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Dissertation Asmita in Full.Pdf (1.571Mb) NATIONAL SUBJECTS, INTERNATIONAL SELVES: FEMINIST SELF-FASHIONING IN MEIJI JAPAN AND NINETEENTH CENTURY COLONIAL INDIA A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Asmita Satish Hulyalkar May 2007 © 2007 Asmita Satish Hulyalkar NATIONAL SUBJECTS, INTERNATIONAL SELVES: FEMINIST SELF-FASHIONING IN MEIJI JAPAN AND NINETEENTH CENTURY COLONIAL INDIA Asmita Satish Hulyalkar, Ph.D. Cornell University 2007 “National Subjects, International Selves: Feminist Self-fashioning in Meiji Japan and Colonial India,” is a historical and literary-critical inquiry into the complex relationships that Asian women in the 19C forged across the North-South divide. I argue that when such women overstepped the bounds of nation to embrace a larger sisterhood, they placed themselves in an anomalous position with regard to the nation- state—as citizen-subjects and as feminists. In particular, I examine the work of Japanese feminist and educator Tsuda Umeko (1864-1929) in conjunction with that of the Indian feminist Pandita Ramabai (1858-1922) for both of whom an engagement with the task of female education and social reform at home became possible through the emotional and material support provided by their American counterparts. Reading Ramabai’s The High-caste Hindu Woman (1888) together with Japanese Girls and Women (1891) co-authored by Tsuda and her American friend Alice Bacon I focus on the logic of the triadic encounter between Tsuda, Ramabai and the American women who espoused their cause. I analyse these two texts in terms of the key paradox underlying the Japanese understanding of their own Asianness: while they sought to identify with the ‘civilised’ West the Japanese at the same time could not but recognize cultural affinities with India and thereby ‘Asia.’ In the dissertation, my historical-semantic survey of the emergence of ‘Asia’ in the Japanese imaginary in this period is offset by an examination of 19C constructions of ‘ideal’ womanhood that sought to locate woman within the nation. Here I describe Tsuda’s uncomfortable relation to her country and its language because of her early life in America; I suggest that Tsuda’s commitment to the cause of international sisterhood had the paradoxical effect of making her acquiesce to the Meiji’s state’s project for a modern ‘Japanese’ woman. Finally, my examination of Tsuda’s voluminous correspondence with her American mother as framed in Ôba Minako’s biography and translation of these letters seeks to draw attention to the fact that both ‘Asian’ and ‘Japanese’ continued to be reinscribed in this period, most effectively through discourses extolling the so-called uniqueness of the Japanese language. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Asmita Satish Hulyalkar was born in 1974 in Aurangabad, India. She finished her BA in Psychology from Fergusson College, Pune University (India) in 1995. She went on to do an MA at University of Southern California, completing her thesis under the supervision of Dr. David Bialock. She joined the Cornell Graduate Program in 1998. Asmita lives in Brooklyn with her husband. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I owe my interest in Tsuda Umeko, one of the two women who is central to my thesis, to Gordon Brown. This initial interest was welcomed and sustained at Cornell University under the valuable guidance of Brett de Bary who served as the Chair of my committee, and to who I am grateful to for her unstinting warmth and support in the long years that I took to write. I am also happy to acknowledge my intellectual debt to Naoki Sakai from whom I learned a great deal. I am grateful to Durba Ghosh for taking the time to read the thesis when it was in its final stages. I should also thank Karen Brazell and Kyoko Selden for their gracious help and support over the years. Many thanks also to Meera Kosambi who was generous with her time, spending one entire summer with me reading Ramabai’s Marathi texts. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Hirata Yumi, Ueno Chizuko and Gauri Viswanathan for their active interest and support in the project; I thank the Japan Foundation for a generous fellowship in the year 2002-03 which enabled me to consult the Tsuda archives located in Tsuda College. I am particularly grateful to staff of the archive and especially Yuko Takahashi. My friends at Cornell have been a source of support and intellectual stimulation. I would like to thank Yukiko Hanawa, Vyjayanthi Ratnam, Mark McGuire, Daniel McKee, Masaki Matsubara, Trent Maxey, Setsu Shigematsu, Paola Iovene, Sarah McKibben, Jolisa Gracewood, and Sheetal Majithia. I like to think that my late grandfather Dr. Madhusudan Hulyalkar and my beloved uncle Shrihari Khanwelkar would have been particularly pleased to see this project come to a conclusion. To my grandmother, my parents, and my sister I owe a special debt for their patience and trust in me. To my friends Neeraja, Manjiri, Vrinda, Shrikant, and Saurabh a loving thank you. George and Nishith also deserve a heartfelt iv thanks for their patience with me and for lending a ear during particularly difficult times. Finally, I would also like to thank Milind. I am quite sure that without him I would not have finished. To him my deepest and most loving thanks. v TABLE OF CONTENTS BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.........................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.............................................................................................iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ..............................................................................................vi CHAPTER 1. Introduction ............................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER 2. Writing Tsuda Umeko: Biography and its Excess................................. 12 CHAPTER 3. The Logic of a Triadic Encounter: Pandita Ramabai, her Japanese Audience and the American Presence .............................................................. 99 CHAPTER 4. At Home in Global Sisterhood? Locating Tsuda and Ramabai in International Feminist Networks .................................................................... 187 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................... 272 vi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION This dissertation builds on two late nineteenth century problematizations of the relation between nation and gender; the name indigenous patriarchy gave to this issue was “the Women’s Question.” Suggesting that the concerns implicit in this “question” in Meiji Japan bore an instructive resemblance to its elaboration in late nineteenth century colonial India, I track in each setting the emergence of the notion of the “ideal woman” and its existential and personal cost for women who sought to elaborate their own very singular idea of historical will. What was at stake for elite nationalist patriarchy was the need to portray an incipient nation-state in the terms not just of the modernity of its material substance but in terms of the perfectibility of its humanity, of which the female body, socialized as feminine, was the exemplary instance. Woman was the subject uniquely poised to challenge and transform custom, law and sanction. To be at once modern (hence, civilised and on par with the “universal”) and traditional (i.e., espousing national values and therefore “particular”) demanded a very specific kind of gender reform, one focused predominantly on education and on the re- structuring of the household. While this sphere of gender reform remained primarily within a male agenda, feminist scholars have argued that more and more educated women had begun at the time to participate in the arena of reform, particularly in the all-important field of women’s education. Thus, while on the one hand the codification of the “ideal woman” set up normative standards for what a woman ought to be, the role of women in the question of reform also afforded a heterogeneous domain of constrained freedoms for female subject formation. One of the key emphases of this dissertation is the need to keep in view the international horizon of reform, the essential tie between such reformism and its adequation to the Western modern. At the time, women in nation formation were for 1 the first time being conceived of as universal subjects, but crucially not yet as citizen- subjects. The idea of imagining women as universal subjects came with a paradox; the aim was to particularize woman as a national subject embodying qualities that made her the symbol of the national (and by the same token the evolving dominant) tradition. Within the context of the Indian and Japanese Women’s Question it is therefore worth noting that the national category of women came into existence under a Western gaze, and within an international framework and therefore necessarily within the comparative mode. The “Asian woman” determined as a sign of barbarity or civilization was thus from her very birth an international figure. The case of Tsuda Umeko (1864-1929), one of the two central figures in this dissertation illustrates this point well. The youngest member of the 1871 Iwakura mission, she was among the first group of women sent to study in America with the assumption that she would upon her return inculcate her own female compatriots with ideas of educated and civilised womanhood.1 In 1882 Tsuda returned to Japan, by which time the climate in the field of reform was beginning to take a conservative
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