Women’s Jiritsu and Christian Feminism in Japan

Minato Akiko

RECENTLY I HAD THE privilege of studying at I would like to explore this issue by con- Harvard University as a visiting scholar, sidering ³ve questions: First, what is the where I was able to sharpen my under- status of in general? standing of relations between Japan and the Second, why is it that in Japan feminism United States. Although certainly not with- has developed, not as the women’s liberation out signi³cant tensions, there is in place a movement of the West, but as a movement more or less viable economic bridge across of women’s jiritsu? Third, what are some of the Paci³c. By contrast, however, informa- the cultural and traditional barriers to wom- tion on current social and religious devel- en’s realization of jiritsu in Japan? Fourth, opments in Japan was conspicuously lack- what is the inµuence of Christian feminism ing. In particular, it seems that little is upon the movement of jiritsu? And ³fth, known about the contemporary church in what is the status of Christian women in Japan or matters concerning the status of Japan today? women in church and society. In this respect, the transpaci³c bridge seems to THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN GENERAL carry primarily one-way traf³c—with infor- Many Westerners tend to stereotype mation and inµuence µowing from the U.S. Japanese women as highly submissive and to Japan. Perhaps the time has come for us deferential to men. However, the emergence Japanese Christians to make efforts to estab- of some women as prominent leaders— lish a genuinely two-way spiritual bridge such as Doi Takako as a recent leader of the across the Paci³c. Japan Socialist Party, the major opposition While in the United States, I was party in Japan, and Ogata Sadako as the impressed with the signi³cant difference in United Nations High Commissioner for the nature of the feminist movements in the Refugees—suggests that there is more to the U.S. and in Japan. For example, on one picture than this common stereotype would occasion I was given the opportunity of lec- indicate. turing on Japanese feminism, and in the lec- Japanese society in general dictates that ture I attempted to explain the notion of a husband spend very little time at home. “women’s jiritsu [independence]” in Japan. Men characteristically face long working I discovered that there is no appropriate hours, a long commute to work, and the English word for jiritsu, in the sense in expectation that after work they will social- which I was using it. This brief essay is an ize with colleagues until late at night. attempt to explore some of the issues Therefore, men tend to turn over most involved in the dif³culty of conveying the domestic matters as well as the children’s sense of jiritsu. education to their wives. Accordingly,

7 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 59 1993 women make almost all of the major family In 1970 the more radical element of the and household decisions, and they exercise women’s liberation movement in the considerable power within the home. United States was introduced into Japan. At Interestingly, a 1987 government survey ³rst, Japanese women were somewhat con- indicated that one-third of all women and fused by the new and radical opinions, but half of all men feel that a man’s place is at they gradually began to sift through the work and that a woman should stay at views and formulate their own perspec- home. Expectations are slowly changing, tives. A large number of books were trans- particularly among younger couples, but lated into Japanese, and books dealing with women who try to break out of the “house- women’s issues were neatly arranged in a wife only” model in order to ³nd employ- special section of the bookstores. In time, well ment outside the home face intimidating educated and informed Japanese women obstacles. It is almost impossible for a also began to write about feminist issues woman to work the long hours expected of from a Japanese perspective. Mizuta To- a man and still ful³ll the expectations mae’s Josei kaihõ shisõ no ayumi (The placed upon mothers in Japan. Although an Thought of Women’s Liberation), Shirai Ta- equal opportunity employment law was kao’s Josei kaihõ ronshð (Women’s Liber- passed by the government in 1985, Japanese ation), and Ehara Yumiko’s Feminism ronsõ society is still considerably more conserva- 1970 nen kara 1990 nen e (Feminism Argu- tive on such matters than is American soci- ment From 1970 to 1990) were primarily ety. As a whole, Japanese women are strong devoted to introducing the history of West- and have considerable self-con³dence in ern feminism and its chief characteristics. their roles of wife and mother, but it must be The women’s liberation movement in admitted that they have great dif³culty in America was closely related to the broader establishing an independent identity for social changes and the civil rights move- themselves apart from that of wife and/or ment of the 1960’s. Japan, however, had a mother. quite different social structure and was not undergoing similar transformations, thus WOMEN’S JIRITSU INSTEAD OF WOMEN’S the more radical dimension of the Ameri- LIBERATION can feminist movement was not widely accepted in Japan. By contrast, in Japan, the The feminist movement seems to have pro- feminist movement developed along the gressed more freely and rapidly in the new lines of women’s jiritsu. For example, Kõno world of America than in Europe or Japan. Kiyomi wrote the book Jiritsu no joseigaku Women’s suffrage, the right to vote, was (Women’s Independence) and Inoue Teruko acquired ³rst in the United States in 1920, wrote Joseigaku (Women’s Studies). In in England in 1928, and in France in 1946. 1984, I wrote Josei no honto no hitoridachi An equal opportunity employment law was (The Christian View of True Women’s passed by the government of the United Jiritsu [Independence] in Home, Church States in 1966, and only in 1975 was a sim- and Society.) ilar bill passed in France and England. In Since Japanese culture, which is heavily Japan, however, the right to vote was not inµuenced by Confucianism and Bud- granted to women until 1946, after World dhism, obscures the notion of individual War II under the new Japanese constitution. personality and self, impersonality or the This was twenty-six years later than in the subservience of individual personality to U.S., and the equal opportunity employ- the group is emphasized by society at large. ment law came thirty years later—in 1985. Thus, when the women’s liberation move-

8 MINATO: Women's Jiritsu and Christian Feminism in Japan ment was ³rst introduced into Japan it was Japanese social relationships have been not readily understood by Japanese women. heavily inµuenced by Confucianism—par- Feminism in Japan has focused upon the ticularly the ethical relationships of parent- concept of women’s jiritsu. Two Chinese child intimacy, correctness between lord characters are used in Japanese to signify and retainer, proper distinction between jiritsu: À (self) and C (to stand). The period husband and wife, the seniority relation- from 1970 to 1990 saw Japanese women ship between young and old, and the mutu- exert great efforts in attaining a measure of al trust between friends. social and economic jiritsu. The results of Bound within this complex web of rela- their efforts can be seen in the establish- tionships, Japanese women have experi- ment of laws granting equal employment enced great dif³culty in developing a strong opportunities and maternity leave. At the sense of equality with men and indepen- present time, Japanese women are strug- dence. In spite of Japan’s rapid moderniza- gling with what is perhaps the most tion, traditional social values and mores dif³cult aspect of jiritsu—establishing their remain strong. Thus a sense of “nonperson- own spiritual and psychological identity. ality” or the subservience of the individual In 1992, the Women’s Affairs personality to the broader group is still Research Center completed a report on emphasized in contemporary Japan. “The Japanese Women’s Concept of Analyzing a woman’s sense of self-iden- Spiritual Jiritsu.” I was privileged to partic- tity in her book Jiritsu no joseigaku ipate for two years in the research with the (Women’s Independence), Kõno Kiyomi Commission. After studying answers to says, “We can establish our identity by questionnaires that had been sent out, the ‘playing catch’ with our inner feelings with Commission summarized its ³ndings as fol- others, and thereby ³nding out who we are lows: “Jiritsu is to take action according to and what we are.”3 Is it possible for one’s own decision, to be responsible for Japanese women to realize their own per- the action and yet to feel suf³ciency for sonhood and identity through the estab- one’s own behavior.”1 This kind of lished web of social relationships? Many research and focus on jiritsu might appear Japanese women are still seeking an answer somewhat strange to Westerners, who have to the problem of spiritual jiritsu. a much longer history of an established sense of individuality, but its importance The concept of family can be seen as we consider some obstacles to realizing jiritsu. The concept of ie (family) presents obstacles for women establishing self-identity. The SOME TRADITIONAL CULTURAL Japanese term ie can be translated into HINDRANCES TO REALIZING JIRITSU English in various ways, meaning a house in which people live, the home, the family, Social relationships etc., but there is a further meaning which is Social relationships make it very dif³cult very dif³cult to render in English. With ref- to establish a strong sense of the individual erence to Takeda’s view, Inagaki Hisakazu self. “The most characteristic feature of explains the meaning of ie as follows: human relationships in Japan is the insepa- “There is another meaning that is dif³cult to rability of the individual self from its fellow express in non-Japanese languages. Ie also humans and the resulting ‘groupism’”2, says refers to a direct lineage with unbroken con- Inagaki Hisakazu. tinuity from the past, having the concept of

9 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 59 1993 a kind of identity spanning every genera- concentrated my research upon factors tion.”4 affecting the spiritual jiritsu of professional This system of family relationships has women. It is noteworthy that those women had profound inµuence upon various who had been educated by an open-minded aspects of Japanese social order. A wide or liberal father had a more clearly estab- variety of human relationships were carefully lished sense of self-identity. It might be distinguished and ordered. Within the ie interesting to make an autobiographical system the father was the clear authority observation at this point. My background, ³gure, and the husband had clear authority which was analyzed and categorized for the over the wife and children. The ie system has Research Center as a liberal model, was also had great impact upon the practice of summarized in the report as follows: “She ancestor worship. Although the ie system was grew up with three brothers and three sisters, of³cially abolished after World War II, its but her father was a medical doctor and also inµuence and legacy remain. a Christian who provided equal opportuni- Although Japanese society is undergoing ty for education for men and women, even change in many respects, the movement to after the devastation of the war.”5 I recently realize women’s jiritsu is still very much in discovered that Doi Takako and Ogata process. It is perhaps notable that promi- Sadako also had some Christian inµuence in nent women such as Doi Takako, former their lives. leader of the Japan Socialist Party, and Ogata Sadako, the United Nations High CHRISTIAN INFLUENCE ON WOMEN’S JIRITSU Commissioner for Refugees, are each over sixty years of age, and although quite strong After Japan ended her long period of isola- and independent they grew up under the ie tion from the outside world in 1854, many system in Japan. It is not without signi- Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox ³cance that these women were reared in a missionaries entered the country, settling in Christian environment. I, too, am about the Yokohama, Nagasaki, Sapporo, and else- same age as they are, and I am a ³fth gener- where. ation Christian. There is a well-known The early years for these missionaries Japanese proverb that says the nail that were undoubtedly very dif³cult, as the sticks out will be hammered down. How- edict against Japanese conversion was still ever, on February 18, 1993 Ogata Sadako in force. It was not until 1873 that the pro- very courageously stood against the pre- scription was removed from public notice dominant mood of the United Nations and boards. Thus the average Japanese of the insisted upon a decision that was contrary mid-1880’s harbored considerable suspi- to the popular consensus. The entire United cion towards the new faith, not on the basis Nations was unable to hammer her down. of informed criticism but from the Throughout the history of Japan’s Tokugawa era’s depiction of Christianity as modernization we ³nd signi³cant women an alien religion that threatened Japanese who have stood against the tide and tried values and culture. to change the obstacles to women’s self- Gradually, however, Christianity came identity. to be more accepted. In 1884 Fukuzawa How is it that some women over sixty Yukichi, the founder of Japan’s prestigious years of age and reared under the older sys- Keio University and one of the leading tem can be so independent? I had the priv- intellectuals during the Era, com- ilege of participating in the Tokyo Women’s mended Christianity because of its wealth, Research Center from 1991–1992, and I its moral virtue and its ability to attract

10 MINATO: Women's Jiritsu and Christian Feminism in Japan socially and intellectually distinguished In remembering the greatness of Nitobe, persons. In this rather liberal and progressive however, we must not overlook the impor- atmosphere, a number of prominent tant contribution to his work made by a Japanese Christian personalities proved to be most remarkable woman—Mary Elkington, very attractive to society at large. These a Quaker who became included N‡jima Jõ (1843–1890), Ebina Nitobe’s wife. Mary was born in 1857, and Danjõ (1856–1939). Uchimura Kanzõ when she was fourteen she entered Westtown (1861–1930), Nitobe Inazõ (1862–1933), School, a Quaker school in Philadelphia. and Kagawa Toyohiko (1888–1960). Upon graduation she became a teacher of As far as Japanese Christian feminism is philosophy, world history, and English concerned, the most inµuential personality grammar. In her teaching she emphasized the was Nitobe Inazõ. He became a Christian importance of spiritual formation and intel- along with Uchimura Kanzõ in 1877, in the lectual training. Mary married Nitobe Inazõ Sapporo Agricultural School that was estab- on January 1, 1891. lished by Dr. William Smith Clark. Nitobe The Elkingtons were well known in was one of the ³rst Japanese to try to realize Philadelphia, so her marriage to Nitobe the ideal of serving as a bridge between the caused quite a sensation. One newspaper West and Japan. reported, “The daughter of Elkington, who Nitobe often lectured in various parts of comes from a distinguished family, got mar- the United States, and was the ³rst ried to a mere Japanese—although he too is exchange professor between the two coun- outstanding.”7 Later, Nitobe’s only friend, tries in 1911. These lectures were later pub- Miyabe, after meeting Mary on one of his lished in 1912 as “The Japanese Nation.” In trips, wrote to Nitobe: these lectures he speaks of a bridge across the She is an unusually attentive and suf³- Paci³c, saying, “I wish to be a bridge across cient wife, and she looked after your the Paci³c in order to transmit the ideas of health so carefully and sincerely. Without the West to the East, and of the East to the her assistance, you could not have con- West, toward the fuller harmony of diverse tributed as greatly on an international nations or of discordant nations.”6 scale as you have.”8 Nitobe attempted to introduce into Japan Western ideas on marriage, as well as on the One month later, on February 9, 1891, the relationships between men and women. His newly married international Christian cou- endeavors impacted such diverse ³elds as ple returned to Japan and settled in politics, education, and social patterns. In Sapporo, . later years he also served as an undersecre- Besides introducing biblical feminism tary of the League of Nations. After Japan into Japan, Nitobe Inazõ and his wife Mary withdrew and the League faced collapse, presented a genuinely equal relationship Nitobe continued to struggle vigorously for between men and women, based upon bib- world peace and understanding between lical teaching (Genesis 2:18), in which God nations. Within Japan he increasingly faced from the beginning instituted equality as danger and opposition from emerging mili- the foundation for marriage and social rela- tarism. In spite of such attacks, however, tionships. They further emphasized the fact Nitobe continued to prod Japanese society to that women, in addition to men, were also open up its understanding to the broader created in the image of God, that women too international world. One can only specu- were redeemed through Jesus Christ, and late as to what might have happened to him that women were also heirs to all the riches had he lived through the war years. of the kingdom of God.

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This Christian idea of the basic equality process of attempting to gather relevant his- between men and women was a radical torical data, including personal letters. The challenge to the traditional family system paucity of material on Mary shows how in Japan at the time. The immediate reaction women were largely ignored prior to World was a strong suspicion that the Christian War II. Although her husband Inazõ is now teaching would disrupt the traditional justly famous, and his portrait appears on the order—breaking down traditional family 5,000 yen bill, very few Japanese are aware relationships, promoting discord, and dis- that his dear wife was a highly educated solving the unity of the family by attacking American Christian woman, who made out- the practice of ancestor worship. standing contributions to the cause of On the positive side, the values of women in Japan. Christian feminism strengthened women’s It was Christian feminism of this kind sense of personal freedom and identity, and that challenged the many social problems encouraged them to stand ³rmly in line afµicting women and strongly impacted the with their conscience, assured that they too movement to abolish prostitution and to can stand responsibly before God and not support monogamy. Therefore, it is impor- merely ³nd their place within the tradi- tant to stress that, in Japan, Christian faith and tional family structure. In an effort to promote values were involved in the beginning of a sense of equality and the realization of the the feminist movement. Perhaps a contrast rights of women, Inazõ and Mary stressed with the American situation is evident here, the importance of education for women. Ni- for feminism in the West seems to have tobe established the Tokyo Women’s Christ- developed from a more humanistic back- ian University, and Mary devoted her efforts ground than was the case in Japan. Such to the Sapporo Enyu night school, for poor inµuence can be seen in such pioneering students unable to attend regular schools. feminist ³gures as Mary Wollstonecraft in Nitobe wrote several signi³cant articles England, Simone de Beauvoir in France, as well. In the article “Recommending Betty Friedan in the United States. Yet it is Women,” he said, “Let women develop a signi³cant that in Japan it was the inµuence sense of self-respect and self-esteem, and let of Christian values that prompted the early women respect their own personalities. feminist movement.11 This is the ³rst and last thing I wish to Under the inµuence of Christianity three 9 say.” In the article “New Directions for single Japanese women devoted their lives Women’s Careers” Nitobe asserted, “The to promoting the education of women. These Japanese objective of educating women women were Tsuda Umeko (1864– 1929), only to be good wives and mothers forces Kawai Michiko (1877–1953), and Yasui every woman to conform to a stereotype. A Tetsu (1870–1945). The story of the devel- woman is created as a person, so she has to opment of is incomplete be educated as a person. However, Japanese without reference to these impressive education tries to mold women to be wives women and their contribution to the improve- or mothers or daughters, as an ornament of ment of the status of women in Japan. men. We have to educate women to be per- 10 sons who have jiritsu [independence].” Tsuda Umeko Without the inµuence and support of Mary, Nitobe could not have said those Tsuda Umeko, who pioneered early higher words. It is unfortunate that suf³cient mate- education for women was the daughter of rial dealing with the life and impact of Mary , the of³cial interpreter for the is not available in Japan. I am now in the Tokugawa Shogunate. She was sent to

12 MINATO: Women's Jiritsu and Christian Feminism in Japan

America in 1871 when she was only seven Accordingly, she was educated at Hokusen years old. There she stayed with the Charles Jogakkõ, a girl’s school in Sapporo, where she Lanman family, a childless couple living in came under the inµuence of American Washington, D.C. She was treated as a Christian teachers. Kawai then became a daughter by the Lanmans; under the Christian, and like Tsuda she went to Bryn inµuence of this Christian family she came Mawr College for further education. to know the Lord personally and was bap- Upon her return to Japan, Kawai worked tized when she was nine years old. as a teacher at Tsuda Joshi Daigaku and was In 1882, at the age of eighteen, she active in the Young Women’s Christian returned to Japan where she worked as an Association. In 1929 she founded the Keisen English teacher and interpreter. She later Jogakuen (Fountain of Blessing School) in continued her formal education in America, order to provide a Christian education for studying at Bryn Mawr College in young women. Throughout her life she Philadelphia, which was Nitobe’s wife remained active in writing and lecturing. Mary’s home town. In 1900 she again She tirelessly stressed the importance of the returned to Japan, where she established Christian church and education in improv- the Joshi Eigaku Juku, a school of English ing women’s lives and social standing. She studies for women, now known a Tsuda was not only an effective teacher but also an Joshi Daigaku. This school was founded evangelist with a deep concern for each of her with money she had collected from women students. Her last words were, “Please lead in Philadelphia. students to Christ.” Tsuda’s goal was to provide higher edu- cation for Japanese women so that they Yasui Tetsu might have realistic career options and not Although Yasui grew up in a feudal clan be forced into prostitution as a means of family, after graduating from Tokyo self-support. Christian High School, she went to England On the basis of the biblical teaching that in 1890 to study education and home eco- women too are created in the image of nomics. She became a Christian while there God—created as persons and not merely as and met Nitobe Inazõ, who opened her eyes the tools of men—she was convinced that to the great need for Christian education Christian education could give women a among women in Japan. After returning to proper sense of identity and a legitimate Japan, Yasui became the ³rst academic sense of jiritsu. She believed that spiritual dean of Tokyo Women’s Christian College, growth and education could improve the where Nitobe served as the ³rst president. standing of women in Japan. Until her She later succeeded him as president of the death she remained committed to both edu- school, and her entire life was devoted to cational and more strictly Christian con- education and Christian ministry. cerns.

Kawai Michiko JAPANESE CHRISTIAN WOMEN TODAY AND Kawai Michiko was an early Christian fem- PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE inist who was deeply inµuenced by Inazõ and Mary Nitobe. Her father, who had come Almost a hundred years have passed since from a long line of Shinto priests, was the early days when pioneers such as converted to the Christian faith and encour- Nitobe, Tsuda, Kawai, and Yasui struggled aged her to receive a Christian education. to establish a sense of jiritsu for Japanese

13 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 59 1993 women. The Christian church in Japan is the sick, evangelism, music ministry, etc., still struggling, as it constitutes no more would be impossible and the Japanese than 1% of the population. In spite of the church could not survive. Frequently many obstacles and dif³culties, we believe women function in positions of leadership that God is still calling women to be His ser- as well, serving as of³cers in the church, vants. although there are relatively few women It is encouraging to remember that the actually engaged in pastoral or teaching “Great Commission” (Matthew 28:18–20) roles within evangelical churches. was not given to an already perfect church in a perfect world. To the contrary, the ³rst The need for true independence in the church century Jerusalem Christians were in an Due to the dominant social values and environment of fear and failure. Judea was expectations, as exempli³ed in the ie system a place of religious bigotry and self- (the carefully de³ned web of social rela- suf³ciency. Samaria was a place of hatred tionships), Japanese women have great and tension. Yet the early Christians were to dif³culty in realizing a sense of indepen- be witnesses in precisely these places. dent identity, even within the church. According to Acts 1:8, we today are to be wit- Japanese women need the same kind of ³rm nesses simultaneously in Jerusalem, Judea, resolve found in the famous words of Samaria—and Japan. Such witness is to Martin Luther, “Here I stand. I can do no begin right where we are, in our present sit- other.” Luther’s con³dence and resolve uation, and is to spread out from there. came from the security of his own personal Therefore, no matter how dif³cult the cur- relationship with his Lord, the one and only rent situation, women in Japan are to be Creator, and was no simply grounded in God's servants and witnesses right where himself or in the prevailing views of the they are. crowd. Similarly, Japanese Christian women must ³nd their identity in their The status of women in the Japanese church relationship to their Creator, and must not As noted earlier, given the great demands simply bring into the church the inµuence upon their time at work, it is very dif³cult of groupism or horizontal relationships. As for Japanese men to become actively Christian women our ³rst obligation is to involved in the life of the church. Con- honor our relationship with our Lord. sequently, roughly two-thirds of the When our security and true independence as Christians in Japan today are women. persons before our Lord is established, we Furthermore, many women attend church can follow with independence in partnership alone, unaccompanied by their husbands or with others. children, and thus they are torn between A proper sense of spiritual indepen- conµicting desires for greater involvement at dence on the part of believers will help church and the pressures and obligations of avoid the weaknesses of some churches, the home. which are excessively organized and tight- Women nevertheless are making great ly controlled by one or more individuals— contributions to the work of the church in sometimes the pastor. When believers do Japan. Without their dedicated service, not establish a proper sense of their own such common activities as preparing “fel- identity and independence, then pastors lowship meals” after church (a common tend to rule with an authoritarian hand. practice in many Japanese churches), However, when the two-thirds of Christians preparing µower arrangements, visitation of who are women become genuine coworkers

14 MINATO: Women's Jiritsu and Christian Feminism in Japan with the pastors, working smoothly as two ner with her husband, while recognizing wheels on a cart, then the Japanese church the husband as head, but we must emphasize will grow and develop. that the Bible does not support the idea that the man is superior and the woman inferi- The need for men to understand and support or. women in evangelism and ministry As a Japanese woman who grew up in a It is impossible for women to develop and feudalistic society that discriminated heav- exercise their gifts in evangelism and min- ily against women, I am well aware of the istry apart from the understanding and many misunderstandings to which women cooperation of men. This is especially have been subjected. Certainly we must urgent in Asia where societies are strongly work to correct such misunderstandings inµuenced by the model of the authoritari- and discrimination. However, we must also an patriarch. recognize that in our current emphasis Signi³cantly, despite the low social upon women’s liberation from repression position of women in the Mediterranean and inequality there is the danger of obscur- world of the ³rst century, the apostle Paul ing or minimizing the biblical teaching on the recognized their high standing when he relationship between the husband and the declared, “There is neither Jew nor Greek, wife. In a non-Christian country such as there is neither slave nor free, there is nei- Japan, it is important that genuine indepen- ther male or female; for you are all one in dence for women be grounded in a truly Christ Jesus.” (Galatians 3:28) Grounded in Christian feminism. This is a special concern this high biblical view of women, Paul of mine, and I have written several books could appreciate Priscilla as his fellow dealing with these themes, including The worker, and we could even say that it was Christian View of Jiritsu and True Part- Paul’s support that helped Priscilla in her nership: Home, Church, and the World. mission work in the Mediterranean world. The question of the proper relationship Furthermore, we could mention Luke also as between husband and wife is especially rel- a man who appreciated the biblical view of evant in Japan, where the traditional sense women, as evidenced in his mentioning of ie is still strong. After my husband went Tabitha (Dorcas) as a signi³cant early disci- to be with the Lord, leaving behind three chil- ple (Acts 9:36f). In Japan today, as in other dren aged sixteen, fourteen and ten, I decid- Asian countries, we need more Christian ed to make a “papa corner” for the children leaders with perspectives like those of Paul in a central room of our house. This was to and Luke. be a memorial to their father. Although physically absent, their father was “pre- The need for appreciating the biblical view of sent” in memory. These days many chil- family relationships dren have their fathers physically present Given the contemporary stresses and the with them, but they do not enjoy their breakdown of the family unit, there is need father’s emotional or spiritual presence. today for understanding and adhering to When I prepared this “papa corner” for the biblical teaching on the family. The hus- children I believed that I was following band should be the head of the family, God’s creation order for family relation- although not in the sense of an authoritari- ships. Consequently, the Lord has led our an patriarch as found in the earlier Roman family in overcoming many obstacles so world and as is found in many Asian soci- that it has grown into a Christian home. eties today. The woman is to be a full part- With less than one percent Christian in

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Japan, the signi³cance of the biblical fami- challenged by people I have mentioned, ly relationships takes on special meaning. such as Nitobe Inazõ and his wife Mary, Tsuda Umeko, Kawai Michiko, and Yasui The need for training Christian women Tetsu. In Japan today we need highly com- as leaders mitted and gifted women Christian workers with a broad international perspective. There is today a desperate need among In order to reach the ninety-nine percent evangelical churches for training Christian of Japanese who are not yet Christian, as women to assume greater leadership well as the many others in Asia, the next gen- responsibilities. Through interaction with eration of women Christian leaders must other women at several conferences, such as have an education that is not only solidly the Asian Conference for Women in based upon biblical and theological studies Singapore in 1989, and the Asia Missionary but also is genuinely international, in Conference in Korea in 1990, the Women’s preparation for ministering in a global con- Commission was established in 1990 as an text. It is my prayer that this kind of educa- of³cial Commission of the Japan Evan- tion will prepare humble and effective lead- gelical Association. I have the privilege of ers—especially women—to serve others serving as chairperson of this Commission. with God’s love, regardless of where they Three purposes for the Women’s Com- might ³nd themselves. Through working mission can be distinguished. First, the together in mobilizing, educating, and Commission is to promote among women a encouraging Japanese Christian women, spiritual zeal for evangelism, not only with- and working to break down misunder- in Japan but also worldwide. Second, the standings both inside and outside the Commission is to identify and make available church, let us continue to encourage resources for equipping women. Third, it is women to be able to ful³ll in their lives all to establish a network for women beyond the that God has intended for them. local church, at a regional and national level. The Commission sponsors an annual NOTES women’s leadership retreat; last year one hundred women leaders gathered for the 1 Reports of Tokyo Women’s Research Center, ³rst such retreat. Nihon josei no jiritsu no kansuru kenkyð [The Study of the Japanese Women’s Jiritsu], (Tokyo: Japanese women over the age of ³fty The Bureau of Living, April, 1992), p. 9. have largely completed the task of rearing 2 Inagaki Hisakazu, “A Philosophical Analysis of children and thus they have more time Traditional Japanese Culture”, Philosophia refor- available for other activities. They are eager mata vol. 57 (1992), p. 47. to ³nd something meaningful to do. Many of 3 Kõno Kiyomi, Jiritsu no joseigaku [Women’s these women suffered greatly in their early Independence], (Tokyo: Gakuyoshobo, 1983), pp. years due to the war, and some never had the 163–205. opportunity of education, therefore, they 4 Inagaki Hisakazu, op. cit., p. 43. are very eager to study. Various kinds of 5 Reports of Tokyo Women’s Research Center, op. seminars and classes for such women cit., p. 104. always ³nd many participants. This also is 6 Nitobe Inazõ, ”The Japanese Nation”, Nitobe indicative of the need in Japan today for zenshð [The Complete Works of Nitobe Inazõ], broader education of the laity. (Tokyo: Kyo Bun Kwan, 1969) vol. 13, p.9. When I was a student at Tokyo Women’s 7 Sapporo Board of Education, ed., Sapporo Christian University, which was founded bunko [Sapporo Series] (Sapporo: Hokkaido by Nitobe Inazõ, I was greatly inspired and Newspaper Company., 1985) vol. 18, p. 132.

16 MINATO: Women's Jiritsu and Christian Feminism in Japan

8 Sapporo Board of Education, ed., op. cit., Nitobe Zenshð vol. 11, p. 194. p.130. 11 Minato Akiko, Feminizum to shingaku no set- 9 Nitobe Inazõ, Fujin ni susumete [Rec- ten-beikokuryð kaihoron to nihonryð jiritsuron ni ommending Women], Nitobe zenshð [The miru [Women’s Liberation in America and Complete Works of Nitobe Inazõ] (Tokyo: Kyo Bun Women’s Jiritsu in Japan: a Study in the Contrast from Kwan, 1969) vol. 11, p. 158. a Theological Perspective], Ronshð vol. 22 (Tokyo: 10 Nitobe Inazõ, Hirakara beki josei no shinro Tokyo Christian College, 1992), pp. 25–33. [Women’s Career Which Should Be Opened],

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