led them to forget the virtues of their sex, a crime which justified death by the guillotine.37 Not long after, all women’s clubs were outlawed.38 Despite the fates of all of these women, they still played a critical role in the liberation of women during the French Revolution. They were some of the first to publicly voice what many women were probably thinking, but were too afraid or unsure how to say. They showed other women that if they too wanted equal rights, they were not alone. They also showed all of society that they were not scared of death or what their fate might be, but rather feared living without fighting for equality. The French Revolution did lead to women’s clubs being outlawed, as well as the executions and imprisonment of women who did partake in politics, but it also showed everyone that women were beginning their fight for equality and they were not going to back down easily. When reading about the French Revolution, it is easy to only see the negative outcomes. It is easy to see the women of this time period as victims. While it is true that it did not lead to an immediate change in the treatment of

31 Ibid 46. 32 Ibid 46. 33 Ibid 20. 34 Ibid. 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 Ibid. 38 Ibid.

72 women and how they were viewed, it did still help to empower and liberate women. Prior to the French Revolution, women generally did not have many rights. There was an expectation set upon them to be obedient and take care of their families, and this ideology was rarely challenged. With political tensions high and a society fighting for the state of their nation, women were able to also find their own empowerment. These women ultimately paved the way for future fighters to fight for equality between the sexes, and helped to liberate the women of France in the 18th century, playing a crucial role in the shaping of France’s treatment of women. They were ultimately able to achieve liberation for women during the French Revolution through their involvement in the bread riots and their striving for political independence.

73 Bibliography Abray, Jane. Feminism in the French Revolution. Oxford University Press, 1973. Beckstrand, Lisa. Deviant Women of the French Revolution and the Rise of Feminism. Madison: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 2013. Dicaprio, Lisa. The Origins of Welfare State: Women, Work, and the French Revolution. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007. Godineau, Dominique. The Women of Paris and Their French Revolution. Berkeley, CA: Univ.of California Press, 1988. History.com Editors. “French Revolution.” History.com. A&E Television Networks, November 9, 2009. https://www.history.com/topics/france/french-revolution. Levy, Darline Gay, Harriet Branson. Applewhite, and Mary Durham Johnson. Women in Revolutionary Paris, 1789-1795. Urbana: University of Illinois Press,1980. Rivas, Joshua. The Radical Novelty of Olympe De Gouges.” French Studies, 2014.

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