Brilliant Minds Wiki Spring 2016 Contents

Home , Achilleis (trilogy), Alice Mabel Bacon, Danaid (Rodin), Der Barbier von Bagdad, George John Pinwell, Hamletmachine

1 Rigveda 1 1.1 Text ...... 1 1.1.1 Organization ...... 2 1.1.2 Recensions ...... 2 1.1.3 Rishis ...... 3 1.1.4 Manuscripts ...... 3 1.1.5 Analytics ...... 3 1.2 Contents ...... 4 1.2.1 Rigveda Brahmanas ...... 5 1.2.2 Rigveda Aranyakas and Upanishads ...... 5 1.3 Dating and historical context ...... 5 1.4 Medieval Hindu scholarship ...... 7 1.5 Contemporary Hinduism ...... 7 1.5.1 Atheism, Monotheism, Monism, Polytheism debate ...... 7 1.5.2 Mistranslations, misinterpretations debate ...... 8 1.5.3 “Indigenous Aryans” debate ...... 8 1.5.4 Arya Samaj and Aurobindo movements ...... 8 1.6 Translations ...... 8 1.7 See also ...... 8 1.8 Notes ...... 8 1.9 References ...... 9 1.10 Bibliography ...... 12 1.11 External links ...... 13

2 Oresteia 15 2.1 Agamemnon ...... 15 2.1.1 Introduction ...... 15 2.1.2 Storyline ...... 15 2.2 The Libation Bearers ...... 16 2.2.1 Introduction ...... 16

i ii CONTENTS

2.2.2 Storyline ...... 16 2.2.3 References in other Greek dramas ...... 17 2.3 The Eumenides ...... 17 2.3.1 Introduction ...... 17 2.3.2 Storyline ...... 17 2.4 Proteus ...... 18 2.5 Analysis and themes ...... 18 2.5.1 Social progress and justice ...... 18 2.5.2 Philos-aphilos ...... 19 2.6 Adaptations ...... 19 2.7 See also ...... 19 2.8 Translations ...... 20 2.9 Notes ...... 20 2.10 References ...... 21 2.11 External links ...... 21

3 Aeschylus 22 3.1 Life ...... 22 3.2 Personal life ...... 23 3.3 Works ...... 23 3.3.1 Trilogies ...... 24 3.4 Surviving plays ...... 24 3.4.1 The Persians ...... 24 3.4.2 Seven against Thebes ...... 25 3.4.3 The Suppliants ...... 25 3.4.4 The Oresteia ...... 25 3.4.5 Prometheus Bound ...... 26 3.5 Lost plays ...... 26 3.5.1 Myrmidons ...... 26 3.5.2 Nereids ...... 26 3.5.3 Phrygians, or Hector’s Ransom ...... 27 3.5.4 Niobe ...... 27 3.6 Influence ...... 27 3.6.1 Influence on Greek drama and culture ...... 27 3.6.2 Influence outside of Greek culture ...... 27 3.7 See also ...... 28 3.8 Notes ...... 28 3.9 Citations ...... 28 3.10 Editions ...... 29 CONTENTS iii

3.11 References ...... 29 3.12 External links ...... 30

4 Mabinogion 31 4.1 Etymology ...... 32 4.2 Translations ...... 32 4.3 Date of stories ...... 32 4.4 Stories ...... 33 4.4.1 Four Branches of the Mabinogi ...... 33 4.4.2 Native tales ...... 33 4.4.3 Romances ...... 33 4.5 Adaptations ...... 34 4.6 See also ...... 34 4.7 References ...... 34 4.8 External links ...... 36

5 Four Branches of the Mabinogi 37 5.1 Overview ...... 37 5.2 The Branches ...... 38 5.2.1 First branch: Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed ...... 38 5.2.2 Second Branch: Branwen, Daughter of Llŷr ...... 38 5.2.3 Third Branch: Manawydan, son of Llŷr ...... 39 5.2.4 Fourth Branch: Math, son of Mathonwy ...... 39 5.3 Resources ...... 40 5.3.1 Introductory ...... 40 5.3.2 Key Resources for Study ...... 40 5.3.3 Welsh sources ...... 40 5.3.4 Translations into English ...... 41 5.3.5 Modern Interpretations ...... 41 5.4 References ...... 42

6 One Thousand and One Nights 43 6.1 Synopsis ...... 43 6.2 History: versions and translations ...... 44 6.2.1 Possible Indian origins ...... 44 6.2.2 Persian prototype: Hazār Afsān ...... 45 6.2.3 Arabic versions ...... 45 6.2.4 Modern translations ...... 46 6.2.5 Timeline ...... 47 iv CONTENTS

6.3 Literary themes and techniques ...... 48 6.3.1 Frame story ...... 49 6.3.2 Embedded narrative ...... 49 6.3.3 Dramatic visualization ...... 49 6.3.4 Fate and destiny ...... 49 6.3.5 Foreshadowing ...... 50 6.3.6 Repetition ...... 50 6.3.7 Sexual humour ...... 51 6.3.8 Unreliable narrator ...... 51 6.3.9 Crime fiction elements ...... 51 6.3.10 Horror fiction elements ...... 52 6.3.11 Fantasy and science fiction elements ...... 52 6.3.12 The Arabic poetry in One Thousand and One Nights ...... 53 6.4 In world culture ...... 53 6.4.1 In Arabic culture ...... 54 6.4.2 Possible early influence on European literature ...... 54 6.4.3 Western literature from the 18th century onwards ...... 54 6.4.4 Cinema ...... 55 6.4.5 Music ...... 56 6.4.6 Video games ...... 56 6.4.7 Illustrators ...... 56 6.5 Gallery ...... 56 6.6 See also ...... 56 6.7 Notes ...... 57 6.8 Sources ...... 59 6.9 Further reading ...... 60 6.10 External links ...... 60

7 Hamlet 61 7.1 Characters ...... 62 7.2 Plot ...... 62 7.3 Sources ...... 64 7.4 Date ...... 66 7.5 Texts ...... 66 7.6 Analysis and criticism ...... 68 7.6.1 Critical history ...... 68 7.6.2 Dramatic structure ...... 68 7.6.3 Language ...... 68 7.7 Context and interpretation ...... 69 CONTENTS v

7.7.1 Religious ...... 69 7.7.2 Philosophical ...... 70 7.7.3 Psychoanalytic ...... 70 7.7.4 Feminist ...... 72 7.8 Inﬂuence ...... 73 7.9 Performance history ...... 73 7.9.1 Shakespeare’s day to the Interregnum ...... 73 7.9.2 Restoration and 18th century ...... 74 7.9.3 19th century ...... 74 7.9.4 20th century ...... 75 7.9.5 21st century ...... 77 7.9.6 Film and TV performances ...... 78 7.10 Stage pastiches ...... 79 7.11 See also ...... 79 7.12 References ...... 80 7.12.1 Notes ...... 80 7.12.2 Editions of Hamlet ...... 84 7.12.3 Secondary sources ...... 84 7.13 External links ...... 88

8 William Shakespeare 89 8.1 Life ...... 89 8.1.1 Early life ...... 89 8.1.2 London and theatrical career ...... 90 8.1.3 Later years and death ...... 91 8.2 Plays ...... 93 8.2.1 Performances ...... 94 8.2.2 Textual sources ...... 95 8.3 Poems ...... 95 8.3.1 Sonnets ...... 96 8.4 Style ...... 96 8.5 Inﬂuence ...... 97 8.6 Critical reputation ...... 98 8.7 Works ...... 99 8.7.1 Classiﬁcation of the plays ...... 99 8.8 Speculation about Shakespeare ...... 99 8.8.1 Authorship ...... 99 8.8.2 Religion ...... 100 8.8.3 Sexuality ...... 100 vi CONTENTS

8.8.4 Portraiture ...... 100 8.9 See also ...... 100 8.10 Notes ...... 100 8.10.1 Footnotes ...... 100 8.10.2 Citations ...... 101 8.11 References ...... 104 8.12 External links ...... 108

9 John Donne 109 9.1 Biography ...... 109 9.1.1 Early life ...... 109 9.1.2 Marriage to Anne More ...... 110 9.1.3 Career and later life ...... 111 9.1.4 Death ...... 111 9.2 Writings ...... 112 9.2.1 Early poetry ...... 112 9.3 Style ...... 113 9.4 Legacy ...... 113 9.5 Donne in literature ...... 113 9.6 Donne in popular culture ...... 114 9.7 Work ...... 115 9.8 See also ...... 116 9.9 Notes ...... 116 9.10 References ...... 116 9.11 External links ...... 117

10 Villette (novel) 118 10.1 Author’s background ...... 118 10.2 Locale ...... 118 10.3 Characters ...... 118 10.4 Plot summary ...... 119 10.5 Themes ...... 120 10.6 Criticism ...... 120 10.7 Adaptations ...... 120 10.7.1 In print ...... 120 10.7.2 In dramatisations ...... 120 10.8 See also ...... 121 10.9 References ...... 121 10.10External links ...... 121 CONTENTS vii

11 Charlotte Brontë 122 11.1 Early life and education ...... 122 11.2 Brussels ...... 123 11.3 First publication ...... 123 11.4 The Professor and Jane Eyre ...... 123 11.5 Shirley and bereavements ...... 124 11.6 In society ...... 124 11.7 Villette ...... 125 11.8 Marriage ...... 125 11.9 Death ...... 125 11.10The Life of Charlotte Brontë ...... 126 11.11Héger letters ...... 126 11.12Publications ...... 126 11.12.1 Juvenilia ...... 127 11.12.2 Novels ...... 127 11.12.3 Poetry ...... 127 11.13Notes ...... 127 11.14References ...... 128 11.15Further reading ...... 128 11.16External links ...... 129

12 In Search of Lost Time 130 12.1 Initial publication ...... 130 12.2 Synopsis ...... 131 12.2.1 Volume One: Swann’s Way ...... 131 12.2.2 Volume Two: In the Shadow of Young Girls in Flower ...... 133 12.2.3 Volume Three: The Guermantes Way ...... 133 12.2.4 Volume Four: Sodom and Gomorrah ...... 134 12.2.5 Volume Five: The Prisoner ...... 135 12.2.6 Volume Six: The Fugitive ...... 136 12.2.7 Volume Seven: Time Regained ...... 137 12.3 Themes ...... 138 12.3.1 Memory ...... 138 12.3.2 Separation anxiety ...... 139 12.3.3 Nature of art ...... 139 12.3.4 Homosexuality ...... 139 12.4 Critical reception ...... 140 12.5 Main characters ...... 140 12.6 Publication in English ...... 142 viii CONTENTS

12.7 A Reader’s Guide to The Remembrance of Things Past ...... 143 12.8 Adaptations ...... 143 12.9 In popular culture ...... 143 12.10See also ...... 144 12.11Notes and references ...... 144 12.12Further reading ...... 145 12.13External links ...... 145

13 Marcel Proust 146 13.1 Biography ...... 146 13.2 Early writing ...... 147 13.3 In Search of Lost Time ...... 148 13.4 Personal life ...... 148 13.5 Gallery ...... 149 13.6 Bibliography ...... 149 13.7 Translations ...... 149 13.8 See also ...... 149 13.9 References ...... 149 13.10Further reading ...... 150 13.11External links ...... 151

14 A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man 152 14.1 Background ...... 152 14.2 Composition ...... 153 14.3 Publication history ...... 153 14.4 Major characters ...... 154 14.5 Synopsis ...... 154 14.6 Style ...... 155 14.7 Analysis ...... 155 14.7.1 Autobiography ...... 156 14.8 Reception ...... 156 14.9 Adaptations ...... 156 14.10Notes ...... 156 14.11References ...... 156 14.11.1 Works cited ...... 157 14.12Further reading ...... 157 14.13External links ...... 158

15 James Joyce 159 CONTENTS ix

15.1 Biography ...... 159 15.1.1 1882–1904: Dublin ...... 159 15.1.2 1904–20: Trieste and Zurich ...... 162 15.1.3 1920–41: Paris and Zurich ...... 163 15.1.4 Joyce and religion ...... 164 15.1.5 Joyce and music ...... 165 15.2 Major works ...... 166 15.2.1 Dubliners ...... 166 15.2.2 A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man ...... 166 15.2.3 Exiles and poetry ...... 166 15.2.4 Ulysses ...... 167 15.2.5 Finnegans Wake ...... 168 15.3 Legacy ...... 169 15.4 Bibliography ...... 169 15.5 See also ...... 170 15.6 Notes ...... 170 15.7 References ...... 173 15.8 Further reading ...... 173 15.9 External links ...... 174

16 Lila (Robinson novel) 177 16.1 Reception ...... 177 16.2 Awards ...... 177 16.3 References ...... 177

17 Marilynne Robinson 178 17.1 Biography ...... 178 17.2 Bibliography ...... 179 17.2.1 Fiction ...... 179 17.2.2 Nonﬁction ...... 179 17.3 Awards ...... 179 17.4 References ...... 179 17.5 External links ...... 180 17.6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses ...... 181 17.6.1 Text ...... 181 17.6.2 Images ...... 192 17.6.3 Content license ...... 200 Chapter 1

Rigveda

This article is about the collection of Vedic hymns. For the manga series, see RG Veda.

The Rigveda (Sanskrit: ऋ嵍वेद ṛgveda, from ṛc “praise, shine”[1] and veda “knowledge”) is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. It is one of the four canonical sacred texts (śruti) of Hinduism known as the Vedas.[2][3] The text is a collection of 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses, organized into ten books (Mandalas).[4] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.[4] The Rigveda begins with a small book addressed to deity Agni, Indra and other gods, all arranged according to de- creasing total number of hymns in each deity collection; for each deity series the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones; yet, the number of hymns per book increases; ﬁnally, the meter is systematically arranged from jagati and tristubh to anustubh and gayatri as the text progresses.[2] In terms of substance, the hymns predominantly discuss cosmology and praise deities in the earliest composed eight Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari, early 19th cen- books,[5][6] shifting in books 1 and 10, that were added last, tury. After a scribal benediction ("śrīgaṇéśāyanamaḥ ;; Aum(3) ;;"), the ﬁrst line has the opening words of RV.1.1.1 (agniṃ ; iḷe to philosophical or speculative[6] questions about the origin [7] ; puraḥ-hitaṃ ; yajñasya ; devaṃ ; ṛtvijaṃ). The Vedic accent is of the universe and the nature of god, the virtue of Dāna marked by underscores and vertical overscores in red. (charity) in society,[8] and other metaphysical issues in its hymns.[9] Rigveda is one of the oldest extant texts in any Indo- 1.1 Text European language.[10] Philological and linguistic evidence indicate that the Rigveda was composed in the north- The surviving form of the Rigveda is based on an early western region of the Indian subcontinent, most likely [11][12][13] Iron Age (see dating below) collection that established the between c. 1500–1200 BC, though a wider core 'family books’ (mandalas 2–7, ordered by author, de- approximation of c. 1700–1100 BC has also been [20] [14][15][note 1] ity and meter ) and a later redaction, co-eval with the given. redaction of the other Vedas, dating several centuries after Some of its verses continue to be recited during Hindu the hymns were composed. This redaction also included rites of passage celebrations such as weddings and religious some additions (contradicting the strict ordering scheme) prayers, making it probably the world’s oldest religious text and orthoepic changes to the Vedic Sanskrit such as the in continued use.[18][19] regularization of sandhi (termed orthoepische Diaskeuase by Oldenberg, 1888). As with the other Vedas, the redacted text has been handed down in several versions, most importantly the Padapatha that has each word isolated in pausa form and is used for just

1 2 CHAPTER 1. RIGVEDA

one way of memorization; and the Samhitapatha that com- (“praise”, pl. ṛcas), which are further analysed into units bines words according to the rules of sandhi (the process of verse called pada ("foot"). The meters most used in the being described in the Pratisakhya) and is the memorized ṛcas are the jagati (a pada consists of 12 syllables), trishtubh text used for recitation. (11), viraj (10), gayatri and anushtubh (8). The Padapatha and the Pratisakhya anchor the text’s fidelity For pedagogical convenience, each mandala is syntheti- and meaning[21] and the fixed text was preserved with un- cally divided into roughly equal sections of several sūktas, paralleled fidelity for more than a millennium by oral tra- called anuvāka (“recitation”), which modern publishers of- dition alone.[22] In order to achieve this the oral tradition ten omit. Another scheme divides the entire text over the 10 prescribed very structured enunciation, involving break- mandalas into aṣṭaka (“eighth”), adhyāya (“chapter”) and ing down the Sanskrit compounds into stems and inflec- varga (“class”). Some publishers give both classifications tions, as well as certain permutations. This interplay with in a single edition. sounds gave rise to a scholarly tradition of morphology and The most common numbering scheme is by book, hymn phonetics. The Rigveda was probably not written down un- and stanza (and pada a, b, c ..., if required). E.g., the first til the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries CE), by which pada is time the Brahmi script had become widespread (the oldest surviving manuscripts are from ~1040 CE, discovered in • 1.1.1a agním īḷe puróhitaṃ “Agni I invoke, the house- [2][23] Nepal). The oral tradition still continued into recent priest” times. The original text (as authored by the Rishis) is close to but and the final pada is not identical to the extant Samhitapatha, but metrical and • other observations allow to reconstruct (in part at least) the 10.191.4d yáthā vaḥ súsahā́sati original text from the extant one, as printed in the Harvard Popular suktas include Purusha Sukta, Durga Sukta and Oriental Series, vol. 50 (1994).[24] Shree Sukta.[25]

1.1.1 Organization 1.1.2 Recensions

Mandala Several shakhas (“branches”, i. e. recensions) of Rig Veda are known to have existed in the past. Of these, Śākalya The text is organized in 10 books, known as Mandalas, of is the only one to have survived in its entirety. Another varying age and length. shakha that may have survived is the Bāṣkala, although this The “family books": mandalas 2–7, are the oldest part of is uncertain.[26][27][28] the Rigveda and the shortest books; they are arranged by The surviving padapatha version of the Rigveda text is as- length (increasing number of hymns per book) and account cribed to Śākalya.[29] The Śākala recension has 1,017 reg- for 38% of the text. Within each book, the hymns are ar- ular hymns, and an appendix of 11 vālakhilya hymns[30] ranged in collections each dealing with a particular deity: which are now customarily included in the 8th mandala (as Agni comes ﬁrst, Indra comes second, and so on. Within 8.49–8.59), for a total of 1028 hymns.[31] The Bāṣkala re- each collection, the hymns are arranged in the descending cension includes 8 of these vālakhilya hymns among its reg- order in the number of stanzas per hymn. If two hymns in ular hymns, making a total of 1025 regular hymns for this the same collection have equal number of stanzas then they śākhā.[32] In addition, the Bāṣkala recension has its own ap- are arranged so that the number of syllables in the metre are pendix of 98 hymns, the Khilani.[33] in descending order. In the 1877 edition of Aufrecht, the 1028 hymns of the The eighth and ninth mandalas, comprising hymns of mixed Rigveda contain a total of 10,552 ṛcs, or 39,831 padas. The age, account for 15% and 9%, respectively. The ﬁrst and the Shatapatha Brahmana gives the number of syllables to be tenth mandalas are the youngest; they are also the longest 432,000,[34] while the metrical text of van Nooten and Hol- books, of 191 suktas each, accounting for 37% of the text. land (1994) has a total of 395,563 syllables (or an average of 9.93 syllables per pada); counting the number of syllables Sukta is not straightforward because of issues with sandhi and the post-Rigvedic pronunciation of syllables like súvar as svàr. Each mandala consists of hymns called sūkta (su-ukta, lit- Three other shakhas are mentioned in Caraṇavyuha, a erally, “well recited, eulogy") intended for various rituals. pariśiṣṭa (supplement) of Yajurveda: Māṇḍukāyana, Aś- The sūktas in turn consist of individual stanzas called ṛc valāyana and Śaṅkhāyana. The Atharvaveda lists two more 1.1. TEXT 3

shakhas. The diﬀerences between all these shakhas are very by Max Müller for his edition of the Rigveda with Sayana’s minor, limited to varying order of content and inclusion commentary. (or non-inclusion) of a few verses. The following infor- Müller used 24 manuscripts then available to him in mation is known about the shakhas other than Śākalya and [35]:16 Europe, while the Pune Edition used over ﬁve dozen Bāṣkala: manuscripts, but the editors of Pune Edition could not pro- cure many manuscripts used by Müller and by the Bombay • Māṇḍukāyana: Perhaps the oldest of the Rigvedic Edition, as well as from some other sources; hence the to- shakhas. tal number of extant manuscripts known then must surpass perhaps eighty at least.[40] • Aśvalāyana: Includes 212 verses, all of which are newer than the other Rigvedic hymns.

• Śaṅkhāyana: Very similar to Aśvalāyana

• Saisiriya: Mentioned in the Rigveda Pratisakhya. Very similar to Śākala, with a few additional verses; might 1.1.5 Analytics have derived from or merged with it.

The various Rigveda manuscripts discovered so far show 1.1.3 Rishis some differences. Broadly, the most studied Śākala recension has 1017 hymns, includes an appendix of eleven See also: Anukramani valakhīlya hymns which are often counted with the 8th mandala, for a total of 1,028 metrical hymns. The Bāṣakala version of Rigveda includes eight of these vālakhilya hymns Tradition associates a rishi (the composer) with each ṛc of among its regular hymns, making a total of 1025 hymns in the Rigveda.[36] Most sūktas are attributed to single com- the main text for this śākhā. The Bāṣakala text also has an posers. The “family books” (2–7) are so-called because appendix of 98 hymns, called the Khilani, bringing the total they have hymns by members of the same clan in each book; to 1,123 hymns. The manuscripts of Śākala recension of but other clans are also represented in the Rigveda. In all, the Rigveda have about 10,600 verses, organized into ten 10 families of rishis account for more than 95% of the ṛcs; Books (Mandalas).[4][41] Books 2 through 7 are internally for each of them the Rigveda includes a lineage-specific āprī homogeneous in style, while Books 1, 8 and 10 are compi- hymn (a special sūkta of rigidly formulaic structure, used lation of verses of internally different styles suggesting that for rituals. these books are likely a collection of compositions by many authors.[41] 1.1.4 Manuscripts The first mandala is the largest, with 191 hymns and 2,006 hymns, and it was added to the text after Books 2 through There are, for example, 30 manuscripts of Rigveda at the 9. The last, or the 10th Book, also has 191 hymns but 1,754 Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, collected in the verses, making it the second largest. The language analytics 19th century by Georg Bühler, Franz Kielhorn and oth- suggest the 10th Book, chronologically, was composed and ers, originating from different parts of India, including added last.[41] The content of the 10th Book also suggest Kashmir, Gujarat, the then Rajaputana, Central Provinces that the authors knew and relied on the contents of the first etc. They were transferred to Deccan College, Pune, in the nine books.[41] late 19th century. They are in the Sharada and Devanagari The Rigveda is the largest of the four Vedas, and many of scripts, written on birch bark and paper. The oldest of its verses appear in the other Vedas.[42] Almost all of the them is dated to 1464. The 30 manuscripts of Rigveda pre- 1,875 verses found in Samaveda are taken from different served at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune parts of the Rigveda, either once or as repetition, and rewrit- were added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Register [38][39] ten in a chant song form. The Books 8 and 9 of the Rigveda in 2007. are by far the largest source of verses for Sama Veda. The Of these 30 manuscripts, 9 contain the samhita text, 5 Book 10 contributes the largest number of the 1,350 verses have the padapatha in addition. 13 contain Sayana’s com- of Rigveda found in Atharvaveda, or about one fifth of the mentary. At least 5 manuscripts (MS. no. 1/A1879-80, 5,987 verses in the Atharvaveda text.[41] A bulk of 1,875 1/A1881-82, 331/1883-84 and 5/Viś I) have preserved the ritual-focussed verses of Yajurveda, in its numerous ver- complete text of the Rigveda. MS no. 5/1875-76, writ- sions, also borrow and build upon the foundation of verses ten on birch bark in bold Sharada, was only in part used in Rigveda.[42][43] 4 CHAPTER 1. RIGVEDA

1.2 Contents • Mandala 1 comprises 191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni, and his name is the first word of the Rigveda. The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra, as well as Varuna, Mi- See also: Rigvedic deities tra, the Ashvins, the Maruts, Usas, Surya, Rbhus, Rudra, Vayu, Brhaspati, Visnu, Heaven and Earth, Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of non-Eternity, origin of universe): and all the Gods. This Mandala is dated to have been added to Rigveda after Mandala 2 through 9, There was neither non-existence nor existence then; and includes the philosophical Riddle Hymn 1.164, Neither the realm of space, nor the sky which is beyond; which inspires chapters in later Upanishads such as the What stirred? Where? In whose protection? Mundaka.[6][45][46] There was neither death nor immortality then; No distinguishing sign of night nor of day; • Mandala 2 comprises 43 hymns, mainly to Agni and That One breathed, windless, by its own impulse; Indra. It is chiefly attributed to the Rishi gṛtsamada Other than that there was nothing beyond. śaunahotra. Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden; • Mandala 3 comprises 62 hymns, mainly to Agni and Without distinctive marks, this all was water; Indra and the Vishvedevas. The verse 3.62.10 has That which, becoming, by the void was covered; great importance in Hinduism as the Gayatri Mantra. That One by force of heat came into being; Most hymns in this book are attributed to viśvāmitra Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? gāthinaḥ. Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? • Mandala 4 comprises 58 hymns, mainly to Agni and Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Indra as well as the Rbhus, Ashvins, Brhaspati, Vayu, Who then knows whence it has arisen? Usas, etc. Most hymns in this book are attributed to Whether God’s will created it, or whether He was mute; vāmadeva gautama. Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not; • Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows, Mandala 5 comprises 87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Only He knows, or perhaps He does not know. Indra, the Visvedevas (“all the gods’), the Maruts, the twin-deity Mitra-Varuna and the Asvins. Two hymns [7] —Rigveda 10.129 (Abridged, Tr: Kramer / Christian) each are dedicated to Ushas (the dawn) and to Savitr. [44] This hymn is one of the roots of Hindu philosophy. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the atri clan. • The Rigvedic hymns are dedicated to various deities, chief Mandala 6 comprises 75 hymns, mainly to Agni and of whom are Indra, a heroic god praised for having slain Indra, all the gods, Pusan, Ashvin, Usas, etc. Most his enemy Vrtra; Agni, the sacrificial fire; and Soma, the hymns in this book are attributed to the bārhaspatya sacred potion or the plant it is made from. Equally promi- family of Angirasas. nent gods are the Adityas or Asura gods Mitra–Varuna and • Mandala 7 comprises 104 hymns, to Agni, Indra, the Ushas (the dawn). Also invoked are Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, Visvadevas, the Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, the Asvins, Pushan, Brihaspati or Brahmanaspati, as well as deified nat- Ushas, Indra-Varuna, Varuna, Vayu (the wind), two ural phenomena such as Dyaus Pita (the shining sky, Father each to Sarasvati (ancient river/goddess of learning) Heaven), Prithivi (the earth, Mother Earth), Surya (the sun and Vishnu, and to others. Most hymns in this book god), Vayu or Vata (the wind), Apas (the waters), Parjanya are attributed to vasiṣṭha maitravaruṇi. (the thunder and rain), Vac (the word), many rivers (notably the Sapta Sindhu, and the Sarasvati River). The Adityas, • Mandala 8 comprises 103 hymns to various gods. Vasus, Rudras, Sadhyas, Ashvins, Maruts, Rbhus, and the Hymns 8.49 to 8.59 are the apocryphal vālakhilya. Vishvadevas (“all-gods”) as well as the “thirty-three gods” Hymns 1–48 and 60–66 are attributed to the kāṇva are the groups of deities mentioned. clan, the rest to other (Angirasa) poets.

The hymns mention various further minor gods, persons, • Mandala 9 comprises 114 hymns, entirely devoted to phenomena and items, and contain fragmentary references Soma Pavamana, the cleansing of the sacred potion of to possible historical events, notably the struggle between the Vedic religion. the early Vedic people (known as Vedic Aryans, a sub- group of the Indo-Aryans) and their enemies, the Dasa or • Mandala 10 comprises additional 191 hymns, fre- Dasyu and their mythical prototypes, the Paṇi (the Bactrian quently in later language, addressed to Agni, Indra and Parna). various other deities. It contains the Nadistuti sukta 1.3. DATING AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT 5

which is in praise of rivers and is important for the and founded the school of the Aitareyins. Regarding the au- reconstruction of the geography of the Vedic civiliza- thorship of the sister work we have no information, except tion and the Purusha sukta which has been important that the opinion of the sage Kaushitaki is frequently referred in studies of Vedic sociology.[47] It also contains the to in it as authoritative, and generally in opposition to the Nasadiya sukta (10.129), probably the most celebrated Paingya—the Brahmana, it would seem, of a rival school, hymn in the west, which deals with creation.[7] The the Paingins. Probably, therefore, it is just what one of the marriage hymns (10.85) and the death hymns (10.10– manuscripts calls it—the Brahmana of Sankhayana (com- 18) still are of great importance in the performance of posed) in accordance with the views of Kaushitaki. the corresponding Grhya rituals.

1.2.2 Rigveda Aranyakas and Upanishads 1.2.1 Rigveda Brahmanas See also: Aranyaka and Upanishads See also: Brahmana Each of these two Brahmanas is supplemented by a “for- Of the Brahmanas that were handed down in the schools est book”, or Aranyaka. The Aitareyaranyaka is not a uni- of the Bahvṛcas (i.e. “possessed of many verses”), as form production. It consists of five books (aranyaka), three the followers of the Rigveda are called, two have come of which, the first and the last two, are of a liturgical na- down to us, namely those of the Aitareyins and the Kaushi- ture, treating of the ceremony called mahavrata, or great takins. The Aitareya-brahmana[48] and the Kaushitaki- (or vow. The last of these books, composed in sutra form, Sankhayana-) brahmana evidently have for their ground- is, however, doubtless of later origin, and is, indeed, as- work the same stock of traditional exegetic matter. They cribed by Hindu authorities either to Shaunaka or to Ash- differ, however, considerably as regards both the arrange- valayana. The second and third books, on the other hand, ment of this matter and their stylistic handling of it, with are purely speculative, and are also styled the Bahvrca- the exception of the numerous legends common to both, in brahmana-upanishad. Again, the last four chapters of the which the discrepancy is comparatively slight. There is also second book are usually singled out as the Aitareya Upan- a certain amount of material peculiar to each of them. ishad,[49] ascribed, like its Brahmana (and the first book), to Mahidasa Aitareya; and the third book is also referred The Kaushitaka is, upon the whole, far more concise in its to as the Samhita-upanishad. As regards the Kaushitaki- style and more systematic in its arrangement features which aranyaka, this work consists of 15 adhyayas, the first two would lead one to infer that it is probably the more modern (treating of the mahavrata ceremony) and the 7th and 8th work of the two. It consists of thirty chapters (adhyaya); of which correspond to the 1st, 5th, and 3rd books of the while the Aitareya has forty, divided into eight books (or Aitareyaranyaka, respectively, whilst the four adhyayas usu- pentads, pancaka), of five chapters each. The last ten ad- ally inserted between them constitute the highly interesting hyayas of the latter work are, however, clearly a later ad- Kaushitaki (Brahmana-) Upanishad,[50] of which we pos- dition though they must have already formed part of it at sess two different recensions. The remaining portions (9– the time of Pāṇini (c. 5th century BC), if, as seems proba- 15) of the Aranyaka treat of the vital airs, the internal Agni- ble, one of his grammatical sutras, regulating the formation hotra, etc., ending with the vamsha, or succession of teach- of the names of Brahmanas, consisting of thirty and forty ers. adhyayas, refers to these two works. In this last portion occurs the well-known legend (also found in the Shankhayana- sutra, but not in the Kaushitaki-brahmana) of Shunahshepa, whom his father Ajigarta sells and offers to slay, the recital 1.3 Dating and historical context of which formed part of the inauguration of kings. While the Aitareya deals almost exclusively with the Soma The Rigveda’s core is accepted to date to the late Bronze sacrifice, the Kaushitaka, in its first six chapters, treats of Age, making it one of the few examples with an unbro- the several kinds of haviryajna, or offerings of rice, milk, ken tradition. Its composition is usually dated to roughly ghee, etc., whereupon follows the Soma sacrifice in this between c.1500-1200 BC.[11][12][13][note 2] Philological esti- way, that chapters 7–10 contain the practical ceremonial mates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of and 11–30 the recitations (shastra) of the hotar. Sayana, in the second millennium.[note 3] Being composed in an early the introduction to his commentary on the work, ascribes Indo-Aryan language, the hymns must post-date the Indo- the Aitareya to the sage Mahidasa Aitareya (i.e. son of Iranian separation, dated to roughly 2000 BC.[52] A reason- Itara), also mentioned elsewhere as a philosopher; and it able date close to that of the composition of the core of seems likely enough that this person arranged the Brahmana the Rigveda is that of the Mitanni documents of c. 1400 6 CHAPTER 1. RIGVEDA

the text offers very general ideas about the ancient Indian society. There is no evidence, state Jamison and Brereton, of any elaborate, pervasive or structured caste system.[47] Social stratification seems embryonic, then and later a social ideal rather than a social reality.[47] The society was pastoral with evidence of agriculture since hymns mention plow and celebrate agricultural divinities.[62] There was division of labor, and complementary relationship between kings and poet-priests but no discussion of relative status of social classes.[47] Women in Rigveda appear dispropor- tionately as speakers in dialogue hymns, both as mythical or divine Indrani, Apsaras Urvasi, or Yami, as well as Apāla Ātreyī (RV 8.91), Godhā (RV 10.134.6), Ghoṣā Kākṣī- vatī (RV 10.39.40), Romaśā (RV 1.126.7), Lopāmudrā Geographical distribution of the Vedic era texts. Each of major (RV 1.179.1-2), Viśvavārā Ātreyī (RV 5.28), Śacī Paulomī regions had their own recension of Rig Veda (Sakhas), and the (RV 10.159), Śaśvatī Āṅgirasī (RV 8.1.34). The women versions varied. The Kuru versions were more orthodox, but ev- of Rigveda are quite outspoken and appear more sexually idence suggests Vedic era people of other parts of Northern India [47] [2] confident than men, in the text. Elaborate and esthetic had challenged the Kuru orthodoxy. hymns on wedding suggest rites of passage had developed during the Rigvedic period.[47] There is little evidence of dowry and no evidence of sati in it or related Vedic texts.[63] BC, which contain Indo-Aryan nomenclature.[53] Other evidence also points to a composition close to 1400 BC.[54][55] The Rigvedic hymns mention rice and porridge, in hymns such as 8.83, 8.70, 8.77 and 1.61 in some versions of the The Rigveda is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text,[64] however there is no discussion of rice cultivation.[62] text. For this reason, it was in the center of attention The term “ayas” (metal) occurs in the Rigveda, but it is of western scholarship from the times of Max Müller and unclear which metal it was.[65] Iron is not mentioned in Rudolf Roth onwards. The Rigveda records an early stage Rigveda, something scholars have used to help date Rigveda of Vedic religion. There are strong linguistic and cultural to have been composed before 1000 BCE.[61] Hymn 5.63 [56] similarities with the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from mentions “metal cloaked in gold”, suggesting metal working [57][58] the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with had progressed in the Vedic culture.[66] the early Andronovo culture (or rather, the Sintashta culture within the early Andronovo horizon) of c. 2000 BC.[59] There is a widely accepted timeframe for the initial codi- fication of the Rigveda by compiling the hymns very late Writing appears in India around the 3rd century BC in in the Rigvedic or rather in the early post-Rigvedic period, the form of the Brahmi script, but texts of the length of including the arrangement of the individual hymns in ten the Rigveda were likely not written down until much later. books, coeval with the composition of the younger Veda While written manuscripts were used for teaching in me- Samhitas. This time coincides with the early Kuru king- dieval times, they were written on birch bark or palm leaves, dom, shifting the center of Vedic culture east from the Pun- which decompose and therefore were routinely copied over jab into what is now Uttar Pradesh. The fixing of the samhi- the generations to help preserve the text. Some Rigveda tapatha (by keeping Sandhi) intact and of the padapatha (by commentaries may date from the second half of the first dissolving Sandhi out of the earlier metrical text), occurred millennium CE. The hymns were thus composed and pre- during the later Brahmana period. served by oral tradition for several[60] millennia from the time of their composition until the redaction of the Rigveda, Some of the names of gods and goddesses found in the and the entire Rigveda was preserved in shakhas for another Rigveda are found amongst other belief systems based 2,500 years from the time of its redaction until the editio on Proto-Indo-European religion, while words used share princeps by Rosen, Aufrecht and Max Müller. common roots with words from other Indo-European languages.[67] The earliest text were composed in greater Punjab (northwest India and Pakistan), and the more philosophical later The horse (ashva), cattle, sheep and goat play an impor- texts were most likely composed in or around the region that tant role in the Rigveda. There are also references to is the modern era state of Haryana.[61] the elephant (Hastin, Varana), camel (Ustra, especially in Mandala 8), ass (khara, rasabha), buffalo (Mahisa), wolf, The Rigveda offers no direct evidence of social or political hyena, lion (Simha), mountain goat (sarabha) and to the [47] system in Vedic era, whether ordinary or elite. Only hints gaur in the Rigveda.[68] The peafowl (mayura), the goose such as cattle raising and horse racing are discernible, and 1.5. CONTEMPORARY HINDUISM 7

(hamsa) and the chakravaka (Tadorna ferruginea) are some Hindu religious beliefs and practice, a reverence birds mentioned in the Rigveda. for the Vedas as an exemplar of Hindu heritage continues to inform a contemporary understanding of Hinduism. Popular reverence for Vedic 1.4 Medieval Hindu scholarship scripture is similarly focused on the abiding authority and prestige of the Vedas rather than on any particular exegesis or engagement with According to Hindu tradition, the Rigvedic hymns were col- the subject matter of the text. lected by Paila under the guidance of Vyāsa, who formed — Andrea Pinkney, Routledge Handbook of [69] the Rigveda Samhita as we know it. According to the Religions in Asia[73] Śatapatha Brāhmana, the number of syllables in the Rigveda is 432,000, equalling the number of muhurtas (1 day = 30 muhurtas) in forty years. This statement stresses the underlying philosophy of the Vedic books that there is a connection (bandhu) between the astronomical, the physiological, and the spiritual.[70] 1.5.1 Atheism, Monotheism, Monism, Poly- The authors of the Brāhmana literature discussed and inter- theism debate preted the Vedic ritual. Yaska was an early commentator of the Rigveda by discussing the meanings of difficult words. The Rigveda along with other Vedic texts, states Michael In the 14th century, Sāyana wrote an exhaustive commen- Ruse,[75] contains a “strong traditional streak that (by West- tary on it. ern standards) would undoubtedly be thought atheistic”. He A number of other commentaries bhāṣyas were written dur- states that hymn 10.130 of Rigveda can be read to be in “an [75] ing the medieval period, including the commentaries by atheistic spirit”. Skandasvamin (pre-Sayana, roughly of the Gupta period), Rigveda, however, contains numerous hymns with a di- Udgitha (pre-Sayana), Venkata-Madhava (pre-Sayana, c. versity of ideas. The initial impression one gets, states 10th to 12th centuries) and Mudgala Purana (after Sayana, Jeaneane Fowler, is that the text is polytheistic because an abbreviated version of Sayana’s commentary).[71] it praises many gods.[76] Yet, adds Fowler, the text does not fit the “neat classifications of western thought or lin- ear thinking”.[76] The deities are praised depending on 1.5 Contemporary Hinduism the context, and the hymns include an expression of monotheism.[76] For example, hymn 1.164.46 of Rigveda states, He who studies understands, not the one who sleeps. —Rigveda 5.44.13, Tr: Frits Staal[72] They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman. Rigveda, in contemporary Hinduism, has been a reminder To what is One, sages give many a title they call of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hin- it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan. dus, with some hymns still in use in major rites of passage ceremonies, but the literal acceptance of most of the tex- — Rigveda 1.164.46, Translated by Ralph tual essence is long gone.[73][74] Louis Renou wrote that the Griffith[77][78] text is a distant object, and “even in the most orthodox do- mains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat”.[73] Musicians and dance groups celebrate the text as a mark of Hindu heritage, through incorporating Max Muller and Stephen Phillips states that this “monothe- Rigvedic hymns in their compositions, such as in Hamsad- ism” is henotheism (one god, accept many manifest hvani and Subhapantuvarali of Carnatic music, and these [78][79] [73] deities). Thomas Urumpackal and other scholars state have remained popular among the Hindus for decades. that monistic tendencies (Brahman is everywhere, God in- However, the contemporary Hindu beliefs are distant from side everybody) are found in hymns of chapters 1.164, 8.36 the precepts in the ancient layer of Rigveda samhitas: and 10.31.[80][81] Other scholars state that Rigveda includes an emerging diversity of thought, including monotheism, The social history and context of the Vedic polytheism, henotheism and pantheism, the choice left to texts are extremely distant from contemporary the preference of the worshipper.[82] 8 CHAPTER 1. RIGVEDA

1.5.2 Mistranslations, misinterpretations and if anyone showed him an error, he would maintain that debate it was a corruption added later”.[92] Dayananda and Aurobindo interpret the Vedic scholars had Early missionaries and colonial administrators in India, a monotheistic conception.[93] Aurobindo attempted to in- used Western concepts and words in their attempts to trans- terpret hymns to Agni in the Rigveda as mystical.[93] He late and interpret the ancient texts of Indian religions. claimed that the Vedic hymns were a quest after a higher This, state postmodern scholars such as Frits Staal, led truth, define the perfect right (Rta), conceive life in terms [83] to mistranslations. Thus, Rigveda’s Mandala are often of a struggle between the forces of light and darkness, and translated to mean 'Book', when the word actually means assert the ultimate reality of an everconscient existence.[93] 'Cycle', according to Staal.[83][84] The Vedas were called 'sacred books’, an appellation borrowed by orientalists used for Bible, but there is no evidence of this. Staal states, 1.6 Translations “it is nowhere stated that the Veda was revealed”, and Sruti simply means “that what is heard, in the sense that it is transmitted from father to son or from teacher to The Rig Veda is hard to translate accurately, because it is pupil”.[83] The Rigveda, or other Vedas, do not anywhere the oldest Indo-Aryan text, composed in the archaic Vedic assert that they are Apauruṣeyā, and this reverential term Sanskrit. There are no closely contemporary extant texts, [35]:3 appears centuries later in the texts of the Mimamsa school which makes it difficult to interpret. [83][85][86] of Hindu philosophy. The text of Rigveda suggests The first published translation of any portion of the Rigveda it was “composed by poets, human individuals whose names in any European language was into Latin, by Friedrich Au- [83] where household words” in the Vedic age, states Staal. gust Rosen (Rigvedae specimen, London 1830). Predating Müller’s editio princeps of the text, Rosen was working from The Rigveda is the earliest, the most vener- manuscripts brought back from India by Colebrooke. H. able, obscure, distant and difficult for moderns H. Wilson was the first to make a complete translation of to understand – hence is often misinterpreted or the Rig Veda into English, published in six volumes during worse: used as a peg on which to hang an idea or the period 1850–88.[94] Wilson’s version was based on the a theory. commentary of Sāyaṇa. — Frits Staal, Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Some notable translations of the Rig Veda include: Mantras, Rituals, Insights[87]

1.7 See also 1.5.3 “Indigenous Aryans” debate • Keśin Further information: Indigenous Aryans and Out of India theory • Mayabheda

Alternative theory for a much earlier composition date for the Rigveda, as well as the Indigenous Aryans 1.8 Notes theory have been suggested.[88][89] These theories are controversial.[90][91] [1] It is certain that the hymns post-date Indo-Iranian separation of ca. 2000 BC and probably that of the relevant Mitanni documents of c. 1400 BC. The oldest mention of Rigveda 1.5.4 Arya Samaj and Aurobindo move- in other sources dates from 600 BC, and the oldest available text from 1,200 BC. Philological estimates tend to date the ments bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium: In the 19th- and early 20th-centuries, some reformers like • Max Müller: “the hymns men of the Rig-Veda are said Swami Dayananda Saraswati – founder of the Arya Samaj, to date from 1500 B.C.”[16] Sri Aurobindo – founder of Sri Aurobindo Ashram, dis- • Thomas Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, 1998, p. cussed the Vedas, including the Rig veda, for their philoso- 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of phies. Dayananda, stated Reverend John Robson, was an 1700–1100.[14] Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate iconoclast and willing to join with Christians to destroy all of 1100 BC for the youngest hymns in book 10.[17] idols in India.[92] According to Robson, Dayanand believed • The EIEC (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives “there was no errors in the Vedas (including the Rigveda), 1500–1000. 1.9. REFERENCES 9

• Flood and Witzel both mention c.1500-1200 [9] See: (a) Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through BC.[11][12] the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, ISBN 978- • Anthony mentions c.1500-1300.[13] 0595269259, pages 64-69; Jan Gonda, A History of Indian Literature: Veda and Upan- Some writers out of the mainstream claim to trace ishads, Volume 1, Part 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN astronomical references in the Rigveda, dating it to as early 978-3447016032, pages 134-135; as 4000 BC, a date corresponding to the Neolithic late Extracted examples from these sources: Mehrgarh culture; summarized by Klaus Klostermaier in a Hymn 1.164.34, “What is the ultimate limit of the earth?", 1998 presentation “What is the center of the universe?", “What is the semen of the cosmic horse?", “What is the ultimate source of human [2] Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BC for the speech?" youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a terminus post Hymn 1.164.34, “Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the quem of the earliest hymns are far more uncertain. Oberlies earth?", “How could the unstructured universe give origin (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of to this structured world?" 1700–1100. The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture Hymn 1.164.5, “Where does the sun hide in the night?", (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives 1500–1000 BC. “Where do gods live?" [3] Compare Max Müller's statement “the hymns of the Rig- Hymn 1.164.6, “What, where is the unborn support for the Veda are said to date from 1500 BC”[51] born universe?"; Hymn 1.164.20 (a hymn that is widely cited in the Upan- ishads as the parable of the Body and the Soul): “Two birds with fair wings, inseparable companions; Have found refuge 1.9 References in the same sheltering tree. One incessantly eats from the ﬁg tree; the other, not eating, just looks on."; [1] derived from the root ṛc “to praise”, cf. Dhātupātha 28.19. Rigveda Book 1, Hymn 164 Wikisource Monier-Williams translates “a Veda of Praise or Hymn- Veda” [10] p. 126, History of British Folklore, Richard Mercer Dorson, 1999, ISBN 9780415204774 [2] Michael Witzel (1997), The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu, Har- [11] Flood 1996, p. 37. vard University, in Witzel 1997, pp. 259–264 [12] Witzel 1995, p. 4. [3] Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig [13] Anthony 2007, p. 454. Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, ISBN 978-0595269259, page 273 [14] Oberlies 1998 p. 158

[4] Avari 2007, p. 77. [15] Lucas F. Johnston, Whitney Bauman (2014). Science and [5] Werner, Karel (1994). A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism. Religion: One Planet, Many Possibilities. Routledge. p. 179. Curzon Press. ISBN 0-7007-1049-3. [16] ('Veda and Vedanta'), 7th lecture in India: What Can It [6] Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda Teach Us: A Course of Lectures Delivered Before the Uni- : the earliest religious poetry of India, Oxford University versity of Cambridge, World Treasures of the Library of Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, pages 4, 7-9 Congress Beginnings by Irene U. Chambers, Michael S. Roth. [7] • Original Sanskrit: Rigveda 10.129 Wikisource; [17] Oberlies 1998 p. 155 • Translation 1: Max Muller (1859). A History of An- cient Sanskrit Literature. Williams and Norgate, Lon- [18] Klaus Klostermaier (1984). Mythologies and Philosophies of don. pp. 559–565. Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India. Wilfrid Laurier • Translation 2: Kenneth Kramer (1986). World University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-88920-158-3. Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions. [19] Lester Kurtz (2015), Gods in the Global Village, SAGE Paulist Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-8091-2781-4. Publications, ISBN 978-1483374123, page 64, Quote: “The • Translation 3: David Christian (2011). Maps of 1,028 hymns of the Rigveda are recited at initiations, wed- Time: An Introduction to Big History. University of dings and funerals...” California Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-520- 95067-2. [20] H. Oldenberg, Prolegomena,1888, Engl. transl. New Delhi: Motilal 2004 [8] C Chatterjee (1995), Values in the Indian Ethos: An Overview, Journal of Human Values, Vol 1, No 1, pages [21] K. Meenakshi (2002). “Making of Pāṇini”. In George 3-12; Cardona, Madhav Deshpande, Peter Edwin Hook. Indian Original text translated in English: The Rig Veda, Mandala Linguistic Studies: Festschrift in Honor of George Cardona. 10, Hymn 117, Ralph T. H. Griﬃth (Translator); Motilal Banarsidass. p. 235. ISBN 81-208-1885-7. 10 CHAPTER 1. RIGVEDA

[22] Witzel, Michael (2003). “Vedas and Upanisads”. In Flood, [32] cf. Preface to Khila section by C.G.Kāshikar in Volume-5 Gavin. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Blackwell of Pune Edition of RV (in references). Publishing Ltd. pp. 68–69. ISBN 0631215352. The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use [33] These Khilani hymns have also been found in a manuscript of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to of the Śākala recension of the Kashmir Rigveda (and are student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impec- included in the Poone edition). cable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of [34] equalling 40 times 10,800, the number of bricks used for the other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a tape-recording uttaravedi: the number is motivated numerologically rather of ca. 1500–500 bc. Not just the actual words, but even than based on an actual syllable count. the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. On the other [35] The Rigveda. translated by Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel hand, the Vedas have been written down only during the P. Brereton. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19- early second millennium ce,... 937018-4. [23] The oldest manuscript in the Pune collection dates to the [36] In a few cases, more than one rishi is given, signifying lack 15th century. The Benares Sanskrit University has a Rigveda of certainty. manuscript of the 14th century. Earlier manuscripts are extremely rare; the oldest known manuscript preserving [37] Talageri (2000), p. 33 a Vedic text was written in the 11th century in Nepal (catalogued by the Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation [38] “Rigveda”. UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. Project, Hamburg. [39] hinduism.about.com [24] B. van Nooten and G. Holland, Rig Veda. A metrically restored text. Cambridge: Harvard Oriental Series 1994 [40] cf. Editorial notes in various volumes of Pune Edition, see references. [25] Sonde, Nagesh D (1998). Shree Sukta (A Treatise on Cre- ation And Preservation of Wealth). India: Sri Satguru Pub- [41] James Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics at lications. ISBN 978-8170305736. Google Books, Vol. 7, Harvard Divinity School, TT Clark, pages 51-56 [26] Michael Witzel says that “The RV has been transmitted in one recension (the śākhā of Śākalya) while others (such as [42] Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig the Bāṣkala text) have been lost or are only rumored about Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, ISBN 978-0595269259, so far.” Michael Witzel, p. 69, “Vedas and Upaniṣads”, in: pages 273-274 The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Gavin Flood (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2005. [43] Edmund Gosse, Short histories of the literatures of the world, p. 181, at Google Books, New York: Appleton, page 181 [27] Maurice Winternitz (History of Sanskrit Literature, Revised English Translation Edition, 1926, vol. 1, p. 57) says that [44] GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Ency- “Of the diﬀerent recensions of this Saṃhitā, which once ex- clopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton Uni- isted, only a single one has come down to us.” He adds in a versity Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, pages 5-6, 109-110, note (p. 57, note 1) that this refers to the “recension of the 180 Śākalaka-School.” [45] Robert Hume, Mundaka Upanishad, Thirteen Principal Up- [28] Sures Chandra Banerji (A Companion To Sanskrit Literature, anishads, Oxford University Press, pages 374-375 Second Edition, 1989, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, pp. 300– 301) says that “Of the 21 recensions of this Veda, that were [46] Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Mundaka Upanishad, known at one time, we have got only two, viz. Śākala and Oxford University Press, page 38-40 Vāṣkala.” [47] Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda [29] Maurice Winternitz (History of Sanskrit Literature, Revised : the earliest religious poetry of India, Oxford University English Translation Edition, 1926, vol. 1, p. 283. Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, pages 57-59

[30] Mantras of “khila” hymns were called khailika and not ṛcas [48] Edited, with an English translation, by M. Haug (2 vols., (Khila meant distinct “part” of Rgveda separate from regular Bombay, 1863). An edition in Roman transliteration, with hymns; all regular hymns make up the akhila or “the whole” extracts from the commentary, has been published by Th. recognised in a śākhā, although khila hymns have sanctiﬁed Aufrecht (Bonn, 1879). roles in rituals from ancient times). [49] Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, [31] Hermann Grassmann had numbered the hymns 1 through to Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 7-14 1028, putting the vālakhilya at the end. Griﬃth’s translation has these 11 at the end of the 8th mandala, after 8.92 in the [50] Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, regular series. Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 21–23 1.9. REFERENCES 11

[51] ('Veda and Vedanta', 7th lecture in India: What Can It Teach [64] Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda Us: A Course of Lectures Delivered Before the University of : the earliest religious poetry of India, Oxford University Cambridge, World Treasures of the Library of Congress Be- Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, pages 40, 180, 1150, 1162 ginnings by Irene U. Chambers, Michael S. Roth. [65] Chakrabarti, D.K. The Early Use of Iron in India (1992) [52] Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). "Encyclopedia of Oxford University Press argues that it may refer to any metal. Indo-European Culture". Fitzroy Dearborn. |contribution= If ayas refers to iron, the Rigveda must date to the late 2nd ignored (help) millennium at the earliest.

[53] “As a possible date ad quem for the RV one usually adduces [66] Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda the Hittite-Mitanni agreement of the middle of the 14th cent. : the earliest religious poetry of India, Oxford University B.C. which mentions four of the major Rgvedic gods: mi- Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, page 744 tra, varuNa, indra and the nAsatya azvin)" M. Witzel, Early Sanskritization – Origin and development of the Kuru state. [67] Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda : the earliest religious poetry of India, Oxford University [54] The Vedic People: Their History and Geography, Rajesh Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, pages 50-57 Kochar, 2000, Orient Longman, ISBN 81-250-1384-9

[55] Rigveda and River Saraswati: class.uidaho.edu [68] among others, Macdonell and Keith, and Talageri 2000, Lal 2005 [56] Oldenberg 1894 (tr. Shrotri), p. 14 “The Vedic diction has a great number of favourite expressions which are common [69] Mystic Approach to the Veda and the Upanishad by Madhav with the Avestic, though not with later Indian diction. In Pundalik Pandit (1974), p. 4, ISBN 9780940985483 addition, there is a close resemblance between them in metrical form, in fact, in their overall poetic character. If it is [70] p. 155, The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Stud- noticed that whole Avesta verses can be easily translated into ies in Greek and Indian Philosophies, by Thomas McEvilley, the Vedic alone by virtue of comparative phonetics, then this 2012, ISBN 9781581159332 may often give, not only correct Vedic words and phrases, [71] edited in 8 volumes by Vishva Bandhu, 1963–1966. but also the verses, out of which the soul of Vedic poetry appears to speak.” [72] Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, ISBN 978-0143099864, page xv [57] Mallory 1989 p. 36 “Probably the least-contested observa- tion concerning the various Indo-European dialects is that [73] Andrea Pinkney (2014), Routledge Handbook of Religions those languages grouped together as Indic and Iranian show in Asia (Editors: Bryan Turner and Oscar Salemink), Rout- such remarkable similarities with one another that we can ledge, ISBN 978-0415635035, pages 31-32 confidently posit a period of Indo-Iranian unity...” [74] Jeffrey Haines (2008), Routledge Handbook of Religion and [58] Bryant 2001:130–131 “The oldest part of the Avesta... is lin- Politics, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415600293, page 80 guistically and culturally very close to the material preserved in the Rigveda... There seems to be economic and religious [75] Michael Ruse (2015), Atheism, Oxford University Press, interaction and perhaps rivalry operating here, which justi- ISBN 978-0199334582, page 185 fies scholars in placing the Vedic and Avestan worlds in close chronological, geographical and cultural proximity to each [76] Jeaneane D Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An In- other not far removed from a joint Indo-Iranian period.” troduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex University Press, ISBN 978-1898723936, pages 38-45 [59] Mallory 1989 “The identification of the Andronovo culture as Indo-Iranian is commonly accepted by scholars.” [77] Rigveda Mandala 1 Hymn 164.46 Wikisource [60] Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda [78] Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief : the earliest religious poetry of India, Oxford University History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, pages 13-14 978-0231144858, page 401 [61] Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda : the earliest religious poetry of India, Oxford University [79] Garry Trompf (2005), In Search of Origins, 2nd Edition, Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, page 5 Sterling, ISBN 978-1932705515, pages 60-61

[62] Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda [80] Thomas Paul Urumpackal (1972), Organized Religion Ac- : the earliest religious poetry of India, Oxford University cording to Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Georgian University Press, Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, pages 6-7 ISBN 978-8876521553, pages 229-232 with footnote 133

[63] Michael Witzel (1996), Little Dowry, No Sati: The Lot of [81] Franklin Edgerton (1996), The Bhagavad Gita, Cambridge Women in the Vedic Period, Journal of South Asia Women University Press, Reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN Studies, Vol 2, No. 4 978-8120811492, pages 11-12 12 CHAPTER 1. RIGVEDA

[82] Elizabeth Reed (2001), Hindu Literature: Or the Ancient [94] Wilson, H. H. Ṛig-Veda-Sanhitā: A Collection of Ancient Books of India, Simon Publishers, ISBN 978-1931541039, Hindu Hymns. 6 vols. (London, 1850–88); reprint: Cosmo pages 16-19 Publications (1977)

[83] Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, [95] Kartiki Nitin Lawate (2014-01-29). “Max muller’s German Rituals, Insights, Penguin, ISBN 978-0143099864, pages translation of Rig Veda from 1856 comes to Bhandarkar In- xv-xvi stitute”. Mid-Day. [96] neh.gov, retrieved 22 March 2007. [84] AA MacDonnel (2000 print edition), India’s Past: A Survey of Her Literatures, Religions, Languages and Antiquities, Asian Educational Services, ISBN 978-8120605701, page 15 1.10 Bibliography

[85] D Sharma (2011), Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Editions Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231133999, pages 196-197 • editio princeps: Friedrich Max Müller, The Hymns of the Rigveda, with Sayana's commentary, London, [86] Jan Westerhoﬀ (2009), Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka: A Philo- 1849–75, 6 vols., 2nd ed. 4 vols., Oxford, 1890–92. sophical Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978- 0195384963, page 290 • Theodor Aufrecht, 2nd ed., Bonn, 1877.

[87] Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, • Sontakke, N. S.; Rājvade, V. K., eds. (1933– Rituals, Insights, Penguin, ISBN 978-0143099864, page 46,Reprint 1972–1983.). Rgveda-Samhitā: Śrimat- 107 Sāyanāchārya virachita-bhāṣya-sametā (First ed.). Pune: Vaidika Samśodhana Maṇḍala. |ﬁrst1= missing [88] N Kazanas (2002), Indigenous Indo-Aryans and the |last1= in Authors list (help); Missing |last2= in Ed- Rigveda, Journal of Indo-European Studies, Vol. 30, pages itors list (help); Check date values in: |date= (help). 275-289; N Kazanas (2000), ‘A new date for the Rgveda’, in G. C. The Editorial Board for the First Edition included N. Pande (Ed) Chronology and Indian Philosophy, special is- S. Sontakke (Managing Editor), V. K. Rājvade, M. M. sue of the JICPR, Delhi; Vāsudevaśāstri, and T. S. Varadarājaśarmā. ND Kazanas (2001), Indo-European Deities and the Rgveda, • B. van Nooten und G. Holland, Rig Veda, a metri- Journal of Indo-European Studies, Vol. 30, pages 257-264, cally restored text, Department of Sanskrit and In- ND Kazanas (2003), Final Reply, Journal of Indo-European Studies, Vol. 31, pages 187-189 dian Studies, Harvard University, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, Eng- [89] Edwin Bryant (2004), The Quest for the Origins of the Vedic land, 1994. Culture, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195169478 • Rgveda-Samhita, Text in Devanagari, English trans- [90] Agrawal, D. P. (2002). Comments on “Indigenous In- lation Notes and indices by H. H. Wilson, Ed. W.F. doAryans”. Journal of Indo-European Studies, Vol. 30, Webster, originally in 1888, Published Nag Publishers pages 129-135; 1990, 11A/U.A. Jawaharnagar,Delhi-7. A Parpola (2002), ‘Comments on “Indigenous Indo- Aryans”’, Journal of Indo-European Studies, Vol. 30, pages Commentary 187-191 • Sayana (14th century) [91] Michael Witzel, The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts, EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December); • ed. Müller 1849–75 (German translation); Elst, Koenraad (1999). Update on the Aryan Invasion De- • ed. Müller (original commentary of Sāyana in bate. Aditya Prakashan. ISBN 81-86471-77-4.; Sanskrit based on 24 manuscripts). Bryant, Edwin and Laurie L. Patton (2005) The Indo-Aryan • Controversy, Routledge/Curzon, ISBN 978-0700714636 ed. Sontakke et al., published by Vaidika Sam- sodhana Mandala, Pune (2nd ed. 1972) in 5 vol- [92] Salmond, Noel A. (2004). “Dayananda Saraswati”. Hindu umes. iconoclasts: Rammohun Roy, Dayananda Sarasvati and • Rgveda-Samhitā Srimat-sāyanāchārya virachita- Nineteenth-Century Polemics Against Idolatry. Wilfrid Lau- rier University Press. pp. 114–115. ISBN 0-88920-419-5. bhāṣya-sametā, ed. by Sontakke et al., published by Vaidika Samśodhana Mandala,Pune-9,1972, in [93] The Political Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo by V. P. Varma 5 volumes (It is original commentary of Sāyana in (1960), Motilal Banarsidass, p. 139, ISBN 9788120806863 Sanskrit based on over 60 manuscripts). 1.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 13

• Sri Aurobindo, Hymns to the Mystic Fire (Commentary • Witzel, Michael (1995), “Early Sanskritization: Ori- on the Rig Veda), Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin gin and Development of the Kuru state” (PDF), EJVS ISBN 0-914955-22-5 vol. 1 no. 4 (1995)

• Raimundo Pannikar (1972), The Vedic Experience, • Witzel, Michael (ed.) (1997), Inside the Texts, Beyond University of California Press the Texts. New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora vol. 2, Cam- Philology bridge: Harvard University Press

• Vashishtha Narayan Jha, A Linguistic Analysis of the Archaeoastronomy Rgveda-Padapatha Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi (1992). • Tilak, Bal Gangadhar: The Orion, 1893.

• Bjorn Merker, Rig Veda Riddles In Nomad Perspec- tive, Mongolian Studies, Journal of the Mongolian So- 1.11 External links ciety XI, 1988.

• Thomas Oberlies, Die Religion des Rgveda, Wien Text 1998. • Devanagari and transliteration experimental online • Oldenberg, Hermann: Hymnen des Rigveda. 1. Teil: text at: sacred-texts.com Metrische und textgeschichtliche Prolegomena. Berlin 1888; Wiesbaden 1982. • ITRANS, Devanagari, transliteration online text and PDF, several versions prepared by Detlef Eichler • —Die Religion des Veda. Berlin 1894; Stuttgart 1917; Stuttgart 1927; Darmstadt 1977 • Transliteration, metrically restored online text, at: Linguistics Research Center, Univ. of Texas • —Vedic Hymns, The Sacred Books of the East vo, l. 46 ed. Friedrich Max Müller, Oxford 1897 • Transliteration with tone accents PDF prepared by Keith Briggs • Adolf Kaegi, The Rigveda: The Oldest Literature of the Indians (trans. R. Arrowsmith), Boston, Ginn and Co. • The Hymns of the Rigveda, Editio Princeps by (1886), 2004 reprint: ISBN 978-1-4179-8205-9. Friedrich Max Müller (large PDF ﬁles of book scans). Two editions: London, 1877 (Samhita and Pada texts) Historical and Oxford, 1890–92, with Sayana’s commentary. • Works by or about Rigveda at Internet Archive • Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Audio Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton Univer- sity Press • Audio download (MP3) by Indian Institute of Scien- • Avari, Burjor (2007), India: The Ancient Past, Lon- tiﬁc Heritage (IISH) don: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-35616-9 • Audio download (MP3). Live recording by Varanasi- • Bryant, Edwin (2001). The Quest for the Origins of based scholars; chanted in North Indian style, i.e. Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Ox- without tones (yeha swara) ford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513777-9. • Choral Hymns from the Rig Veda, Op.26, Gustav • Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Holtz, 14 pieces in 4 groups, Piano with Violins, Cambridge University Press Romantic Movements, Vocal Scores, University of Rochester • Lal, B.B. 2005. The Homeland of the Aryans. Ev- idence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology, Translations New Delhi, Aryan Books International.

• Talageri, Shrikant: The Rigveda: A Historical Analy- • English translation by Ralph T. H. Griﬃth on Wik- sis, 2000. ISBN 81-7742-010-0 isource 14 CHAPTER 1. RIGVEDA

• For links to other translations, see Translations section above.

Other

• Nomination of Rigveda (.doc format) submitted by In- dia in 2006–2007 for inclusion in the Memory of the World Register. • A Still Undeciphered Text: How the scientiﬁc approach to the Rigveda would open up Indo-European Studies, Karen Thomson (2009), The Journal of Indo-European Studies, Volume 37, Number 1 & 2, pages 1–47 (a review of various attempts to translate Rigveda and the issues with current translations) Chapter 2

Oresteia

“The Eumenides” redirects here. For mythological deities, 2.1.2 Storyline see Erinyes. For the Russian-language opera, see Oresteia (opera). The play opens to a watchman on top of the house, reporting that he has been lying restless there “like a dog” The Oresteia (Ancient Greek: Ὀρέστεια) is a trilogy of (kunos diken) for a year, “for so rules the expectant manly- Greek tragedies written by Aeschylus concerning the end of willed heart of a woman” (that woman being Clytemnes- the curse on the House of Atreus. The name derives from tra awaiting the return of her husband, who has arranged the character Orestes, who sets out to avenge his father’s that mountaintop beacons give the signal when Troy has murder. fallen). He laments the fortunes of the house, but promises to keep silent: “A huge ox has stepped onto my tongue.” The only extant example of an ancient Greek theater tril- However, when Agamemnon returns, he brings with him ogy, the Oresteia won first prize at the Dionysia festival in Cassandra, the enslaved daughter of the Trojan king, Priam, 458 BC. When originally performed, it was accompanied and a priestess of Apollo, as his concubine, further angering by Proteus, a satyr play that would have followed the tril- Clytemnestra. ogy. Proteus has not survived, however. In all likelihood the term “Oresteia” originally referred to all four plays; today it generally designates only the surviving trilogy. From the silence of the watchman the chorus begin with the great parodos, which as Kitto Many consider the Oresteia to be Aeschylus’ finest work. expressed it ['It lays down the intellectual foun- Principal themes of the trilogy include the contrast between dation of the whole trilogy'], bears the weight of revenge and justice, as well as the transition from personal the trilogy . . . Through descriptions of the past, vendetta to organized litigation. hopes and fears for the future, and statements of the present (which together constitute the narrative) this song develops a series of tensions . . 2.1 Agamemnon .[it] opens with the narrative of events leading towards the Trojan expedition[1] 2.1.1 Introduction The central action of the play is the agon between The play Agamemnon (Ἀγαμέμνων, Agamemnōn) details Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. She plays the loving, wait- the homecoming of Agamemnon, King of Argos, from ing wife and attempts to persuade Agamemnon to step on a the Trojan War. Waiting at home for him is his wife, purple (sometimes red) tapestry or carpet to walk into “his” Clytemnestra, who has been planning his murder, partly palace as a true returning conqueror. The problem is that as revenge for the sacrifice of their daughter, Iphigenia, this would indicate hubris on Agamemnon’s part, and he and partly because in the ten years of Agamemnon’s ab- is reluctant. Eventually, for reasons that are still heavily sence Clytemnestra has entered into an adulterous relation- debated, Clytemnestra does persuade Agamemnon to cross ship with Aegisthus, Agamemnon’s cousin and the sole sur- the purple tapestry to enter the oikos, where, according to vivor of a dispossessed branch of the family (Agamem- her later account, she kills him in the bath: she ensnares non’s father, Atreus, killed and fed Aegisthus’s brothers him in a robe and as he struggles to free himself she hacks to Aegisthus’s father, Thyestes, when he took power from him with three strokes of a pelekus. him), who is determined to regain the throne he believes While Clytemnestra and Agamemnon are offstage, Cassan- should rightfully belong to him. dra, who had heretofore been silent, is suddenly possessed

15 16 CHAPTER 2. ORESTEIA

2.2 The Libation Bearers

2.2.1 Introduction

The Libation Bearers (Χοηφόροι, Choēphoroi) is the second play of the Oresteia. It deals with the reunion of Agamemnon’s children, Electra and Orestes, and their revenge. Orestes kills Clytemnestra to avenge the death of Agamemnon, Orestes’ father.

Agamemnon walks on the carpet of sacred peplos garments. 2.2.2 Storyline

Orestes arrives at the grave of his father, accompanied by his cousin Pylades, the son of the king of Phocis, where he has grown up in exile; he places two locks of his hair on the tomb. Orestes and Pylades hide as Electra, Orestes’ sister, by the god Apollo and enters a tumultuous trance. Grad- arrives at the grave accompanied by a chorus of elderly slave ually her incoherent delirium starts making some sense, women (the libation bearers of the title) to pour libations on nouns and adjectives lining up to form the rudiments of Agamemnon’s grave; they have been sent by Clytemnestra meaning, and she engages in anguished discussion with the in an effort “to ward off harm” (l.42). Just as the ritual ends, chorus, whether she should enter the palace, knowing that Electra spots a lock of hair on the tomb which she recog- she too will be murdered. Cassandra has been cursed by nizes as similar to her own; subsequently she sees two sets Apollo for rejecting his advances at a feast celebrating the of footprints, one of which has proportions similar to hers. opening of his temple in Corinth. He has given her clairvoy- At this point Orestes and Pylades emerge from their hiding ance so that she can foresee future events, but he has cursed place and Orestes gradually convinces her of his identity. her so that no one who hears her prophesies will believe Now, in the longest and most structurally complex lyric pas- them until it’s too late. In Cassandra’s soliloquy, she runs sage in extant Greek tragedy, the chorus, Orestes, and Elec- through many gruesome images of the history of the House tra, attempt to conjure the departed spirit of Agamemnon to of Atreus as if she had been a witness of them (though she is aid them in revenging his murder. Orestes then asks “why too young to have seen them), including betrayal, murder, she sent libations, what calculation led her to offer too late and cannibalism. She eventually enters the palace, knowing atonement for a hurt past cure” (l.515–516). The chorus re- that her fate is preordained and unavoidable. The chorus, in sponds that in the palace of Argos Clytemnestra was roused this play a group of the elders of Argos, are left bewildered from slumber by a nightmare: she dreamt that she gave birth and fearful, until they hear the death screams of Agamem- to a snake, and the snake now feeds from her breast and non and frantically debate on a course of action. draws blood along with milk. Alarmed by this, a possible A platform is then rolled out by the palace servants display- sign of the gods’ wrath, she “sent these funeral libations” ing the butchered and dismembered corpses of Agamem- (l.538). Orestes believes that he is the snake in his mother’s non and Cassandra, along with Clytemnestra brandishing dream, so together with Electra they plan to avenge their fa- the bloodied axe of the Cyclops, and defiantly explaining ther by killing their mother Clytemnestra and her new hus- her action. Agamemnon was murdered in much the same band, Aegisthus. way an animal is killed for sacrifice: with three blows, the Orestes and Pylades pretend to be ordinary travelers from last strike accompanied by a prayer to a god. Cassandra was Phocis, and ask for hospitality at the palace. They even killed with only two blows, omitting the prayer. Clytemnes- tell the Queen that Orestes is dead. Delighted by the tra is soon joined by Aegisthus, Agamemnon’s dispossessed news, Clytemnestra sends a servant to summon Aegisthus. cousin and her lover, now the king, strutting out and deliv- When Aegisthus arrives, Orestes reveals himself and kills ering an arrogant speech to the chorus, who nearly enter the usurper. Clytemnestra hears the shouting of a servant into a brawl with him and his guard. However, Clytemnes- and appears on the scene. She sees Orestes standing over tra halts the dispute by swinging the axe wildly, saying that the body of Aegisthus. Orestes is then presented with a “There is pain enough already. Let us not be bloody now.” difficult situation: in order to avenge his father, he must The play closes with the chorus reminding the usurpers that kill his mother. Clytemnestra bares her breast and pleads, Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, will surely return to exact “Hold, oh child, and have shame” to which he responds by vengeance.[2] saying to his close friend Pylades, the son of the king of 2.3. THE EUMENIDES 17

Phocis: “Shall I be ashamed to kill [my] mother ?" (l.896– writing his more famous Oedipus tragedies.[4] 899). Some interpreters have suggested that Orestes’ ques- And, like many contemporaneous works, Aristophanes' tion may be connected to a greater theme in the Oresteia: play The Frogs has great fun at Orestes’s expense. that sometimes we are faced with impossible decisions; in this case, Orestes’ familial duty to his father is fundamen- tally opposed to his familial duty to his mother. On the other hand, it appears straightforwardly as not much more 2.3 The Eumenides than a pro forma rhetorical question because he readily accepts Pylades advice that it is the correct course of action. 2.3.1 Introduction Pylades implores Orestes not to forget his duty to Apollo “and our sworn pact” (900). Orestes proceeds immediately The Eumenides (Εὐμενίδες, Eumenides; also known as The with the murder and wraps the bodies of Clytemnestra and Kindly Ones) is the final play of the Oresteia, in which Aegisthus in the cloak that Agamemnon was wearing when Orestes, Apollo, and the Erinyes go before Athena and he was slain. eleven other judges chosen by her from the Athenian cit- As soon as he exits the palace, the Erinyes begin to haunt izenry at the Areopagus (Rock of Ares, a flat rocky hill and torture him in his flight. Orestes flees in agonized panic. by the Athenian agora where the homicide court of Athens The chorus complains that the cycle of violence did not stop later held its sessions), to decide whether Orestes’s killing with Clytemnestra’s murder, but continues. of his mother, Clytemnestra, makes him guilty of the crime of murder.

2.2.3 References in other Greek dramas 2.3.2 Storyline Pietro Pucci of Cornell University argues that in making reference to The Libation Bearers in Electra, Euripides Orestes is tormented by the Erinyes, or Furies, who are made a social commentary on the relationship between chthonic deities that avenge injustice, matricide in Orestes’ truth and evidence. Euripides criticized the scene of case. He, at the instigation of his sister Electra and the recognition when Electra realizes that the lock of hair god Apollo, has killed their mother Clytemnestra, who had on Agamemnon’s tomb belongs to Orestes. In his own killed their father, King Agamemnon, who had sacrificed play Electra, Euripides has Electra make a scathing re- his daughter and Orestes’s sister, Iphigenia so that his fleet mark about the ridiculous notion that one could recognize could set sail for Troy. Orestes finds a refuge and a solace a brother solely by a lock of hair, a footprint and an arti- at the new temple of Apollo in Delphi, and the god, unable cle of clothing.[3] What Euripides (presumably purposely) to deliver him from the Erinyes’ unappeasable wrath, sends him along to Athens under the protection of Hermes, while ignores in Aeschylus’ play was the religious significance of the act of placing a lock of hair on a tomb, which was a he casts a drowsy spell upon the pursuing Erinyes in order to delay them. much more powerful clue as to who left the lock than the actual nature of the hair. Only a friend of Agamemnon’s Clytemnestra’s ghost appears “exactly how or from where would dare approach his grave and leave a lock of hair, and is uncertain ... noteworthy is the poet’s bold inventiveness even more importantly, this ritual had a specific father/ male in presenting her as a dream to a collection rather than to heir significance. Aeschylus’ Electra, therefore, recognized a single individual”,[5] to the sleeping Erinyes, urging them her brother based on her faith in a religious act. Euripides’ to continue hunting Orestes. “As the first of them begins Electra, on the other hand, judges the situation solely on ev- to awake the ghost departs”.[6] The Erinyes’ first appear- idence, and comes to the wrong conclusion that Orestes can- ance on stage is haunting: they hum in unison as they slowly not be present, when in fact the audience knows that he is wake up, and seek to find the scent of blood that will lead there and the two characters have just spoken to each other. them to Orestes’ tracks. An ancient legend says that on the This commentary suggests that Euripides is referring to the play’s premiere this struck so much fear and anguish in the then pertinent argument over evidence and truth, an issue audience, that a pregnant woman named Neaira suffered a which had no weight when Aeschylus was writing.[3] miscarriage and died on the spot.[7] While it has significant plot differences, the Theban cycle The Erinyes’ tracking down of Orestes in Athens is equally of plays by Sophocles have similar themes in how mistaken haunting: Orestes has clasped Athena's small statue in identity, generational curses, and vengeance cause murder supplication, and the Erinyes close in on him by smelling and destruction of a “tragic” family. Written in classical the blood of his slain mother in the air. Once they do see Greece about 30 years after the Atreus series, it is probable him, they can also see rivulets of blood soaking the earth that Sophocles was at least aware of the Atreus series when beneath his footsteps. 18 CHAPTER 2. ORESTEIA

As they surround him, Athena intervenes and brings in 2.5 Analysis and themes twelve Athenians to join her in forming a jury to judge her [8] supplicant. Apollo acts as counsel for Orestes, while the That the play ends on a happy note may surprise modern Erinyes act as advocates for the dead Clytemnestra. Dur- readers, to whom the word tragedy denotes a drama ending ing the trial, Apollo convinces Athena that, in a marriage, in misfortune. The word did not carry this meaning in an- the man is more important than the woman, by pointing out cient Athens, and many of the extant Greek tragedies end that Athena was born only of Zeus and without a mother. happily. Athena votes last and casts her vote for acquittal; she does so before the votes are counted. After being counted, the votes on each side are equal, thus acquitting Orestes as Athena 2.5.1 Social progress and justice had earlier announced that this would be the result of a tie. She then persuades the Erinyes to accept the verdict, and The ancient law of the Erinyes mandates that blood must they eventually submit. Athena then leads a procession ac- be paid for with blood. The chorus states this fact several companying them to their new abode and the escort now times throughout the play, most clearly in the first section addresses them as “Semnai” (Venerable Ones), as they will of the kommos. Vengeance is just, they say, and it has been now be honored by the citizens of Athens and ensure the the law of the house for generations. Nothing else can wash city’s prosperity. Athena also declares that henceforth tied away a bloodstain but more blood, which in turn requires juries will result in the defendant being acquitted, as mercy more blood in order to be cleansed. The chorus offers no should always take precedence over harshness. solution to this dire situation of violence breeding more violence. They merely state it as the natural law. However, over the course of The Libation Bearers, one has the sense that this time, things will be different. Apollo has promised Orestes that he will not suffer for his crime, and we know 2.4 Proteus that a god is unlikely to go back on his word.

Although Proteus (Ancient Greek: Πρωτεύς, Prōteus), the satyr play which originally followed the first three plays of The Oresteia, is lost, except for a two-line fragment preserved by Athenaeus, it is widely believed to have been based on the story told in Book IV of Homer's Odyssey, where Menelaus, Agamemnon’s brother, attempts to return home from Troy and finds himself on an island off Egypt, “whither he seems to have been carried by the storm described in Agam.674.[9] The title character, “the deathless Egyptian Proteus", the Old Man of the Sea, is described in Homer as having been visited by Menelaus seeking to Orestes asks for Apollo’s aid at Delphi. 2014 Oresteia Staging. learn his future. In the process, Proteus tells Menelaus of the death of Agamemnon at the hands of Aegisthus as well Since Apollo has thrown his weight behind the path of as the fates of Ajax the Lesser and Odysseus at sea; and vengeance, Orestes chooses to comply with his commands. is compelled to tell Menelaus how to reach home from the In fulfilling his duty towards Apollo and his father, Orestes island of Pharos. “The satyrs who may have found them- condemns himself to suffering. He chooses to make this selves on the island as a result of shipwreck . . . per- sacrifice, however, in order to preserve the laws of society. haps gave assistance to Menelaus and escaped with him, In the end of Eumenides, Orestes is tried in court by the Fu- though he may have had difficulty in ensuring that they ries, with the goddess Athena and the Athenian elders acting keep their hands off Helen”[10] The only extant fragment as the jury. In this case, Orestes is not killed in turn for his that has been definitively attributed to Proteus was trans- crimes as would have been the retributive law at the time, lated by Herbert Weir Smyth as “A wretched piteous dove, but he is given the opportunity to defend himself, and is in quest of food, dashed amid the winnowing-fans, its breast ultimately declared not guilty. The Erinyes are angered by broken in twain.”[11] In 2002, Theatre Kingston mounted a this decision as they belong to the old gods, and for decades production of The Oresteia and included a new reconstruc- uncounted blood had to be repaid in blood. Yet Athena tion of Proteus based on the episode in The Odyssey and calms them with great effort, making it clear to them that a loosely arranged according to the structure of extant satyr society cannot possibly work and grow under such circum- plays. stances, and grants them seats of great power in Athens. 2.6. ADAPTATIONS 19

Justice is decided by a jury, representing the citizen body 2.6 Adaptations and its values and the gods themselves, who sanction this transition by taking part in the judgment, arguing and vot- In 1967 composer Felix Werder adapted the play into ing on an equal footing with the mortals. This theme of the an opera entitled Agamemnon.[13] In 2014 BBC Radio 3 polis self-governed by consent through lawful institutions, broadcast the entire Oresteia over the course of three weeks as opposed to tribalism and superstition, recurs in Greek art as part of their Drama on 3 series:[14] and thought. Athena, the goddess of Reason and Protection, calms the Erinyes, the goddesses of revenge and remorse, • Agamemnon (12 January 2014) adapted by Simon thereby establishing a legal system centered in Athens, re- Scardiﬁeld, directed by Sasha Yevtushenko lieving the Greeks of their responsibility to avenge violence with violence. Now the state is the institution to adminis- • The Libation Bearers (19 January 2014) adapted by Ed ter justice, employing reason, but also holding the power to Hines, directed by Marc Beeby punish, violently if need be. Athens has left its barbaric system of blood for blood behind and has embraced an order • The Furies (26 January 2014) adapted by Rebecca where people deserve a fair trial.[12] Lenkiewicz, directed by Sasha Yevtushenko. The casts included Lesley Sharp as Clytemnestra, Will Howard as Orestes, Joanne Froggatt as Electra, Sean Murray as Aegisthus/Judge, Georgie Fuller as Iphi- genia, Joel MacCormack as Pylades/Apollo, Hugo Spear as Agamemnon, Anamaria Marinca as Cassan- dra, Karl Johnson as Calchas and Chipo Chung as 2.5.2 Philos-aphilos Athena.

“Philos-aphilos” (φίλος ἄφιλος; “love-in-hate”) is a vigor- In 2014 MacMillan Films staged the entire Oresteia for ous force throughout the trilogy. Most of the bloodshed camera as part of its Greek drama series throughout the play is “murder committed not against an external enemy but against a part of the self.” [2] This can be • Agamemnon (11 September 2014) using the Peter interpreted literally: Orestes slays his mother, his own flesh Arnott line-by-line translation, released by MacMillan and blood; Aegisthus is Clytemnestra's accomplice in the Films. The cast included Tanya Rodina as Clytemnes- murder of his cousin Agamemnon, and Agamemnon had tra, James Thomas as Agamemnon, and Morgan Mar- killed his daughter Iphigenia, even as a required sacrifice. cum as Cassandra. “A part of the self” can also be interpreted more figuratively • Libation Bearers (11 September 2014) translation by as a significant other, such as a spouse; thus, Clytemnes- Peter Arnott, The cast included Tanya Rodina as Elec- tra'’s feelings for Agamemnon are characterized as ‘philos- tra and James Thomas as Orestes. aphilos’ as well. As Richmond Lattimore defined it thus, “the hate gains intensity from the strength of the origi- • Eumenides (11 September 2014) translation by Peter nal love when that love has been stopped or rejected.” Arnott, The cast included Tanya Rodina as Athena and Clytemnestra’s love for Agamemnon has been quashed by James Thomas as Apollo. his sacrifice of Iphigenia and his return with Cassandra as a concubine. Likewise, Orestes’ sentiments toward his mother are intensified by anger at her murder of his fa- 2.7 See also ther and resentment at the fact that she chose her lover over her children – essentially, they are “the price for which she • The Oresteia in the arts and popular culture bought herself this man.” These conflicting feelings are em- bodied in Clytemnestra’s dream about nursing the snake.[2] • Mourning Becomes Electra: a modernized version of Lattimore also draws a parallel between the Oresteia and the story by Eugene O'Neill, who shifts the action to William Shakespeare's Hamlet, suggesting that the sensa- the American Civil War. tion of ‘philos-aphilos’ engendered by Prince Hamlet’s emo- • The Flies: an adaptation of the Libation-Bearers by tional connections to his mother, Queen Gertrude, and to Jean-Paul Sartre, which focuses on human freedom. Ophelia, who are both on the side of King Claudius – himself a close blood relative who might have held Hamlet’s • La Tragedie d'Oreste et Electre: Album by British band affection and regard before usurping the throne – are what The Cranes_(band) which is a musical adaptation of make the play a tragedy.[2] Jean-Paul Sartre's The Flies. 20 CHAPTER 2. ORESTEIA

• Oresteia (2011): an Avant Garde work inspired by • Ethan Sinnott. Director/Set Designer/Translator, Aeschylus’ trilogy, written and directed by Jonathan 2008 Spring Production Gallaudet University Theatre Vandenberg. arts Department

• Alan Sommerstein, Aeschylus, Loeb Classical Library, 2.8 Translations 3 vols. Greek text with facing translations,2008 • Dominic J Allen and James Wilkes, 2009 for Belt Up • Thomas Medwin and Percy Bysshe Shelley, 1832– Theatre Company 1834 – verse (Pagan Press reprint 2011) • Anne Carson, 2009, An Oresteia – A translation fea- • Robert Browning, 1889 – verse: Agamemnon turing episodes from the Oresteia from three diﬀerent playwrights; Aeschylus’ Agamemnon Sophocles’ Elec- • Arthur S. Way, 1906 – verse tra, and Euripides’ Orestes • John Stuart Blackie, 1906 – verse • Yael Farber, 2009 Molora, South African adaptation • Edmund Doidge Anderson Morshead, 1909 – verse: of the Oresteia full text • Peter Arcese, 2010 – Agamemnon, in syllabic verse • Herbert Weir Smyth, Aeschylus, Loeb Classical Li- • Alexandra Spencer-Jones, 2010 – Agamemnon, 1945 brary, 2 vols. Greek text with facing translations, 1922 context for Action To The Word Theatre – prose Agamemnon Libation Bearers Eumenides • Alexandra Spencer-Jones, 2011 – Choephori, 1953 • Gilbert Murray, 1925 – verse Agamemnon, Libation context for Action To The Word Theatre Bearers

• Louis MacNeice, 1936 – verse Agamemnon 2.9 Notes • Richmond Lattimore, 1953 – verse

• Philip Vellacott, 1956 – verse [1] Goldhill, Language, sexuality, narrative: the Oresteia

• Paul Roche, 1963 – verse [2] Aeschylus. Aeschylus I: Oresteia – Agamemnon, The Liba- tion Bearers, and The Eumenides. Grene, David and Latti- • Peter Arnott, 1964 – verse more, Richard, eds. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1953.

• George Thomson, 1965 – verse [3] Pucci, Pietro (1967). “Euripides Heautontimoroumenos”. Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological • Howard Rubenstein, 1965 – verse Agamemnon Association 98: 365–371. doi:10.2307/2935882.

• Hugh Lloyd-Jones, 1970 – verse [4] Two Tragic Families, Greek Drama Course. Do- minican University. http://www.usfca.edu/fromm/ • Rush Rehm, 1978 – verse, for the stage winterHandouts09/monday/Afternoon/Kenning/kenning% 20wk4%20part2.pdf Accessed November 25, 2009. • Robert Fagles, 1975 – verse [5] Podlecki, Aeschylus eumenides, p136 • Robert Lowell, 1977 – verse [6] Sommerstein, Aeschylus eumenides, p100 • Tony Harrison, 1981 – verse [7] Collard, Oresteia p. xlvii, citing the ancient Life of Aeschylus • David Grene and Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty, 1989 – 9. verse [8] Kitto, Poesis, p. 20 (1966); Gagarin, A. J.Ph.96, pp. 121–7 • Peter Meineck, 1998 – verse (1975); & Sommerstein, ed., Eumenides, pp. 223–4 (1989).

• Ted Hughes, 1999 – verse [9] Smyth, H.W. (1930). Aeschylus: Agamemnon, Libation- Bearers, Eumenides, Fragments. Harvard University Press. • Ian C. Johnston, 2002 – verse: full text p. 455. ISBN 0-674-99161-3.

• George Theodoridis, Agamemnon, Choephori, [10] Alan Sommerstein: Aeschylus Fragments, Loeb Classical Eumenides 2003–2007 – prose Library, 2008 2.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 21

[11] Smyth, H. W. (1930). Aeschylus: Agamemnon, Libation- Bearers, Eumenides, Fragments. Harvard University Press. p. 455. ISBN 0-674-99161-3.

[12] Bacharach, Samuel B. “The Oresteia: The Value of Com- promise”. Retrieved 20 July 2011.

[13] • Thérèse Radic. “Agamemnon”, Grove Music On- line ed. L. Macy (Accessed October 15, 2015), (subscription access)

[14] http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03q13c3

2.10 References

• Collard, Christopher (2002). Introduction to and translation of Oresteia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283281-6.

• Widzisz, Marcel (2012). Chronos on the Threshold: Time, Ritual, and Agency in the Oresteia. Lexington Press. ISBN 0-7391-7045-7.

2.11 External links

Media related to Oresteia at Wikimedia Commons

• Works related to Oresteia at Wikisource • Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἀγαμέμνων • Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Χοηφόροι

• Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Εὐμενίδες

• Oresteia at Theatricalia.com • Oresteia public domain audiobook at LibriVox

• . See the triumphant ending of The Oresteia MacMil- lan Films staging 2014. 5 minutes.

• BBC audio ﬁle. The Oresteia discussion in In our time Radio 4 programme. 45 minutes. Chapter 3

Aeschylus

This article is about the ancient Greek playwright. For other uses, see Aeschylus (disambiguation).

Aeschylus (/ˈiːskɨləs/ or /ˈɛskɨləs/;[1] Greek: Αἰσχύλος Aiskhulos; Ancient Greek: [ai̯s.kʰý.los]; c. 525/524 – c. 456/455 BC) was an ancient Greek tragedian. He is also the first whose plays still survive; the others are Sophocles and Euripides. He is often described as the father of tragedy:[2][3] critics and scholars’ knowledge of the genre begins with his work,[4] and understanding of earlier tragedies is largely based on inferences from his surviving plays.[5] According to Aristotle, he expanded the number of characters in theater to allow conflict among them, whereas characters previously had interacted only with the chorus.[nb 1] Only seven of his estimated seventy to ninety plays have survived, and there is a longstanding debate regarding his authorship of one of these plays, Prometheus Bound, which some believe his son Euphorion actually wrote. Fragments of some other plays have survived in quotes and more continue to be discovered on Egyptian papyrus, often giving us surprising insights into his work.[6] He was probably the first dramatist to present plays as a trilogy; his Oresteia is the only ancient example of the form to have survived.[7] At least one of his plays was influenced by the Persians’ Bust of Aeschylus at North Carolina Museum of Art second invasion of Greece (480-479 BC). This work, The Persians, is the only surviving classical Greek tragedy concerned with contemporary events (very few of that kind 3.1 Life were ever written),[8] and a useful source of information about its period. The significance of war in Ancient Greek There are no reliable sources for the life of Aeschylus. culture was so great that Aeschylus’ epitaph commemorates his participation in the Greek victory at Marathon while Aeschylus was born in c. 525 BC in Eleusis, a small town making no mention of his success as a playwright. De- about 27 kilometers northwest of Athens, which is nestled spite this, Aeschylus’ work – particularly the Oresteia – is in the fertile valleys of western Attica,[9] though the date acclaimed by today’s literary academics. is most likely based on counting back forty years from his first victory in the Great Dionysia. His family was wealthy and well established; his father, Euphorion, was a member of the Eupatridae, the ancient nobility of Attica,[10] though this might be a fiction that the ancients invented to account for the grandeur of his plays.[11]

22 3.2. PERSONAL LIFE 23

As a youth, he worked at a vineyard until, according to the Ameinias of Pallene.[13] 2nd-century AD geographer Pausanias, the god Dionysus Aeschylus travelled to Sicily once or twice in the 470s BC, visited him in his sleep and commanded him to turn his [10] having been invited by Hiero I of Syracuse, a major Greek attention to the nascent art of tragedy. As soon as he city on the eastern side of the island; and during one of woke from the dream, the young Aeschylus began to write these trips he produced The Women of Aetna (in honor of a tragedy, and his first performance took place in 499 BC, the city founded by Hieron) and restaged his Persians.[9] By when he was only 26 years old.[9][10] He would win his first [10][12] 473 BC, after the death of Phrynichus, one of his chief ri- victory at the City Dionysia in 484 BC. vals, Aeschylus was the yearly favorite in the Dionysia, win- In 510 BC, when Aeschylus was 15 years old, Cleomenes ning first prize in nearly every competition.[9] In 472 BC, I expelled the sons of Peisistratus from Athens, and Aeschylus staged the production that included the Persians, Cleisthenes came to power. Cleisthenes’ reforms included with Pericles serving as choregos.[13] a system of registration that emphasized the importance of In 458 BC, he returned to Sicily for the last time, visiting the the deme over family tradition. In the last decade of the 6th city of Gela where he died in 456 or 455 BC. Valerius Max- century, Aeschylus and his family were living in the deme [13] imus wrote that he was killed outside the city by a tortoise of Eleusis. dropped by an eagle which had mistaken his head for a rock The Persian Wars would play a large role in the playwright’s suitable for shattering the shell of the reptile.[17] Pliny, in life and career. In 490 BC, Aeschylus and his brother his Naturalis Historiæ, adds that Aeschylus had been stay- Cynegeirus fought to defend Athens against Darius I's in- ing outdoors to avoid a prophecy that he would be killed by a vading Persian army at the Battle of Marathon.[9] The Athe- falling object.[17] Aeschylus’s work was so respected by the nians emerged triumphant, a victory celebrated across the Athenians that after his death, his were the only tragedies city-states of Greece.[9] Cynegeirus, however, died in the allowed to be restaged in subsequent competitions.[9] His battle, receiving a mortal wound while trying to prevent a sons Euphorion and Euæon and his nephew Philocles also Persian ship retreating from the shore, for which his coun- became playwrights.[9] trymen extolled him as a hero.[9][13] The inscription on Aeschylus’s gravestone makes no men- In 480, Aeschylus was called into military service again, tion of his theatrical renown, commemorating only his mil- this time against Xerxes I's invading forces at the Battle of itary achievements: [9] Salamis, and perhaps, too, at the Battle of Plataea in 479. According to Castoriadis, the inscription on his graveyard Ion of Chios was a witness for Aeschylus’s war record and [13] signifies the primary importance of “belonging to the City” his contribution in Salamis. Salamis holds a prominent (polis), of the solidarity that existed within the collective place in The Persians, his oldest surviving play, which was body of citizen-soldiers. performed in 472 BC and won first prize at the Dionysia.[14] Aeschylus was one of many Greeks who had been initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, a cult to Demeter based in his 3.2 Personal life hometown of Eleusis.[15] As the name implies, members of the cult were supposed to have gained some secret knowledge. Firm details of specific rites are sparse, as members Aeschylus married and had two sons, Euphorion and Eu- were sworn under the penalty of death not to reveal anything aeon, both of whom became tragic poets. Euphorion won first prize in 431 in competition against both Sophocles and about the Mysteries to non-initiates. Nevertheless, accord- [19] ing to Aristotle some thought that Aeschylus had revealed Euripides. His nephew, Philocles (his sister’s son), was some of the cult’s secrets on stage.[16] also a tragic poet, and won first prize in the competition against Sophocles' Oedipus Rex.[13][20] Other sources claim that an angry mob tried to kill Aeschy- A scholiast has noted that Philocles’ Tereus was part of his lus on the spot, but he fled the scene. Heracleides of Pontus [21] asserts that the audience tried to stone Aeschylus. He then Pandionis tetralogy. Aeschylus had at least two brothers, took refuge at the altar in the orchestra of the Theater of Cynegeirus and Ameinias. Dionysus. At his trial, he pleaded ignorance. He was acquitted, with the jury sympathetic to the wounds that Aeschy- lus and Cynegeirus had suffered at Marathon. According 3.3 Works to the 2nd-century AD author Aelian, Aeschylus’s younger brother Ameinias helped to acquit Aeschylus by showing The roots of Greek drama are in religious festivals for the jury the stump of the hand that he lost at Salamis, where the gods, chiefly Dionysus, the god of wine.[12] During he was voted bravest warrior. The truth is that the award Aeschylus’s lifetime, dramatic competitions became part for bravery at Salamis went not to Aeschylus’ brother but to of the City Dionysia in the spring.[12] The festival opened 24 CHAPTER 3. AESCHYLUS

that follow his trilogies also drew upon stories derived from myths. For example, the Oresteia's satyr play Proteus treated the story of Menelaus’ detour in Egypt on his way home from the Trojan War. Based on the evidence provided by a catalogue of Aeschylean play titles, scholia, and play fragments recorded by later authors, it is assumed that three other of his extant plays were components of connected trilogies: Seven against Thebes being the final play in an Oedipus trilogy, and The Suppliants and Prometheus Bound each being the first play in a Danaid trilogy and Prometheus trilogy, respectively (see below). Scholars have moreover suggested several completely lost trilogies derived from known play titles. A number of these trilogies treated myths surround- Modern picture of the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, where many ing the Trojan War. One, collectively called the Achilleis, of Aeschylus’s plays were performed comprised the titles Myrmidons, Nereids and Phrygians (alternately, The Ransoming of Hector). Another trilogy apparently recounts the entry of the Tro- with a procession, followed with a competition of boys jan ally Memnon into the war, and his death at the hands singing dithyrambs and culminated in a pair of dramatic of Achilles (Memnon and The Weighing of Souls being two competitions.[22] The first competition Aeschylus would components of the trilogy); The Award of the Arms, The have participated in, consisted of three playwrights each Phrygian Women, and The Salaminian Women suggest a presenting three tragic plays followed by a shorter comedic trilogy about the madness and subsequent suicide of the satyr play.[22] A second competition of five comedic play- Greek hero Ajax; Aeschylus also seems to have written wrights followed, and the winners of both competitions about Odysseus' return to Ithaca after the war (including his were chosen by a panel of judges.[22] killing of his wife Penelope's suitors and its consequences) Aeschylus entered many of these competitions in his life- in a trilogy consisting of The Soul-raisers, Penelope and The time, and various ancient sources attribute between sev- Bone-gatherers. Other suggested trilogies touched on the enty and ninety plays to him.[2][23] Only seven tragedies myth of Jason and the Argonauts (Argô, Lemnian Women, have survived intact: The Persians, Seven against Thebes, Hypsipylê); the life of Perseus (The Net-draggers, Polydek- The Suppliants, the trilogy known as The Oresteia, consist- tês, Phorkides); the birth and exploits of Dionysus (Semele, ing of the three tragedies Agamemnon, The Libation Bear- Bacchae, Pentheus); and the aftermath of the war portrayed ers and The Eumenides, together with Prometheus Bound in Seven against Thebes (Eleusinians, Argives (or Argive (whose authorship is disputed). With the exception of this Women), Sons of the Seven).[25] last play – the success of which is uncertain – all of Aeschy- lus’s extant tragedies are known to have won first prize at the City Dionysia. 3.4 Surviving plays The Alexandrian Life of Aeschylus claims that he won the first prize at the City Dionysia thirteen times. This com- 3.4.1 The Persians pares favorably with Sophocles’ reported eighteen victories (with a substantially larger catalogue, at an estimated 120 Main article: The Persians plays), and dwarfs the five victories of Euripides, who is thought to have written roughly 90 plays. The earliest of his plays to survive is The Persians (Persai), performed in 472 BC and based on experiences in Aeschy- [26] 3.3.1 Trilogies lus’s own life, specifically the Battle of Salamis. It is unique among surviving Greek tragedies in that it describes [2] One hallmark of Aeschylean dramaturgy appears to have a recent historical event. The Persians focuses on the popular Greek theme of hubris by blaming Persia’s loss on the been his tendency to write connected trilogies, in which [26] each play serves as a chapter in a continuous dramatic pride of its king. narrative.[24] The Oresteia is the only extant example of It opens with the arrival of a messenger in Susa, the Per- this type of connected trilogy, but there is evidence that sian capital, bearing news of the catastrophic Persian de- Aeschylus often wrote such trilogies. The comic satyr plays feat at Salamis to Atossa, the mother of the Persian King 3.4. SURVIVING PLAYS 25

Xerxes. Atossa then travels to the tomb of Darius, her hus- 3 confirmed a long-assumed (because of The Suppliants’ band, where his ghost appears to explain the cause of the cliffhanger ending) Danaid trilogy, whose constituent plays defeat. It is, he says, the result of Xerxes’ hubris in building are generally agreed to be The Suppliants, The Egyptians a bridge across the Hellespont, an action which angered the and The Danaids. A plausible reconstruction of the tril- gods. Xerxes appears at the end of the play, not realizing ogy’s last two-thirds runs thus:[32] In The Egyptians, the the cause of his defeat, and the play closes to lamentations Argive-Egyptian war threatened in the first play has tran- by Xerxes and the chorus.[27] spired. During the course of the war, King Pelasgus has been killed, and Danaus rules Argos. He negotiates a peace settlement with Aegyptus, as a condition of which, his fifty 3.4.2 Seven against Thebes daughters will marry the fifty sons of Aegyptus. Danaus secretly informs his daughters of an oracle predicting that one Main article: Seven against Thebes of his sons-in-law would kill him; he therefore orders the Danaids to murder their husbands on their wedding night. His daughters agree. The Danaids would open the day after Seven against Thebes (Hepta epi Thebas), which was per- the wedding.[33] formed in 467 BC, has the contrasting theme of the interfer- ence of the gods in human affairs.[26] It also marks the first In short order, it is revealed that forty-nine of the Danaids known appearance in Aeschylus’s work of a theme which killed their husbands as ordered; Hypermnestra, however, would continue through his plays, that of the polis (the city) loved her husband Lynceus, and thus spared his life and being a key development of human civilization.[28] helped him to escape. Angered by his daughter’s disobe- dience, Danaus orders her imprisonment and, possibly, her The play tells the story of Eteocles and Polynices, the sons execution. In the trilogy’s climax and dénouement, Lynceus of the shamed King of Thebes, Oedipus. The sons agree reveals himself to Danaus, and kills him (thus fulfilling the to alternate in the throne of the city, but after the first year oracle). He and Hypermnestra will establish a ruling dy- Eteocles refuses to step down, and Polynices wages war to nasty in Argos. The other forty-nine Danaids are absolved claim his crown. The brothers kill each other in single com- of their murderous crime, and married off to unspecified bat, and the original ending of the play consisted of lamen- Argive men. The satyr play following this trilogy was titled tations for the dead brothers.[29] Amymone, after one of the Danaids.[33] A new ending was added to the play some fifty years later: Antigone and Ismene mourn their dead brothers, a messenger enters announcing an edict prohibiting the burial of 3.4.4 The Oresteia Polynices; and finally, Antigone declares her intention to defy this edict.[29] The play was the third in a connected Main article: Oresteia Oedipus trilogy; the first two plays were Laius and Oedipus. [30] The concluding satyr play was The Sphinx. The only complete (save a few missing lines in several spots) trilogy of Greek plays by any playwright still extant is the Oresteia (458 BC); although the satyr play that originally 3.4.3 The Suppliants followed it, Proteus, is lost except for some fragments.[26] The trilogy consists of Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers Main article: The Suppliants (Aeschylus) (Choephoroi), and The Eumenides.[28] Together, these plays tell the bloody story of the family of Agamemnon, King of Aeschylus continued his emphasis on the polis with The Argos. Suppliants in 463 BC (Hiketides), which pays tribute to the democratic undercurrents running through Athens in ad- Agamemnon vance of the establishment of a democratic government in 461. In the play, the Danaids, the fifty daughters of Danaus, Aeschylus begins in Greece describing the return of King founder of Argos, flee a forced marriage to their cousins in Agamemnon from his victory in the Trojan War, from the Egypt. They turn to King Pelasgus of Argos for protection, perspective of the towns people (the Chorus) and his wife, but Pelasgus refuses until the people of Argos weigh in on Clytemnestra. However, dark foreshadowings build to the the decision, a distinctly democratic move on the part of the death of the king at the hands of his wife, who was angry at king. The people decide that the Danaids deserve protec- his sacrifice of their daughter Iphigenia, killed so the Gods tion, and they are allowed within the walls of Argos despite [31] would stop a storm hindering the Greek fleet in the war. Egyptian protests. She was also unhappy at his keeping of the Trojan prophet- The 1952 publication of Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2256 fr. ess Cassandra as a concubine. Cassandra foretells of the 26 CHAPTER 3. AESCHYLUS

murder of Agamemnon, and of herself, to the assembled The play consists mostly of static dialogue, as throughout townsfolk, who are horrified. She then enters the palace the play the Titan Prometheus is bound to a rock as punish- knowing that she cannot avoid her fate. The ending of the ment from the Olympian Zeus for providing fire to humans. play includes a prediction of the return of Orestes, son of The god Hephaestus, the Titan Oceanus, and the chorus Agamemnon, who will seek to avenge his father.[28] of Oceanids all express sympathy for Prometheus’ plight. Prometheus meets Io, a fellow victim of Zeus’ cruelty; and prophesies her future travels, revealing that one of her de- The Libation Bearers scendants will free Prometheus. The play closes with Zeus sending Prometheus into the abyss because Prometheus re- The Libation Bearers continues the tale, opening with fuses to divulge the secret of a potential marriage that could Orestes’s arrival at Agamemnon’s tomb. At the tomb, Elec- prove Zeus’ downfall.[27] tra meets Orestes, who has returned from exile in Phocis, and they plan revenge upon Clytemnestra and her lover The Prometheus Bound appears to have been the first play Aegisthus. Clytemnestra’s account of a nightmare in which in a trilogy called the Prometheia. In the second play, she gives birth to a snake is recounted by the chorus; and Prometheus Unbound, Heracles frees Prometheus from his this leads her to order Electra, her daughter, to pour liba- chains and kills the eagle that had been sent daily to eat tions on Agamemnon’s tomb (with the assistance of liba- Prometheus’ perpetually regenerating liver. Perhaps fore- tion bearers) in hope of making amends. Orestes enters shadowing his eventual reconciliation with Prometheus, we learn that Zeus has released the other Titans whom he im- the palace pretending to bear news of his own death, and [35] when Clytemnestra calls in Aegisthus to share in the news, prisoned at the conclusion of the Titanomachy. Orestes kills them both. Orestes is then beset by the Furies, In the trilogy’s conclusion, Prometheus the Fire-Bringer, it who avenge the murders of kin in Greek mythology.[28] appears that the Titan finally warns Zeus not to sleep with the sea nymph Thetis, for she is fated to give birth to a son greater than the father. Not wishing to be overthrown, Zeus The Eumenides marries Thetis off to the mortal Peleus; the product of that union is Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. After The final play of The Oresteia addresses the question of reconciling with Prometheus, Zeus probably inaugurates a [28] Orestes’ guilt. The Furies drive Orestes from Argos and festival in his honor at Athens.[35] into the wilderness. He makes his way to the temple of Apollo and begs him to drive the Furies away. Apollo had encouraged Orestes to kill Clytemnestra, and so bears some of the guilt for the murder. The Furies are a more ancient 3.5 Lost plays race of the gods, and Apollo sends Orestes to the temple of Athena, with Hermes as a guide.[31] Only the titles and assorted fragments of Aeschylus’s other plays have come down to us. We have enough fragments The Furies track him down, and the goddess Athena, pa- of some plays (along with comments made by later authors tron of Athens, steps in and declares that a trial is necessary. and scholiasts) to produce rough synopses of their plots. Apollo argues Orestes’ case and, after the judges, including Athena deliver a tie vote, Athena announces that Orestes is acquitted. She renames the Furies The Eumenides (The 3.5.1 Myrmidons Good-spirited, or Kindly Ones), and extols the importance of reason in the development of laws, and, as in The Sup- This play was based on books 9 and 16 in Homer's Iliad. pliants, the ideals of a democratic Athens are praised.[31] Achilles sits in silent indignation over his humiliation at Agamemnon’s hands for most of the play. Envoys from the 3.4.5 Prometheus Bound Greek army attempt to reconcile him to Agamemnon, but he yields only to his friend Patroclus, who then battles the Trojans in Achilles’ armour. The bravery and death of Pa- Main article: Prometheus Bound troclus are reported in a messenger’s speech, which is followed by mourning.[13] In addition to these six works, a seventh tragedy, Prometheus Bound, is attributed to Aeschylus by ancient authorities. Since the late 19th century, however, scholars 3.5.2 Nereids have increasingly doubted this ascription, largely on stylistic grounds. Its production date is also in dispute, with theories This play was based on books 18, 19, and 22 of the Iliad; it ranging from the 480s BC to as late as the 410s.[9][34] follows the Daughters of Nereus, the sea god, who lament 3.6. INFLUENCE 27

Patroclus’ death. In the play, a messenger tells how Achilles, perhaps reconciled to Agamemnon and the Greeks, slew Hector.[13]

3.5.3 Phrygians, or Hector’s Ransom

In this play, Achilles sits in silent mourning over Patroclus, after a brief discussion with Hermes. Hermes then brings in King Priam of Troy, who wins over Achilles and ransoms his son’s body in a spectacular coup de théâtre. A scale is brought on stage and Hector’s body is placed in one scale and gold in the other. The dynamic dancing of the chorus of Trojans when they enter with Priam is reported by Aristophanes.[13]

3.5.4 Niobe Mosaic of Orestes, main character in Aeschylus’s only surviving tril- The children of Niobe, the heroine, have been slain by ogy, The Oresteia Apollo and Artemis because Niobe had gloated that she had more children than their mother, Leto. Niobe sits in silent mourning on stage during most of the play. In the Republic, lus’s work has a strong moral and religious emphasis.[38] Plato quotes the line “God plants a fault in mortals when he The Oresteia trilogy concentrated on man’s position in the [13] wills to destroy a house utterly.” cosmos in relation to the gods, divine law, and divine These are the remaining 71 plays ascribed to Aeschylus punishment.[39] which are known to us: Aeschylus’s popularity is evident in the praise the comic playwright Aristophanes gives him in The Frogs, produced some half-century after Aeschylus’s death. Appearing as a 3.6 Influence character in the play, Aeschylus claims at line 1022 that his Seven against Thebes “made everyone watching it to love 3.6.1 Influence on Greek drama and culture being warlike"; with his Persians, Aeschylus claims at lines 1026–7 that he “taught the Athenians to desire always to defeat their enemies.” Aeschylus goes on to say at lines 1039ff. When Aeschylus first began writing, the theatre had only that his plays inspired the Athenians to be brave and virtu- just begun to evolve, although earlier playwrights like ous. Thespis had already expanded the cast to include an actor who was able to interact with the chorus.[23] Aeschylus added a second actor, allowing for greater dramatic variety, while the chorus played a less important role.[23] He 3.6.2 Influence outside of Greek culture is sometimes credited with introducing skenographia, or scene-decoration,[36] though Aristotle gives this distinction Aeschylus’s works were influential beyond his own time. to Sophocles. Aeschylus is also said to have made the cos- Hugh Lloyd-Jones (Regius Professor of Greek Emeritus tumes more elaborate and dramatic, and having his actors at Oxford University) draws attention to Richard Wagner's wear platform boots (cothurni) to make them more visible reverence of Aeschylus. Michael Ewans argues in his Wag- to the audience. According to a later account of Aeschy- ner and Aeschylus. The Ring and the Oresteia (London: lus’s life, as they walked on stage in the first performance of Faber. 1982) that the influence was so great as to merit the Eumenides, the chorus of Furies were so frightening in a direct character by character comparison between Wag- appearance that they caused young children to faint, patri- ner’s Ring and Aeschylus’s Oresteia. A critic of his book archs to urinate, and pregnant women to go into labour.[37] however, while not denying that Wagner read and respected Aeschylus, has described his arguments as unreasonable His plays were written in verse, no violence is performed [40] on stage, and the plays have a remoteness from daily life in and forced. Athens, either by relating stories about the gods or by be- Sir J. T. Sheppard argues in the second half of his Aeschy- ing set, like The Persians, in far-away locales.[38] Aeschy- lus and Sophocles: Their Work and Influence that Aeschy- 28 CHAPTER 3. AESCHYLUS lus, along with Sophocles, have played a major part in the form, credited to Aeschylus by Aristotle and the anonymous formation of dramatic literature from the Renaissance to source The Life of Aeschylus, may be exaggerations and the present, specifically in French and Elizabethan drama. should be viewed with caution (Martin Cropp (2006), “Lost He also claims that their influence went beyond just drama Tragedies: A Survey” in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, pp. and applies to literature in general, citing Milton and the 272–4) Romantics.[41] During his presidential campaign in 1968, Senator Robert 3.9 Citations F. Kennedy quoted the Edith Hamilton translation of Aeschylus on the night of the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Kennedy was notified of King’s murder before a [1] Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Set- ter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th campaign stop in Indianapolis, Indiana and was warned not edition. Cambridge UP, 2006. to attend the event due to fears of rioting from the mostly African-American crowd. Kennedy insisted on attending [2] Freeman 1999, p. 243 and delivered an impromptu speech that delivered news of King’s death to the crowd.[42] [3] Schlegel, August Wilhelm von. Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature. p. 121. Acknowledging the audience’s emotions, Kennedy referred to his own grief at the murder of his brother, President John [4] R. Lattimore, Aeschylus I: Oresteia, 4 F. Kennedy and, quoting a passage from the play Agamem- [5] Martin Cropp, 'Lost Tragedies: A Survey'; A Companion to non (in translation), said: “My favorite poet was Aeschylus. Greek Tragedy, page 273 And he once wrote: 'Even in our sleep, pain which cannot forget falls drop by drop upon the heart, until in our own [6] P. Levi, Greek Drama, 159 despair, against our will, comes wisdom through the awful [7] S. Saïd, Aeschylean Tragedy, 215 grace of God.' What we need in the United States is not division; what we need in the United States is not hatred; what [8] S. Saïd, Aeschylean Tragedy, 221 we need in the United States is not violence and lawlessness; [9] Sommerstein 1996, p. 33 but is love and wisdom, and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice toward those who still suffer [10] Bates 1906, pp. 53–59 within our country, whether they be white or whether they be black... Let us dedicate ourselves to what the Greeks [11] S. Saïd, Eschylean tragedy, 217 wrote so many years ago: to tame the savageness of man [12] Freeman 1999, p. 241 and make gentle the life of this world.” The quotation from Aeschylus was later inscribed on a memorial at the gravesite [13] Kopff 1997 pp.1-472 of Robert Kennedy following his own assassination.[42] [14] Sommerstein 1996, p. 34

[15] Martin 2000, §10.1

3.7 See also [16] Nicomachean Ethics 1111a8-10.

• 2876 Aeschylus, an asteroid named for him [17] J. C. McKeown (2013), A Cabinet of Greek Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the Cradle of West- • Theatre of ancient Greece ern Civilization, Oxford University Press, p. 136, ISBN 9780199982103, The unusual nature of Aeschylus’s death... • List of unusual deaths [18] Anthologiae Graecae Appendix, vol. 3, Epigramma sepul- crale. p. 17.

3.8 Notes [19] Osborn, K. & Burges, D. (1998). The complete idiot’s guide to classical mythology. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-02-862385-6. [1] The remnant of a commemorative inscription, dated to the [20] Smith 2005, p. 1 3rd century BC, lists four, possibly eight, dramatic poets (probably including Choerilus, Phrynichus, and Pratinas) [21] March, J. (2000). “Vases and Tragic Drama”. In Rutter, who had won tragic victories at the Dionysia before Aeschy- N.K. & Sparkes, B.A. Word and Image in Ancient Greece. lus had. Thespis was traditionally regarded the inventor of University of Edinburgh. pp. 121–123. ISBN 978-0-7486- tragedy. According to another tradition, tragedy was estab- 1405-9. lished in Athens in the late 530s BC, but that may simply re- ﬂect an absence of records. Major innovations in dramatic [22] Freeman 1999, p. 242 3.11. REFERENCES 29

[23] Pomeroy 1999, p. 222 • Alan H. Sommerstein (ed.), Aeschylus, Volume II, Oresteia: Agamemnon. Libation-bearers. Eumenides. [24] Sommerstein 1996 146 (Cambridge, Mass./London: Loeb Classical Li- [25] Sommerstein 2002, 34. brary, 2009); Volume III, Fragments. 505 (Cambridge, Mass./London: Loeb Classical Library, 2008). [26] Freeman 1999, p. 244

[27] Vellacott: 7–19 3.11 References [28] Freeman 1999, pp. 244–246

[29] Aeschylus. “Prometheus Bound, The Suppliants, Seven • Bates, Alfred (1906). “The Drama: Its History, Liter- Against Thebes, The Persians.” Philip Vellacott’s Introduc- ature, and Inﬂuence on Civilization, Vol. 1”. London: tion, pp.7-19. Penguin Classics. Historical Publishing Company..

[30] Sommerstein 2002, 23. • Bierl, A. Die Orestie des Aischylos auf der modernen Bühne: Theoretische Konzeptionen und ihre szenische [31] Freeman 1999, p. 246 Realizierung (Stuttgart, Metzler, 1997). [32] See (e.g.) Sommerstein 1996, 141-51; Turner 2001, 36-39. • Cairns, D., V. Liapis, Dionysalexandros: Essays on [33] Sommerstein 2002, 89. Aeschylus and His Fellow Tragedians in Honour of Alexander F. Garvie (Swansea, The Classical Press of [34] Griﬃth 1983, pp. 32–34 Wales, 2006). [35] For a discussion of the trilogy’s reconstruction, see (e.g.) • Conacher 1980, 100-2. Cropp, Martin (2006). “Lost Tragedies: A Survey”. In Gregory, Justine. A Companion to Greek Tragedy. [36] According to Vitruvius. See Summers 2007, 23. Blackwell Publishing..

[37] Life of Aeschylus. • Deforge, B. Une vie avec Eschyle. Vérité des mythes (Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2010). [38] Pomeroy 1999, p. 223 • [39] Pomeroy 1999, pp. 224–225 Freeman, Charles (1999). The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World. New York: [40] Furness, Raymond (January 1984). “The Modern Language Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-88515-0.. Review” 79 (1): 239–240. JSTOR 3730399. • Goldhill, Simon (1992). Aeschylus, The Oresteia. [41] Sheppard, J. T. (1927). “Aeschylus and Sophocles: their Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0- Work and Influence”. Journal of Hellenic Studies (The So- 521-40293-X.. ciety for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies) 47 (2): 265. doi:10.2307/625177. JSTOR 625177. • Griffith, Mark (1983). Aeschylus’ Prometheus Bound. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0- [42] Virginia - Arlington National Cemetery: Robert F. Kennedy Gravesite 521-27011-1.. • Herington, C.J. (1986). Aeschylus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03562-4.. 3.10 Editions • Herington, C.J. (1967). “Aeschylus in Sicily”. Journal • Martin L. West, Aeschyli Tragoediae: cum incerti po- of Hellenic Studies 87: 74–85. doi:10.2307/627808. etae Prometheo 2 ed. (1998). The first translation of • Kopff, E. Christian (1997). Ancient Greek Authors. the seven plays into English was by Robert Potter in Gale. ISBN 978-0-8103-9939-6. 1779, using blank verse for the iambic trimeters and rhymed verse for the choruses, a convention adopted • Lattimore, Richmond (1953). Aeschylus I: Oresteia. by most translators for the next century. University of Chicago Press.

• Stefan Radt (Hg.), Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. • Lefkowitz, Mary (1981). The Lives of the Greek Poets. Vol. III: Aeschylus (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & University of North Carolina Press. Ruprecht, 2009) (Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, 3). • Lesky, Albin (1979). Greek Tragedy. London: Benn.. 30 CHAPTER 3. AESCHYLUS

• Lesky, Albin (1966). A History of Greek Literature. • Winnington-Ingram, R. P. (1985). “Aeschylus”. The New York: Crowell.. Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Lit- erature. Cambridge University Press. • Levi, Peter (1986). “Greek Drama”. The Oxford His- tory of the Classical World. Oxford University Press. • Zeitlin, F. I. Under the sign of the shield: semiotics and Aeschylus’ Seven against Thebes (Lanham, Md.: Lex- • Martin, Thomas (2000). “Ancient Greece: From Pre- ington Books, 1982); 2nd ed. 2009, (Greek studies: historic to Hellenistic Times”. Yale University Press.. interdisciplinary approaches).

• Murray, Gilbert (1978). Aeschylus: The Creator of • Castoriadis, Cornelius. “What Makes Greece, 1. Tragedy. Oxford: Clarendon Press.. From Homer to Heraclitus.” (2004) • Podlecki, Anthony J. (1966). The Political Back- ground of Aeschylean Tragedy. Ann Arbor: Univer- sity of Michigan Press.. 3.12 External links

• Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1999). Ancient Greece: A Politi- • Works by Aeschylus at Project Gutenberg cal, Social, and Cultural History. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509743-2.. • Works by or about Aeschylus at Internet Archive

• Rosenmeyer, Thomas G. (1982). The Art of Aeschy- • Works by Aeschylus at LibriVox (public domain au- lus. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN diobooks) 0-520-04440-1.. • Compare English translations of Aeschylus • Saïd, Suzanne (2006). “Aeschylean Tragedy”. A Com- • panion to Greek Tragedy. Blackwell Publishing.. Selected Poems of Aeschylus • • Smith, Helaine (2005). Masterpieces of Classic Greek Aeschylus-related materials at the Perseus Digital Li- Drama. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-33268-5.. brary • Complete syntax diagrams at Alpheios • Smyth, Herbert Weir (1922). Aeschylus. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.. • Works by Aeschylus at Project Gutenberg

• Sommerstein, Alan H. (2010). “Aeschylean Tragedy” • Online English Translations of Aeschylus (2nd ed.). London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156- 3824-8.. • Photo of a fragment of The Net-pullers

• —(2002). Greek Drama and Dramatists. London: • Crane, Gregory. “Aeschylus (4)". Perseus Encyclope- Routledge Press. ISBN 0-415-26027-2 dia.

• Spatz, Lois (1982). Aeschylus. Boston: Twayne Pub- • “Aeschylus, I: Persians” from the Loeb Classical Li- lishers Press. ISBN 0-8057-6522-0.. brary, Harvard University Press • • Summers, David (2007). Vision, Reﬂection, and De- “Aeschylus, II: The Oresteia” from the Loeb Classical sire in Western Painting. University of North Carolina Library, Harvard University Press Press. • “Aeschylus, III: Fragments” from the Loeb Classical • Thomson, George (1973) Aeschylus and Athens: A Library, Harvard University Press Study in the Social Origin of Drama. London: Lawrence and Wishart (4th edition)

• Turner, Chad (2001). “Perverted Supplication and Other Inversions in Aeschylus’ Danaid Trilogy”. Clas- sical Journal 97 (1): 27–50. JSTOR 3298432.

• Vellacott, Philip, (1961). Prometheus Bound and Other Plays: Prometheus Bound, Seven Against Thebes, and The Persians. New York:Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044112-3 Chapter 4

Mabinogion

“Mabinogi” redirects here. For other uses, see Mabinogi (disambiguation). The Mabinogion (/ˌmæbəˈnoʊɡiən/; Welsh pronunciation:

Ceridwen by Christopher Williams, (1910) The Two Kings (sculptor Ivor Robert-Jones, 1984) near Harlech Castle, Wales. Bendigeidfran carries the body of his nephew Gw- ern. The title covers a collection of eleven prose stories of widely [mabɪˈnɔɡjɔn]) is the earliest prose literature of Britain. different types. There is a classic hero quest: Culhwch and The stories were compiled in the 12th–13th century from Olwen. Historic legend in Lludd and Llefelys glimpses a earlier oral traditions by medieval Welsh authors. The two far off age, and other tales portray a King Arthur very dif- main source manuscripts were created c. 1350–1410, as ferent from the later popular versions. The highly sophis- well as some earlier fragments. But beyond their origins, ticated complexity of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi defy categorisation. The list is so diverse a leading scholar first and foremost these are fine quality storytelling, offer- [1] ing high drama, philosophy, romance, tragedy, fantasy, sen- has challenged them as a true collection at all. sitivity, and humour; refined through long development by Early scholars from the 18th century to the 1970s pre- skilled performers. dominantly viewed the tales as fragmentary pre-Christian

31 32 CHAPTER 4. MABINOGION

Celtic mythology,[2] or in terms of international folklore.[3] 4.2 Translations There are certainly traces of mythology, and folklore components, but since the 1970s[4] an understanding of the integrity of the tales has developed, with investigation of Lady Charlotte Guest’s work was helped by the earlier re- their plot structures, characterisation, and language styles. search and translation work of William Owen Pughe.[13] They are now seen as a sophisticated narrative tradition, The first part of Charlotte Guest’s translation of the both oral and written, with ancestral construction from oral Mabinogion appeared in 1838, and it was completed in storytelling,[5] and overlay from Anglo-French influences. seven parts in 1845.[14] A three-volume edition followed in [15] The first modern publications were English translations of 1846, and a revised edition in 1877. Her version of the several tales by William Owen Pughe in journals 1795, Mabinogion remained standard until the 1948 translation 1821, 1829.[6] However it was Lady Charlotte Guest 1838 by Gwyn Jones and Thomas Jones, which has been widely − praised for its combination of literal accuracy and elegant 45 who first published the full collection, and bilingually [16][17] in both Welsh and English. She is often assumed to be re- literary style. Several more, listed below, have since sponsible for the name “Mabinogion” but this was already in appeared. standard use since the 18th century. The later Guest translation of 1877 in one volume, has been widely influential and remains actively enjoyed today.[7] The most recent translation in a single volume is by Sioned Davies, a compact, thoughtfully readable version.[8] John Bollard has published a series of volumes between with his own translation, with copious photography of the sites in the stories.[9] The tales 4.3 Date of stories continue to inspire new fiction,[10] dramatic retellings,[11] visual artwork, spiritual vision, and vigorous research. [12] The question of the dates of the tales in the Mabinogion is important, because if they can be shown to have been written before Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britan- niae and the romances of Chrétien de Troyes, then some of 4.1 Etymology the tales, especially those dealing with Arthur, would provide important evidence for the development of Arthurian The name first appears in 1795 in William Owen Pughe's legend. Regardless, their importance as records of early translation in the journal Cambrian Register: “The Mabino- myth, legend, folklore, culture, and language of Wales is gion, or Juvenile Amusements, being Ancient Welsh Ro- immense. mances.” The name appears to have been current among The stories of the Mabinogion appear in either or both of Welsh scholars of the London Welsh Societies and the re- two medieval Welsh manuscripts, the White Book of Rhy- gional Welsh eisteddfodau. It was inherited as the title by dderch or Llyfr Gwyn Rhydderch, written circa 1350, and the first publisher of the complete collection, Lady Char- the Red Book of Hergest or Llyfr Goch Hergest, written lotte Guest. The form mabynnogyon occurs once at the end about 1382–1410, though texts or fragments of some of of the first of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi in one the tales have been preserved in earlier 13th century and manuscript. It is now generally agreed that this one instance later manuscripts. Scholars agree that the tales are older was a mediaeval scribal error which assumed 'mabinogion' than the existing manuscripts, but disagree over just how was the plural of 'mabinogi.' But 'mabinogi' is already a much older. It is clear that the different texts included in Welsh plural, which occurs correctly at the end of the re- the Mabinogion originated at different times. Debate has maining three branches. focused on the dating of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi. The word mabinogi itself is something of a puzzle, although Sir Ifor Williams offered a date prior to 1100, based on clearly derived from the Welsh mab, which means “son, linguistic and historical arguments, while later Saunders boy, young person”. Eric P. Hamp of the earlier school tra- Lewis set forth a number of arguments for a date between ditions in mythology, found a suggestive connection with 1170 and 1190; Thomas Charles-Edwards, in a paper pub- Maponos a Celtic deity of Gaul, (“the Divine Son”). The lished in 1970, discussed the strengths and weaknesses of “Mabinogi” properly applies only to the Four Branches, both viewpoints, and while critical of the arguments of which is a tightly organised quartet very likely by one au- both scholars, noted that the language of the stories best thor, where the other seven are so very diverse (see below). fits the 11th century, although much more work is needed. Each of these four tales ends with a colophon meaning “thus More recently, Patrick Sims-Williams argued for a plausi- ends this branch of the Mabinogi” (in various spellings), ble range of about 1060 to 1200, which seems to be the hence the name. current scholarly consensus. 4.4. STORIES 33

4.4 Stories described events that happened long before medieval times. After the departure of the Roman Legions, the later half The collection represents the vast majority of prose found of the fifth century was a difficult time in Britain. King in medieval Welsh manuscripts which is not translated from Arthur’s twelve battles and defeat of invaders and raiders other languages. Notable exceptions are the Areithiau Pros. are said to have culminated in the Battle of Bath. There is None of the titles are contemporary with the earliest extant no consensus about the ultimate meaning of The Dream of versions of the stories, but are on the whole modern ascrip- Rhonabwy. On one hand it derides Madoc's time, which is tions. The eleven tales are not adjacent in either of the main critically compared to the illustrious Arthurian age. How- early manuscript sources, the White Book of Rhydderch (c. ever, Arthur’s time is portrayed as illogical and silly, lead- 1375) and the Red Book of Hergest (c. 1400), and indeed ing to suggestions that this is a satire on both contemporary [18] Breuddwyd Rhonabwy is absent from the White Book. times and the myth of a heroic age. Rhonabwy is the most literary of the medieval Welsh prose tales. It may have also been the last written. A colophon 4.4.1 Four Branches of the Mabinogi at the end declares that no one is able to recite the work in full without a book, the level of detail being too much The Four Branches of the Mabinogi (Pedair Cainc y for the memory to handle. The comment suggests it was Mabinogi) are the most clearly mythological stories con- not popular with storytellers, though this was more likely tained in the Mabinogion collection. Pryderi appears in all due to its position as a literary tale rather than a traditional four, though not always as the central character. one.[19] The tale The Dream of Macsen Wledig is a romanticized • Pwyll Pendefig Dyfed (Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed) tells of story about the Roman Emperor Magnus Maximus. Born Pryderi’s parents and his birth, loss and recovery. in Spain, he became a legionary commander in Britain, as- • Branwen ferch Llŷr (Branwen, daughter of Llŷr) is sembled a Celtic army and assumed the title of Emperor of mostly about Branwen's marriage to the King of Ire- the Western Roman Empire in AD 383. He was defeated land. Pryderi appears but does not play a major part. in battle in 385 and beheaded at the direction of the Eastern Roman Emperor. • Manawydan fab Llŷr (Manawydan, son of Llŷr) has The story of Taliesin is a later survival, not present in the Pryderi return home with Manawydan, brother of Red or White Books, and is omitted from many of the more Branwen, and describes the misfortunes that follow recent translations. them there.

• Math fab Mathonwy (Math, son of Mathonwy) is mostly about Math and Gwydion, who come into con- ﬂict with Pryderi. 4.4.3 Romances

The three tales called The Three Romances (Y Tair 4.4.2 Native tales Rhamant) are Welsh versions of Arthurian tales that also appear in the work of Chrétien de Troyes. Critics have de- Also included in Lady Guest’s compilation are ﬁve stories bated whether the Welsh Romances are based on Chrétien’s from Welsh tradition and legend: poems or if they derive from a shared original. Though it is arguable that the surviving Romances might derive, di- • Breuddwyd Macsen Wledig (The Dream of Macsen rectly or indirectly, from Chrétien, it is probable that he in Wledig) turn based his tales on older, Celtic sources. The Welsh stories are not direct translations and include material not • Lludd a Llefelys (Lludd and Llefelys) found in Chrétien’s work. • Culhwch ac Olwen (Culhwch and Olwen)

• Breuddwyd Rhonabwy (The Dream of Rhonabwy) • Owain, neu Iarlles y Ffynnon (Owain, or the Countess of the Fountain) • Hanes Taliesin (The Tale of Taliesin)

• Peredur fab Efrog (Peredur, son of Efrawg) The tales Culhwch and Olwen and The Dream of Rhonabwy have interested scholars because they preserve older traditions of King Arthur. The subject matter and the characters • Geraint ac Enid (Geraint and Enid) 34 CHAPTER 4. MABINOGION

4.5 Adaptations [2] Notably Matthew Arnold; William J. Gruﬀydd.

• [3] Jackson, Kenneth Hurlstone. 1961. The International Popu- Evangeline Walton adapted the Mabinogion into the lar Tale and the Early Welsh Tradition. The Gregynog Lec- novels The Island of the Mighty (1936), The Chil- tures. Cardiff: CUP. dren of Llyr (1971), The Song of Rhiannon (1972) and Prince of Annwn (1974), each one of which she [4] Bollard 1974; Gantz 1978; Ford 1981. based on one of the branches, although she began with [5] See various works by Sioned Davies e.g. 1. Davies, Sioned. the fourth and ended by telling the first. These were 1998. “Written Text as Performance: The Implications for published together in chronological sequence as The Middle Welsh Prose Narratives.” In Literacy in Medieval Mabinogion Tetralogy in 2002. Celtic Societies, 133–48. and 2. Davies, Sioned. 2005. “‘He • Was the Best Teller of Tales in the World’: Performing Me- Y Mabinogi is a film version, produced in 2003. It dieval Welsh Narrative.” In Performing Medieval Narrative, starts with live-action among Welsh people in the mod- 15–26. Cambridge: Brewer. ern world. They then 'fall into' the legend, which is shown through animated characters. It conflates some [6] 1. Pughe, William Owen. 1795. “The Mabinogion, or Juve- elements of the myths and omits others. nile Amusements, Being Ancient Welsh Romances.” Cam- brian Register, 177–87. 2. Pughe, William Owen. 1821. • The tale of Culhwch and Olwen was adapted by Derek “The Tale of Pwyll.” Cambro-Briton Journal 2 (18): 271– Webb in Welsh and English as a dramatic recreation 75. . 3. Pughe, William Owen. 1829. “The Mabinogi: for the reopening of Narberth Castle in Pembrokeshire Or, the Romance of Math Ab Mathonwy.” The Cambrian in 2005. Quarterly Magazine and Celtic Repository 1: 170–79. • Lloyd Alexander's award-winning The Chronicles of [7] Available online since 2004. Guest, Charlotte. 2004. Prydain, which are fantasies for younger readers, are “The Mabinogion. (Gutenberg, Guest).” Gutenberg. loosely based on Welsh legends found in the Mabino- http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/ lookup?num=5160. gion. Specific elements incorporated within Alexan- der’s books include the Cauldron of the Undead, as [8] Davies, Sioned. 2007. The Mabinogion. Oxford: OUP. well as adapted versions of important figures in the Mabinogion such as Prince Gwydion and Arawn, Lord [9] 1. Bollard, John Kenneth. 2006. Legend and Landscape of Wales: The Mabinogi. Llandysul, Wales: Gomer Press. of the Dead. 2. Bollard, John Kenneth. 2007. Companion Tales to The • Alan Garner's novel The Owl Service (Collins, 1967; Mabinogi. Llandysul, Wales: Gomer Press. 3. Bollard, John first US edition Henry Z. Walck, 1968) Kenneth. 2010. Tales of Arthur: Legend and Landscape of Wales. Llandysul, Wales: Gomer Press. Photography by Anthony Griffiths. 4.6 See also [10] For example the Seren series 2009 −2014, but the earliest reinterpretations were by Evangeline Walton starting 1936..

• Medieval Welsh literature [11] e.g. Robin Williams; Daniel Morden.

• Christopher Williams painted three paintings from [12] “BBC – Wales History – The Mabinogion”. www.bbc.co.uk. the Mabinogion. Branwen (1915) can be viewed at Retrieved 2008-07-11. the Glynn Vivian Art Gallery, Swansea. Blodeuwedd (1930) is at the Newport Museum and Art Gallery. [13] “Guest (Schreiber), Lady Charlotte Elizabeth Bertie”. The The third painting in the series is Ceridwen (1910). National Library opf Wales: Dictionary of Welsh biography. Retrieved 6 March 2015. • The Chronicles of Prydain [14] “BBC Wales History - Lady Charlotte Guest”. BBC Wales. • Mabinogion sheep problem Retrieved 6 March 2015. [15] “Lady Charlotte Guest. extracts from her journal 1833 - 1852”. Genuki: UK and Ireland Genealogy. Retrieved 6 4.7 References March 2015. [16] “Lady Charlotte Guest”. Data Wales Index and search. Re- Notes trieved 6 March 2015.

[1] Bollard, John Kenneth. 2007. “What Is The Mabinogi? [17] Stephens, Meic, ed. (1986). The Oxford Companion to the What Is ‘The Mabinogion’?.” https://sites.google.com/site/ Literature of Wales. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. themabinogi/mabinogiandmabinogion 306, 326. ISBN 0192115863. 4.7. REFERENCES 35

[18] Roberts, Brynley F. (1991). “The Dream of Rhonabwy.” In • Jones, Gwyn and Jones, Thomas. The Mabinogion. Lacy, Norris J., The New Arthurian Encyclopedia, p. 120– Golden Cockerel Press, 1948. (Omits “Taliesin”.) 121. New York: Garland. ISBN 0-8240-4377-4. • Everyman’s Library edition, 1949; revised in [19] Lloyd-Morgan, Ceridwen. (1991). "'Breuddwyd Rhonabwy' 1989, 1991. and Later Arthurian Literature.” In Bromwich, Rachel, et al., • “The Arthur of the Welsh”, p. 183. Cardiff: University of Jones, George (Ed), 1993 edition, Everyman S, Wales. ISBN 0-7083-1107-5. ISBN 0-460-87297-4. • 2001 Edition, (Preface by John Updike), ISBN Bibliography 0-375-41175-5. Translations and retellings • Knill, Stanley. The Mabinogion Brought To Life. Capel-y-ffin Publishing, 2013. ISBN 9-781489- • Bollard, John K. (translator), and Anthony Griffiths 515285. (Omits Taliesin. A retelling with General Ex- (photographer). Tales of Arthur: Legend and Land- planatory Notes.) Presented as prose but comprising scape of Wales. Gomer Press, Llandysul, 2010. ISBN 10,000+ lines of hidden decasyllabic verse. 978-1-84851-112-5. (Contains “The History of Pere- dur or The Fortress of Wonders”, “The Tale of the Welsh text and editions Countess of the Spring”, and “The History of Geraint son of Erbin”, with textual notes.) • Branwen Uerch Lyr. Ed. Derick S. Thomson. Me- dieval and Modern Welsh Series Vol. II. Dublin: • Bollard, John K. (translator), and Anthony Griffiths Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1976. ISBN (photographer). Companion Tales to The Mabinogi: 1-85500-059-8 Legend and Landscape of Wales. Gomer Press, Llandysul, 2007. ISBN 1-84323-825-X. (Contains • Breuddwyd Maxen. Ed. Ifor Williams. Bangor: Jarvis “How Culhwch Got Olwen”, “The Dream of Maxen & Foster, 1920. Wledig”, “The Story of Lludd and Llefelys”, and “The • Dream of Rhonabwy”, with textual notes.) Breudwyt Maxen Wledig. Ed. Brynley F. Roberts. Medieval and Modern Welsh Series Vol. XI. Dublin: • Bollard, John K. (translator), and Anthony Griffiths Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 2005. (photographer). The Mabinogi: Legend and Land- • scape of Wales. Gomer Press, Llandysul, 2006. ISBN Breudwyt Ronabwy. Ed. Melville Richards. Cardiff: 1-84323-348-7. (Contains the Four Branches, with University of Wales Press, 1948. textual notes.) • Culhwch and Olwen: An Edition and Study of the Old- • Davies, Sioned. The Mabinogion. Oxford World’s est Arthurian Tale. Rachel, Bromwich and D. Simon Classics, 2007. ISBN 1-4068-0509-2. (Omits “Tal- Evans. Eds. and trans. Aberystwyth: University of iesin”. Has extensive notes.) Wales, 1988; Second edition, 1992. • • Ellis, T. P., and John Lloyd. The Mabinogion: a Cyfranc Lludd a Llefelys. Ed. Brynley F. Roberts. New Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Medieval and Modern Welsh Series Vol. VII. Dublin: 1929. (Omits “Taliesin"; only English translation to Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1975. list manuscript variants.) • Historia Peredur vab Efrawc. Ed. Glenys Witchard • Ford, Patrick K. The Mabinogi and Other Medieval Goetinck. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. 1976. Welsh Tales. Berkeley: University of California Press, • Llyfr Gwyn Rhydderch. Ed. J. Gwenogvryn Evans. 1977. ISBN 0-520-03414-7. (Includes “Taliesin” but Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1973. omits “The Dream of Rhonabwy”, “The Dream of Macsen Wledig” and the three Arthurian romances.) • Math Uab Mathonwy. Ed. Ian Hughes. Aberystwyth: Prifysgol Cymru, 2000. • Gantz, Jeffrey. Trans. The Mabinogion. London and New York: Penguin Books, 1976. ISBN 0-14- • Owein or Chwedyl Iarlles y Ffynnawn. Ed. R.L. 044322-3. (Omits “Taliesin”.) Thomson. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1986. • Guest, Lady Charlotte. The Mabinogion. Dover Pub- lications, 1997. ISBN 0-486-29541-9. (Guest omits • Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi. Ed. Ifor Williams. Cardiff: passages which only a Victorian would find at all University of Wales Press, 1951. ISBN 0-7083-1407- risqué. This particular edition omits all Guest’s notes.) 4 36 CHAPTER 4. MABINOGION

• Pwyll Pendeuic Dyuet. Ed. R. L. Thomson. Medieval • Mabinogion (Contains only the four branches repro- and Modern Welsh Series Vol. I. Dublin: Dublin In- duced, with textual variants, from Ifor Williams’ edi- stitute for Advanced Studies, 1986. ISBN 1-85500- tion.) 051-2 • Pwyll Pendeuic Dyuet • Ystorya Gereint uab Erbin. Ed. R. L. Thomson. • Medieval and Modern Welsh Series Vol. X. Dublin: Branwen uerch Lyr Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1997. • Manawydan uab Llyr • Ystoria Taliesin. Ed. Patrick K. Ford. Cardiﬀ: Uni- versity of Wales Press, 1992. ISBN 0-7083-1092-3 Versions without the notes, presumably mostly from the Project Gutenberg edition, can be found on numerous sites, Secondary sources including:

• Charles-Edwards, T.M. “The Date of the Four • Project Gutenberg Edition of The Mabinogion (From Branches of the Mabinogi” Transactions of the Hon- the 1849 edition of Guest’s translation) ourable Society of Cymmrodorion (1970): 263–298. • The Arthurian Pages: The Mabinogion • Ford, Patrick K. “Prolegomena to a Reading of the Mabinogi: 'Pwyll' and 'Manawydan.'" Studia Celtica, • Branwaedd: Mabinogion 16/17 (1981–82): 110–25. • Timeless Myths: Mabinogion • Ford, Patrick K. “Branwen: A Study of the Celtic • The Mabinogion public domain audiobook at LibriVox Aﬃnities,” Studia Celtica 22/23 (1987/1988): 29–35.

• Hamp, Eric P. “Mabinogi.” Transactions of the Hon- A discussion of the words Mabinogi and Mabinogion can be ourable Society of Cymmrodorion (1974–1975): 243– found at 249. • Sims-Williams, Patrick. “The Submission of Irish • Mabinogi and “Mabinogion” Kings in Fact and Fiction: Henry II, Bendigeidfran, and the dating of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi", A theory on authorship can be found at Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies, 22 (Winter 1991): 31–61. • Is this Welsh princess the ﬁrst British woman author? • Sullivan, C. W. III (editor). The Mabinogi, A Books of Essays. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1996. ISBN 0-8153-1482-5

4.8 External links

There is a new, extensively annotated translation of the four branches of the Mabinogi proper by Will Parker at

• Mabinogi Translations

The Guest translation can be found with all original notes and illustrations at:

• Sacred Texts: The Mabinogion

The original Welsh texts can be found at:

• Mabinogion (an 1887 edition at the Internet Archive; contains all the stories except the “Tale of Taliesin”) Chapter 5

Four Branches of the Mabinogi

The Four Branches of the Mabinogi or Y Pedair Cainc princedoms, where native Welsh law, hud (magic), and ro- Mabinogi are the earliest prose literature of Britain. Orig- mance, combine in a unique synergy. inally written in Wales in Middle Welsh, but widely avail- Each Branch contains several tale episodes in a sequence, able in translations, the Mabinogi is generally agreed to be and each Branch is titled with the name of a leading pro- a single work in four parts, or "Branches.” The interrelated tagonist. These titles are Pwyll, Branwen, Manawydan tales can be read as mythology, political themes, romances, and Math, but this is a modern custom: the Branches are or magical fantasies. They appeal to a wide range of read- not titled in the mediaeval manuscripts. Only one charac- ers, from young children to the most sophisticated adult. ter appears in all four Branches, Pryderi, though he is never The tales are popular today in book format, as storytelling dominant or central to any of the Branches. or theatre performances; they appear in recordings and on film, and continue to inspire many reinterpretations in art- • Pwyll Prince of Dyfed tells of the heroic and mag- work and modern fiction. ical sojourn of Pwyll in Annwfn, his shapeshifting, (The Mabinogi needs to be disentangled from The chastity and a duel, which all establish a mighty al- Mabinogion which is the modern name for a larger collec- liance. The formidable Rhiannon courts him, and tion of British/ Welsh mediaeval tales. Published versions he helps her win her freedom to marry him. The of The Mabinogion[1] typically include the Mabinogi. The strange abduction at birth of their baby son follows, name The Mabinogion first appears in print 1795,[2] based with his rescue, fostering and restoration by the good on a single mediaeval mistake, but the name then became lord Teyrnon of Gwent. The child is named Pryderi. firmly established in modern usage for the larger collection.) • Branwen Daughter of Llŷr follows Branwen’s marriage to the King of Ireland, who abuses her due to insult by her half brother Efnisien. A tragically geno- 5.1 Overview cidal war develops fomented by Efnisien, in which a Cauldron which resurrects the dead figures, and the gi- The “Mabinogi” are known as the Four Branches of the ant king Bran’s head survives his death in an enchanted Mabinogi, or Pedair Cainc Mabinogi in Welsh. The tales idyll. Pryderi is merely named as a war survivor, and were compiled from oral tradition in the 11thC. They sur- Branwen dies heartbroken. vived in private family libraries via mediaeval manuscripts, • Manawydan Son of Llŷr brother of Branwen, heir to of which two main versions and some fragments still sur- the throne of Britain, becomes Pryderi’s good friend vive today. Early modern scholarship of the Mabinogi saw during the war. Pryderi arranges his friend’s marriage the tales as a garbled Welsh mythology which prompted at- to Rhiannon. The land of Dyfed is devastated. Jour- tempts to salvage or reconstruct them. Since the 1970s the neys in England setting up craft businesses follow. An tales have become recognised as a complex secular litera- enchanted trap removes Pryderi and Rhiannon: Man- ture, with powerfully explored characters, political, ethical awydan becomes a farmer. He cannily negotiates their and gendered themes, as well as imaginative fantasies. The release, as well as the restoration of the land, by con- style of writing is admired for its deceptive simplicity and fronting the villain behind it all. controlled wordpower, as well as intricate doublets where mirrorings have been compared to Celtic knotwork.[3] The • Math Son of Mathonwy is a dark sequence of de- world displayed within the Mabinogi extends across Wales, ception and treachery: war with Dyfed, the death of to Ireland, and into England. It presents a legendary Britain Pryderi, the double rape of a virgin girl, and the re- as a united land under a king, yet with powerful separate jection of an unwanted hero son by proud Arianrhod.

37 38 CHAPTER 5. FOUR BRANCHES OF THE MABINOGI

Gwydion her magician brother is the architect of all 5.2.2 Second Branch: Branwen, Daughter these destinies. He adds an artiﬁcially incubated preg- of Llŷr nancy, and a synthetic woman. She, Blodeuedd, creates a treacherous love triangle, murder in a peculiar manner. Gwydion makes a shamanic journey of re- Main article: Branwen ferch Llŷr demption.

In the second branch, Branwen, sister of Bendigeidfran King of Britain, is requested by and given in marriage to Matholwch, king of Ireland. Branwen’s half-brother Efnisien, angered that no one consulted him, insults Math- olwch by mutilating all his valuable horses so horribly they 5.2 The Branches become useless. Bendigeidfran gives Matholwch compensation in the form of new horses and treasure, then added a magical cauldron which can restore the dead to life, al- 5.2.1 First branch: Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed though the revived persons will always remain unable to speak. Curiously the legend of this Cauldron when the two kings compare its lore, is that it came from Ireland. Main article: Pwyll Pendefig Dyfed In Ireland, Matholwch and Branwen have a son, Gwern. Pwyll Pendefeg Dyfed, Pwyll the prince of Dyfed, hunting The Irish nobles continue to be hostile because of what his own land, meets the shining Cwn Annwfn, the Hounds Efnisien did. Matholwch allows them to sway him, and casts of Annwfn, and takes another man’s kill, a stag, for him- Branwen away to skivvy in the kitchens, struck on the face self. Arawn the king of Annwfn is greatly offended. To every day by a low caste butcher. Branwen trains a starling compensate, Pwyll visits Annwfn to vanquish Arawn’s ad- to take a message to Bendigeidfran across the Irish Sea. He versary for him, and chastely shares the queen’s bed for a musters his host and crosses the sea to war on Matholwch. year. None knows of it for he is shapeshifted as Arawn him- Bendigeidfran is so huge he wades across with his ships be- self. He defeats Arawn’s enemy Hafgan, to be duly hailed side him. Branwen persuades the Irish to sue for peace by for the important alliance which results between his land of building a colossal building to house Bendigeidfran, which Dyfed, and Annwfn. he has never had before. Next Pwyll encounters Rhiannon, a beautiful and powerful But some of the Irish hide a hundred warriors in it, hanging maiden on a shining magical horse. They are strangely un- in bags on its pillars. Efnisien shrewdly suspects treachery reachable by anyone. Rhiannon has chosen Pwyll as her and disbelieves the Irish story these are bags of flour. He crushes the skull of each hidden warrior, singing as he does husband which he welcomes. She guides him through a cunning strategy using her magic bag which can never be it. Later, at the feast, Efnisien deliberately seeks to create discord. He throws his infant nephew Gwern on the fire and filled, to extricate her from her betrothal to the princely Gwawl. Gwawl is trapped in the bag and beaten by Pwyll’s kills him. Fighting breaks out and the Irish use the Cauldron to revive their dead. Efnisien hides among the corpses to get men, until he agrees to Rhiannon’s terms, including forego- ing vengeance. in the Cauldron, stretches and cracks it, dying as he does so. Rhiannon eventually bears Pwyll a son and heir, but the The war had become a genocide. Five pregnant women child disappears the night he is born. Rhiannon’s maids survive to repopulate Ireland. Only Seven Survivors re- in fear of their lives, accuse her of killing and eating her mained of the British host, besides Branwen. One is own baby. Rhiannon negotiates a penalty where she must Manawydan Branwen’s other brother, and his good friend sit at the castle gate every day for seven years telling her Pryderi. Bendigeidfran, King of Britain, mortally wounded terrible tale to strangers. Meanwhile, the child is rescued by a poisoned spear, bids the survivors to cut off his head, from its monstrous abductor by Teyrnon Twrf Lliant. He and take it to bury at the White Tower, in London. He and his wife adopt the boy who grows heroically apace, and prophesies his head will be their good companion and ad- adores horses. They called him Gwri Golden Hair. Teyrnon vise them, while they will sojourn for many years of idyllic sees the boy’s resemblance to Pwyll, so he restores the boy feasting, first at Harlech in Gwynedd, then on the isle of to Dyfed for a happy ending. Rhiannon is vindicated as is Gwales in Dyfed. But on arriving back in Britain, Branwen Pwyll’s loyalty to her. Their son is renamed Pryderi, as is dies of grief for the many who have died. custom from his mother’s first words to him: 'Pryderi' puns Bran means raven. Branwen means White Raven. Bendi- on anxiety and labour. In due course Pryderi inherits the geidfran means Blessed Raven”, translated also as Brân the rule of Dyfed. Blessed. Efnisien means trouble, or strife. 5.2. THE BRANCHES 39

5.2.3 Third Branch: Manawydan, son of 5.2.4 Fourth Branch: Math, son of Math- Llŷr onwy

Main article: Math fab Mathonwy (Branch)

Gwynedd in north Wales is ruled by the magician king Main article: Manawydan fab Llŷr Math, son of Mathonwy, whose feet must be held by a virgin at all times except while he is at war. Math’s nephew Pryderi of Dyfed returns from the Irish War as one of its Gilfaethwy is infatuated with Goewin, the royal maiden few survivors, to reunite with his mother Rhiannon, and his footholder, so Gilfaethwy’s brother Gwydion plots to aid wife Cigfa. He brings with him his beloved war comrade, him. He deceives Pryderi of Dyfed with magical sham gifts Manawydan, the heir to the kingship of all Britain. But of horses and dogs, in exchange for Pryderi’s valuable pigs, Manawydan’s rights as heir to Britain have been usurped by a gift from Annwfn. Dyfed makes war in revenge, so Math Caswallon, and he does not want more war. Pryderi estab- leaves Goewin without his protection. Gwydion and Gil- lishes him as the lord of Dyfed, including marriage to Rhi- faethwy rape her, and Gwydion kills Pryderi in single com- annon, a union which both partners welcome. The four of bat. Math marries Goewin in compensation for her rape. them, Pryderi, his wife Cigfa, Rhiannon and her new hus- He punishes the two brothers by shapeshifting them into an- band Manawydan, become very good friends indeed, and imal pairs who must mate and bear young; first deer, then travel the land of Dyfed admiring how bountiful it is.. boars, then wolves. The sons they bear become Math’s fos- Together they sit the Gorsedd Arberth, as Pwyll once did. ter sons, and after three years the brothers are reconciled A clap of thunder, a bright light, and magical mist descend. with Math. Afterwards the land is devastated of all other life except Gwydion suggests his sister Arianrhod as the new wild animals. The four live by hunting, but after two years footholder. Math magically tests her virginity requiring her they want more, so they travel to England. In three towns in to step over his wand. She immediately gives birth to a son turn they craft saddles, shields and shoes of such quality that Dylan, who takes to the sea. She also drops a scrap of life the local craftsmen cannot compete, so their envy becomes which Gwydion scoops up and incubates in a chest by his dangerous. Pryderi dislikes the lower class way of life, and bed. Arianrhod is deeply shamed and angered so she ut- Manawydan stops him from fighting their enemies. Instead terly rejects the boy. She swears a destiny upon him that Manawydan insists on moving away. After three attempts he cannot have name, nor warrior arms, except she gives like this, they return to Dyfed. them to him. Gwydion tricks her into naming the boy Lleu Once more living as hunters Pryderi and Manawydan fol- Llaw Gyffes (Bright Skilful Hand) by speaking to him, not knowing who he is as he is shapeshifted. More shapeshift- low a shining white boar to a strange castle. Pryderi, against Manawydan’s advice, follows his hounds inside to become ing fakes a military attack so Arianrhod gives them arms. trapped there by a golden bowl. Manawydan waits, then Arianrhod’s third curse is Lleu may not marry a human reports to Rhiannon who rebukes his failure to rescue his woman. Gwydion and Math construct a beautiful wife friend. But when she follows her son she too becomes for him from oak, broom, and meadowsweet, naming her trapped. Alone with Cigfa, Manawydan reassures her he Blodeuedd (“Flower Face”). But Blodeuedd and Gronw Pe- will respect her virtue. After another attempt in England byr fall deeply in love. Gronw tells her to find out the secret as shoemakers, the pair return to Dyfed, and Manawydan of Lleu’s protected life, which she does in the trust of her farms three fields of wheat next to Gorsedd Arberth. But marriage bed. She begs Lleu to explain so she can know his first field’s harvest is cut down by thieves, and his sec- how to protect him. The method is complicated, taking a ond. He sits vigil at night, and sees a horde of mice eating year of almost impossible effort but Goronwy completes it the ripe corn. He catches a slow, fat one. Against Cigfa’s and Lleu falls to his spear. Blodeuedd and Gronw then live protest he sets up a miniature gibbet to hang it as a thief. together. A scholar, a priest and a bishop in turn offer him money Gwydion pursues a quest to find Lleu, who far away has if he will spare the mouse which he refuses. When asked shifted to eagle form and perches up a tree, dying. Gwydion what he wants for the mouse’s life he first demands an ex- tracks a sow which he finds eating maggots falling from planation. The bishop tells him he is Llwyd, friend of the Lleu’s rotting body. Gwydion sings a magical englynion wronged Gwawl, the mouse is Llwyd’s shapeshifted wife, (poem) gradually bringing Lleu back to humanity. Gronw and the devastation of Dyfed is to avenge Gwawl. Man- offers to compensate Lleu; but Lleu insists on returning awydan bargains to release of Pryderi and Rhiannon, and the blow as it was struck against him. Gronw is cowardly the lifting of the curse on Dyfed. and attempts to evade it using a stone shield. Lleu kills 40 CHAPTER 5. FOUR BRANCHES OF THE MABINOGI

Gronw with his spear, which pierces him through the stone. • Parker, Will. (2002) “Bibliographic Essay. The Gwydion punishes Blodeuwedd by shapeshifting her into an Four Branches of the Mabinogi, A Medieval Celtic owl, a pariah among birds. Text; English Language Scholarship 1795-1997.” Mabinogi.net. An excellent survey of Mabinogi scholarship from the 19thC to the end of the 20thC. Repays 5.3 Resources re-reading. • Parker, Will. (2003) Annotated translation of the Four 5.3.1 Introductory Branches. Mabinogi.net. Translations made for his book (Parker, Will. (2005) The Four Branches of Recommended for those new or newish to the Mabinogi. the Mabinogi. Dublin: Bardic Press. Very useful for There is no need to use all of these; the list is a choice: start quick checks online on exactly what happened when, with any of that appeal. and a free read for newcomers. See www.mabinogi. net for Parker’s articles.

• ONLINE - FREE translation in English, a page for each Branch, by Will Parker. Good for quick checks 5.3.3 Welsh sources on who did what when, and has interesting footnotes. • For the Welsh text see Williams, Ifor. (1930, 1951). • BOOK John Bollard’s lovely edition in English, 'Leg- Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi. Allan o Lyfr Gwyn Rhy- end and Landscape of Wales: The Mabinogi' 2007. dderch. CUP. Classic text for modern students, and Skilfully translated, and illustrated with photographs Welsh speakers, based on all the surviving MSS. This of the sites in the tales. This author led the modern was the ﬁrst modern use of the title Pedair Keinc period understanding the Mabinogi as ﬁne literature. Mabinogi (aka PKM; in English, The Four Branches (See Translations) of the Mabinogi.

• BOOK Sioned Davies recent translation 'The Mabino- The Four Branches are edited in Welsh with English glos- gion' 2008. A recognised Mabinogi authority, and a sary and notes as follows: practical small book, Davies interest is in the art of the storyteller. (See Translations) • First Branch: R. L. Thomson, Pwyll Pendeuic Dyuet. • VIDEO Cybi. (1996) The Mabinogion. Partly free on Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1957. YouTube, fuller version of the retelling on DVD, by • Second Branch: D. S. Thomson, Branwen Uerch Lyr. Cybi the laughing monk. Valley Stream. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1976. • RECORDING Jones, Colin. 2008. “Mabinogion, the • Third Branch: Patrick K. Ford, Manawydan uab Llyr. Four Branches.” Recordings of the Guest text, with at- Belmont, Mass.: Ford and Bailie, 2000. mospheric background music. The first episode is free on the site. • Fourth Branch: Patrick K. Ford, Math uab Mathonwy. Belmont, Mass.: Ford and Bailie, 1999. • WELSH For Welsh readers the classic text is by Ifor • Williams, 'Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi, Allan o Lyfr For the Middle Welsh text closely copied from Gwyn Rhydderch' 1930, 1951. Has been scanned the mediaeval manuscripts (diplomatic editions) online. see: Rhys, John; and Evans, John Gwenogvryn. 1907,1973, 2010. The White Book of the Mabino- • CHILDREN Tales from the Mabinogion, trans. Gwyn gion: Welsh Tales and Romances Reproduced from Thomas. Illustrated by Margaret Jones. 2006. the Peniarth Manuscripts. Series of Welsh Texts 7. Pwllheli. Also Evans transcript of the Llyfr Coch 1887. 5.3.2 Key Resources for Study The three mediaeval manuscripts which have survived • Morgain, Shan. (2013) The Mabinogi Bibliography. into modern times, were scribed in the 13thC and 14thC, Comprehensive annotated bibliography, searchable on later than the compilation period of the work in the 11thC. tags; can derive citations. Includes much material on The text in all three does not greatly differ, but it is thought the wider Mabinogion, and some background context that they are not copies of each other, but of lost earlier orig- e.g. history, language. inals. The oldest is only a fragment; Peniarth 6, c. 1225; 5.3. RESOURCES 41 containing parts of the Second and Third Branches. The glish only.) Llandovery, Wales; and London; simulta- other two are named by the colour of their covers: LLyfr neously. Guest’s trans. continue to introduce many to Gwyn (white) and Llyfr Coch (red). the stories today in her characteristically flowing style.

The oldest complete version is the Llyfr Gwyn Rhydderch • Ellis, Thomas Peter., and Lloyd, John; trans. (1929) (White Book of Rhydderch) known as LLyfr Gwyn or the The Mabinogion: A New Translation by T.P. Ellis and White Book for short. It was scribed c. 1350 by five dif- John Lloyd. Oxford: Clarendon Press. An accurate ferent writers, probably commissioned by Rhydderch ab and useful edition for students. Ieuan Llwyd near Ceredigion. It was then copied and studied by various Welsh scholars. About 1658 it was acquired • Jones, Gwyn and Thomas Jones; trans. (1949) The by Robert Vaughan and preserved in his famous library of Mabinogion. Everyman’s Library, 1949; revised 1974, Hengwrt. In 1859 it was passed to the Peniarth library by 1989, 1993. The first major edition to supplant Guest. W. W. E. Wynne. Finally John Williams presented it to the National Library of Wales in 1904 where it can be viewed • 2001 Edition, (Preface by John Updike), ISBN today in two volumes. 0-375-41175-5. The second complete version which has survived is the • Gantz, Jeffrey; trans. (1976) The Mabinogion. Lon- Llyfr Coch Hergest the Red Book of Hergest, known as don and New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14- Llyfr Coch or the Red Book for short. The scribing was c. 044322-3. A popular edition for many years, still very 1382 - 1410 in a time of unrest culminating in Owain Glyn- readable pocket edition. dwr’s uprising. The scribe has been identified as Hywel Fychan fab Hywel Goch of Buellt, who worked for Hop- • Ford, Patrick K. ; trans. (1977)The Mabinogi and cyn ap Tomas ab Einion near Swansea. The Hopcyn li- Other Medieval Welsh Tales. Berkeley: University brary changed hands due to war and politics several times, of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03414-7. Focuses with owners including the Vaughans of Hergest. The MS. on the native tales of the Mabinogion, including the wandered on, sometimes slightly dubiously via 'borrowing.' Mabinogi. Edward Lluyd is one of many who copied it to study. In • Parker, Will. 2003. “Mabinogi Translations.” Very 1701 it was donated to Jesus College Oxford where it re- useful free online resource for instant access, and quick mains today. Here it was copied by the young John 'Te- checks. gid' Jones when a student at Oxford c. 1815-17 for Colonel Bosanquet. Later Tegid as a senior bard and scholar as- • Bollard, John K. trans, and Griffiths, Anthony; pho- sisted Charlotte Guest in her bilingual publication series tog. (2006) The Mabinogi: Legend and Landscape The Mabinogion which brought the tales to the modern of Wales. Gomer Press, Llandysul. ISBN 1-84323- world. Her volume containing the Mabinogi was published 348-7. An excellent introduction, clear, beautifully in 1845, and her work is still popular today. designed, with photographs of the Mabinogi sites to- Welsh Icons United a 2014 exhibition at the National Li- day. brary of Wales, guested the Llyfr Coch, the Red Book, as • Davies, Sioned. (2007) The Mabinogion. Oxford: Ox- part of its display; thus bringing the two main Mabinogi ford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283242-5. A mod- MSS. under one roof for the first time. (12 October – 15 ern edition in practical format, backed by solid schol- March 2014) arship.

5.3.4 Translations into English 5.3.5 Modern Interpretations • Pughe, William Owen. 1795. “The Mabinogion, or Juvenile Amusements, Being Ancient Welsh Ro- • Walton, Evangeline. “The Mabinogion Tetralogy.” mances.” Cambrian Register, 177–87. First publica- Prose retelling. "The Island of the Mighty" 1970, ﬁrst tion, and English trans. of the ﬁrst story in the First publ. as “The Virgin and the Swine” 1936; "The Chil- Branch. Also: Pughe, William Owen. 1829. “The dren of Llyr" 1971; "The Song of Rhiannon" 1972; Mabinogi: Or, the Romance of Math Ab Mathonwy.” "Prince of Annwn" 1974. As a tetralogy New York: The Cambrian Quarterly Magazine and Celtic Repos- Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-1-58567-504-3. itory 1: 170–79. English trans. of the First Branch. • Cybi. (1996) The Mabinogion. Partly free on • Guest, Charlotte; aka Charlotte Schreiber, trans. and YouTube and a fuller version of the retelling on DVD, editor. The Mabinogion. (1845 part of a series, bilin- by Cybi the laughing monk. Valley Stream. A lovely gual; 1849 part of 3 vols bilingual; 1877 one vol. En- intro. 42 CHAPTER 5. FOUR BRANCHES OF THE MABINOGI

• Hayes, Derek W. (2007). Otherworld. S4C / BBC Wales. Animation and video with leading musicians and actors, using cutting edge CGI tech. of the time, an impressive work. See artwork on the site. • Arberth Studios. (2008) Rhiannon: Curse Of The Four Branches (PC DVD). Not very closely based, more loosely inspired.

• Eames, Manon. (2008) Magnificent Myths of the Mabinogi. Stage performance of the full Mabinogi, in Aberystwyth. Staged in a slightly abridged version by Jill Williams at the Pontardawe Arts Centre, 2009. Each was performed by youth theatre. • Jones, Colin. 2008. Mabinogion, the Four Branches. Recordings of the Guest text, with atmospheric background music. The first episode is free on the site. • In 2009 Seren Books began publishing a radical new interpretation of the tales, as a series, setting them in modern times and in different countries. The series completed 2014. See here.

5.4 References

[1] Guest 1838 −45; 1849, 1877, 1906 etc. Ellis & lloyd 1929; Jones & Jones 1949; Gantz, 1976; S. Davies 2008.

[2] Pughe, William Owen. 1795. "The Mabinogion, or Juvenile Amusements, Being Ancient Welsh Romances.” Cambrian Register, 177–87. This was only one episode of the First Branch. Pughe’s complete translation was never published in full.

[3] Bollard, John Kenneth. 1974. “The Structure of the Four Branches of the Mabinogion.” Trans. of the Hon. Soc. of Cymmrodorion, 250–76. Chapter 6

One Thousand and One Nights

“Arabian Nights” redirects here. For other uses, see What is common throughout all the editions of the Nights Arabian Nights (disambiguation). is the initial frame story of the ruler Shahryār (from meaning “king” or “sovereign”) and his , ﺷﻬﺮﯾﺎر :For other uses, see One Thousand and One Nights (disam- Persian possibly meaning, ﺷﻬﺮزاد :biguation). wife Scheherazade (from Persian [3] One Thousand and One Nights (Arabic: “of noble lineage”), and the framing device incorporated throughout the tales themselves. The stories proceed from كِتَاب َألْف لَيْلَة وَلَيْلَة this original tale; some are framed within other tales, while others begin and end of their own accord. Some editions contain only a few hundred nights, while others include 1,001 or more. The bulk of the text is in prose, although verse is occasionally used for songs and riddles and to express heightened emotion. Most of the poems are single couplets or quatrains, although some are longer. Some of the stories very widely associated with The Nights, in particular "Aladdin’s Wonderful Lamp", "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves", and "The Seven Voyages of Sinbad the Sailor", while almost certainly genuine Middle Eastern folk tales, were not part of The Nights in its original Arabic versions, but were added to the collection by Antoine Galland and other European translators.[4]

Scheherazade and Shahryār by Ferdinand Keller, 1880 6.1 Synopsis kitāb ʾalf layla wa-layla) is a collection of Middle Eastern and South Asian stories and folk tales compiled in Arabic See also: List of stories within One Thousand and One during the Islamic Golden Age. It is often known in English Nights and List of characters within One Thousand and as the Arabian Nights, from the first English language edi- One Nights tion (1706), which rendered the title as The Arabian Nights’ [1] Entertainment. The main frame story concerns Shahryar, whom the narra- The work was collected over many centuries by various au- tor calls a "Sasanian king” ruling in “India and China”.[5] thors, translators, and scholars across West, Central, and He is shocked to discover that his brother’s wife is unfaith- South Asia and North Africa. The tales themselves trace ful; discovering his own wife’s infidelity has been even more their roots back to ancient and medieval Arabic, Persian, flagrant, he has her executed: but in his bitterness and grief Mesopotamian, Indian, and Egyptian folklore and litera- decides that all women are the same. Shahryar begins to ture. In particular, many tales were originally folk stories marry a succession of virgins only to execute each one the from the Caliphate era, while others, especially the frame next morning, before she has a chance to dishonour him. story, are most probably drawn from the Pahlavi Persian Eventually the vizier, whose duty it is to provide them, can- -lit. A Thousand not find any more virgins. Scheherazade, the vizier’s daugh , هﺰار اﻓﺴﺎن :work Hazār Afsān (Persian Tales) which in turn relied partly on Indian elements.[2] ter, offers herself as the next bride and her father reluctantly

43 44 CHAPTER 6. ONE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS

agrees. On the night of their marriage, Scheherazade begins Galen—and in all these cases turns out to be justified in her to tell the king a tale, but does not end it. The king, curious belief that the king’s curiosity about the sequel would buy about how the story ends, is thus forced to postpone her ex- her another day of life. ecution in order to hear the conclusion. The next night, as soon as she finishes the tale, she begins (and only begins) a new one, and the king, eager to hear the conclusion, post- 6.2 History: versions and transla- pones her execution once again. So it goes on for 1,001 nights. tions The tales vary widely: they include historical tales, love stories, tragedies, comedies, poems, burlesques and various The history of the Nights is extremely complex and mod- forms of erotica. Numerous stories depict jinns, ghouls, ern scholars have made many attempts to untangle the story apes,[6] sorcerers, magicians, and legendary places, which of how the collection as it currently exists came about. are often intermingled with real people and geography, not Robert Irwin summarises their findings: “In the 1880s and always rationally; common protagonists include the his- 1890s a lot of work was done on the Nights by [the scholar] torical Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid, his Grand Vizier, Zotenberg and others, in the course of which a consen- Jafar al-Barmaki, and the famous poet Abu Nuwas, de- sus view of the history of the text emerged. Most scholars spite the fact that these figures lived some 200 years af- agreed that the Nights was a composite work and that the ter the fall of the Sassanid Empire in which the frame earliest tales in it came from India and Persia. At some time, tale of Scheherazade is set. Sometimes a character in probably in the early 8th century, these tales were trans- Scheherazade’s tale will begin telling other characters a lated into Arabic under the title Alf Layla, or 'The Thou- story of his own, and that story may have another one told sand Nights’. This collection then formed the basis of The within it, resulting in a richly layered narrative texture. Thousand and One Nights. The original core of stories was quite small. Then, in Iraq in the 9th or 10th century, this original core had Arab stories added to it – among them some tales about the Caliph Harun al-Rashid. Also, perhaps from the 10th century onwards, previously independent sagas and story cycles were added to the compilation [...] Then, from the 13th century onwards, a further layer of stories was added in Syria and Egypt, many of these showing a preoccupation with sex, magic or low life. In the early modern period yet more stories were added to the Egyptian collections so as to swell the bulk of the text sufficiently to bring its length up to the full 1,001 nights of storytelling promised by the book’s title.”[7]

6.2.1 Possible Indian origins

A manuscript of the One Thousand and One Nights Devices found in Sanskrit literature such as frame stories and animal fables are seen by some scholars as lying at the The different versions have different individually detailed root of the conception of the Nights.[8] Indian folklore is endings (in some Scheherazade asks for a pardon, in some represented in the Nights by certain animal stories, which the king sees their children and decides not to execute his reflect influence from ancient Sanskrit fables. The influ- wife, in some other things happen that make the king dis- ence of the Panchatantra and Baital Pachisi is particularly tracted) but they all end with the king giving his wife a par- notable.[9] The Jataka Tales are a collection of 547 Buddhist don and sparing her life. stories, which are for the most part moral stories with an The narrator’s standards for what constitutes a cliffhanger ethical purpose. The Tale of the Bull and the Ass and the linked Tale of the Merchant and his Wife are found in the seem broader than in modern literature. While in many [10] cases a story is cut off with the hero in danger of losing frame stories of both the Jataka and the Nights. his life or another kind of deep trouble, in some parts of It is possible that the influence of the Panchatantra is via the full text Scheherazade stops her narration in the mid- a Sanskrit adaptation called the Tantropakhyana. Only dle of an exposition of abstract philosophical principles or fragments of the original Sanskrit form of this work exist, complex points of Islamic philosophy, and in one case dur- but translations or adaptations exist in Tamil,[11] Lao,[12] ing a detailed description of human anatomy according to Thai[13] and Old Javanese.[14] The frame story is particu- 6.2. HISTORY: VERSIONS AND TRANSLATIONS 45

larly interesting, as it follows the broad outline of a con- how they entered the collection.[20] These stories include cubine telling stories in order to maintain the interest and the cycle of “King Jali'ad and his Wazir Shimas” and “The favour of a king — although the basis of the collection of Ten Wazirs or the History of King Azadbakht and his Son” stories is from the Panchatantra — with its original Indian (derived from the 7th-century Persian Bakhtiyarnama).[21] [15] setting. In the 1950s, the Iraqi scholar Safa Khulusi suggested (on internal rather than historical evidence) that the Persian 6.2.2 Persian prototype: Hazār Afsān writer Ibn al-Muqaﬀa' may have been responsible for the ﬁrst Arabic translation of the frame story and some of Per- sian stories later incorporated into the Nights. This would place genesis of the collection in the 8th century.[22][23]

6.2.3 Arabic versions

A page from Kelileh va Demneh dated 1429, from Herat, a Persian translation of the Panchatantra – depicts the manipulative jackal- vizier, Dimna, trying to lead his lion-king into war.

The earliest mentions of the Nights refer to it as an Arabic translation from a Persian book, Hazār Afsān (or Afsaneh or Afsana), meaning “The Thousand Stories”. In the 10th century Ibn al-Nadim compiled a catalogue of books (the “Fihrist”) in Baghdad. He noted that the Sassanid kings of Iran enjoyed “evening tales and fables”.[16] Al-Nadim then writes about the Persian Hazār Afsān, explaining the The story of Princess Parizade and the Magic Tree by Maxfield frame story it employs: a bloodthirsty king kills off a suc- Parrish.[24] cession of wives after their wedding night; finally one concubine had the intelligence to save herself by telling him a In the mid-20th century, the scholar Nabia Abbott found a story every evening, leaving each tale unfinished until the document with a few lines of an Arabic work with the ti- next night so that the king would delay her execution.[17] In tle The Book of the Tale of a Thousand Nights, dating from the same century Al-Masudi also refers to the Hazār Af- the 9th century. This is the earliest known surviving frag- sān, saying the Arabic translation is called Alf Khurafa (“A ment of the Nights.[25] The first reference to the Arabic ver- Thousand Entertaining Tales”) but is generally known as sion under its full title The One Thousand and One Nights Alf Layla (“A Thousand Nights”). He mentions the charac- appears in Cairo in the 12th century.[26] Professor Dwight ters Shirazd (Scheherazade) and Dinazad.[18] No physical Reynolds describes the subsequent transformations of the evidence of the Hazār Afsān has survived[8] so its exact re- Arabic version: lationship with the existing later Arabic versions remains a mystery.[19] Apart from the Scheherazade frame story, sev- Some of the earlier Persian tales may have eral other tales have Persian origins, although it is unclear survived within the Arabic tradition altered such 46 CHAPTER 6. ONE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS

that Arabic Muslim names and new locations The texts of the Syrian recension do not contain much be- were substituted for pre-Islamic Persian ones, but side that core. It is debated which of the Arabic recensions it is also clear that whole cycles of Arabic tales is more “authentic” and closer to the original: the Egyp- were eventually added to the collection and ap- tian ones have been modified more extensively and more re- parently replaced most of the Persian materials. cently, and scholars such as Muhsin Mahdi have suspected One such cycle of Arabic tales centres around a that this may have been caused in part by European de- small group of historical figures from 9th-century mand for a “complete version"; but it appears that this type Baghdad, including the caliph Harun al-Rashid of modification has been common throughout the history (died 809), his vizier Jafar al-Barmaki (d.803) of the collection, and independent tales have always been and the licentious poet Abu Nuwas (d. c. 813). added to it.[30][31] Another cluster is a body of stories from late medieval Cairo in which are mentioned persons and places that date to as late as the thirteenth and 6.2.4 Modern translations fourteenth centuries.[27] The first European version (1704–1717) was translated into French by Antoine Galland from an Arabic text of the Syr- Two main Arabic manuscript traditions of the Nights are ian recension and other sources. This 12-volume work, known: the Syrian and the Egyptian. The Syrian tradi- Les Mille et une nuits, contes arabes traduits en français tion includes the oldest manuscripts; these versions are also (“Thousand and one nights, Arab stories translated into much shorter and include fewer tales. It is represented in French”), included stories that were not in the original Ara- print by the so-called Calcutta I (1814–1818) and most no- bic manuscript. “Aladdin’s Lamp” and “Ali Baba and the tably by the Leiden edition (1984), which is based above all Forty Thieves” (as well as several other, lesser known tales) on the Galland manuscript. It is believed to be the purest ex- appeared first in Galland’s translation and cannot be found pression of the style of the mediaeval Arabian Nights.[28][29] in any of the original manuscripts. He wrote that he heard Texts of the Egyptian tradition emerge later and contain them from a Syrian Christian storyteller from Aleppo, a many more tales of much more varied content; a much Maronite scholar whom he called “Hanna Diab.” Galland’s larger number of originally independent tales have been in- version of the Nights was immensely popular throughout corporated into the collection over the centuries, most of Europe, and later versions were issued by Galland’s pub- them after the Galland manuscript was written,[30] and were lisher using Galland’s name without his consent. being included as late as in the 18th and 19th centuries, As scholars were looking for the presumed “complete” and perhaps in order to attain the eponymous number of 1001 “original” form of the Nights, they naturally turned to the nights. The final product of this tradition, the so-called more voluminous texts of the Egyptian recension, which Zotenberg Egyptian Recension, does contain 1001 nights soon came to be viewed as the “standard version”. The and is reflected in print, with slight variations, by the edi- first translations of this kind, such as that of Edward Lane tions known as the Bulaq (1835) and the Macnaghten or (1840, 1859), were bowdlerized. Unabridged and unexpur- Calcutta II (1839–1842). gated translations were made, first by John Payne, under All extant substantial versions of both recensions share a the title The Book of the Thousand Nights and One Night small common core of tales, namely: (1882, nine volumes), and then by Sir Richard Francis Bur- ton, entitled The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night • The Merchant and the Demon. (1885, ten volumes) – the latter was, according to some as- sessments, partially based on the former, leading to charges • The Fisherman and the Jinni. of plagiarism.[32][33] In view of the sexual imagery in the source texts (which Burton even emphasized further, es- • The Story of the Porter and the Three Ladies. pecially by adding extensive footnotes and appendices on Oriental sexual mores[33]) and the strict Victorian laws on • The Hunchback cycle. obscene material, both of these translations were printed as private editions for subscribers only, rather than published • The Story of the Three Apples, enframing the Story in the usual manner. Burton’s original 10 volumes were fol- of Nur al-Din and Shams al-Din lowed by a further six entitled The Supplemental Nights to • The Story of Nur al-Din Ali and Anis al-Jalis the Thousand Nights and a Night, which were printed between 1886 and 1888. It has, however, been criticized for • The Story of Ali Ibn Baqqar and Shams al-Nahar, and its “archaic language and extravagant idiom” and “obsessive focus on sexuality” (and has even been called an “eccentric • The Story of Qamar al-Zaman. ego-trip" and a “highly personal reworking of the text”).[33] 6.2. HISTORY: VERSIONS AND TRANSLATIONS 47

Later versions of the Nights include that of the French doctor J. C. Mardrus, issued from 1898 to 1904. It was translated into English by Powys Mathers, and issued in 1923. Like Payne’s and Burton’s texts, it is based on the Egyptian recension and retains the erotic material, indeed expanding on it, but it has been criticized for inaccuracy.[32] A notable recent version, which reverts to the Syrian recension, is a critical edition based on the 14th or 15th-century Syrian manuscript in the Bibliothèque Nationale, originally used by Galland. This version, known as the Leiden text, was compiled in Arabic by Muhsin Mahdi (1984) and rendered into English by Husain Haddawy (1990). Mahdi argued that this version is the earliest extant one (a view that is largely accepted today) and that it reflects most Arabic manuscript of The Thousand and One Nights dating back closely a “definitive” coherent text ancestral to all others to the 14th century that he believed to have existed during the Mamluk period (a view that remains contentious).[30][34][35] Still, even scholars who deny this version the exclusive status of “the • One of the oldest Arabic manuscript fragments from only real Arabian Nights” recognize it as being the best Syria (a few handwritten pages) dating to the early source on the original style and linguistic form of the me- 9th century. Discovered by scholar Nabia Abbott in diaeval work[28][29] and praise the Haddawy translation as 1948, it bears the title Kitab Hadith Alf Layla (“The “very readable” and “strongly recommended for anyone Book of the Tale of the Thousand Nights”) and the who wishes to taste the authentic flavour of those tales”.[35] first few lines of the book in which Dinazad asks Shi- An additional second volume of Arabian nights translated razad (Scheherazade) to tell her stories.[27] by Haddawy, composed of popular tales not present in the • 10th century: Mention of Hazār Afsān in Ibn al- Leiden edition, was published in 1995. Nadim's “Fihrist” (Catalogue of books) in Baghdad. In 2008 a new English translation was published by Pen- He attributes a pre-Islamic Sassanian Persian origin guin Classics in three volumes. It is translated by Malcolm to the collection and refers to the frame story of C. Lyons and Ursula Lyons with introduction and annota- Scheherazade telling stories over a thousand nights to tions by Robert Irwin. This is the first complete translation save her life. However, according to al-Nadim, the of the Macnaghten or Calcutta II edition (Egyptian recen- book contains only 200 stories. Curiously, al-Nadim sion) since Burton’s. It contains, in addition to the stan- also writes disparagingly of the collection’s literary dard text of 1001 Nights, the so-called “orphan stories” of quality, observing that “it is truly a coarse book, with- Aladdin and Ali Baba as well as an alternative ending to The out warmth in the telling”.[40] seventh journey of Sindbad from Antoine Galland's origi- • nal French. As the translator himself notes in his preface 10th century: Reference to The Thousand Nights, an to the three volumes, "[N]o attempt has been made to su- Arabic translation of the Persian Hazār Afsān (“Thou- sand Stories”), in Muruj Al-Dhahab (The Meadows of perimpose on the translation changes that would be needed [18] to 'rectify' ... accretions, ... repetitions, non sequiturs and Gold) by Al-Masudi. confusions that mark the present text,” and the work is a • 11th century: Mention of The Nights by Qatran “representation of what is primarily oral literature, appeal- Tabrizi in the following couplet in Persian: ing to the ear rather than the eye”.[36] The Lyons translation هزار ره صفت هفت خوان و رويين دژ includes all the poetry (in plain prose paraphrase) but does فرو شنيدم و خواندم من از not attempt to reproduce in English the internal rhyming of some prose sections of the original Arabic. Moreover, it streamlines somewhat and has cuts. In this sense it is not, as claimed, a complete translation. A thousand times, accounts of Rouyin Dezh and Haft Khān I heard and read from Hazār Afsān 6.2.5 Timeline (literally Thousand Fables)

Scholars have assembled a timeline concerning the publica- • 12th century: A document from Cairo refers to a Jew- tion history of The Nights:[37][38][39] ish bookseller lending a copy of The Thousand and 48 CHAPTER 6. ONE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS

One Nights (this is the ﬁrst appearance of the ﬁnal form • 1839–1842: Calcutta II (4 volumes) is published. It of the title).[26] claims to be based on an older Egyptian manuscript (which was never found). This version contains many • 14th century: Existing Syrian manuscript in the elements and stories from the Habicht edition. Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris (contains about 300 tales). • 1838: Torrens version in English.

• 1704: Antoine Galland's French translation is the first • 1838–1840: Edward William Lane publishes an En- European version of The Nights. Later volumes were glish translation. Notable for its exclusion of con- introduced using Galland’s name though the stories tent Lane found “immoral” and for its anthropological were written by unknown persons at the behest of the notes on Arab customs by Lane. publisher wanting to capitalize on the popularity of the collection. • 1882–1884: John Payne publishes an English version translated entirely from Calcutta II, adding some tales • 1706: An anonymously translated version in English from Calcutta I and Breslau. appears in Europe dubbed the "Grub Street" version. This is entitled The Arabian Nights’ Entertainment — • 1885–1888: Sir Richard Francis Burton publishes an the first known use of the common English title of the English translation from several sources (largely the work. same as Payne[32]). His version accentuated the sexuality of the stories vis-à-vis Lane’s bowdlerized trans- • 1768: first Polish translation, 12 volumes. Based, as lation. many European on the French translation. • 1889–1904: J. C. Mardrus publishes a French version • 1775: Egyptian version of The Nights called “ZER” using Bulaq and Calcutta II editions. (Hermann Zotenberg's Egyptian Recension) with 200 tales (no surviving edition exists). • 1973: First Polish translation based on the original language edition, but compressed 12 volumes to 9, by • 1814: Calcutta I, the earliest existing Arabic printed PIW. version, is published by the British East India Com- pany. A second volume was released in 1818. Both • 1984: Muhsin Mahdi publishes an Arabic edition had 100 tales each. which he claims is faithful to the oldest Arabic versions surviving (primarily based on the Syrian manuscript in • Early 19th century: Modern Persian translations of the the Bibliothèque Nationale in combination with other text are made, variously under the title Alf leile va leile, early manuscripts of the Syrian branch). ,or, in distorted Arabic ,(هﺰار و ﯾﮏ ﺷﺐ) Hazār-o yek šab Alf al-leil. One early extant version is that illustrated • 1986–1987: French translation by Arabist René R. by Sani al-Molk (1814–1866) for Mohammad Shah Khawam Qajar.[41] • 1990: Husain Haddawy publishes an English transla- • 1825–1838: The Breslau/Habicht edition is published tion of Mahdi. in Arabic in 8 volumes. Christian Maxmilian Habicht (born in Breslau, Kingdom of Prussia, 1775) collabo- • 2008: New Penguin Classics translation (in three vol- rated with the Tunisian Murad Al-Najjar and created umes) by Malcolm C. Lyons and Ursula Lyons of the this edition containing 1001 stories. Using versions Calcutta II edition of The Nights, tales from Al-Najjar, and other stories from unknown origins Habicht published his version in Arabic and German. 6.3 Literary themes and techniques • 1842–1843: Four additional volumes by Habicht. The One Thousand and One Nights and various tales within • 1835: Bulaq version: These two volumes, printed by it make use of many innovative literary techniques, which the Egyptian government, are the oldest printed (by a the storytellers of the tales rely on for increased drama, sus- publishing house) version of The Nights in Arabic by a pense, or other emotions.[42] Some of these date back to non-European. It is primarily a reprinting of the ZER earlier Persian, Indian and Arabic literature, while others text. were original to the One Thousand and One Nights. 6.3. LITERARY THEMES AND TECHNIQUES 49

common way of introducing the story, but instead a story is most commonly introduced through subtle means, particularly as an answer to questions raised in a previous tale.[43] The general story is narrated by an unknown narrator, and in this narration the stories are told by Scheherazade. In most of Scheherazade’s narrations there are also stories narrated, and even in some of these, there are some other stories.[44] This is particularly the case for the "Sinbad the Sailor" story narrated by Scheherazade in the One Thousand and One Nights. Within the “Sinbad the Sailor” story itself, the protagonist Sinbad the Sailor narrates the stories of his seven voyages to Sinbad the Porter. The device is also used to great eﬀect in stories such as "The Three Apples" and "The Seven Viziers". In yet another tale Scheherazade narrates, "The Fisherman and the Jinni", the “Tale of the Wazir and the Sage Duban" is narrated within it, and within that there are three more tales narrated.

6.3.3 Dramatic visualization

Dramatic visualization is “the representing of an object or character with an abundance of descriptive detail, or the mimetic rendering of gestures and dialogue in such a way as Sindbad and the Valley of Diamonds, from the Second Voyage. to make a given scene 'visual' or imaginatively present to an audience”. This technique dates back to the One Thousand 6.3.1 Frame story and One Nights.[45] An example of this is the tale of “The Three Apples” (see Crime fiction elements below). An early example of the frame story, or framing device, is employed in the One Thousand and One Nights, in which the character Scheherazade narrates a set of tales (most of- 6.3.4 Fate and destiny ten fairy tales) to the Sultan Shahriyar over many nights. Many of Scheherazade’s tales are also frame stories, such A common theme in many Arabian Nights tales is fate as the Tale of Sindbad the Seaman and Sindbad the Lands- and destiny. The Italian filmmaker Pier Paolo Pasolini man being a collection of adventures related by Sindbad observed:[46] the Seaman to Sindbad the Landsman. The concept of the frame story dates back to ancient Sanskrit literature, and every tale in The Thousand and One Nights was introduced into Persian and Arabic literature through begins with an 'appearance of destiny' which the Panchatantra. manifests itself through an anomaly, and one anomaly always generates another. So a chain of 6.3.2 Embedded narrative anomalies is set up. And the more logical, tightly knit, essential this chain is, the more beautiful An early example of the "story within a story" technique can the tale. By 'beautiful' I mean vital, absorbing be found in the One Thousand and One Nights, which can and exhilarating. The chain of anomalies always be traced back to earlier Persian and Indian storytelling tra- tends to lead back to normality. The end of every ditions, most notably the Panchatantra of ancient Sanskrit tale in The One Thousand and One Nights consists literature. The Nights, however, improved on the Pan- of a 'disappearance' of destiny, which sinks back chatantra in several ways, particularly in the way a story is to the somnolence of daily life ... The protagonist introduced. In the Panchatantra, stories are introduced as of the stories is in fact destiny itself. didactic analogies, with the frame story referring to these stories with variants of the phrase “If you're not careful, Though invisible, fate may be considered a leading charac- that which happened to the louse and the flea will happen ter in the One Thousand and One Nights.[47] The plot de- to you.” In the Nights, this didactic framework is the least vices often used to present this theme are coincidence,[48] 50 CHAPTER 6. ONE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS

reverse causation and the self-fulfilling prophecy (see a Dream”, in which a man is told in his dream to leave his Foreshadowing below). native city of Baghdad and travel to Cairo, where he will discover the whereabouts of some hidden treasure. The man travels there and experiences misfortune, ending up 6.3.5 Foreshadowing in jail, where he tells his dream to a police officer. The officer mocks the idea of foreboding dreams and tells the protagonist that he himself had a dream about a house with a courtyard and fountain in Baghdad where treasure is buried under the fountain. The man recognizes the place as his own house and, after he is released from jail, he returns home and digs up the treasure. In other words, the foreboding dream not only predicted the future, but the dream was the cause of its prediction coming true. A variant of this story later appears in English folklore as the "Pedlar of Swaffham" and Paulo Coelho's "The Alchemist"; Jorge Luis Borges' collection of short stories A Universal History of Infamy featured his translation of this particular story into Spanish, as “The Story Of The Two Dreamers.”[50] Another variation of the self-fulfilling prophecy can be seen in “The Tale of Attaf”, where Harun al-Rashid consults his library (the House of Wisdom), reads a random book, “falls to laughing and weeping and dismisses the faithful vizier" Ja'far ibn Yahya from sight. Ja'afar, “disturbed and upset flees Baghdad and plunges into a series of adventures in Damascus, involving Attaf and the woman whom Attaf eventually marries.” After returning to Baghdad, Ja'afar reads the same book that caused Harun to laugh and weep, and discovers that it describes his own adventures with A Sufi Imam from the One Thousand and One Nights Attaf. In other words, it was Harun’s reading of the book that provoked the adventures described in the book to take Early examples of the foreshadowing technique of place. This is an early example of reverse causation.[51] repetitive designation, now known as "Chekhov’s gun", Near the end of the tale, Attaf is given a death sentence occur in the One Thousand and One Nights, which contains for a crime he didn't commit but Harun, knowing the truth “repeated references to some character or object which from what he has read in the book, prevents this and has appears insignificant when first mentioned but which Attaf released from prison. In the 12th century, this tale was reappears later to intrude suddenly in the narrative”.[49] A translated into Latin by Petrus Alphonsi and included in his notable example is in the tale of “The Three Apples” (see Disciplina Clericalis,[52] alongside the "Sinbad the Sailor" Crime fiction elements below). story cycle.[53] In the 14th century, a version of “The Tale of Attaf” also appears in the Gesta Romanorum and Giovanni Another early foreshadowing technique is formal pattern- Boccaccio's The Decameron.[52] ing, “the organization of the events, actions and gestures which constitute a narrative and give shape to a story; when done well, formal patterning allows the audience the pleasure of discerning and anticipating the structure of the plot 6.3.6 Repetition as it unfolds”. This technique also dates back to the One Thousand and One Nights.[45] Leitwortstil is 'the purposeful repetition of words’ in a given Another form of foreshadowing is the self-fulfilling literary piece that “usually expresses a motif or theme im- prophecy, which dates back to the story of Krishna in an- portant to the given story”. This device occurs in the One cient Sanskrit literature. A variation of this device is the Thousand and One Nights, which binds several tales in a self-fulfilling dream, which dates back to medieval Arabic story cycle. The storytellers of the tales relied on this technique “to shape the constituent members of their story cy- literature. Several tales in the One Thousand and One [42] Nights use this device to foreshadow what is going to hap- cles into a coherent whole.” pen, as a special form of literary prolepsis. A notable exam- Thematic patterning is “the distribution of recurrent ple is “The Ruined Man who Became Rich Again through thematic concepts and moralistic motifs among the vari- 6.3. LITERARY THEMES AND TECHNIQUES 51

6.3.8 Unreliable narrator

The literary device of the unreliable narrator was used in several ﬁctional medieval Arabic tales of the One Thou- sand and One Nights. In one tale, “The Seven Viziers” (also known as “Craft and Malice of Women or The Tale of the King, His Son, His Concubine and the Seven Wazirs”), a courtesan accuses a king’s son of having assaulted her, when in reality she had failed to seduce him (inspired by the Qur'anic/Biblical story of Yusuf/Joseph). Seven viziers attempt to save his life by narrating seven stories to prove the unreliability of women, and the courtesan responds back by narrating a story to prove the unreliability of viziers.[56] The unreliable narrator device is also used to generate suspense in “The Three Apples” and humor in “The Hunchback’s Tale” (see Crime ﬁction elements below).

6.3.9 Crime ﬁction elements

Due to her patience and understanding Shirin becomes one of the most respected Queens in the One Thousand and One Nights.

ous incidents and frames of a story. In a skillfully crafted tale, thematic patterning may be arranged so as to empha- size the unifying argument or salient idea which disparate events and disparate frames have in common”. This technique also dates back to the One Thousand and One Nights (and earlier).[45] Several diﬀerent variants of the "Cinderella" story, which has its origins in the Egyptian story of Rhodopis, appear in the One Thousand and One Nights, including “The Second Shaykh’s Story”, “The Eldest Lady’s Tale” and “Abdallah ibn Fadil and His Brothers”, all dealing with the theme of a younger sibling harassed by two jealous elders. In some of these, the siblings are female, while in others they are male. One of the tales, “Judar and His Brethren”, departs from the happy endings of previous variants and reworks the plot to give it a tragic ending instead, with the younger brother being poisoned by his elder brothers.[54]

Cassim in the cave by Maxﬁeld Parrish (1909).

An example of the murder mystery[57] and suspense thriller [58] 6.3.7 Sexual humour genres in the collection, with multiple plot twists and detective ﬁction elements[59] was "The Three Apples", also known as Hikayat al-sabiyya 'l-muqtula (“The Tale of the The Nights contain many examples of sexual humour. Some Murdered Young Woman”),[60] one of the tales narrated by of this borders on satire, as in the tale called “Ali with the Scheherazade in the One Thousand and One Nights. In this Large Member” which pokes fun at obsession with human tale, Harun al-Rashid comes to possess a chest, which, when penis size.[55] opened, contains the body of a young woman. Harun gives 52 CHAPTER 6. ONE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS

his vizier, Ja’far, three days to find the culprit or be exe- in Stephen King's Misery, in which the protagonist is forced cuted. At the end of three days, when Ja’far is about to be to write a novel to keep his captor from torturing and killing executed for his failure, two men come forward, both claim- him. The influence of the Nights on modern horror fiction ing to be the murderer. As they tell their story it transpires is certainly discernible in the work of H. P. Lovecraft. As a that, although the younger of them, the woman’s husband, child, he was fascinated by the adventures recounted in the was responsible for her death, some of the blame attaches book, and he attributes some of his creations to his love of to a slave, who had taken one of the apples mentioned in the 1001 Nights.[65] the title and caused the woman’s murder. Harun then gives Ja’far three more days to find the guilty slave. When he yet again fails to find the culprit, and bids his family goodbye 6.3.11 Fantasy and science fiction elements before his execution, he discovers by chance his daughter has the apple, which she obtained from Ja’far’s own slave, Several stories within the One Thousand and One Nights Rayhan. Thus the mystery is solved. feature early science fiction elements. One example is “The Adventures of Bulukiya”, where the protagonist Bulukiya’s Another Nights tale with crime fiction elements was “The quest for the herb of immortality leads him to explore the Hunchback’s Tale” story cycle which, unlike “The Three seas, journey to Paradise and to Hell, and travel across the Apples”, was more of a suspenseful comedy and courtroom cosmos to different worlds much larger than his own world, drama rather than a murder mystery or detective fiction. anticipating elements of galactic science fiction;[66] along The story is set in a fictional China and begins with a the way, he encounters societies of djinns,[67] mermaids, hunchback, the emperor’s favourite comedian, being in- talking serpents, talking trees, and other forms of life.[66] vited to dinner by a tailor couple. The hunchback acci- In “Abu al-Husn and His Slave-Girl Tawaddud”, the hero- dentally chokes on his food from laughing too hard and the ine Tawaddud gives an impromptu lecture on the mansions couple, fearful that the emperor will be furious, take his of the Moon, and the benevolent and sinister aspects of the body to a Jewish doctor's clinic and leave him there. This planets.[68] leads to the next tale in the cycle, the “Tale of the Jewish Doctor”, where the doctor accidentally trips over the hunch- In another 1001 Nights tale, “Abdullah the Fisherman and back’s body, falls down the stairs with him, and finds him Abdullah the Merman”, the protagonist Abdullah the Fish- dead, leading him to believe that the fall had killed him. erman gains the ability to breathe underwater and discov- The doctor then dumps his body down a chimney, and this ers an underwater society that is portrayed as an inverted leads to yet another tale in the cycle, which continues with reflection of society on land, in that the underwater soci- twelve tales in total, leading to all the people involved in ety follows a form of primitive communism where concepts this incident finding themselves in a courtroom, all mak- like money and clothing do not exist. Other Arabian Nights ing different claims over how the hunchback had died.[61] tales also depict Amazon societies dominated by women, Crime fiction elements are also present near the end of “The lost ancient technologies, advanced ancient civilizations that Tale of Attaf” (see Foreshadowing above). went astray, and catastrophes which overwhelmed them.[69] “The City of Brass” features a group of travellers on an archaeological expedition[70] across the Sahara to find an 6.3.10 Horror fiction elements ancient lost city and attempt to recover a brass vessel that Solomon once used to trap a jinn,[71] and, along the way, en- Haunting is used as a plot device in gothic fiction and horror counter a mummified queen, petrified inhabitants,[72] life- fiction, as well as modern paranormal fiction. Legends like humanoid robots and automata, seductive marionettes about haunted houses have long appeared in literature. In dancing without strings,[73] and a brass horseman robot who particular, the Arabian Nights tale of “Ali the Cairene and directs the party towards the ancient city,[74] which has now the Haunted House in Baghdad” revolves around a house become a ghost town.[64] “The Ebony Horse” features a fly- haunted by jinns.[62] The Nights is almost certainly the ear- ing mechanical horse controlled using keys that could fly liest surviving literature that mentions ghouls, and many of into outer space and towards the Sun.[75] Some modern in- the stories in that collection involve or reference ghouls. A terpretations see this horse as a robot.[74] The titular ebony prime example is the story The History of Gherib and His horse can fly the distance of one year in a single day, and is Brother Agib (from Nights vol. 6), in which Gherib, an out- used as a vehicle by the Prince of Persia, Qamar al-Aqmar, cast prince, fights off a family of ravenous Ghouls and then in his adventures across Persia, Arabia and Byzantium. This enslaves them and converts them to Islam.[63] story appears to have influenced later European tales such as Adenes Le Roi's Cleomades and "The Squire’s Prologue and Horror fiction elements are also found in “The City of [76] [64] Tale" told in Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales. Brass” tale, which revolves around a ghost town. “The City of Brass” and “The Ebony Horse” can be consid- The horrific nature of Scheherazade's situation is magnified ered early examples of proto-science fiction.[77] The “Third 6.4. IN WORLD CULTURE 53

Qalandar’s Tale” also features a robot in the form of an un- Wa-nadhartu in ‘āda az-zamānu yalumanā :: la canny boatman.[74] ‘udtu adhkuru furqatan bilisānī Hajama as-sarūru ‘alayya ḥattá annahu :: min faraṭi mā sarranī abkānī 6.3.12 The Arabic poetry in One Thousand Yā ‘aynu ṣāra ad-dam‘u minki sijyatan :: tabkīna and One Nights min faraḥin wa-’aḥzānī

There is an abundance of poetry in One Thousand and One Literal translation: Nights. Characters occasionally provide poetry in certain settings, covering many uses. However, pleading, beseech- And I have regretted the separation of our ing and praising the powerful is the most signiﬁcant. companionship :: An eon, and tears ﬂooded my The uses would include but are not limited to: eyes And I’ve sworn if time brought us back together :: I’ll never utter any separation with my tongue • Giving advice, warning, and solutions. Joy conquered me to the point of :: which it made • Praising God, royalties and those in power. me happy that I cried Oh eye, the tears out of you became a principle • Pleading for mercy and forgiveness. :: You cry out of joy and out of sadness • Lamenting wrong decisions or bad luck. Burton’s verse translation: • Providing riddles, laying questions, challenges.

• Criticizing elements of life, wondering. Long, long have I bewailed the sev'rance of our loves, With tears that from my lids streamed • Expressing feelings to others or one’s self: happiness, down like burning rain sadness, anxiety, surprise, anger. And vowed that, if the days deign reunite us two, My lips should never speak of severance again: In a typical example, expressing feelings of happiness Joy hath o'erwhelmed me so that, for the very to oneself from Night 203, Prince Qamar Al-Zaman,[78] stress Of that which gladdens me to weeping I standing outside the castle, wants to inform Queen Bodour am fain. of his arrival. He wraps his ring in a paper and hands it to Tears are become to you a habit, O my eyes, So the servant who delivers it to the Queen. When she opens that ye weep as well for gladness as for pain. it and sees the ring, joy conquers her, and out of happiness she chants this poem (Arabic):[79] 6.4 In world culture

Main articles: Translations of One Thousand and One وَلَقـدْ نَدِمْـتُ عَلى ُتَفَرّقِ شَمْـلِنا :: دَهْـرَا ًوّفاضَ َالدّمْـعُ مِنْ Nights and List of works influenced by One Thousand and One Nights َأجْفاني وَنَـذَرْتُ ِإنْ عادَ َالز ّمانُ ُيَلُمـّنا :: لا عُـدْتُ َأذْكُـر ُ فُرْقًـةً -The influence of the versions of The Nights on world liter بِلِساني ature is immense. Writers as diverse as Henry Fielding to Naguib Mahfouz have alluded to the collection by name in هَجَـمَ ُالسّـرورُ َعَلَـيّ َحَتّـى َأ َن ّه ُ :: مِـنْ فَـرَطِ ما َسَـرّني their own works. Other writers who have been influenced َأبْكاني by the Nights include John Barth, Jorge Luis Borges, Salman ٍ ,Rushdie, Orhan Pamuk, Goethe, Walter Scott, Thackeray يا عَيْـنُ صارَ َالدّمْـعُ مِنْكِ سِ جْيَةً :: تَبْكيـنَ مِـنْ فَـرَح Wilkie Collins, Elizabeth Gaskell, Nodier, Flaubert, Marcel َوَأحْزانــي Schwob, Stendhal, Dumas, Gérard de Nerval, Gobineau, Pushkin, Tolstoy, Hofmannsthal, Conan Doyle, W. B. Transliteration: Yeats, H. G. Wells, Cavafy, Calvino, Georges Perec, H. P. Lovecraft, Marcel Proust, A. S. Byatt and Angela Carter.[80] Wa-laqad nadimtu ‘alá tafarruqi shamlinā :: Various characters from this epic have themselves become Dahran wa-fāḍa ad-dam‘u min ajfānī cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad 54 CHAPTER 6. ONE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS

and Ali Baba. Part of its popularity may have sprung from ing brass horse) and Boccaccio's Decameron. Echoes in improved standards of historical and geographical knowl- Giovanni Sercambi's Novelle and Ariosto's Orlando furioso edge. The marvelous beings and events typical of fairy tales suggest that the story of Shahriyar and Shahzaman was also seem less incredible if they are set further “long ago” or known.[87] Evidence also appears to show that the stories farther “far away"; this process culminates in the fantasy had spread to the Balkans and a translation of the Nights world having little connection, if any, to actual times and into Romanian existed by the 17th century, itself based on places. Several elements from Arabian mythology and a Greek version of the collection.[88] Persian mythology are now common in modern fantasy, such as genies, bahamuts, magic carpets, magic lamps, etc. When L. Frank Baum proposed writing a modern fairy tale 6.4.3 Western literature from the 18th cen- that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie tury onwards as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go.[81] In 1982, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) began naming features on Saturn's moon Enceladus after characters and places in Burton's translation[82] because “its sur- face is so strange and mysterious that it was given the Ara- bian Nights as a name bank, linking fantasy landscape with a literary fantasy”.

6.4.1 In Arabic culture

There is little evidence that the Nights was particularly treasured in the Arab world. It is rarely mentioned in lists of popular literature and few pre-18th century manuscripts of the collection exist.[83] Fiction had a low cultural status among Medieval Arabs compared with poetry, and the tales were dismissed as khurafa (improbable fantasies ﬁt only for entertaining women and children). According to Robert Irwin, “Even today, with the exception of certain writers and academics, the Nights is regarded with dis- dain in the Arabic world. Its stories are regularly de- nounced as vulgar, improbable, childish and, above all, badly written.”[84] The Nights have proved an inspiration to some modern Egyptian writers, such as Tawﬁq al-Hakim (author of the Symbolist play Shahrazad, 1934), Taha Hus- sein (Scheherazade’s Dreams, 1943) [85] and Naguib Mah- fouz (Arabian Nights and Days, 1981). Classic Comics issue #8

6.4.2 Possible early influence on European The modern fame of the Nights derives from the first known literature European translation by Antoine Galland, which appeared in 1704. According to Robert Irwin, Galland “played so Although the first known translation into a European lan- large a part in discovering the tales, in popularizing them guage only appeared in 1704, it is possible that the Nights in Europe and in shaping what would come to be regarded began exerting its influence on Western culture much ear- as the canonical collection that, at some risk of hyper- lier. Christian writers in Medieval Spain translated many bole and paradox, he has been called the real author of works from Arabic, mainly philosophy and mathematics, the Nights.”[89] The immediate success of Galland’s version but also Arab fiction, as is evidenced by Juan Manuel's story with the French public may have been because it coincided collection El Conde Lucanor and Ramón Llull's The Book with the vogue for contes de fées (“fairy stories”). This fash- of Beasts.[86] Knowledge of the work, direct or indirect, ion began with the publication of Madame d'Aulnoy's His- apparently spread beyond Spain. Themes and motifs with toire d'Hypolite in 1690. D'Aulnoy’s book has a remarkably parallels in the Nights are found in Chaucer's The Canter- similar structure to the Nights, with the tales told by a fe- bury Tales (in The Squire’s Tale the hero travels on a fly- male narrator. The success of the Nights spread across Eu- 6.4. IN WORLD CULTURE 55

rope and by the end of the century there were translations of Galland into English, German, Italian, Dutch, Danish, Rus- sian, Flemish and Yiddish.[90] Galland’s version provoked a spate of pseudo-Oriental imitations. At the same time, some French writers began to parody the style and concoct far-fetched stories in superficially Oriental settings. These tongue-in-cheek pastiches include Anthony Hamilton's Les quatre Facardins (1730), Crébillon's Le sopha (1742) and Diderot's Les bijoux indiscrets (1748). They often contained veiled allusions to contemporary French society. The most famous example is Voltaire's Zadig (1748), an attack on religious bigotry set against a vague pre-Islamic Middle East- ern background.[91] The English versions of the “Oriental Tale” generally contained a heavy moralising element,[92] with the notable exception of William Beckford's fantasy Vathek (1786), which had a decisive influence on the de- Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp (1917). velopment of the Gothic novel. The Polish nobleman Jan Potocki's novel Saragossa Manuscript (begun 1797) owes 6.4.4 Cinema a deep debt to the Nights with its Oriental flavour and [93] labyrinthine series of embedded tales. Stories from the One Thousand and One Nights have been The Nights was a favourite book of many British authors of popular subjects for films, beginning with Georges Méliès's the Romantic and Victorian eras. According to A. S. Byatt, Le Palais des Mille et une nuits in 1905. “In British Romantic poetry the Arabian Nights stood for The critic Robert Irwin singles out the two versions of The the wonderful against the mundane, the imaginative against Thief of Baghdad (1924 version directed by Raoul Walsh; [94] the prosaically and reductively rational.” In their auto- 1940 version produced by Alexander Korda) and Pier Paolo biographical writings, both Coleridge and de Quincey re- Pasolini's Il fiore delle Mille e una notte, 1974) as rank- fer to nightmares the book had caused them when young. ing “high among the masterpieces of world cinema.”[98] Wordsworth and Tennyson also wrote about their childhood Michael James Lundell calls Il fiore “the most faithful adap- [95] reading of the tales in their poetry. Charles Dickens was tation, in its emphasis on sexuality, of The 1001 Nights in another enthusiast and the atmosphere of the Nights per- its oldest form.”[99] vades the opening of his last novel The Mystery of Edwin Drood (1870).[96] UPA, an American animation studio, produced an animated feature version of 1001 Arabian Nights featuring the Several writers have attempted to add a thousand and sec- cartoon character Mr. Magoo.[100] A 1969 One Thousand [97] ond tale, including Théophile Gautier (La mille deux- and One Arabian Nights animated feature film was pro- [85] ième nuit, 1842) and Joseph Roth (Die Geschichte von duced in Japan. Directed by Osamu Tezuka and Eichii Ya- [97] der 1002. Nacht, 1939). Edgar Allan Poe wrote "The mamoto, the 1969 film featured psychedelic imagery and Thousand and Second Tale of Scheherazade" (1845). It sounds and erotic material intended for adults.[101] depicts the eighth and final voyage of Sinbad the Sailor, along with the various mysteries Sinbad and his crew en- Alif Laila (The Arabian Nights) was a 1997–2002 Indian counter; the anomalies are then described as footnotes to TV series based on the stories from One Thousand and the story. While the king is uncertain—except in the case of One Nights. It was produced by Sagar Entertainment Ltd. the elephants carrying the world on the back of the turtle— The series starts with Scheherazade telling her stories to that these mysteries are real, they are actual modern events Shahryar, and contains both the well-known and the lesser- that occurred in various places during, or before, Poe’s life- known stories from One Thousand and One Nights. time. The story ends with the king in such disgust at the tale A two-part Television mini series was adopted in 2000 for Scheherazade has just woven, that he has her executed the BBC and ABC studios. Arabian Nights starred Mili Avital, very next day. Dougray Scott, John Leguizamo, based on the translation by Modern authors influenced by the Nights include James Sir Richard Francis Burton and directed by Steve Barron. Joyce, Marcel Proust, Jorge Luis Borges and John Barth. In 2012, Vancouver-based Big Bad Boo Studios produced a 1001 Nights animated television series for children, which was created by Shabnam Rezaei and Aly Jetha. The show launched on Teletoon and airs in 80 countries around the world, including Discovery Kids Asia.[102] 56 CHAPTER 6. ONE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS

6.4.5 Music 6.4.7 Illustrators

The Nights has inspired many pieces of music : Many artists have illustrated the Arabian nights, including: Pierre-Clément Marillier for Le Cabinet des Fées (1785– 1789), Gustave Doré, Léon Carré (Granville, 1878 – Al- • François-Adrien Boieldieu: Le calife de Bagdad ger, 1942), Roger Blachon, Françoise Boudignon, An- (1800) dré Dahan, Amato Soro, Albert Robida, Alcide Théophile Robaudi and Marcelino Truong; Vittorio Zecchin (Murano, • Carl Maria von Weber: Abu Hassan (1811) 1878 – Murano, 1947) and Emanuele Luzzati; The Ger- • Luigi Cherubini: Ali Baba (1833) man Morgan; Mohammed Racim (Algiers, 1896 – Algiers 1975), Sani ol-Molk (1849–1856), Anton Pieck and Emre • Peter Cornelius: Der Barbier von Bagdad (1858) Orhun. Famous illustrators for British editions include: Arthur • Ernest Reyer: La statue (1861) Boyd Houghton, John Tenniel, John Everett Millais and George John Pinwell for Dalziel’s Illustrated Arabian • C. F. E. Horneman (1840–1906), Aladdin (overture), Nights Entertainments, published in 1865; Walter Crane 1864 for Aladdin’s Picture Book (1876); Albert Letchford for the 1897 edition of Burton’s translation; Edmund Dulac for • Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov : Scheherazade Op. 35 Stories from the Arabian Nights (1907), Princess Badoura [103] (1888) (1913) and Sindbad the Sailor & Other Tales from the Ara- bian Nights (1914). Others artists include John D. Bat- • Dikran Tchouhadjian (1837–1898), Zemire (1891) ten, (Fairy Tales From The Arabian Nights, 1893), Kay Nielsen, Eric Fraser, Errol le Cain, Maxﬁeld Parrish, W. • Henri Rabaud: Mârouf, savetier du Caire (1914) Heath Robinson and Arthur Szyk (1954).[105] • Carl Nielsen, Aladdin Suite (1918–1919)

• Renaissance: Scheherazade and Other Stories (1975) 6.5 Gallery

• Fikret Amirov: Arabian Nights (Ballet, 1979) • The Sultan • • Icehouse: No Promises (From the album 'Measure for One Thousand and One Nights book. Measure' 1986) • Harun ar-Rashid, a leading character of the 1001 Nights • Ezequiel Viñao, La Noche de las Noches (1990) • The ﬁfth voyage of Sindbad • Carl Davis, Aladdin • Kamelot, Nights of Arabia (1999) 6.6 See also • Sarah Brightman, Harem and Arabian Nights (2003) • Arabic literature • Ch!pz, “1001 Arabian Nights” (2004) • Hamzanama • Nightwish, Sahara (2007) • List of One Thousand and One Nights characters • • Abney Park (band), Scheherazade (2013) List of stories from The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (translation by R. F. Burton) • List of works inﬂuenced by One Thousand and One 6.4.6 Video games Nights

Popular modern video games with an Arabian Nights theme • Persian literature include Nadirim, a game placed in a fantasy world inspired • Shahnameh by the tales of the 1001 Nights,[104] Prince of Persia and Sonic and the Secret Rings. • Ghost stories 6.7. NOTES 57

6.7 Notes fragment of the early text and the Nights stories as they have survived in later and fuller manuscripts, nor how the Syrian [1] See illustration of title page of Grub St Edition in Yamanaka manuscripts related to later Egyptian versions.” and Nishio (p. 225) [20] Eva Sallis Scheherazade Through the Looking-Glass: The [2] Marzolphpa (2007), “Arabian Nights”, Encyclopaedia of Is- Metamorphosis of the Thousand and One Nights (Routledge, lam I, Leiden: Brill. 1999), p.2 and note 6

[3] There is scholarly confusion over the exact form and orig- [21] Irwin p.76 inal meaning of Scheherazade’s name, see the note in [22] Safa Khulusi, Studies in Comparative Literature and West- Scheherazade’s own Wiki article on this point ern Literary Schools, Chapter: Qisas Alf Laylah wa Laylah [4] John Payne, Alaeddin and the Enchanted Lamp and Other (One thousand and one Nights), pp. 15–85. Al-Rabita Press, Stories, (London 1901) gives details of Galland’s encounter Baghdad, 1957. with 'Hanna' in 1709 and of the discovery in the Biblio- [23] Safa Khulusi, The Inﬂuence of Ibn al-Muqaﬀa' on The Ara- thèque Nationale, Paris of two Arabic manuscripts con- bian Nights. Islamic Review, Dec 1960, p.29-31 taining Aladdin and two more of the added tales. Text of “Alaeddin and the enchanted lamp” [24] The Thousand and One Nights; Or, The Arabian Night’s En- tertainments – David Claypoole Johnston – Google Books. [5] The Arabian Nights, translated by Malcolm C. Lyons and Books.google.com.pk. Retrieved on 2013-09-23. Ursula Lyons (Penguin Classics, 2008), Volume 1, page 1 [25] Irwin p.51 [6] The Third Voyage of Sindbad the Seaman – The Arabian Nights – The Thousand and One Nights – Sir Richard Burton [26] Irwin p.50 translator. Classiclit.about.com (2013-07-19). Retrieved on 2013-09-23. [27] Reynolds p.270

[7] Irwin p.48 [28] Beaumont, Daniel. Literary Style and Narrative Technique in the Arabian Nights. P.1. In The Arabian nights encyclo- [8] Reynolds p.271 pedia, Volume 1

[9] Burton, Richard F. (2002). Vikram and the Vampire Or [29] Irwin, Robert. 2004. The Arabian nights: a companion. Tales of Hindu Devilry pg xi. Adamant Media Corporation P.55

[10] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, [30] Sallis, Eva. 1999. Sheherazade through the looking glass: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, p. 65, ISBN 1-86064-983-1 the metamorphosis of the Thousand and One Nights. P.18- [11] Artola. Pancatantra Manuscripts from South India in the 43 Adyar Library Bulletin. 1957. pp. 45ﬀ. [31] Pinault, David. Story-telling techniques in the Arabian [12] K. Raksamani. The Nandakaprakarana attributed to Vasub- nights. P.1-12. Also in Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, haga, a Comparative Study. University of Toronto Thesis. v.1 1978. pp. 221ﬀ. [32] Sallis, Eva. 1999. Sheherazade through the looking glass: [13] E. Lorgeou. Les entretiensde Nang Tantrai. Paris. 1924. the metamorphosis of the Thousand and One Nights. P.4 and passim [14] C. Hooykaas. Bibliotheca Javaneca No. 2. Bandoeng. 1931. [33] Marzolph, Ulrich and Richard van Leeuwen. 2004. The Arabian nights encyclopedia, Volume 1. P.506-508 [15] A. K. Warder. Indian Kāvya Literature: The art of storytelling, Volume VI. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. 1992. [34] Madeleine Dobie, 2009. Translation in the contact zone: pp. 61–62, 76–82. Antoine Galland’s Mille et une nuits: contes arabes. P.37. In Makdisi, Saree and Felicity Nussbaum: “The Arabian [16] Pinault p.1 Nights in Historical Context: Between East and West”

[17] Pinault p.4 [35] Irwin, Robert. 2004. The Arabian nights: a companion. P.1-9 [18] Irwin p.49 [36] PEN American Center. Pen.org. Retrieved on 2013-09-23. [19] Irwin p.51: “It seems probable from all the above [...] that the Persian Hazār Afsaneh was translated into Arabic in the [37] Dwight Reynolds. “The Thousand and One Nights: A His- eighth or early 9th century and was given the title Alf Khu- tory of the Text and its Reception.” The Cambridge History rafa before being subsequently retitled Alf Layla. However, of Arabic Literature: Arabic Literature in the Post-Classical it remains far from clear what the connection is between this Period. Cambridge UP, 2006. 58 CHAPTER 6. ONE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS

[38] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, [55] Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Wassouf Tauris Parke Palang-faacks, ISBN 1-86064-983-1 (2004), The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, pp. 97–8, ISBN 1-57607-204-5 [39] “The Oriental Tale in England in the Eighteenth Century”, by Martha Pike Conant, Ph.D. Columbia University Press [56] Pinault, David (1992), Story-telling Techniques in the Ara- (1908) bian Nights, Brill Publishers, p. 59, ISBN 90-04-09530-6

[40] Irwin pp.49–50 [57] Marzolph, Ulrich (2006), The Arabian Nights Reader, [41] Ulrich Marzolph, The Arabian nights in transnational per- Wayne State University Press, pp. 240–2, ISBN 0-8143- spective, 2007, ISBN 978-0-8143-3287-0, p. 230. 3259-5

[42] Heath, Peter (May 1994), “Reviewed work(s): Story- [58] Pinault, David (1992), Story-Telling Techniques in the Ara- Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights by David bian Nights, Brill Publishers, pp. 93, 95, 97, ISBN 90-04- Pinault”, International Journal of Middle East Studies 09530-6 (Cambridge University Press) 26 (2): 358–360 [359–60], doi:10.1017/s0020743800060633 [59] Pinault, David (1992), Story-Telling Techniques in the Ara- bian Nights, Brill Publishers, pp. 91 & 93, ISBN 90-04- [43] Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Wassouf 09530-6 (2004), The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, pp. 3–4, ISBN 1-57607-204-5 [60] Marzolph, Ulrich (2006), The Arabian Nights Reader, Wayne State University Press, p. 240, ISBN 0-8143-3259-5 [44] Burton, Richard (September 2003), The Book of the Thou- sand Nights and a Night, Volume 1, Project Gutenberg [61] Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Wassouf (2004), The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, pp. [45] Heath, Peter (May 1994), “Reviewed work(s): Story- 2–4, ISBN 1-57607-204-5 Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights by David Pinault”, International Journal of Middle East Studies [62] Yuriko Yamanaka, Tetsuo Nishio (2006), The Arabian (Cambridge University Press) 26 (2): 358–360 [360], Nights and Orientalism: Perspectives from East & West, I.B. doi:10.1017/s0020743800060633 Tauris, p. 83, ISBN 1-85043-768-8 [46] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, [63] Al-Hakawati. "The Story of Gherib and his Brother Agib". Tauris Parke Palang-faacks, p. 200, ISBN 1-86064-983-1 Thousand Nights and One Night. Retrieved October 2, 2008. [47] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, Tauris Parke Palang-faacks, p. 198, ISBN 1-86064-983-1 [64] Hamori, Andras (1971), “An Allegory from the Arabian Nights: The City of Brass”, Bulletin of the School of Orien- [48] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, tal and African Studies (Cambridge University Press) 34 (1): Tauris Parke Palang-faacks, pp. 199–200, ISBN 1-86064- 9–19 [10], doi:10.1017/S0041977X00141540 The hero of 983-1 the tale is an historical person, Musa bin Nusayr.

[49] Heath, Peter (May 1994), “Reviewed work(s): Story- [65] Daniel Harms, John Wisdom Gonce, John Wisdom Gonce, Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights by David III (2003), The Necronomicon Files: The Truth Behind Love- Pinault”, International Journal of Middle East Studies craft’s Legend, Weiser, pp. 87–90, ISBN 978-1-57863-269- (Cambridge University Press) 26 (2): 358–360 [359], 5 doi:10.1017/s0020743800060633 [66] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, [50] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, Tauris Parke Palang-faacks, p. 209, ISBN 1-86064-983-1 Tauris Parke Palang-faacks, pp. 193–4, ISBN 1-86064-983- 1 [67] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, Tauris Parke Palang-faacks, p. 204, ISBN 1-86064-983-1 [51] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, Tauris Parke Palang-faacks, p. 199, ISBN 1-86064-983-1 [68] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, [52] Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Wassouf Tauris Parke Palang-faacks, p. 190, ISBN 1-86064-983-1 (2004), The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, p. [69] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, 109, ISBN 1-57607-204-5 Tauris Parke Palang-faacks, pp. 211–2, ISBN 1-86064-983- [53] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, 1 Tauris Parke Palang-faacks, p. 93, ISBN 1-86064-983-1 [70] Hamori, Andras (1971), “An Allegory from the Arabian [54] Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Wassouf Nights: The City of Brass”, Bulletin of the School of Ori- (2004), The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, p. ental and African Studies (Cambridge University Press) 34 4, ISBN 1-57607-204-5 (1): 9–19 [9], doi:10.1017/S0041977X00141540 6.8. SOURCES 59

[71] Pinault, David (1992), Story-Telling Techniques in the Ara- [93] Irwin pp.245–260 bian Nights, Brill Publishers, pp. 148–9 & 217–9, ISBN 90-04-09530-6 [94] A. S. Byatt On Histories and Stories (Harvard University Press, 2001) p.167 [72] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, Tauris Parke Palang-faacks, p. 213, ISBN 1-86064-983-1 [95] Wordsworth in Book Five of The Prelude; Tennyson in his poem “Recollections of the Arabian Nights". (Irwin, [73] Hamori, Andras (1971), “An Allegory from the Arabian pp.266–69) Nights: The City of Brass”, Bulletin of the School of Ori- ental and African Studies (Cambridge University Press) 34 [96] Irwin p.270 (1): 9–19 [12–3], doi:10.1017/S0041977X00141540 [97] Byatt p.168 [74] Pinault, David (1992), Story-Telling Techniques in the Ara- bian Nights, Brill Publishers, pp. 10–1, ISBN 90-04-09530- [98] Irwin, pp.291–292 6 [99] Lundell, Michael (2013), “Pasolini’s Splendid Inﬁdelities: [75] Geraldine McCaughrean, Rosamund Fowler (1999), One Un/Faithful Film Versions of The Thousand and One Thousand and One Arabian Nights, Oxford University Press, Nights", Adaptation (Oxford University Press) 6 (1): 120– pp. 247–51, ISBN 0-19-275013-5 127, doi:10.1093/adaptation/aps022

[76] Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Wassouf [100] Maltin, Leonard (1987). Of Mice and Magic: A History of (2004), The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, pp. American Animated Cartoons. New American Library. pp. 172–4, ISBN 1-57607-204-5 341–342. ISBN 0-452-25993-2.

[77] Academic Literature, Islam and Science Fiction [101] One Thousand and One Arabian Nights Review (1969). Thespinningimage.co.uk. Retrieved on 2013-09-23. [78] Burton Nights. Mythfolklore.net (2005-01-01). Retrieved on 2013-09-23. [102] 1001 Nights heads to Discovery Kids Asia. Kidscreen (2013-06-13). Retrieved on 2013-09-23. [79] Tale of Nur Al-Din Ali and His Son Badr Al-Din Hasan – The Arabian Nights – The Thousand and One Nights – Sir [103] See Encyclopaedia Iranica (NB: Some of the dates provided Richard Burton translator. Classiclit.about.com (2013-07- there are wrong) 19). Retrieved on 2013-09-23. [104] Archived May 11, 2012 at the Wayback Machine [80] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, Tauris Parke Palang-faacks, p. 290, ISBN 1-86064-983-1 [105] Irwin, Robert (March 12, 2011). “The Arabian Nights: a thousand and one illustrations”. The Guardian. [81] James Thurber, “The Wizard of Chitenango”, p 64 Fanta- sists on Fantasy edited by Robert H. Boyer and Kenneth J. Zahorski, ISBN 0-380-86553-X. 6.8 Sources [82] Blue, J.; (2006) Categories for Naming Planetary Features. Retrieved November 16, 2006. • Robert Irwin The Arabian Nights: A Companion (Tau- [83] Reynolds p.272 ris Parke, 2005)

[84] Irwin pp.81–82 • David Pinault Story-Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights (Brill Publishers, 1992) [85] “Encyclopaedia Iranica”. Iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2013-10-18. • Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Was- souf,The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia (2004) [86] Irwin pp.92–94 • [87] Irwin pp.96–99 Ulrich Marzolph (ed.) The Arabian Nights Reader (Wayne State University Press, 2006) [88] Irwin pp.61–62 • Dwight Reynolds, "A Thousand and One Nights: a his- [89] Irwin p.14 tory of the text and its reception” in The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature Vol 6. (CUP 2006) [90] Reynolds pp.279–81 • [91] Irwin pp.238–241 Eva Sallis Scheherazade Through the Looking-Glass: The Metamorphosis of the Thousand and One Nights [92] Irwin p.242 (Routledge, 1999), 60 CHAPTER 6. ONE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS

• Yamanaka, Yuriko and Nishio, Tetsuo (ed.) The Ara- bian Nights and Orientalism – Perspectives from East and West (I.B.Tauris, 2006) ISBN 1-85043-768-8

• Ch. Pellat, “Alf Layla Wa Layla” in Encyclopædia Iranica. Online Access June 2011 at

6.9 Further reading

• In Arabian Nights: A search of Morocco through its stories and storytellers by Tahir Shah, Doubleday, 2008. • The Islamic Context of The Thousand and One Nights by Muhsin J. al-Musawi, Columbia University Press, 2009.

• Nurse, Paul McMichael. Eastern Dreams: How the Arabian Nights Came to the World Viking Canada: 2010. General popular history of the 1001 Nights from its earliest days to the present.

6.10 External links

• The Thousand Nights and a Night in several classic translations, including the Sir Richard Francis Burton unexpurgated translation and John Payne translation, with additional material.

• The Arabian Nights Entertainments, Selected and Edited by Andrew Lang, Longmans, Green and Co, 1918 (1898). • 1001 Arabian Nights – streaming audio version of The Book of the Thousand Nights and One Night as published privately in 1923 by The Casanova Society, London.

• Read all the 1001 Nights fairy tales • The Arabian Nights public domain audiobook at LibriVox Chapter 7

Hamlet

This article is about the play by William Shakespeare. For adaptation by others.”[1] The play likely was one of Shake- other uses, see Hamlet (disambiguation). speare’s most popular works during his lifetime,[2] and still The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, often short- ranks among his most performed, topping the performance list of the Royal Shakespeare Company and its predecessors in Stratford-upon-Avon since 1879.[3] It has inspired many other writers – from Goethe and Dickens to Joyce and Murdoch – and has been described as “the world’s most filmed story after Cinderella".[4] The story of Shakespeare’s Hamlet was derived from the legend of Amleth, preserved by 13th-century chronicler Saxo Grammaticus in his Gesta Danorum, as subsequently retold by 16th-century scholar François de Belleforest. Shakespeare may also have drawn on an earlier (hypotheti- cal) Elizabethan play known today as the Ur-Hamlet, though some scholars believe he himself wrote the Ur-Hamlet, later revising it to create the version of Hamlet we now have. He almost certainly wrote his version of the title role for his fellow actor, Richard Burbage, the leading tragedian of Shake- speare’s time.[5] In the almost 400 years since its inception, the role has been performed by numerous highly acclaimed actors in each successive century. Three different early versions of the play are extant: the First Quarto (Q1, 1603); the Second Quarto (Q2, 1604); and the First Folio (F1, 1623). Each version includes lines and entire scenes missing from the others. The play’s structure and depth of characterisation have inspired much critical scrutiny. One such example is the centuries-old debate about Hamlet’s hesitation to kill his uncle, which some The American actor Edwin Booth as Hamlet, ca. 1870 see as merely a plot device to prolong the action, but which others argue is a dramatisation of the complex philosophi- ened to Hamlet (/ˈhæmlɨt/), is a tragedy written by William cal and ethical issues that surround cold-blooded murder, Shakespeare at an uncertain date between 1599 and 1602. calculated revenge, and thwarted desire. More recently, Set in the Kingdom of Denmark, the play dramatises the psychoanalytic critics have examined Hamlet’s unconscious revenge Prince Hamlet is called upon to wreak upon his desires, while feminist critics have re-evaluated and at- uncle, Claudius by the ghost of Hamlet’s father, King Ham- tempted to rehabilitate the often maligned characters of let. Claudius had murdered his own brother and seized the Ophelia and Gertrude. throne, also marrying his deceased brother’s widow. Hamlet is Shakespeare’s longest play, and is among the most powerful and influential tragedies in English literature, with a story capable of “seemingly endless retelling and

61 62 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET

7.1 Characters long-standing feud with neighboring Norway, which culminated when King Hamlet slew King Fortinbras of Norway • Hamlet – Son of the late King and nephew of the in a battle years ago. Although Denmark defeated Norway, present king and the Norwegian throne fell to King Fortinbras’s inﬁrm brother, Denmark fears that an invasion led by the dead • Claudius – King of Denmark and Hamlet’s uncle Norwegian king’s son, Prince Fortinbras, is imminent.

• Gertrude – Queen of Denmark and mother to Hamlet The play opens on a cold night on the ramparts of Elsinore, the Danish royal castle. The sentries Bernardo and Marcel- • Polonius – Chief counsellor to the king lus and Hamlet’s friend Horatio encounter a ghost that looks like the late King Hamlet. They vow to tell Prince Hamlet • Ophelia – Daughter to Polonius what they have witnessed. • Horatio – Friend to Hamlet As the Court gathers the next day, while King Claudius and Queen Gertrude discuss aﬀairs of state with their el- • Laertes – Son to Polonius derly adviser Polonius, Hamlet looks on glumly. After the Court exits, Hamlet despairs of his father’s death and his • Voltimand and Cornelius – Courtiers mother’s hasty remarriage. Learning of the Ghost from Ho- • Rosencrantz and Guildenstern – Courtiers, friends to ratio, Hamlet resolves to see it himself. Hamlet

• Osric – a Courtier

• Marcellus – an Oﬃcer

• Bernardo – an Oﬃcer

• Francisco – a Soldier

• Reynaldo – Servant to Polonius

• Ghost of Hamlet’s Father

• Fortinbras – Prince of Norway

• Gravediggers – a Sexton

• Player King, Player Queen, Lucianus etc. – Players Horatio, Hamlet, and the Ghost (Artist: Henry Fuseli, 1789)[6] • A Priest

• A Captain in Fortinbras’ army As Polonius’s son Laertes prepares to depart for a visit to France, Polonius gives him contradictory advice that cul- • English Ambassadors minates in the ironic maxim “to thine own self be true.” Polonius’s daughter, Ophelia, admits her interest in Ham- • Messengers, Sailors, Lords, Ladies, Guards, Danes let, but both Polonius and Laertes warn her against seeking (supporters of Laertes) the prince’s attention. That night on the rampart, the Ghost appears to Hamlet, telling the prince that he was murdered by Claudius and demanding that Hamlet avenge him. Ham- 7.2 Plot let agrees and the Ghost vanishes. The prince conﬁdes to Horatio and the sentries that from now on he plans to “put For cast overview, see Characters in Hamlet. on an antic disposition” and forces them to swear to keep his plans for revenge secret. Privately, however, he remains The protagonist of Hamlet is Prince Hamlet of Denmark, uncertain of the Ghost’s reliability. son of the recently deceased King Hamlet, and nephew of Soon thereafter, Ophelia rushes to her father, telling him King Claudius, his father’s brother and successor. Claudius that Hamlet arrived at her door the prior night half- hastily married King Hamlet’s widow, Gertrude, Hamlet’s undressed and behaving crazily. Polonius blames love for mother, and took the throne for himself. Denmark has a Hamlet’s madness and resolves to inform Claudius and 7.2. PLOT 63

Gertrude. As he enters to do so, the king and queen finish welcoming Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, two student acquaintances of Hamlet, to Elsinore. The royal couple has requested that the students investigate the cause of Hamlet’s mood and behavior. Additional news requires that Polonius wait to be heard: messengers from Norway inform Claudius that the King of Norway has rebuked Prince Fortinbras for attempting to re-fight his father’s battles. The forces that Fortinbras conscripted to march against Denmark will instead be sent against Poland, though they will pass through a portion of Denmark to get there. Polonius tells Claudius and Gertrude his theory regarding Hamlet’s behavior, and speaks to Hamlet in a hall of the castle to try to uncover more information. Hamlet feigns madness but subtly insults Polonius all the while. When Rosen- Hamlet mistakenly stabs Polonius (Artist: Coke Smyth, 19th century). crantz and Guildenstern arrive, Hamlet greets his friends warmly, but quickly discerns that they are spies. Hamlet becomes bitter, admitting that he is upset at his situation but refusing to give the true reason why, instead comment- Polonius, but pulls aside the curtain and sees his mistake. In ing on "what a piece of work" humanity is. Rosencrantz a rage, Hamlet brutally insults his mother for her apparent and Guildenstern tell Hamlet that they have brought along ignorance of Claudius’s villainy, but the Ghost enters and a troupe of actors that they met while traveling to Elsi- reprimands Hamlet for his inaction and harsh words. Un- nore. Hamlet, after welcoming the actors and dismissing able to see or hear the Ghost herself, Gertrude takes Ham- his friends-turned-spies, plots to stage a play featuring a let’s conversation with it as further evidence of madness. death in the style of his father’s murder, thereby determin- After begging the queen to stop sleeping with Claudius, ing the truth of the Ghost’s story, as well as Claudius’s guilt Hamlet leaves, dragging Polonius’s corpse away. Hamlet or innocence, by studying Claudius’s reaction. jokes with Claudius about where he has hidden Polonius’s Polonius forces Ophelia to return Hamlet’s love letters and body, and the king, fearing for his life, sends Rosencrantz tokens of affection to the prince while he and Claudius and Guildenstern to accompany Hamlet to England with a watch from afar to evaluate Hamlet’s reaction. Hamlet is sealed letter to the English king requesting that Hamlet be walking alone in the hall as the King and Polonius await executed immediately. Ophelia’s entrance, musing whether "to be or not to be.” Demented by grief at Polonius’s death, Ophelia wanders When Ophelia enters and tries to return Hamlet’s things, Elsinore. Laertes arrives back from France, enraged by his Hamlet accuses her of immodesty and cries “get thee to a father’s death and his sister’s madness. Claudius convinces nunnery,” though it is unclear whether this, too, is a show Laertes that Hamlet is solely responsible, but a letter soon of madness or genuine distress. His reaction convinces arrives indicating that Hamlet has returned to Denmark, Claudius that Hamlet is not mad for love. Shortly thereafter, foiling Claudius’s plan. Claudius switches tactics, propos- the court assembles to watch the play Hamlet has commis- ing a fencing match between Laertes and Hamlet to settle sioned. After seeing the Player King murdered by his ri- their differences. Laertes will be given a poison-tipped foil, val pouring poison in his ear, Claudius abruptly rises and and Claudius will offer Hamlet poisoned wine as a congrat- runs from the room: proof positive for Hamlet of his un- ulation if that fails. Gertrude interrupts to report that Ophe- cle’s guilt. lia has drowned, though it is unclear whether it was suicide Gertrude summons Hamlet to her room to demand an ex- or an accident exacerbated by her madness. planation. Meanwhile, Claudius talks to himself about the Horatio has received a letter from Hamlet, explaining that impossibility of repenting, since he still has possession of the prince escaped by negotiating with pirates who at- his ill-gotten goods: his brother’s crown and wife. He sinks tempted to attack his England-bound ship, and the friends to his knees. Hamlet, on his way to visit his mother, sneaks reunite offstage. Two gravediggers discuss Ophelia’s ap- up behind him, but does not kill him, reasoning that killing parent suicide while digging her grave. Hamlet arrives with Claudius while he is praying will send him straight to heaven Horatio and banters with one of the gravediggers, who un- while the Ghost is stuck in purgatory. In the queen’s bed- earths the skull of a jester from Hamlet’s childhood, Yorick. chamber, Hamlet and Gertrude fight bitterly. Polonius, spy- Hamlet picks up the skull, saying “alas, poor Yorick” as ing on the conversation from behind a tapestry, makes a he contemplates mortality. Ophelia’s funeral procession noise. Hamlet, believing it is Claudius, stabs wildly, killing approaches, led by Laertes. Hamlet and Horatio initially 64 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET

rest is silence.” Fortinbras, who was ostensibly marching towards Poland with his army, arrives at the palace, along with an English ambassador bringing news of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern’s deaths. Horatio promises to recount the full story of what happened, and Fortinbras, seeing the entire Danish royal family dead, takes the crown for himself.

7.3 Sources

Main article: Sources of Hamlet Hamlet-like legends are so widely found (for example

The “gravedigger scene”[7] (Artist: Eugène Delacroix, 1839)

hide, but when Hamlet realizes that Ophelia is the one being buried, he reveals himself, proclaiming his love for her. Laertes and Hamlet fight by Ophelia’s graveside, but the brawl is broken up. Back at Elsinore, Hamlet explains to Horatio that he had discovered Claudius’s letter with Rosencrantz and Guilden- stern’s belongings and replaced it with a forged copy indicating that his former friends should be killed instead. A foppish courtier, Osric, interrupts the conversation to deliver the fencing challenge to Hamlet. Hamlet, despite Ho- A facsimile of Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus, which con- ratio’s advice, accepts it. Hamlet does well at first, lead- tains the legend of Amleth ing the match by two hits to none, and Gertrude raises a toast to him using the poisoned glass of wine Claudius had in Italy, Spain, Scandinavia, Byzantium, and Arabia) that set aside for Hamlet. Claudius tries to stop her, but is too the core “hero-as-fool” theme is possibly Indo-European late: she drinks, and Laertes realizes the plot will be re- in origin.[8] Several ancient written precursors to Hamlet vealed. Laertes slashes Hamlet with his poisoned blade. can be identified. The first is the anonymous Scandinavian In the ensuing scuffle, they switch weapons and Hamlet Saga of Hrolf Kraki. In this, the murdered king has two wounds Laertes with his own poisoned sword. Gertrude sons—Hroar and Helgi—who spend most of the story in collapses and, claiming she has been poisoned, dies. In his disguise, under false names, rather than feigning madness, dying moments, Laertes reconciles with Hamlet and reveals in a sequence of events that differs from Shakespeare’s.[9] Claudius’s plan. Hamlet rushes at Claudius and kills him. The second is the Roman legend of Brutus, recorded in two As the poison takes effect, Hamlet, hearing that Fortinbras separate Latin works. Its hero, Lucius (“shining, light”), is marching through the area, names the Norwegian prince changes his name and persona to Brutus (“dull, stupid”), as his successor. Horatio, distraught at the thought of be- playing the role of a fool to avoid the fate of his father ing the last survivor, says he will commit suicide by drinking and brothers, and eventually slaying his family’s killer, King the dregs of Gertrude’s poisoned wine, but Hamlet begs him Tarquinius. A 17th-century Nordic scholar, Torfaeus, com- to live on and tell his story. Hamlet dies, proclaiming “the pared the Icelandic hero Amlodi and the Spanish hero 7.3. SOURCES 65

Prince Ambales (from the Ambales Saga) to Shakespeare’s pany, the Chamberlain’s Men, may have purchased that play Hamlet. Similarities include the prince’s feigned madness, and performed a version for some time, which Shakespeare his accidental killing of the king’s counsellor in his mother’s reworked.[17] Since no copy of the Ur-Hamlet has survived, bedroom, and the eventual slaying of his uncle.[10] however, it is impossible to compare its language and style Many of the earlier legendary elements are interwoven in with the known works of any of its putative authors. Con- the 13th-century Vita Amlethi (“The Life of Amleth”)[11] sequently, there is no direct evidence that Kyd wrote it, by Saxo Grammaticus, part of Gesta Danorum.[12] Written nor any evidence that the play was not an early version of in Latin, it reflects classical Roman concepts of virtue and Hamlet by Shakespeare himself. This latter idea—placing Hamlet far earlier than the generally accepted date, with a heroism, and was widely available in Shakespeare’s day.[13] Significant parallels include the prince feigning madness, much longer period of development—has attracted some support.[18] his mother’s hasty marriage to the usurper, the prince killing a hidden spy, and the prince substituting the execution The upshot is that scholars cannot assert with any confi- of two retainers for his own. A reasonably faithful ver- dence how much material Shakespeare took from the Ur- sion of Saxo’s story was translated into French in 1570 by Hamlet (if it even existed), how much from Belleforest François de Belleforest, in his Histoires tragiques.[14] Belle- or Saxo, and how much from other contemporary sources forest embellished Saxo’s text substantially, almost doubling (such as Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy). No clear evidence exits length, and introduced the hero’s melancholy.[15] ists that Shakespeare made any direct references to Saxo’s version. However, elements of Belleforest’s version which are not in Saxo’s story do appear in Shakespeare’s play. Whether Shakespeare took these from Belleforest directly or through the Ur-Hamlet remains unclear.[19] Most scholars reject the idea that Hamlet is in any way connected with Shakespeare’s only son, Hamnet Shakespeare, who died in 1596 at age eleven. Conventional wisdom holds that Hamlet is too obviously connected to legend, and the name Hamnet was quite popular at the time.[20] However, Stephen Greenblatt has argued that the coincidence of the names and Shakespeare’s grief for the loss of his son may lie at the heart of the tragedy. He notes that the name of Hamnet Sadler, the Stratford neighbour after whom Ham- net was named, was often written as Hamlet Sadler and that, in the loose orthography of the time, the names were virtually interchangeable.[21] Sadler’s first name is spelled “Ham- lett” in Shakespeare’s will.[22] Scholars have often speculated that Hamlet ' s Polonius might have been inspired by William Cecil (Lord Burghley)—Lord High Treasurer and chief counsellor to Queen Elizabeth I. E. K. Chambers suggested Polonius’s advice to Laertes may have echoed Burghley’s to his son Robert Cecil. John Dover Wilson thought it almost certain that the figure of Polonius caricatured Burghley. A. L. Rowse speculated that Polonius’s tedious verbosity might have resembled Burghley’s.[23] Lilian Winstanley thought the name Corambis (in the First Quarto) did suggest Ce- cil and Burghley.[24] Harold Jenkins considers the idea that Polonius might be a caricature of Burghley is a con- Title page of The Spanish Tragedy, by Thomas Kyd. jecture, and may be based on the similar role they each played at court, and also on the fact that Burghley addressed According to one theory, Shakespeare’s main source is an his Ten Precepts to his son, as in the play Polonius of- earlier play—now lost—known today as the Ur-Hamlet. fers “precepts” to Laertes, his son.[25] Jenkins suggests that Possibly written by Thomas Kyd or even William Shake- any personal satire may be found in the name “Polonius”, speare, the Ur-Hamlet would have existed by 1589, and which might point to a Polish or Polonian connection.[26] would have incorporated a ghost.[16] Shakespeare’s com- G. R. Hibbard hypothesised that differences in names 66 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET

(Corambis/Polonius:Montano/Raynoldo) between the First London forced the Globe company into provincial touring. Quarto and other editions might reflect a desire not to of- This became known as the War of the Theatres, and sup- fend scholars at Oxford University.[27] ports a 1601 dating.[30] Katherine Duncan-Jones accepts a 1600–1 attribution for the date Hamlet was written, but notes that the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, playing Hamlet in 7.4 Date the 3000-capacity Globe, were unlikely to be put to any dis- advantage by an audience of “barely one hundred” for the Children of the Chapel’s equivalent play, Antonio’s Revenge; she believes that Shakespeare, confident in the superiority of his own work, was making a playful and charitable allusion to his friend John Marston’s very similar piece.[32] A contemporary of Shakespeare’s, Gabriel Harvey, wrote a marginal note in his copy of the 1598 edition of Chaucer’s works, which some scholars use as dating evidence. Har- vey’s note says that “the wiser sort” enjoy Hamlet, and implies that the Earl of Essex—executed in February 1601 for rebellion—was still alive. Other scholars consider this inconclusive. Edwards, for example, concludes that the “sense of time is so confused in Harvey’s note that it is really of little use in trying to date Hamlet". This is because the same note also refers to Spenser and Watson as if they were still alive (“our flourishing metricians"), but also mentions "Owen’s new epigrams”, published in 1607.[33]

7.5 Texts

Three early editions of the text have survived, making attempts to establish a single “authentic” text problematic.[34] Each is diﬀerent from the others:[35]

• First Quarto (Q1): In 1603 the booksellers Nicholas John Barrymore as Hamlet (1922) Ling and John Trundell published, and Valentine Simmes printed, the so-called "bad" first quarto. Q1 contains just over half of the text of the later second “Any dating of Hamlet must be tentative”, cautions the New quarto. Cambridge editor, Phillip Edwards.[28] The earliest date estimate relies on Hamlet ' s frequent allusions to Shake- • Second Quarto (Q2): In 1604 Nicholas Ling pub- speare’s Julius Caesar, itself dated to mid-1599.[29] The lished, and James Roberts printed, the second quarto. latest date estimate is based on an entry, of 26 July 1602, Some copies are dated 1605, which may indicate a in the Register of the Stationers’ Company, indicating that second impression; consequently, Q2 is often dated Hamlet was “latelie Acted by the Lo: Chamberleyne his ser- “1604/5”. Q2 is the longest early edition, although vantes". it omits about 77 lines found in F1[36] (most likely In 1598, Francis Meres published his Palladis Tamia, a to avoid offending James I’s queen, Anne of Den- [37] survey of English literature from Chaucer to its present mark). day, within which twelve of Shakespeare’s plays are named. • First Folio (F1): In 1623 Edward Blount and William Hamlet is not among them, suggesting that it had not yet and Isaac Jaggard published the First Folio, the first been written. As Hamlet was very popular, Bernard Lott, edition of Shakespeare’s Complete Works.[38] the series editor of New Swan, believes it “unlikely that he [Meres] would have overlooked ... so significant a [30] Other folios and quartos were subsequently published— piece”. including John Smethwick's Q3, Q4, and Q5 (1611–37)— The phrase “little eyases”[31] in the First Folio (F1) may but these are regarded as derivatives of the first three allude to the Children of the Chapel, whose popularity in editions.[38] 7.5. TEXTS 67

have combined them in an effort to create one “inclusive” text that reflects an imagined “ideal” of Shakespeare’s original. Theobald’s version became standard for a long time,[39] and his “full text” approach continues to influence editorial practice to the present day. Some contemporary scholarship, however, discounts this approach, instead considering “an authentic Hamlet an unrealisable ideal. ... there are texts of this play but no text".[40] The 2006 publication by Arden Shakespeare of different Hamlet texts in different volumes is perhaps evidence of this shifting focus and emphasis.[41] Traditionally, editors of Shakespeare’s plays have divided them into five acts. None of the early texts of Hamlet, however, were arranged this way, and the play’s division into acts and scenes derives from a 1676 quarto. Mod- ern editors generally follow this traditional division, but consider it unsatisfactory; for example, after Hamlet drags Polonius’s body out of Gertrude’s bedchamber, there is an act-break[42] after which the action appears to continue uninterrupted.[43]

Title page of the 1605 printing (Q2) of Hamlet

Comparison of the 'To be, or not to be' soliloquy in the ﬁrst three editions of Hamlet, showing the varying quality of the text in the Bad Quarto, the Good Quarto and the First Folio

The discovery in 1823 of Q1—whose existence had been quite unsuspected—caused considerable interest and excitement, raising many questions of editorial practice and interpretation. Scholars immediately identified apparent deficiencies in Q1, which was instrumental in the development of the concept of a Shakespearean "bad quarto".[44] Yet Q1 has value: it contains stage directions that reveal The first page of the First Folio printing of Hamlet, 1623 actual stage practices in a way that Q2 and F1 do not; it contains an entire scene (usually labelled 4.6)[45] that does not appear in either Q2 or F1; and it is useful for comparison Early editors of Shakespeare’s works, beginning with with the later editions. The scene order is more coherent, Nicholas Rowe (1709) and Lewis Theobald (1733), com- without the problems of Q2 and F1 of Hamlet seeming to bined material from the two earliest sources of Hamlet resolve something in one scene and enter the next drowning available at the time, Q2 and F1. Each text contains main indecision. The major deficiency of Q1 is in the lan- terial that the other lacks, with many minor differences in guage: particularly noticeable in the opening lines of the wording: scarcely 200 lines are identical in the two. Editors famous "To be, or not to be" soliloquy: “To be, or not to 68 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET

be, aye there’s the point. / To die, to sleep, is that all? Aye were usually expected to follow the advice of Aristotle in his all: / No, to sleep, to dream, aye marry there it goes.” Poetics: that a drama should focus on action, not character. Q1 is considerably shorter than Q2 or F1 and may be a In Hamlet, Shakespeare reverses this so that it is through the memorial reconstruction of the play as Shakespeare’s com- soliloquies, not the action, that the audience learns Ham- pany performed it, by an actor who played a minor role let’s motives and thoughts. The play is full of seeming dis- [46] continuities and irregularities of action, except in the “bad” (most likely Marcellus). Scholars disagree whether the [7] reconstruction was pirated or authorised. Another theory, quarto. At one point, as in the Gravedigger scene, Ham- considered by New Cambridge editor Kathleen Irace, holds let seems resolved to kill Claudius: in the next scene, however, when Claudius appears, he is suddenly tame. Schol- that Q1 is an abridged version intended especially for trav- elling productions.[47] The idea that Q1 is not riddled with ars still debate whether these twists are mistakes or inten- tional additions to add to the play’s themes of confusion and error but is instead eminently fit for the stage has led to at [56] least 28 different Q1 productions since 1881.[48] duality. Finally, in a period when most plays ran for two hours or so, the full text of Hamlet—Shakespeare’s longest play, with 4,042 lines, totalling 29,551 words—often takes over four hours to deliver.[57] Even today the play is rarely 7.6 Analysis and criticism performed in its entirety, and has only once been dramatised on film completely, in Kenneth Branagh's 1996 ver- Main article: Critical approaches to Hamlet sion. Hamlet also contains a favourite Shakespearean device, a play within the play, a literary device or conceit in which one story is told during the action of another story.[58] 7.6.1 Critical history 7.6.3 Language From the early 17th century, the play was famous for its ghost and vivid dramatisation of melancholy and insanity, leading to a procession of mad courtiers and ladies in Jacobean and Caroline drama.[49] Though it remained popular with mass audiences, late 17th-century Restoration critics saw Hamlet as primitive and disapproved of its lack of unity and decorum.[50] This view changed drasti- cally in the 18th century, when critics regarded Hamlet as a hero—a pure, brilliant young man thrust into unfortu- nate circumstances.[51] By the mid-18th century, however, the advent of Gothic literature brought psychological and mystical readings, returning madness and the Ghost to the forefront.[52] Not until the late 18th century did critics and performers begin to view Hamlet as confusing and inconsis- tent. Before then, he was either mad, or not; either a hero, or not; with no in-betweens.[53] These developments represented a fundamental change in literary criticism, which came to focus more on character and less on plot.[54] By the 19th century, Romantic critics valued Hamlet for its internal, individual conflict reflecting the strong contemporary emphasis on internal struggles and inner character in general.[55] Then too, critics started to focus on Hamlet’s delay as a character trait, rather than a plot device.[54] This focus on character and internal struggle continued into the 20th century, when criticism branched in several directions, discussed in context and interpretation below. Hamlet’s statement that his dark clothes are the outer sign of his inner grief demonstrates strong rhetorical skill. (Artist: Eugène 7.6.2 Dramatic structure Delacroix 1834).

Hamlet departed from contemporary dramatic convention Compared with language in a modern newspaper, magazine in several ways. For example, in Shakespeare’s day, plays or popular novel, Shakespeare’s language can strike con- 7.7. CONTEXT AND INTERPRETATION 69

temporary readers as complex, elaborate and at times diffi- She gives the example of Hamlet’s advice to Ophelia, “get cult to understand. Remarkably, it still works well enough thee to a nunnery”, which is simultaneously a reference to in the theatre: audiences at the reconstruction of 'Shake- a place of chastity and a slang term for a brothel, reflecting speare’s Globe' in London, many of whom have never been Hamlet’s confused feelings about female sexuality.[70] to the theatre before, let alone to a play by Shakespeare, seem to have little difficulty grasping the play’s action.[59] Much of Hamlet's language is courtly: elaborate, witty discourse, as recommended by Baldassare Castiglione's 1528 7.7 Context and interpretation etiquette guide, The Courtier. This work specifically ad- vises royal retainers to amuse their masters with inventive 7.7.1 Religious language. Osric and Polonius, especially, seem to respect this injunction. Claudius’s speech is rich with rhetorical figures—as is Hamlet’s and, at times, Ophelia’s—while the language of Horatio, the guards, and the gravediggers is simpler. Claudius’s high status is reinforced by using the royal first person plural (“we” or “us”), and anaphora mixed with metaphor to resonate with Greek political speeches.[60] Hamlet is the most skilled of all at rhetoric. He uses highly developed metaphors, stichomythia, and in nine memorable words deploys both anaphora and asyndeton: “to die: to sleep— / To sleep, perchance to dream”.[61] In contrast, when occasion demands, he is precise and straightforward, as when he explains his inward emotion to his mother: “But I have that within which passes show, / These but the trap- pings and the suits of woe”.[62] At times, he relies heavily on puns to express his true thoughts while simultaneously Ophelia depicts Lady Ophelia’s mysterious death by drowning. In concealing them.[63] His “nunnery” remarks[64] to Ophelia the play, it is discussed by the gravediggers whether Ophelia’s death was a suicide and whether or not she merits a Christian burial. are an example of a cruel double meaning as nunnery was (Artist: John Everett Millais 1852). Elizabethan slang for brothel.[65][66] His very first words in the play are a pun; when Claudius addresses him as “my Written at a time of religious upheaval, and in the wake cousin Hamlet, and my son”, Hamlet says as an aside: “A of the English Reformation, the play is alternately Catholic little more than kin, and less than kind.”[67] An aside is a (or piously medieval) and Protestant (or consciously mod- dramatic device in which a character speaks to the audi- ern). The Ghost describes himself as being in purgatory, ence. By convention the audience realises that the charac- and as dying without last rites. This and Ophelia’s burial ter’s speech is unheard by the other characters on stage. It ceremony, which is characteristically Catholic, make up may be addressed to the audience expressly (in character or most of the play’s Catholic connections. Some scholars out) or represent an unspoken thought. have observed that revenge tragedies come from tradition- An unusual rhetorical device, hendiadys, appears in sev- ally Catholic countries, such as Spain and Italy; and they eral places in the play. Examples are found in Ophelia’s present a contradiction, since according to Catholic doc- speech at the end of the nunnery scene: “Th'expectancy trine the strongest duty is to God and family. Hamlet’s and rose of the fair state"; “And I, of ladies most deject conundrum, then, is whether to avenge his father and kill and wretched".[68] Many scholars have found it odd that Claudius, or to leave the vengeance to God, as his religion Shakespeare would, seemingly arbitrarily, use this rhetor- requires.[71] ical form throughout the play. One explanation may be that Much of the play’s Protestantism derives from its location Hamlet was written later in Shakespeare’s life, when he was in Denmark—both then and now a predominantly Protes- adept at matching rhetorical devices to characters and the tant country, though it is unclear whether the fictional Den- plot. Linguist George T. Wright suggests that hendiadys had mark of the play is intended to mirror this fact. The been used deliberately to heighten the play’s sense of dual- play does mention Wittenberg, where Hamlet, Horatio, and ity and dislocation.[69] Pauline Kiernan argues that Shake- Rosencrantz and Guildenstern attend university, and where speare changed English drama forever in Hamlet because Martin Luther first proposed his 95 theses in 1517, effec- he “showed how a character’s language can often be say- tively ushering in the Protestant Reformation.[72] In Shake- ing several things at once, and contradictory meanings at speare’s day Denmark, like the majority of Scandinavia, that, to reflect fragmented thoughts and disturbed feelings.” was Lutheran.[73] 70 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET

7.7.2 Philosophical view was subsequently challenged in Michel de Montaigne's Essais of 1580. Hamlet’s "What a piece of work is a man" could supposedly echo many of Montaigne’s ideas, and many scholars have disagreed whether Shakespeare drew directly from Montaigne or whether both men were simply reacting similarly to the spirit of the times.[78] Nevertheless, if the sentence is analysed in the textual context[79] it is easy to understand how Hamlet was being sarcastic: “Man delights not me”, he concludes. Amaral[80] argues that this is the result of melancholy. This condition was a main subject of philosophy in this epoch. After a period of confidence in reason’s ability to unveil reality (Renaissance), 'Mannerism' started questioning its power. Hamlet shows traces of this. In this sense, Ham- let is not feigning madness, but he is indeed trapped between the world everybody expects him to see (the lies told by Claudius and accepted by all, i.e. social decorum) and the world revealed to him by knowledge (the reality of the murdering, as testified by his father’s ghost). This condition of being trapped between two different ways of seeing reality was also pictured by Shakespeare’s contemporary Cervantes, in Don Quixote. This profound meditation was examined by the philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer in The World as Will and Representation. Schopenhauer uses Hamlet to clarify his main argument. He argues that the world as we see it is a conjunction of representations. These representations are formed by the projection of our will towards the world. We can only see objects of our desires. In this sense he argues that only art could show us that reality is such a construct. Exactly as Hamlet did: “If the whole world as representation is only the visibility of the will, then Philosophical ideas in Hamlet are similar to those of the French art is the elucidation of this visibility, the camera obscura writer Michel de Montaigne, a contemporary of Shakespeare’s. which shows the objects more purely, and enables us to sur- (Artist: Thomas de Leu, fl. 1560–1612). vey and comprehend them better. It is the play within the play, the stage on the stage in Hamlet.” [81] Hamlet is often perceived as a philosophical character, expounding ideas that are now described as relativist, In his openness to embrace the ghost’s message, Hamlet as- existentialist, and sceptical. For example, he expresses a suages Horatio’s wonderment with the analytical assertion, subjectivistic idea when he says to Rosencrantz: “there is “There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so”.[74] are dreamt of in your philosophy.” The idea that nothing is real except in the mind of the individual finds its roots in the Greek Sophists, who argued that since nothing can be perceived except through the 7.7.3 Psychoanalytic senses—and since all individuals sense, and therefore per- ceive things differently—there is no absolute truth, only rel- In the first half of the 20th century, when psychoanalysis ative truth.[75] The clearest alleged instance of existential- [76] was at the height of its influence, its concepts were ap- ism is in the "to be, or not to be" speech, where Hamlet is plied to Hamlet, notably by Sigmund Freud, Ernest Jones, thought by some to use “being” to allude to life and action, and Jacques Lacan, and these studies influenced theatrical and “not being” to death and inaction. productions. In his The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), Hamlet reflects the contemporary scepticism promoted by Freud’s analysis starts from the premise that “the play is the French Renaissance humanist, Montaigne.[77] Prior to built up on Hamlet’s hesitations over fulfilling the task of Montaigne’s time, humanists such as Pico della Mirandola revenge that is assigned to him; but its text offers no reasons had argued that man was God’s greatest creation, made in or motives for these hesitations”.[82] After reviewing vari- God’s image and able to choose his own nature, but this ous literary theories, Freud concludes that Hamlet has an 7.7. CONTEXT AND INTERPRETATION 71

Influenced by Jones’s psychoanalytic approach, several productions have portrayed the “closet scene”,[90] where Ham- let confronts his mother in her private quarters, in a sexual light. In this reading, Hamlet is disgusted by his mother’s “incestuous” relationship with Claudius while simultaneously fearful of killing him, as this would clear Hamlet’s path to his mother’s bed. Ophelia’s madness after her father’s death may also be read through the Freudian lens: as a reaction to the death of her hoped-for lover, her father. She is overwhelmed by having her unfulfilled love for him so abruptly terminated and drifts into the oblivion of insanity.[91] In 1937, Tyrone Guthrie directed Laurence Olivier in a Jones-inspired Hamlet at The Old Vic.[92] Olivier later used some of these same ideas in his 1948 film version of the play. In the 1950s, Lacan’s structuralist theories about Hamlet were first presented in a series of seminars given in Paris and later published in “Desire and the Interpretation of De- sire in Hamlet". Lacan postulated that the human psyche is determined by structures of language and that the linguistic structures of Hamlet shed light on human desire.[83] His point of departure is Freud’s Oedipal theories, and the central theme of mourning that runs through Hamlet.[83] In Lacan’s analysis, Hamlet unconsciously assumes the role of phallus—the cause of his inaction—and is increasingly dis- tanced from reality “by mourning, fantasy, narcissism and psychosis", which create holes (or lack) in the real, imag- [83] Freud suggested that an unconscious oedipal conflict caused Ham- inary, and symbolic aspects of his psyche. Lacan’s the- let’s hesitations. (Artist: Eugène Delacroix 1844). ories influenced literary criticism of Hamlet because of his alternative vision of the play and his use of semantics to explore the play’s psychological landscape.[83] "Oedipal desire for his mother and the subsequent guilt [is] In the Bloom’s Shakespeare Through the Ages volume on preventing him from murdering the man [Claudius] who Hamlet, editors Bloom and Foster express a conviction that has done what he unconsciously wanted to do”.[83] Con- the intentions of Shakespeare in portraying the character of fronted with his repressed desires, Hamlet realises that “he Hamlet in the play exceeded the capacity of the Freudian himself is literally no better than the sinner whom he is to Oedipus complex to completely encompass the extent of punish”.[82] Freud suggests that Hamlet’s apparent “distaste characteristics depicted in Hamlet throughout the tragedy: for sexuality”—articulated in his “nunnery” conversation “For once, Freud regressed in attempting to fasten the Oedi- with Ophelia—accords with this interpretation.[84][85] This pus Complex upon Hamlet: it will not stick, and merely “distaste for sexuality” has sparked theories of Hamlet be- showed that Freud did better than T.S. Eliot, who preferred ing what is now referred to as a homosexual or asexual.[86] Coriolanus to Hamlet, or so he said. Who can believe Eliot, John Barrymore's long-running 1922 performance in New when he exposes his own Hamlet Complex by declaring York, directed by Thomas Hopkins, “broke new ground in the play to be an aesthetic failure?"[93] The book also notes its Freudian approach to character”, in keeping with the James Joyce’s interpretation, stating that he “did far bet- post-World War I rebellion against everything Victorian.[87] ter in the Library Scene of Ulysses, where Stephen mar- He had a “blunter intention” than presenting the genteel, velously credits Shakespeare, in this play, with universal fa- sweet prince of 19th-century tradition, imbuing his charac- therhood while accurately implying that Hamlet is father- ter with virility and lust.[88] less, thus opening a pragmatic gap between Shakespeare and Hamlet.”[93] Beginning in 1910, with the publication of “The Oedipus- Complex as An Explanation of Hamlet’s Mystery: Study Joshua Rothman has written in The New Yorker that, “we in Motive,”[89] Ernest Jones—a psychoanalyst and Freud’s tell the story wrong when we say that Freud used the idea biographer—developed Freud’s ideas into a series of essays of the Oedipus complex to understand Hamlet.” Rothman that culminated in his book Hamlet and Oedipus (1949). suggests that, “In fact, it was the other way around: Hamlet 72 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET helped Freud understand, and perhaps even invent, psycho- wife, or widow, with whores outside of that stereotype. In analysis.” He concludes, “The Oedipus complex is a mis- this analysis, the essence of Hamlet is the central character’s nomer. It should be called the 'Hamlet complex'.”[94] changed perception of his mother as a whore because of her In the essay “Hamlet Made Simple”, David P. Gontar turns failure to remain faithful to Old Hamlet. In consequence, the tables on the psychoanalysts by suggesting that Claudius Hamlet loses his faith in all women, treating Ophelia as if is not a symbolic father figure but actually Prince Hamlet’s she too were a whore and dishonest with Hamlet. Ophelia, biological father. The hesitation in killing Claudius results by some critics, can be seen as honest and fair; however, it is from an unwillingness on Hamlet’s part to slay his real fa- virtually impossible to link these two traits, since 'fairness’ is an outward trait, while 'honesty' is an inward trait.[98] ther. If Hamlet is the biological son of Claudius, that explains many things. Hamlet doesn't become King of Den- mark on the occasion of the King’s death inasmuch as it is an open secret in court that he is Claudius’s biological son, and as such he is merely a court bastard not in the line of succession. He is angry with his mother because of her long standing affair with a man Hamlet hates, and Ham- let must face the fact that he has been sired by the man he loathes. That point overturns T. S. Eliot’s complaint that the play is a failure for not furnishing an “objective correlative” to account for Hamlet’s rage at his mother. Gontar suggests that if the reader assumes that Hamlet is not who he seems to be, the objective correlative becomes apparent. Hamlet is suicidal in the first soliloquy not because his mother quickly remarries but because of her adulterous affair with the despised Claudius which makes Hamlet his son. Finally, the Ghost’s confirmation of an alternative fa- therhood for Hamlet is a fabrication that gives the Prince a motive for revenge.[95] Hamlet tries to show his mother Gertrude his father’s ghost (artist: Nicolai A. Abildgaard ca. 1778).

7.7.4 Feminist Carolyn Heilbrun's 1957 essay “The Character of Ham- let’s Mother” defends Gertrude, arguing that the text never hints that Gertrude knew of Claudius poisoning King Ham- let. This analysis has been praised by many feminist critics, combating what is, by Heilbrun’s argument, centuries’ worth of misinterpretation. By this account, Gertrude’s worst crime is of pragmatically marrying her brother-in-law in order to avoid a power vacuum. This is borne out by the fact that King Hamlet’s ghost tells Hamlet to leave Gertrude out of Hamlet’s revenge, to leave her to heaven, an arbitrary mercy to grant to a conspirator to murder.[99][100] This view has not been without objection from some critics.[101] Ophelia has also been defended by feminist critics, most notably Elaine Showalter.[102] Ophelia is surrounded by powerful men: her father, brother, and Hamlet. All three dis- Ophelia is distracted by grief.[96] Feminist critics have explored her appear: Laertes leaves, Hamlet abandons her, and Polonius descent into madness. (Artist: Henrietta Rae 1890). dies. Conventional theories had argued that without these three powerful men making decisions for her, Ophelia is In the 20th century, feminist critics opened up new ap- driven into madness.[103] Feminist theorists argue that she proaches to Gertrude and Ophelia. New Historicist and goes mad with guilt because, when Hamlet kills her father, cultural materialist critics examined the play in its histori- he has fulﬁlled her sexual desire to have Hamlet kill her cal context, attempting to piece together its original cultural father so they can be together. Showalter points out that environment.[97] They focused on the gender system of early Ophelia has become the symbol of the distraught and hys- modern England, pointing to the common trinity of maid, terical woman in modern culture.[104] 7.9. PERFORMANCE HISTORY 73

7.8 Influence short story is told from the point of view of the actor playing the Ghost. See also Literary influence of Hamlet In the 1920s, James Joyce managed “a more upbeat version” of Hamlet—stripped of obsession and revenge—in Ulysses, Hamlet is one of the most quoted works in the English lan- though its main parallels are with Homer's Odyssey.[107] In guage, and is often included on lists of the world’s great- the 1990s, two women novelists were explicitly influenced est literature.[105] As such, it reverberates through the writ- by Hamlet. In Angela Carter's Wise Children, To be or ing of later centuries. Academic Laurie Osborne identifies not to be[111] is reworked as a song and dance routine, and the direct influence of Hamlet in numerous modern narra- Iris Murdoch's The Black Prince has Oedipal themes and tives, and divides them into four main categories: fictional murder intertwined with a love affair between a Hamlet- accounts of the play’s composition, simplifications of the obsessed writer, Bradley Pearson, and the daughter of his story for young readers, stories expanding the role of one rival.[109] or more characters, and narratives featuring performances of the play.[106] There is the story of the woman who read Hamlet for the first time and said, “I don't see why people admire that play so. It is nothing but a bunch of quotations strung together.” —Isaac Asimov, Asimov’s Guide to Shake- speare, pg vii, Avenal Books, 1970

7.9 Performance history

The day we see Hamlet die in the theatre, something of him Actors before Hamlet by Władysław Czachórski (1875), National dies for us. He is dethroned by the spectre of an actor, and Museum in Warsaw. we shall never be able to keep the usurper out of our dreams. [112] Henry Fielding's Tom Jones, published about 1749, de- Maurice Maeterlinck (1890). scribes a visit to Hamlet by Tom Jones and Mr Partridge, with similarities to the “play within a play”.[107] In contrast, Main articles: Hamlet in performance and Shakespeare in Goethe’s Bildungsroman Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship, performance written between 1776 and 1796, not only has a production of Hamlet at its core but also creates parallels between the Ghost and Wilhelm Meister’s dead father.[107] In the early 1850s, in Pierre, Herman Melville focuses on a Hamlet- 7.9.1 Shakespeare’s day to the Interregnum like character’s long development as a writer.[107] Ten years later, Dickens’s Great Expectations contains many Hamlet- Shakespeare almost certainly wrote the role of Hamlet for like plot elements: it is driven by revenge-motivated ac- Richard Burbage. He was the chief tragedian of the Lord tions, contains ghost-like characters (Abel Magwitch and Chamberlain’s Men, with a capacious memory for lines Miss Havisham), and focuses on the hero’s guilt.[107] Aca- and a wide emotional range.[5] Judging by the number of demic Alexander Welsh notes that Great Expectations is reprints, Hamlet appears to have been Shakespeare’s fourth an “autobiographical novel” and “anticipates psychoana- most popular play during his lifetime—only Henry IV Part lytic readings of Hamlet itself”.[108] About the same time, 1, Richard III and Pericles eclipsed it.[2] Shakespeare pro- George Eliot's The Mill on the Floss was published, intro- vides no clear indication of when his play is set; however, ducing Maggie Tulliver “who is explicitly compared with as Elizabethan actors performed at the Globe in contempo- Hamlet”[109] though “with a reputation for sanity”.[110] rary dress on minimal sets, this would not have affected the [113] L. Frank Baum's first published short story was “They staging. Played a New Hamlet” (1895). When Baum had been tour- Firm evidence for specific early performances of the play ing New York State in the title role, the actor playing the is scant. What is known is that the crew of the ship ghost fell through the floorboards, and the rural audience Red Dragon, anchored off Sierra Leone, performed Ham- thought it was part of the show and demanded that the ac- let in September 1607;[114] that the play toured in Ger- tor repeat the fall, because they thought it was funny. Baum many within five years of Shakespeare’s death;[115] and that would later recount the actual story in an article, but the it was performed before James I in 1619 and Charles I 74 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET

in 1637.[116] Oxford editor George Hibbard argues that, ing match”.[124] The ﬁrst actor known to have played Ham- since the contemporary literature contains many allusions let in North America is Lewis Hallam. Jr., in the American and references to Hamlet (only Falstaﬀ is mentioned more, Company's production in Philadelphia in 1759.[125] from Shakespeare), the play was surely performed with a frequency that the historical record misses.[117] All theatres were closed down by the Puritan government during the Interregnum.[118] Even during this time, however, playlets known as drolls were often performed ille- gally, including one called The Grave-Makers based on Act 5, Scene 1 of Hamlet.[119]

7.9.2 Restoration and 18th century

David Garrick's iconic hand gesture expresses Hamlet’s shock at the ﬁrst sight of the Ghost. (Artist: unknown).

John Philip Kemble made his Drury Lane debut as Ham- let in 1783.[126] His performance was said to be 20 minutes longer than anyone else’s, and his lengthy pauses provoked the suggestion that “music should be played between the words”.[127] Sarah Siddons was the first actress Title page and frontispiece for Hamlet, Prince of Denmark: A known to play Hamlet; many women have since played [128] Tragedy. As it is now acted at the Theatres-Royal in Drury-Lane him as a breeches role, to great acclaim. In 1748, and Covent-Garden. London, 1776 Alexander Sumarokov wrote a Russian adaptation that focused on Prince Hamlet as the embodiment of an oppo- The play was revived early in the Restoration. When the sition to Claudius’s tyranny—a treatment that would re- existing stock of pre-civil war plays was divided between cur in Eastern European versions into the 20th century.[129] the two newly created patent theatre companies, Hamlet In the years following America’s independence, Thomas was the only Shakespearean favourite that Sir William Dav- Apthorpe Cooper, the young nation’s leading tragedian, enant’s Duke’s Company secured.[120] It became the first performed Hamlet among other plays at the Chestnut Street of Shakespeare’s plays to be presented with movable flats Theatre in Philadelphia, and at the Park Theatre in New painted with generic scenery behind the proscenium arch of York. Although chided for “acknowledging acquaintances Lincoln’s Inn Fields Theatre.[121] This new stage convention in the audience” and “inadequate memorisation of his highlighted the frequency with which Shakespeare shifts lines”, he became a national celebrity.[130] dramatic location, encouraging the recurrent criticisms of his violation of the neoclassical principle of maintaining a unity of place.[122] Davenant cast Thomas Betterton in the 7.9.3 19th century eponymous role, and he continued to play the Dane until he was 74.[123] David Garrick at Drury Lane produced a ver- From around 1810 to 1840, the best-known Shakespearean sion that adapted Shakespeare heavily; he declared: “I had performances in the United States were tours by leading sworn I would not leave the stage till I had rescued that no- London actors—including George Frederick Cooke, Junius ble play from all the rubbish of the fifth act. I have brought Brutus Booth, Edmund Kean, William Charles Macready, it forth without the grave-digger’s trick, Osrick, & the fenc- and Charles Kemble. Of these, Booth remained to make his 7.9. PERFORMANCE HISTORY 75

the regal ﬁnery usually associated with the role in favour of a plain costume, and he is said to have surprised his audience by playing Hamlet as serious and introspective.[136] In stark contrast to earlier opulence, William Poel's 1881 production of the Q1 text was an early attempt at reconstructing the Elizabethan theatre’s austerity; his only backdrop was a set of red curtains.[137] Sarah Bernhardt played the prince in her popular 1899 London production. In contrast to the “eﬀeminate” view of the central character that usually accompanied a female casting, she described her character as “manly and resolute, but nonetheless thoughtful ... [he] thinks before he acts, a trait indicative of great strength and great spiritual power”.[138] In France, Charles Kemble initiated an enthusiasm for Shakespeare; and leading members of the Romantic movement such as Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas saw his 1827 Paris performance of Hamlet, particularly admiring the madness of Harriet Smithson's Ophelia.[139] In Ger- many, Hamlet had become so assimilated by the mid-19th century that Ferdinand Freiligrath declared that “Germany is Hamlet”.[140] From the 1850s, the Parsi theatre tradition in India transformed Hamlet into folk performances, with dozens of songs added.[141]

7.9.4 20th century

A poster, ca. 1884, for an American production of Hamlet (starring Thomas W. Keene), showing several of the key scenes

career in the States, fathering the nation’s most notorious actor, John Wilkes Booth (who later assassinated Abraham Lincoln), and its most famous Hamlet, Edwin Booth.[131] Edwin Booth’s Hamlet was described as “like the dark, mad, dreamy, mysterious hero of a poem ... [acted] in an ideal manner, as far removed as possible from the plane of actual life”.[132] Booth played Hamlet for 100 nights in the 1864/5 season at The Winter Garden Theatre, inaugurating the era of long-run Shakespeare in America.[133]

In the United Kingdom, the actor-managers of the Victorian In 1908, Edward Gordon Craig designed the MAT production era (including Kean, Samuel Phelps, Macready, and Henry of Hamlet (1911–12). The isolated figure of Hamlet reclines in Irving) staged Shakespeare in a grand manner, with elab- the dark foreground, while behind a gauze the rest of the court orate scenery and costumes.[134] The tendency of actor- are absorbed in a bright, unified golden pyramid emanating from managers to emphasise the importance of their own cen- Claudius. Craig’s famous screens are flat against the back in this tral character did not always meet with the critics’ ap- scene. proval. George Bernard Shaw's praise for Johnston Forbes- Apart from some western troupes’ 19th-century visits, the Robertson's performance contains a sideswipe at Irving: first professional performance of Hamlet in Japan was “The story of the play was perfectly intelligible, and quite Otojirō Kawakami's 1903 Shimpa (“new school theatre”) took the attention of the audience off the principal actor at [142] [135] adaptation. Shoyo Tsubouchi translated Hamlet and moments. What is the Lyceum coming to?" produced a performance in 1911 that blended Shingeki In London, Edmund Kean was the first Hamlet to abandon (“new drama”) and Kabuki styles.[142] This hybrid-genre 76 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET

reached its peak in Fukuda Tsuneari's 1955 Hamlet.[142] In 1998, Yukio Ninagawa produced an acclaimed version of Hamlet in the style of Nō theatre, which he took to London.[143] Constantin Stanislavski and Edward Gordon Craig—two of the 20th century’s most influential theatre practition- ers—collaborated on the Moscow Art Theatre's seminal production of 1911–12.[144] While Craig favoured stylised abstraction, Stanislavski, armed with his 'system,' explored psychological motivation.[145] Craig conceived of the play as a symbolist monodrama, offering a dream-like vision as seen through Hamlet’s eyes alone.[146] This was most evident in the staging of the first court scene.[147] The most famous aspect of the production is Craig’s use of large, abstract screens that altered the size and shape of the acting area for each scene, representing the character’s state of mind spatially or visualising a dramaturgical progression.[148] The production attracted enthusiastic and unprecedented world-wide attention for the theatre and placed it “on the cultural map for Western Europe”.[149] Hamlet is often played with contemporary political overtones. Leopold Jessner's 1926 production at the Berlin Staatstheater portrayed Claudius’s court as a parody of the corrupt and fawning court of Kaiser Wilhelm.[150] In Poland, the number of productions of Hamlet has tended to increase at times of political unrest, since its political themes (suspected crimes, coups, surveillance) can be used to comment on a contemporary situation.[151] Similarly, Czech directors have used the play at times of occupation: a 1941 Vinohrady Theatre production “emphasised, with Mignon Nevada as Ophelia, 1910 due caution, the helpless situation of an intellectual attempting to endure in a ruthless environment”.[152] In China, performances of Hamlet often have political significance: Gu treated Maurice Evans less kindly”, throughout the 1930s Wuwei’s 1916 The Usurper of State Power, an amalgam of and 1940s he was regarded by many as the leading inter- Hamlet and Macbeth, was an attack on Yuan Shikai's at- preter of Shakespeare in the United States and in the 1938/9 tempt to overthrow the republic.[153] In 1942, Jiao Juyin di- season he presented Broadway’s first uncut Hamlet, running rected the play in a Confucian temple in Sichuan Province, four and a half hours.[156] Evans later performed a highly to which the government had retreated from the advancing truncated version of the play that he played for South Pa- Japanese.[153] In the immediate aftermath of the collapse cific war zones during World War II which made the prince of the protests at Tiananmen Square, Lin Zhaohua staged a a more decisive character. The staging, known as the “G.I. 1990 Hamlet in which the prince was an ordinary individual Hamlet,” was produced on Broadway for 131 performances tortured by a loss of meaning. In this production, the actors in 1945/46.[157] Olivier’s 1937 performance at The Old Vic playing Hamlet, Claudius and Polonius exchanged roles at was popular with audiences but not with critics, with James crucial moments in the performance, including the moment Agate writing in a famous review in The Sunday Times, “Mr. of Claudius’s death, at which point the actor mainly associ- Olivier does not speak poetry badly. He does not speak it at ated with Hamlet fell to the ground.[153] all.”.[158] In 1937 Tyrone Guthrie directed the play at Elsi- Notable stagings in London and New York include Bar- nore, Denmark with Laurence Olivier as Hamlet and Vivien rymore’s 1925 production at the Haymarket; it influenced Leigh as Ophelia. subsequent performances by John Gielgud and Laurence In 1963, Olivier directed Peter O'Toole as Hamlet in the Olivier.[154] Gielgud played the central role many times: inaugural performance of the newly formed National The- his 1936 New York production ran for 132 performances, atre; critics found resonance between O'Toole’s Hamlet and leading to the accolade that he was “the finest interpreter John Osborne's hero, Jimmy Porter, from Look Back in of the role since Barrymore”.[155] Although “posterity has Anger.[159] 7.9. PERFORMANCE HISTORY 77

Richard Burton received his third Tony Award nomination Hamlet performance.[167] when he played his second Hamlet, his first under John Gielgud’s direction, in 1964 in a production that holds the record for the longest run of the play in Broadway history 7.9.5 21st century (137 performances). The performance was set on a bare stage, conceived to appear like a dress rehearsal, with Bur- ton in a black v-neck sweater, and Gielgud himself tape- recorded the voice for the Ghost (which appeared as a loom- ing shadow). It was immortalised both on record and on a film that played in US theatres for a week in 1964 as well as being the subject of books written by cast members William Redfield and Richard L. Sterne. Other New York portray- als of Hamlet of note include that of Ralph Fiennes's in 1995 (for which he won the Tony Award for Best Actor) – which ran, from first preview to closing night, a total of one hundred performances. About the Fiennes Hamlet Vincent Canby wrote in The New York Times that it was "...not one for literary sleuths and Shakespeare scholars. It respects the play, but it doesn't provide any new material for ar- cane debates on what it all means. Instead it’s an intelligent, beautifully read...”[160] Stacy Keach played the role with an all-star cast at Joseph Papp's Delacorte Theatre in the early 70s, with Colleen Dewhurst's Gertrude, James Earl Jones's King, Barnard Hughes's Polonius, Sam Waterston's Laertes and Raúl Juliá's Osric. Sam Waterston later played the role himself at the Delacorte for the New York Shakespeare Festival, and the show transferred to the Vivian Beaumont Theatre in 1975 (Stephen Lang played Bernardo and other roles). Stephen Lang's Hamlet for the Roundabout The- [161][162] atre Company in 1992 received mixed reviews and Benedict Cumberbatch began playing Hamlet at the Barbican The- ran for sixty-one performances. David Warner played the atre starting in August 2015. role with the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 1965. William Hurt (at Circle Rep Off-Broadway, memorably performing Hamlet continues to be staged regularly, with actors such “To Be Or Not to Be” while lying on the floor), Jon Voight as Simon Russell Beale, Ben Whishaw, David Tennant, at Rutgers, and Christopher Walken (fiercely) at Stratford Angela Winkler, Samuel West, Christopher Eccleston, CT have all played the role, as has Diane Venora at the Maxine Peake, and Christian Camargo, performing the lead Public Theatre. Off Broadway, the Riverside Shakespeare role.[168][169][170][171] Company mounted an uncut first folio Hamlet in 1978 at In May 2009, Hamlet opened with Jude Law in the title role Columbia University, with a playing time of under three at the Donmar Warehouse West End season at Wyndham’s hours.[163] In fact, Hamlet is the most produced Shake- Theatre. The production officially opened on 3 June and ran speare play in New York theatre history, with sixty-four through 22 August 2009.[172][173] A further production of recorded productions on Broadway, and an untold number the play ran at Elsinore Castle in Denmark from 25–30 Au- Off Broadway.[164] gust 2009.[174] The Jude Law Hamlet then moved to Broad- Ian Charleson performed Hamlet from 9 October to 13 way, and ran for 12 weeks at the Broadhurst Theatre in New November 1989, in Richard Eyre's production at the Olivier York.[175][176] Theatre, replacing Daniel Day-Lewis, who had abandoned In 2013, American actor Paul Giamatti won critical acclaim the production. Seriously ill from AIDS at the time, for his performance on stage in the title role of Hamlet, per- Charleson died eight weeks after his last performance. Fel- formed in modern dress, at the Yale Repertory Theater, at low actor and friend, Sir Ian McKellen, said that Charleson Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut.[177] played Hamlet so well it was as if he had rehearsed the role all his life; McKellen called it “the perfect Hamlet”.[165][166] The Globe Theatre of London initiated a project in 2014 to The performance garnered other major accolades as well, perform Hamlet in every country in the world in the space some critics echoing McKellen in calling it the definitive of two years. Titled Globe to Globe Hamlet, it began its tour on 23 April 2014, the 450th anniversary of Shakespeare’s 78 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET birth. As of 18 December 2015, the project had performed leased on LP by Columbia Masterworks. in 153 different countries.[178] Benedict Cumberbatch began an exclusive 12-week run at the 1,156-seat Barbican Theatre on August 25, 2015. The play is produced by Sonia Friedman, and directed by Lynd- sey Turner, with set design by Es Devlin. It has been called the “Most In-Demand Theatre Production of All Time”, after selling out in seven hours when tickets went on sale to the public on August 11, 2014, more than a year before the play opened.[179][180][181]

7.9.6 Film and TV performances

Main article: Hamlet on screen

The earliest screen success for Hamlet was Sarah Bern- hardt's five-minute film of the fencing scene,[182] which was produced in 1900. The film was an early attempt at combining sound and film, music and words were recorded on phonograph records, to be played along with the film.[183] Silent versions were released in 1907, 1908, 1910, 1913, 1917, and 1920.[183] In the 1920 version, Asta Nielsen played the role of Hamlet as a woman who spends her life disguised as a man.[183] Laurence Olivier's 1948 moody black-and-white Hamlet won best picture and best actor Oscars, and is still, as of 2015, the only Shakespeare film to have done so. His interpretation stressed the Oedipal overtones of the play, and Sarah Bernhardt as Hamlet, with Yorick's skull (Photographer: cast 28-year-old Eileen Herlie as Hamlet’s mother, opposite James Lafayette, c. 1885–1900) himself, at 41, as Hamlet.[184] In 1953, actor Jack Manning performed the play in 15-minute segments over two weeks The first Hamlet in color was a 1969 film directed by Tony in the short-lived late night DuMont series Monodrama Richardson with Nicol Williamson as Hamlet and Marianne Theater. New York Times TV critic Jack Gould praised Faithfull as Ophelia. Manning’s performance as Hamlet.[185] In 1990 Franco Zeffirelli, whose Shakespeare films have Shakespeare experts Sir John Gielgud and Kenneth Branagh [189] [186] been described as “sensual rather than cerebral”, cast consider the definitive rendition of the Bard’s tragic tale Mel Gibson—then famous for the Mad Max and Lethal to be the 1964 Russian film Gamlet (Russian: Гам- Weapon movies—in the title role of his 1990 version; Glenn лет) based on a translation by Boris Pasternak and di- Close—then famous as the psychotic “other woman” in rected by Grigori Kozintsev, with a score by Dmitri [190] [187] Fatal Attraction—played Gertrude, and Paul Scofield Shostakovich. Innokenty Smoktunovsky was cast in the played Hamlet’s father.[191] In contrast to Zeffirelli, whose role of Hamlet; he was particularly praised by Sir Laurence Hamlet was heavily cut, Kenneth Branagh adapted, di- Olivier. rected, and starred in a 1996 version containing every word John Gielgud directed Richard Burton in a Broadway of Shakespeare’s play, combining the material from the production at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre in 1964–5, the F1 and Q2 texts. Branagh’s Hamlet runs for around four longest-running Hamlet in the U.S. to date. A live film hours.[192] Branagh set the film with late 19th-century cos- of the production was produced using “Electronovision”, a tuming and furnishings;[193] and Blenheim Palace, built in method of recording a live performance with multiple video the early 18th century, became Elsinore Castle in the ex- cameras and converting the image to film.[188] Eileen Herlie ternal scenes. The film is structured as an epic and makes repeated her role from Olivier’s film version as the Queen, frequent use of flashbacks to highlight elements not made and the voice of Gielgud was heard as the Ghost. The Giel- explicit in the play: Hamlet’s sexual relationship with Kate gud/Burton production was also recorded complete and re- Winslet's Ophelia, for example, or his childhood affection 7.11. SEE ALSO 79

for Yorick (played by Ken Dodd).[194] and Guildenstern Are Dead. Fortinbras operates on a far less ambitious plane, but it is a ripping yarn and offers Keith In 2000, Michael Almereyda's Hamlet set the story in con- [198] temporary Manhattan, with Ethan Hawke playing Hamlet Reddin a role in which he can commit comic mayhem.” as a film student. Claudius (played by Kyle MacLachlan) Heiner Müller's postmodern drama The Hamletmachine became the CEO of “Denmark Corporation”, having taken was first produced in Paris by director Jean Jourdheuil in over the company by killing his brother.[195] 1979. This play in turn inspired Giannina Braschi's dramatic novel United States of Banana, which takes place at Notable made-for-television productions of Hamlet include those starring Christopher Plummer (1964), Richard the Statue of Liberty in post-9/11 New York City. In it, Chamberlain (1970; Hallmark Hall of Fame), Derek Jacobi Hamlet, Zarathustra, and Giannina are on a quest to free (1980; Royal Shakespeare Company, BBC), Kevin Kline the Puerto Rican prisoner Segismundo from the dungeon (1990), Campbell Scott (2000) and David Tennant (2009; of Liberty, where Segismundo’s father, Basilio, the King of Royal Shakespeare Company, BBC).[196] the United States of Banana, imprisoned him for the crime of having been born. The work intertwines the plots and There have also been several films that transposed the gen- characters of Pedro Calderón de la Barca's Life Is a Dream eral storyline of Hamlet or elements thereof to other set- with Shakespeare’s Hamlet. tings. There have also been many films which included performances of scenes from Hamlet as a play-within-a-film. Caridad Svich's 12 Ophelias (a play with broken songs) in- See Hamlet on screen for further details. cludes elements of the story of Hamlet but focuses on Ophe- lia. In Svich’s play, Ophelia is resurrected and rises from a pool of water, after her death in Hamlet. The play is a series of scenes and songs, and was first staged at pub- 7.10 Stage pastiches lic swimming pool in Brooklyn.[199] Heidi Weiss of the Chicago Sun-Times said of the play, “Far more surreal and There have been various “derivative works” of Hamlet twisted than Tom Stoppard’s Rosencrantz and Guildenstern which recast the story from the point of view of other char- are Dead, 12 Ophelias is a reminder of just how mor- [200] acters, or transpose the story into a new setting or act as phable and mysterious Shakespeare’s original remains.” sequels or prequels to Hamlet. This section is limited to Other characters are renamed: Hamlet is Rude Boy, Rosen- those written for the stage. crantz and Guildenstern are androgynous helpers known simply as R and G, Gertrude is the madam of a brothel, The best-known is Tom Stoppard’s 1966 play Rosencrantz Horatio becomes H and continues to be Hamlet’s best and Guildenstern Are Dead, which retells many of the friend/confidante, and a chorus of Ophelias serves as guide. events of the story from the point of view of the charac- A new character, Mina, is introduced, and she is a whore in ters Rosencrantz and Guildenstern and gives them a back- Gertrude’s brothel. story of their own. The play was nominated for eight Tony Awards, and won four: Best Play, Scenic and Costume De- David Davalos' Wittenberg is a “tragical-comical-historical” sign, and Producer; the director and the three leading ac- prequel to Hamlet that depicts the Danish prince as a stu- tors were nominated but did not win. It also won Best Play dent at Wittenberg University (now known as the University from the New York Drama Critics Circle in 1968, and Out- of Halle-Wittenberg), where he is torn between the con- standing Production from the Outer Critics Circle in 1969. flicting teachings of his mentors John Faustus and Martin Several times since 1995, the American Shakespeare Cen- Luther. The New York Times reviewed the play, saying, ter has mounted repertories that included both Hamlet and “Mr. Davalos has molded a daft campus comedy out of [201] Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, with the same actors per- this unlikely convergence,” and nytheatre's review said forming the same roles in each; in their 2001 and 2009 sea- the playwright “has imagined a fascinating alternate reality, sons the two plays were “directed, designed, and rehearsed and quite possibly, given the fictional Hamlet a back story [202] together to make the most out of the shared scenes and that will inform the role for the future.” situations”.[197] W.S. Gilbert wrote a comic play titled Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, in which Guildenstern helps Rosencrantz vie with Hamlet to make Ophelia his bride. 7.11 See also Lee Blessing's Fortinbras is a comical sequel to Hamlet in which all the deceased characters come back as ghosts. The • Critical approaches to Hamlet New York Times reviewed the play, saying it is “scarcely more than an extended comedy sketch, lacking the portent and linguistic complexity of Tom Stoppard’s Rosencrantz • Ghost stories 80 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET

7.12 References [18] In his 1936 book The Problem of Hamlet: A Solution Andrew Cairncross asserted that the Hamlet referred to in 1589 was written by Shakespeare; Peter Alexander (1964), Eric Sams 7.12.1 Notes (according to Jackson 1991, 267) and, more recently, Harold Bloom (2001, xiii and 383; 2003, 154) have agreed. Harold All references to Hamlet, unless otherwise speciﬁed, are Jenkins, the editor of the second series Arden edition of the taken from the Arden Shakespeare Q2 (Thompson and Tay- play, considers that there are not grounds for thinking that lor, 2006a). Under their referencing system, 3.1.55 means the Ur-Hamlet is an early work by Shakespeare, which he act 3, scene 1, line 55. References to the First Quarto and then rewrote. (1982, 84 n4). First Folio are marked Hamlet Q1 and Hamlet F1, respec- [19] Saxo and Hansen (1983, 66–68). tively, and are taken from the Arden Shakespeare “Ham- let: the texts of 1603 and 1623” (Thompson and Taylor, [20] Saxo and Hansen (1983, 6). 2006b). Their referencing system for Q1 has no act breaks, so 7.115 means scene 7, line 115. [21] Greenblatt (2004a, 311); Greenblatt (2004b). [22] Shakespeare’s Last Will and Testament. [1] Thompson and Taylor (2006a, 74). [23] Chambers (1930) 418: J.D. Wilson (1932) 104: Rowse (1963) 323. [2] Taylor (2002, 18). [24] Lilian Winstanley, Hamlet and the Scottish Succession, Cam- [3] Crystal and Crystal (2005, 66). bridge University Press, 1921, 114.

[4] Thompson and Taylor (2006a, 17), who are quoting McK- [25] William Ceccil, Lord Burghley. “Ten Precepts”. Craik, ernan and Terris in an unpublished program note (1994). Henry. English Prose; Vol. I. Fourteenth to Sixteenth Cen- tury. New York: The Macmillan Company. (1916) [5] See Taylor (2002, 4); Banham (1998, 141); Hattaway asserts that “Richard Burbage ... played Hieronimo and also [26] H.Jenkins (ed.) Hamlet, Methuen, 1982, p. 35. Richard III but then was the first Hamlet, Lear, and Oth- ello” (1982, 91); Peter Thomson argues that the identity [27] Polonius was close to the Latin name for Robert Pullen, of Hamlet as Burbage is built into the dramaturgy of sev- founder of Oxford University, and Reynaldo too close for eral moments of the play: “we will profoundly misjudge the safety to John Rainolds, the President of Corpus Christi Col- position if we do not recognise that, whilst this is Hamlet lege. G. R. Hibbard (ed.) Hamlet, Oxford University Press, talking about the groundlings, it is also Burbage talking to 1987, pp.74–5. the groundlings” (1983, 24); see also Thomson on the first [28] MacCary suggests 1599 or 1600 (1998, 13); James Shapiro player’s beard (1983, 110). offers late 1600 or early 1601 (2005, 341); Wells and Tay- lor suggest that the play was written in 1600 and revised later [6] Hamlet 1.4. (1988, 653); the New Cambridge editor settles on mid-1601 (Edwards 1985, 8); the New Swan Shakespeare Advanced [7] The Gravedigger Scene: Hamlet 5.1.1–205. Series editor agrees with 1601 (Lott 1970, xlvi); Thomp- son and Taylor, tentatively (“according to whether one is [8] Saxo and Hansen (1983, 36–37). the more persuaded by Jenkins or by Honigmann”) suggest a terminus ad quem of either Spring 1601 or sometime in [9] Saxo and Hansen (1983, 16–25). 1600 (2001a, 58–59).

[10] Saxo and Hansen (1983, 5–15). [29] MacCary (1998, 12–13) and Edwards (1985, 5–6).

[11] Books 3 & 4 – see online text [30] Lott (1970, xlvi).

[12] Saxo and Hansen (1983, 1–5). [31] Hamlet F1 2.2.337. The whole conversation between Rozen- crantz, Guildenstern and Hamlet concerning the touring [13] Saxo and Hansen (1983, 25–37). players’ departure from the city is at Hamlet “F1” 2.2.324– 360. [14] Edwards (1985, 1–2). [32] Duncan-Jones, Catherine (2001). “Do the boys carry it away?". Ungentle Shakespeare: scenes from his life. London: [15] Saxo and Hansen (1983, 66–67). Arden Shakespeare. pp. 143–9. ISBN 1-903436-26-5.

[16] Jenkins (1982, 82–85). [33] Edwards (1985, 5).

[17] Saxo and Hansen (1983, 67). [34] Hattaway (1987, 13–20). 7.12. REFERENCES 81

[35] Chambers (1923, vol. 3, 486–487) and Halliday (1964, [62] Hamlet 1.2.85–86. 204–205). [63] MacCary (1998, 89–90). [36] Thompson and Taylor (2006a, 465). [64] Hamlet 3.1.87–148 especially lines 120, 129, 136, 139 and [37] Halliday (1964, 204). 148.

[38] Thompson and Taylor (2006a, 78). [65] This is widely interpreted as having a double meaning, since 'nunnery' was slang for a brothel. Pauline Kiernan, Filthy [39] Hibbard (1987, 22–23). Shakespeare, Quercus, 2006, p. 34. This interpretation has been challenged by Jenkins (1982, 493–495; also H. D. F. [40] Hattaway (1987, 16). Kitto) on the grounds of insuﬃcient and inconclusive evi- [41] Thompson and Taylor published Q2, with appendices, in dence of a precedent for this meaning; Jenkins states that their ﬁrst volume (2006a) and the F1 and Q1 texts in their the literal meaning is better suited to the dramatic context. second volume (2006b). Bate and Rasmussen (2007) is the [66] Oxford English Dictionary (2004, CD). F1 text with additional Q2 passages in an appendix. The New Cambridge series has begun to publish separate vol- [67] Hamlet 2.1.63–65. umes for the separate quarto versions that exist of Shake- speare’s plays (Irace 1998). [68] Hamlet 3.1.151 and 3.1.154. The Nunnery Scene: Hamlet 3.1.87–160. [42] Hamlet 3.4 and 4.1. [69] MacCary (1998, 87–88). [43] Thompson and Taylor (2006a, 543–552). [70] Pauline Kiernan, Filthy Shakespeare: Shakespeare’s Most [44] Jenkins (1982, 14). Outrageous Sexual Puns, Quercus, 2006, p.34

[45] Hamlet Q1 14. [71] MacCary (1998, 37–38); in the New Testament, see Romans 12:19: " 'vengeance is mine, I will repay' sayeth the Lord”. [46] Jackson (1986, 171). [72] MacCary (1998, 38). [47] Irace (1998); Thompson and Taylor (2006a, 85–86). [73] Asimov, Asimov’s Guide to Shakespeare(1970, 92) [48] Thompson and Taylor (2006b, 36–37) and Checklist of Q1 Productions in Thompson and Taylor (2006b, 38–39). [74] Hamlet F1 2.2.247–248.

[49] Woﬀord (1994) and Kirsch (1968). [75] MacCary (1998, 47–48).

[50] Vickers (1974a, 447) and (1974b, 92). [76] Hamlet 3.1.55–87 especially line 55.

[51] Wofford (1994, 184–185). [77] MacCary (1998, 49). [78] Knowles (1999, 1049 and 1052–1053) cited by Thompson [52] Vickers (1974c, 5). and Taylor (2006a, 73–74); MacCary (1998, 49). [53] Wofford (1994, 185). [79] Hamlet Act II, scene 2 “and indeed, it goes so heavily with [54] Wofford (1994, 186). my disposition; that this goodly frame the earth, seems to me a sterile promontory; this most excellent canopy the air, look [55] Rosenberg (1992, 179). you, this brave o'er hanging firmament, this majestical roof, fretted with golden fire: why, it appeareth no other thing to [56] MacCary (1998, 67–72, 84). me, than a foul and pestilent congregation of vapours. What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason, how infinite [57] Based on the length of the first edition of The Riverside in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! Shakespeare (1974). In action how like an Angel! in apprehension how like a god! [58] Also used in Love’s Labour’s Lost and A Midsummer Night’s The beauty of the world! The paragon of animals! And yet Dream. Kermode (2000, 256). to me, what is this quintessence of dust? Man delights not me; no, nor woman neither, though by your smiling you seem [59] Adamson, Sylvia; Hunter, Lynette; Magnusson, Lynne; to say so.” Thompson, Ann; Wales, Katie (1 Oct 2010). Arden Shake- speare: Reading Shakespeare’s Dramatic Language. Los An- [80] http://www.dominiopublico.gov.br/pesquisa/ geles: Arden. ISBN 978-1-903436-29-5. DetalheObraForm.do?select_action=&co_obra=110021

[60] MacCary (1998, 84–85). [81] Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representa- tion, Vol. I, translated by E.F.J. Payne, Dover Publications, [61] Hamlet 3.1.63–64. 1969, pp. 266-267. 82 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET

[82] Freud (1900, 367). [107] Thompson and Taylor (2006a, 123–126).

[83] Britton (1995, 207–211). [108] Welsh (2001, 131).

[84] Freud (1900, 368). [109] Thompson and Taylor (2006a, 126–131).

[85] The nunnery conversation referred to in this sentence is [110] Novy (1994, 62, 77–78). Hamlet 3.1.87–160. [111] Hamlet 3.1.55–87. [86] Allan, Davin (1 May 2013). “Sexual Indiﬀerence in Shake- speare’s Hamlet”. Literatured. Retrieved 29 March 2014. [112] Writing in La Jeune Belgique in 1890; quoted by Braun (1982, 40). [87] Morrison (1997: 4; 129–30) [113] Taylor (2002, 13). [88] Cotsell (2005: 191) [114] Thompson and Taylor (2006a; 53–55); Chambers (1930, [89] The American Journal of Psychology 21.1 (January, 1910): vol. 1, 334), cited by Dawson (2002, 176). 72–113. [115] Dawson (2002, 176). [90] The Closet Scene: Hamlet 3.4. [116] Pitcher and Woudhuysen (1969, 204). [91] MacCary (1998, 104–107, 113–116) and de Grazia (2007, 168–170). [117] Hibbard (1987, 17).

[92] Smallwood (2002, 102). [118] Marsden (2002, 21).

[93] Bloom, Harold; Foster, Brett, eds. (2008). Bloom’s Shake- [119] Holland (2007, 34). speare Through the Ages: Hamlet. New York: Chelsea House. p. xii. ISBN 978-0791095928. Electronic edition [120] Marsden (2002, 21–22). co-published by Infobase Learning. [121] Samuel Pepys records his delight at the novelty of Hamlet [94] Rothman, Joshua - “Hamlet: A Love Story”, The New “done with scenes"; see Thompson and Taylor (1996, 57). Yorker, August 14, 2013. Retrieved 2015-12-11 [122] Taylor (1989, 16). [95] Gontar, David P. (2013). Hamlet Made Simple and Other Es- [123] Thompson and Taylor (2006a, 98–99). says. New English Review Press. ISBN 978-0985439491. [124] Letter to Sir William Young, 10 January 1773, quoted by [96] Hamlet 4.5. Uglow (1977, 473). [97] Woﬀord (1994, 199–202). [125] Morrison (2002, 231). [98] Howard (2003, 411–415). [126] Moody (2002, 41). [99] Heilbrun (1957) [127] Moody (2002, 44), quoting Sheridan. [100] Bloom (2003, 58–59); Thompson (2001, 4). [128] Gay (2002, 159). [101] Bloom, Harold. Hamlet: Poem Unlimited. “There is a recent 'Be kind to Gertrude' fashion among some feminist crit- [129] Dawson (2002, 185–187). ics...” [130] Morrison (2002, 232–233). [102] Showalter (1985). [131] Morrison (2002, 235–237). [103] Bloom (2003, 57). [132] William Winter, New York Tribune 26 October 1875, quoted [104] MacCary (1998, 111–113). by Morrison (2002, 241).

[105] Hamlet has 208 quotations in The Oxford Dictionary of Quo- [133] Morrison (2002, 241). tations; it takes up 10 of 85 pages dedicated to Shakespeare [134] Schoch (2002, 58–75). in the 1986 Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations (14th ed. 1968). For examples of lists of the greatest books, see Harvard [135] George Bernard Shaw in The Saturday Review 2 October Classics, Great Books, Great Books of the Western World, 1897, quoted in Shaw (1961, 81). Harold Bloom's The Western Canon, St. John’s College reading list, and Columbia College Core Curriculum. [136] Moody (2002, 54).

[106] Osborne (2007, 114–133 especially 115 and 120). [137] Halliday (1964, 204) and O'Connor (2002, 77). 7.12. REFERENCES 83

[138] Sarah Bernhardt, in a letter to the London Daily Telegraph, [159] Smallwood (2002, 108); National Theatre reviews Re- quoted by Gay (2002, 164). trieved: 4 December 2007.

[139] Holland (2002, 203–205). [160] Vincent Canby, “Theatre Review: Ralph Fiennes as Mod Hamlet,” The New York Times 3 May 1995. [140] Dawson (2002, 184). [161] Gussow, Mel. “Review/Theater; A High-Keyed Hamlet", [141] Dawson (2002, 188). The New York Times, April 3, 1992

[142] Gillies et al. (2002, 259–262). [162] Guernsey, Otis and Jeﬀrey Sweet (eds.) The Applause Best Plays Theater Yearbook 1991–1992, Hal Leonard Corp., p. [143] Dawson (2002, 180). 43. ISBN 9781557831477

[144] For more on this production, see the MAT production [163] Ari Panagako, “Dandy Hamlet Bows Uptown”, of Hamlet article. Craig and Stanislavski began planning Heights/Inwood Press of North Manhattan, 14 June the production in 1908 but, due to a serious illness of 1978. Stanislavski’s, it was delayed until December, 1911. See [164] According to the Internet Broadway Database “show”. Benedetti (1998, 188–211). Romeo and Juliet is the second most-produced Shakespeare [145] Benedetti (1999, 189, 195). play on Broadway, with thirty-four diﬀerent productions, followed by Twelfth Night, with thirty. [146] On Craig’s relationship to Symbolism, Russian symbolism, [165] Ian McKellen, Alan Bates, Hugh Hudson, et al. For Ian and its principles of monodrama in particular, see Taxi- Charleson: A Tribute. London: Constable and Company, dou (1998, 38–41); on Craig’s staging proposals, see Innes 1990. p. 124. (1983, 153); on the centrality of the protagonist and his mir- roring of the 'authorial self', see Taxidou (1998, 181, 188) [166] Barratt, Mark. Ian McKellen: An Unoﬃcial Biography. Vir- and Innes (1983, 153). gin Books, 2005. p. 63.

[147] The First Court Scene: Hamlet 1.2.1–128. A brightly lit, [167] “The Readiness Was All: Ian Charleson and Richard golden pyramid descended from Claudius’s throne, repre- Eyre’s Hamlet,” by Richard Allan Davison. In Shakespeare: senting the feudal hierarchy, giving the illusion of a sin- Text and Theater, Lois Potter and Arthur F. Kinney, eds. gle, unified mass of bodies. In the dark, shadowy fore- Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1999. pp. 170–182 ground, separated by a gauze, Hamlet lay, as if dreaming. On Claudius’s exit-line the figures remained but the gauze [168] Billington, Michael (6 August 2008). “From Time Lord to was loosened, so that they appeared to melt away as if Ham- antic prince: David Tennant is the best Hamlet in years”. let’s thoughts had turned elsewhere. For this effect, the scene The Guardian (London). received an ovation, which was unheard of at the MAT. See [169] Billington, Michael (4 May 2001). “Theatre: Hamlet”. The Innes (1983, 152). Guardian (London).

[148] See Innes (1983, 140–175; esp. 165–167 on the use of the [170] Gardner, Lyn (8 November 2002). “Hamlet, West Yorkshire screens). Playhouse, Leeds”. The Guardian (London).

[149] Innes (1983, 172). [171] John B. Barrois/New Orleans Shakespeare Festival (2012- 06-28). “Summer action hero? Tulane Shakespeare Fest [150] Hortmann (2002, 214). opens with a Hamlet out for revenge”. NOLA.com. Re- trieved 2013-09-14. [151] Hortmann (2002, 223). [172] Mark Shenton, “Jude Law to Star in Donmar’s Hamlet.” The [152] Burian (1993), quoted by Hortmann (2002, 224–225). Stage. 10 September 2007. Retrieved 19 November 2007.

[153] Gillies et al. (2002, 267–269). [173] “Cook, Eyre, Lee And More Join Jude Law In Grandage’s HAMLET.” broadwayworld.com. 4 February 2009. Re- [154] Morrison (2002, 247–248); Thompson and Taylor (2006a, trieved 18 February 2009. 109). [174] “Jude Law to play Hamlet at 'home' Kronborg Castle.” The [155] Morrison (2002, 249). Daily Mirror. 10 July 2009. Retrieved 14 July 2009.

[156] Morrison (2002, 249–250). [175] “Shakespeare’s Hamlet with Jude Law”. Charlie Rose Show. video 53:55, 2 October 2009. Retrieved 6 October 2009. [157] “A Pictorial History of the American Stage” by Daniel Blum, Crown Publishers, Inc. 1981, pp.307 [176] Dave Itzkoﬀ, “Donmar Warehouse’s 'Hamlet' Coming to Broadway With Jude Law.” New York Times. 30 June 2009. [158] “Olivier” by Robert Tanitch, Abbeville Press, 1985 Retrieved 10 September 2009. 84 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET

[177] “Marshall Fine: Onstage: Paul Giamatti in Hamlet”. Huff- 7.12.2 Editions of Hamlet ingtonpost.com. 2013-04-10. Retrieved 2015-07-11. • Bate, Jonathan, and Eric Rasmussen, eds. 2007. Com- [178] “Globe to Globe Hamlet”. Retrieved 18 December 2015. plete Works. By William Shakespeare. The RSC [179] Stewart, Rachel (11 August 2014). “Cumberbatch’s Ham- Shakespeare. New York: Modern Library. ISBN 0- let most in-demand show of all time”. The Daily Telegraph 679-64295-1. (London). • Edwards, Phillip, ed. 1985. Hamlet, Prince of Den- [180] Calia, Michael (11 August 2014). “Benedict Cumberbatch as 'Hamlet' Opens Next Year, And Is Now Sold Out - mark. New Cambridge Shakespeare ser. Cambridge: Speakeasy - WSJ”. The Wall Street Journal. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29366-9. [181] Hamlet Starring Benedict Cumberbatch: Official Site • Hibbard, G. R., ed. 1987. Hamlet. Oxford World’s Classics ser. Oxford. ISBN 0-19-283416-9. [182] The Fencing Scene: Hamlet 5.2.203–387. [183] Brode (2001, 117–118). • Hoy, Cyrus, ed. 1992. Hamlet. Norton Critical Edi- tion ser. 2nd ed. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0- [184] Davies (2000, 171). 393-95663-4. [185] Fox, Margalit (2009-09-20). “Jack Manning obituary”. • New York Times. Retrieved 2013-09-14. Irace, Kathleen O. 1998. The First Quarto of Hamlet. New Cambridge Shakespeare ser. Cambridge: Cam- [186] “Innokenti Smoktunovsky – Biography – Movies & TV”. bridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65390-8. Movies.nytimes.com. Retrieved 29 May 2010. • [187] Guntner (2000, 120–121). Jenkins, Harold, ed. 1982. Hamlet. The Arden Shakespeare, second ser. London: Methuen. ISBN [188] Brode (2001, 125–127). 1-903436-67-2. [189] From Cartmell (2000, 212), Zeffirelli says he is trying to • Lott, Bernard, ed. 1970. Hamlet. New Swan Shake- make Shakespeare “even more popular” in an interview quoted here given to The South Bank Show in December speare Advanced ser. New ed. London: Longman. 1997. ISBN 0-582-52742-2. [190] Guntner (2000, 121–122). • Spencer, T. J. B., ed. 1980 Hamlet. New Penguin Shakespeare ser. London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14- [191] IMDB listing for Hamlet 070734-4. [192] Crowl (2000, 232). • Thompson, Ann and Neil Taylor, eds. 2006a. Ham- [193] Starks (1999, 272). let. The Arden Shakespeare, third ser. Volume one. [194] Keyishian (2000, 78–79). London: Arden. ISBN 1-904271-33-2.

[195] Burnett (2000). • ———. 2006b. Hamlet: The Texts of 1603 and 1623. [196] Hamlet Great Performances, PBS The Arden Shakespeare, third ser. Volume two. Lon- don: Arden. ISBN 1-904271-80-4. [197] Warren, Jim. “Director’s Notes”. American Shakespeare Center. Retrieved 20 June 2009. • Wells, Stanley, and Gary Taylor, eds. 1988. The [198] Gussow, Mel (14 October 1992). “Theater in Review”. New Complete Works. By William Shakespeare. The Ox- York Times. Retrieved 26 June 2011. ford Shakespeare. Compact ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0- [199] David G. Schultz (July 2008). “A Play at Poolside: Caridad 19-871190-5. Svich’s 12 Ophelias”. The Brooklyn Rail. Retrieved 26 June 2011. [200] Quoted in promotional material of “The Magdalena Project: 7.12.3 Secondary sources international network of women in contemporary theatre” at • Alexander, Peter. 1964. Alexander’s Introductions to Shakespeare. London: Collins. [201] Grode, Eric (30 March 2011). “Theater in Review”. New York Times. Retrieved 10 December 2011. • Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide [202] “Wittenberg”. Nytheatre.com. 2011-03-19. Retrieved to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2013-09-14. ISBN 0-521-43437-8. 7.12. REFERENCES 85

• Baskerville, Charles Read. ed. 1934. Elizabethan and • Cartmell, Deborah. 2000. “Franco Zeffirelli and Stuart Plays. New York: Henry Holt and Company. Shakespeare”. In Jackson (2000, 212–221). • Benedetti, Jean. 1999. Stanislavski: His Life and Art. • Chambers, Edmund Kerchever. 1923. The Eliza- Revised edition. Original edition published in 1988. bethan Stage. 4 volumes. Oxford: Oxford University London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-52520-1. Press. ISBN 0-19-811511-3. • Blits, Jan H. 2001. Introduction. In Deadly Thought: • ———. 1930. William Shakespeare: A Study of Facts “Hamlet” and the Human Soul: 3–22. Langham, MD: and Problems. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988. ISBN Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0214-1. 0-19-811774-4. • Bloom, Harold. 2001. Shakespeare: The Invention of • Cotsell, Michael (2005). “The Matriarchal Offense”. the Human. Open Market ed. Harlow, Essex: Long- The Theater of Trauma: American modernist drama man. ISBN 1-57322-751-X. and the psychological struggle for the American Mind. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-7466-3. • ———. 2003. Hamlet: Poem Unlimited. Edinburgh: Canongate. ISBN 1-84195-461-6. • Crowl, Samuel. 2000. “Flamboyant Realist: Kenneth Branagh”. In Jackson (2000, 222–240). • Braun, Edward. 1982. The Director and the Stage: From Naturalism to Grotowski. London: Methuen. • Crystal, David, and Ben Crystal. 2005. The Shake- ISBN 978-0-413-46300-5. speare Miscellany. New York: Penguin. ISBN 0-14- 051555-0. • Britton, Celia. 1995. “Structuralist and poststructural- ist psychoanalytic and Marxist theories” in Cambridge • Davies, Anthony. 2000. “The Shakespeare films of History of Literary Criticism: From Formalism to Post- Laurence Olivier”. In Jackson (2000, 163–182). structuralism (Vol 8). Ed. Raman Seldon. Cambridge: • Dawson, Anthony B. 1995. Hamlet. Shakespeare in Cambridge University Press 1995. ISBN 978-0-521- Performance ser. New ed. Manchester: Manchester 30013-1. University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-7190-4625-4. • Brode, Douglas. 2001. Shakespeare in the Movies: • ———. 2002. “International Shakespeare”. In Wells From the Silent Era to Today. New York: Berkley and Stanton (2002, 174–193). Boulevard Books. ISBN 0-425-18176-6. • Eliot, T. S. 1920. “Hamlet and his Problems”. In The • Brown, John Russell. 2006. Hamlet: A Guide to the Sacred Wood: Essays in Poetry and Criticism. London: Text and its Theatrical Life. Shakespeare Handbooks Faber & Gwyer. ISBN 0-416-37410-7. ser. Basingstoke, Hampshire and New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-2092-3. • Foakes, R. A. 1993. Hamlet versus Lear: Cultural Pol- itics and Shakespeare’s Art. Cambridge: Cambridge • Buchanan, Judith. 2005. Shakespeare on Film. Har- University Press. ISBN 0-521-60705-1. low: Pearson. ISBN 0-582-43716-4. • French, George Russell. 1869. Shakspeareana Geo- • Buchanan, Judith. 2009. Shakespeare on Silent Film: logica. London: Macmillan. Reprinted New York: An Excellent Dumb Discourse. Cambridge: Cam- AMS, 1975. ISBN 0-404-02575-7. bridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-87199-9. • Freud, Sigmund. 1900. The Interpretation of Dreams. • Burian, Jarka. 1993. “Hamlet in Postwar Czech The- Trans. James Strachey. Ed. Angela Richards. The atre”. In Foreign Shakespeare: Contemporary Perfor- Penguin Freud Library, vol. 4. London: Penguin, mance. Ed. Dennis Kennedy. New edition. Cam- 1991. ISBN 0-14-013794-7. bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 0- 521-61708-1. • Gay, Penny. 2002. “Women and Shakespearean Per- formance”. In Wells and Stanton (2002, 155–173). • Burnett, Mark Thornton. 2000. " 'To Hear and See the Matter': Communicating Technology in Michael • Gillies, John, Ryuta Minami, Ruru Li, and Poonam Almereyda’s Hamlet (2000)". Cinema Journal 42.3: Trivedi. 2002. “Shakespeare on the Stages of Asia”. 48–69. In Wells and Stanton (2002, 259–283). • Carincross, Andrew S. 1936. The Problem of Ham- • Greenblatt, Stephen. 2004a. Will in the World: How let: A Solution. Reprint ed. Norwood, PA.: Norwood Shakespeare Became Shakespeare. New York: W.W. Editions, 1975. ISBN 0-88305-130-3. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-05057-2. 86 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET

• ———. 2004b. “The Death of Hamnet and the Mak- • ———. 1991. “Editions and Textual Studies Re- ing of Hamlet”. N.Y. Review of Books 51.16 (21 Oct. viewed”. In Shakespeare Survey 43, The Tempest and 2004). After: 255–270. Ed. Stanley Wells. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39529-1. • Greg, Walter Wilson. 1955. The Shakespeare First Folio, its Bibliographical and Textual History. Oxford: • Jackson, Russell, ed. 2000. The Cambridge Compan- Clarendon Press. ASIN B0000CHBCM. ion to Shakespeare on Film. Cambridge Companions to Literature ser. Cambridge: Cambridge University • Guntner, J. Lawrence. 2000. "Hamlet, Macbeth and Press. ISBN 0-521-63975-1. King Lear on film”. In Jackson (2000, 117–134). • Jenkins, Harold. 1955. “The Relation Between the • Halliday, F. E. 1964. A Shakespeare Companion Second Quarto and the Folio Text of Hamlet". Studies 1564–1964. Shakespeare Library ser. Baltimore, in Bibliography 7: 69–83. Penguin, 1969. ISBN 0-14-053011-8. • Jones, Gwilym. 2007. Thomas Middleton at the Globe. • Hattaway, Michael. 1982. Elizabethan Popular The- London: Globe Theatre education resource centre. atre: Plays in Performance. Theatre Production ser. Retrieved: 30 December 2007. London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul. ISBN • 0-7100-9052-8. Kermode, Frank. 2000. Shakespeare’s Language. London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-028592-X. • ———. 1987. Hamlet. The Critics Debate ser. • Keyishian, Harry. 2000. “Shakespeare and Movie Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333- Genre: The Case of Hamlet". In Jackson (2000, 72– 38524-1. 84). • Heilbrun, Carolyn. 1957. “The Character of Hamlet’s • Kirsch, A. C. 1968. “A Caroline Commentary on the Mother”. Shakespeare Quarterly 8.2: 201–206. Drama”. Modern Philology 66: 256–261. • Holland, Peter. 2002. “Touring Shakespeare”. In • Knowles, Ronald. 1999. “Hamlet and Counter- Wells and Stanton (2002, 194–211). Humanism” Renaissance Quarterly 52.4: 1046–1069. • ———. 2007. “Shakespeare Abbreviated”. In • Lacan, Jacques. 1959. “Desire and the Interpretation Shaughnessy (2007, 26–45). of Desire in Hamlet". In Literature and Psychoanaly- sis: The Question of Reading Otherwise. Ed. Shoshana • Hortmann, Wilhelm. 2002. “Shakespeare on the Po- Felman. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, litical Stage in the Twentieth Century”. In Wells and 1982. Originally appeared as a double issue of Yale Stanton (2002, 212–229). French Studies, nos. 55/56 (1977). ISBN 0-8018- • Howard, Jean E. 2003. “Feminist Criticism”. In 2754-X. Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide: 411–423. Ed. Stan- • Lennard, John. 2007. William Shakespeare: Ham- ley Wells and Lena Orlin. Oxford: Oxford University let. Literature Insights ser. Humanities-Ebooks, 2007. Press. ISBN 0-19-924522-3. ISBN 1-84760-028-X. • Howard, Tony. 2000. “Shakespeare’s Cinematic Off- • MacCary, W. Thomas. 1998. “Hamlet": A Guide shoots”. In Jackson (2000, 303–323). to the Play. Greenwood Guides to Shakespeare ser. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-30082- • Hurstfield, Joel, and James Sutherland. 1964. Shake- 8. speare’s World. New York: St. Martin’s Press. • Marsden, Jean I. 2002. “Improving Shakespeare: • Innes, Christopher. 1983. Edward Gordon Craig. Di- from the Restoration to Garrick”. In Wells and Stan- rectors in Perspective ser. Cambridge: Cambridge ton (2002, 21–36). University Press. ISBN 0-521-27383-8. • Matheson, Mark. 1995. “Hamlet and 'A Matter Ten- • Jackson, MacDonald P. 1986. “The Transmission of der and Dangerous’ ". Shakespeare Quarterly 46.4: Shakespeare’s Text”. In The Cambridge Companion to 383–397. Shakespeare Studies Ed. Stanley Wells. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31841-6. • Moody, Jane. 2002. “Romantic Shakespeare”. In 163–185. Wells and Stanton (2002, 37–57). 7.12. REFERENCES 87

• Morrison, Michael A. 2002. “Shakespeare in North • Shaw, George Bernard. 1961. Shaw on Shakespeare. America”. In Wells and Stanton (2002, 230–258). Ed. Edwin Wilson. New York: Applause. ISBN 1- 55783-561-6. • ——— 1997. John Barrymore, Shakespearean Actor. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62028-7. • Showalter, Elaine. 1985. “Representing Ophelia: Women, Madness, and the Responsibilities of Fem- • Novy, Marianne. 1994. Engaging with Shakespeare: inist Criticism” In Shakespeare and the Question of Responses of George Eliot and Other Women Novelists. Theory: 77–94. Ed. Patricia Parker and Geoﬀrey (Athens, Georgia) in Thompson and Taylor (2006a, Hartman. New York and London: Methuen. ISBN 127). 0-416-36930-8.

• O'Connor, Marion. 2002. “Reconstructive Shake- • Smallwood, Robert. 2002. “Twentieth-century Per- speare: Reproducing Elizabethan and Jacobean formance: The Stratford and London Companies”. In Stages”. In Wells and Stanton (2002, 76–97). Wells and Stanton (2002, 98–117).

• Osborne, Laurie. 2007. “Narration and Staging in • Starks, Lisa S. 1999. “The Displaced Body of Desire: Hamlet and its afternovels” in Shaughnessy (2007, Sexuality in Kenneth Branagh’s Hamlet". In Shake- 114–133). speare and Appropriation: 160–178. Ed. Christy Desmet and Robert Sawyer. Accents on Shakespeare • Oxford English Dictionary (Second Edition) on CD- ser. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-20725-8. ROM version 3.1. 2004. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861016-8. • Taxidou, Olga. 1998. The Mask: A Periodical Perfor- mance by Edward Gordon Craig. Contemporary The- • Pennington, Michael. 1996. “Hamlet": A User’s atre Studies ser. volume 30. Amsterdam: Harwood Guide. London: Nick Hern. ISBN 1-85459-284-X. Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-5755-046-6. • Pitcher, John, and Woudhuysen, Henry. 1969. Shake- • Taylor, Gary. 1989. Reinventing Shakespeare: A Cul- speare Companion, 1564–1964. London: Penguin. tural History from the Restoration to the Present. Lon- ISBN 0-14-053011-8. don: Hogarth Press. ISBN 0-7012-0888-0. • Quillian, William H. Hamlet and the New Poetic: • ———. 2002. “Shakespeare Plays on Renaissance James Joyce and T. S. Eliot. Ann Arbor, MI:UMI Re- Stages”. In Wells and Stanton (2002, 1–20). search Press, 1983. • Teraoka, Arlene Akiko. 1985. The Silence of Entropy • Rosenberg, Marvin. 1992. The Masks of Hamlet. or Universal Discourse : the Postmodernist Poetics of London: Associated University Presses. ISBN 0- Heiner Müller. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 0-8204- 87413-480-3. 0190-0.

• Rowse, Alfred Leslie. 1963. William Shakespeare: A • Thompson, Ann. 2001. “Shakespeare and sexuality” Biography. New York: Harper & Row. Reprinted in Catherine M S Alexander and Stanley Wells Shake- New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1995. ISBN 1- speare and Sexuality: 1–13. Cambridge: Cambridge 56619-804-6. University Press. ISBN 0-521-80475-2.

• Saxo, and Hansen, William. 1983. Saxo Grammaticus • Thompson, Ann and Taylor, Neil. 1996. William & the Life of Hamlet. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Shakespeare, “Hamlet”. Plymouth, UK: Northcote Press. ISBN 0-8032-2318-8. House. ISBN 0-7463-0765-9.

• Schoch, Richard W. 2002. “Pictorial Shakespeare”. • Thomson, Peter. 1983. Shakespeare’s Theatre. The- In Wells and Stanton (2002, 58–75). atre Production ser. London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7100-9480-9. • Shapiro, James. 2005. 1599: A Year in the Life of William Shakespeare. London: Faber, 2006. ISBN • Uglow, Jenny. 1977. Hogarth: A Life and a World. 0-571-21481-9. New ed. London: Faber and Faber, 2002. ISBN 0- 571-19376-5. • Shaughnessy, Robert. 2007. The Cambridge Compan- ion to Shakespeare and Popular Culture. Cambridge • Vickers, Brian, ed. 1974a. Shakespeare: The Critical Companions to Literature ser. Cambridge: Cam- Heritage. Volume one (1623–1692). New ed. Lon- bridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-60580-9. don: Routledge, 1995. ISBN 0-415-13404-8. 88 CHAPTER 7. HAMLET

• ———. 1974b. Shakespeare: The Critical Heritage. 7.13 External links Volume four (1753–1765). New ed. London: Rout- ledge, 1995. ISBN 0-415-13407-2. • Hamlet at the Internet Broadway Database

• ———. 1974c. Shakespeare: The Critical Heritage. • Hamlet at the Internet oﬀ-Broadway Database Volume ﬁve (1765–1774). New ed. London: Rout- • ledge, 1995. ISBN 0-415-13408-0. Hamlet, The Royal Shakespeare Company 2010 Com- plete video on PBS.org (not available outside the US). • Vogler, Christopher. 1992. The Writer’s Journey: • Hamlet public domain audiobook at LibriVox Mythic Structure for Storytellers and Screenwriters. Second revised ed. London: Pan Books, 1999. ISBN 0-330-37591-1. Texts

• Ward, David. 1992. “The King and 'Hamlet' ". Shake- • “HyperHamlet” — The Q2 text, with copious hyper- speare Quarterly 43.3: 280–302. linked references and notes. Run by the University of Basel. • Weimann, Robert. 1985. “Mimesis in Hamlet". In Shakespeare and the Question of Theory: 275–291. • ISE — Internet Shakespeare Editions: transcripts and Ed. Patricia Parker and Geoﬀrey Hartman. New York facsimiles of Q1, Q2 and F1. and London: Methuen. ISBN 0-416-36930-8. • Shakespeare Quartos Archive — Transcriptions and • Wells, Stanley, and Stanton, Sarah, eds. 2002. The facsimiles of thirty-two copies of the ﬁve pre-1642 Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage. Cam- quarto editions. bridge Companions to Literature ser. Cambridge: • Open Source Shakespeare—Hamlet A complete text Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79711-X. of Hamlet based on Q2. • Wilson, John Dover. 1932. The Essential Shake- • View all of Hamlet’s lines in Open Source Shake- speare: A Biographical Adventure. Cambridge: Cam- speare. bridge University Press. • Oxford Edition (1914) • ———. 1934. The Manuscript of Shakespeare’s • “Hamlet” and the Problems of its Transmission: An Es- Project Gutenberg full text say in Critical Bibliography. 2 volumes. Cambridge: The University Press. Analysis

• ———. 1935. What Happens in Hamlet. Cam- • Hamlet Guide – scholarly research site, includes pho- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959. ISBN 0- tographs and academic analysis. 521-06835-5. • Hamlet on the Ramparts — The MIT's Shakespeare • Welsh, Alexander. 2001. Hamlet in his Modern Guises Electronic Archive. (New Jersey: Princeton) in Thompson and Taylor (2006a, 125). • Hamletworks.org – scholarly resource with multiple versions of Hamlet, commentaries, concordances, and • Winstanley, Lilian. 1921. Hamlet and the Scottish suc- more. cession, Being an Examination of the Relations of the • Play of Hamlet to the Scottish Succession and the Es- Depictions and commentary of Hamlet paintings sex Conspiracy. London: Cambridge University Press. • Clear Shakespeare Hamlet — A word-by-word audio Reprinted Philadelphia: R. West, 1977. ISBN 0- guide through the play. 8492-2912-X.

• Woﬀord, Susanne L. 1994. “A Critical History of Hamlet”. In Hamlet: Complete, Authoritative Text with Biographical and Historical Contexts, Critical History, and Essays from Five Contemporary Critical Perspec- tives: 181–207. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martins Press. ISBN 0-312-08986-4. Chapter 8

William Shakespeare

This article is about the poet and playwright. For other Many of his plays were published in editions of varying persons of the same name, see William Shakespeare quality and accuracy during his lifetime. In 1623, how- (disambiguation). For other uses of “Shakespeare”, see ever, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two friends and Shakespeare (disambiguation). fellow actors of Shakespeare, published a more definitive text known as the First Folio, a posthumous collected edi- [1] tion of his dramatic works that included all but two of the William Shakespeare (/ˈʃeɪkspɪər/; 26 April 1564 [7] (baptised) – 23 April 1616)[nb 1] was an English poet, plays now recognised as Shakespeare’s. It was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest [7] writer in the English language and the world’s pre-eminent presciently, as “not of an age, but for all time”. In the dramatist.[2] He is often called England’s national poet, 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been repeatedly and the “Bard of Avon”.[3][nb 2] His extant works, including adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,[nb 3] 154 and performance. His plays remain highly popular, and are sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, constantly studied, performed, and reinterpreted in diverse some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been trans- cultural and political contexts throughout the world. lated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.[4] Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon- 8.1 Life Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and Main article: Shakespeare’s life twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part-owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, later known as the King’s Men. 8.1.1 Early life He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, where he died three years later. Few records of Shake- William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, speare’s private life survive, which has stimulated consider- an alderman and a successful glover originally from able speculation about such matters as his physical appear- Snitterfield, and Mary Arden, the daughter of an affluent ance, sexuality, and religious beliefs, and whether the works landowning farmer.[8] He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon attributed to him were written by others.[5] and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth remains unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 Shakespeare produced most of his known work between [9] [6][nb 4] April, Saint George’s Day. This date, which can be traced 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily back to an 18th-century scholar’s mistake, has proved ap- comedies and histories, and these are regarded as some pealing to biographers, since Shakespeare died 23 April of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then 1616.[10] He was the third child of eight and the eldest sur- wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, viving son.[11] Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, considered some of the finest works in the English language.[2] In his last phase, he Although no attendance records for the period survive, most wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collab- biographers agree that Shakespeare was probably educated orated with other playwrights. at the King’s New School in Stratford,[12] a free school char- tered in 1553,[13] about a quarter-mile (400 m) from his home. Grammar schools varied in quality during the Eliza-

89 90 CHAPTER 8. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

bethan era, but grammar school curricula were largely similar, the basic Latin text was standardised by royal decree,[14] and the school would have provided an intensive education in grammar based upon Latin classical authors.[15]

John Shakespeare’s house, believed to be Shakespeare’s birthplace, in Stratford-upon-Avon.

At the age of 18, Shakespeare married the 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. The consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 Novem- ber 1582. The next day, two of Hathaway’s neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded Shakespeare’s coat of arms, as it appears on the rough draft of the application to grant a coat-of-arms to John Shakespeare. It features the marriage.[16] The ceremony may have been arranged a spear as a pun on the family name.[nb 5] in some haste, since the Worcester chancellor allowed the marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times,[17] and six months after the marriage Anne gave birth “William Shakeshafte” in his will.[26] Little evidence sub- to a daughter, Susanna, baptised 26 May 1583.[18] Twins, stantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years death, and Shakeshafte was a common name in the Lan- later and were baptised 2 February 1585.[19] Hamnet died cashire area.[27] of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 Au- gust 1596.[20] After the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few his- 8.1.2 London and theatrical career torical traces until he is mentioned as part of the Lon- don theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the ap- “All the world’s a stage, pearance of his name in the 'complaints bill' of a law and all the men and women merely players: case before the Queen’s Bench court at Westminster dated they have their exits and their entrances; Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589.[21] Scholars and one man in his time plays many parts ...” refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare’s —As You Like It, Act II, Scene 7, 139–42[28] “lost years”.[22] Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories. Nicholas It is not known definitively when Shakespeare began writ- Rowe, Shakespeare’s first biographer, recounted a Stratford ing, but contemporary allusions and records of perfor- legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to es- mances show that several of his plays were on the London cape prosecution for deer poaching in the estate of local stage by 1592.[29] By then, he was sufficiently known in squire Thomas Lucy. Shakespeare is also supposed to have London to be attacked in print by the playwright Robert taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a scurrilous ballad Greene in his Groats-Worth of Wit: about him.[23] Another 18th-century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London.[24] John Aubrey reported that Shake- ... there is an upstart Crow, beautified with speare had been a country schoolmaster.[25] Some 20th- our feathers, that with his Tiger’s heart wrapped century scholars have suggested that Shakespeare may have in a Player’s hide, supposes he is as well able been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton to bombast out a blank verse as the best of of Lancashire, a Catholic landowner who named a certain you: and being an absolute Johannes factotum, 8.1. LIFE 91

is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a Throughout his career, Shakespeare divided his time be- country.[30] tween London and Stratford. In 1596, the year before he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford, Shake- Scholars diﬀer on the exact meaning of Greene’s words,[31] speare was living in the parish of St. Helen’s, Bishopsgate, but most agree that Greene is accusing Shakespeare of north of the River Thames.[47][48] He moved across the river reaching above his rank in trying to match such university- to Southwark by 1599, the same year his company con- educated writers as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nashe structed the Globe Theatre there.[47][49] By 1604, he had and Greene himself (the so-called “university wits”).[32] moved north of the river again, to an area north of St Paul’s The italicised phrase parodying the line “Oh, tiger’s heart Cathedral with many ﬁne houses. There he rented rooms wrapped in a woman’s hide” from Shakespeare’s Henry VI, from a French Huguenot named Christopher Mountjoy, a Part 3, along with the pun “Shake-scene”, clearly identify maker of ladies’ wigs and other headgear.[50] Shakespeare as Greene’s target. As used here, Johannes Factotum (“Jack of all trades”) refers to a second-rate tin- kerer with the work of others, rather than the more common “universal genius”.[31][33] 8.1.3 Later years and death

Greene’s attack is the earliest surviving mention of Shake- Rowe was the ﬁrst biographer to record the tradition, re- speare’s work in the theatre. Biographers suggest that his peated by Johnson, that Shakespeare retired to Stratford career may have begun any time from the mid-1580s, to [51][52] [34] 'some years before his death'. He was still working just before Greene’s remarks. After 1594, Shakespeare’s as an actor in London in 1608; in an answer to the sharers’ plays were performed only by the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, petition in 1635 Cuthbert Burbage stated that after purchas- a company owned by a group of players, including Shake- ing the lease of the Blackfriars Theatre in 1608 from Henry speare, that soon became the leading playing company in [35] Evans, the King’s Men 'placed men players’ there, 'which London. After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, were Heminges, Condell, Shakespeare, etc.'.[53] However it the company was awarded a royal patent by the new King [36] is perhaps relevant that the bubonic plague raged in Lon- James I, and changed its name to the King’s Men. don throughout 1609.[54][55] The London public playhouses In 1599, a partnership of members of the company built were repeatedly closed during extended outbreaks of the their own theatre on the south bank of the River Thames, plague (a total of over 60 months closure between May 1603 which they named the Globe. In 1608, the partnership also and February 1610),[56] which meant there was often no took over the Blackfriars indoor theatre. Extant records of acting work. Retirement from all work was uncommon at Shakespeare’s property purchases and investments indicate that time.[57] Shakespeare continued to visit London dur- that his association with the company made him a wealthy ing the years 1611–1614.[51] In 1612, he was called as a man,[37] and in 1597 he bought the second-largest house in witness in Bellott v. Mountjoy, a court case concerning the Stratford, New Place, and in 1605, invested in a share of marriage settlement of Mountjoy’s daughter, Mary.[58] In the parish tithes in Stratford.[38] March 1613 he bought a gatehouse in the former Blackfriars priory;[59] and from November 1614 he was in London Some of Shakespeare’s plays were published in quarto edi- [60] tions beginning in 1594, and by 1598, his name had become for several weeks with his son-in-law, John Hall. Af- [39] ter 1610, Shakespeare wrote fewer plays, and none are at- a selling point and began to appear on the title pages. [61] Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other plays af- tributed to him after 1613. His last three plays were collaborations, probably with John Fletcher,[62] who succeeded ter his success as a playwright. The 1616 edition of Ben [63] Jonson's Works names him on the cast lists for Every Man him as the house playwright of the King’s Men. in His Humour (1598) and Sejanus His Fall (1603).[40] The Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616, at the age of 52.[64] He absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson’s died within a month of signing his will, a document which Volpone is taken by some scholars as a sign that his act- he begins by describing himself as being in “perfect health”. ing career was nearing its end.[41] The First Folio of 1623, No extant contemporary source explains how or why he however, lists Shakespeare as one of “the Principal Actors died. Half a century later, John Ward, the vicar of Stratford, in all these Plays”, some of which were ﬁrst staged after wrote in his notebook: “Shakespeare, Drayton and Ben Jon- Volpone, although we cannot know for certain which roles son had a merry meeting and, it seems, drank too hard, he played.[42] In 1610, John Davies of Hereford wrote that for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted”,[65][66] “good Will” played “kingly” roles.[43] In 1709, Rowe passed not an impossible scenario, since Shakespeare knew Jon- down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Ham- son and Drayton. Of the tributes from fellow authors, one let’s father.[44] Later traditions maintain that he also played refers to his relatively sudden death: “We wondered, Shake- Adam in As You Like It, and the Chorus in Henry V,[45] speare, that thou went’st so soon/From the world’s stage to though scholars doubt the sources of that information.[46] the grave’s tiring room.”[67] 92 CHAPTER 8. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

legitimate son by Margaret Wheeler, who had died during childbirth. Thomas was ordered by the church court to do public penance, which would have caused much shame and embarrassment for the Shakespeare family.[70] Shakespeare bequeathed the bulk of his large estate to his elder daughter Susanna[71] under stipulations that she pass it down intact to “the ﬁrst son of her body”.[72] The Quineys had three children, all of whom died without marrying.[73] The Halls had one child, Elizabeth, who married twice but died without children in 1670, ending Shakespeare’s direct line.[74] Shakespeare’s will scarcely mentions his wife, Anne, who was probably entitled to one third of his estate automatically.[75] He did make a point, however, of leaving her “my second best bed”, a bequest that has led to much speculation.[76] Some scholars see the bequest as an insult to Anne, whereas others believe that the second-best bed would have been the matrimonial bed and therefore rich in signiﬁcance.[77] Shakespeare was buried in the chancel of the Holy Trin- ity Church two days after his death.[78] The epitaph carved into the stone slab covering his grave includes a curse against moving his bones, which was carefully avoided during restoration of the church in 2008:[79]

Shakespeare’s grave, next to those of Anne Shakespeare, his wife, and Thomas Nash, the husband of his granddaughter.

Good frend for Iesvs sake forbeare, To digg the dvst encloased heare. Bleste be man spares thes stones, Shakespeare’s funerary monument in Stratford-upon-Avon. And cvrst be he moves my bones.[1][nb 1]

1. ^ Schoenbaum 1987, 306. He was survived by his wife and two daughters. Susanna had married a physician, John Hall, in 1607,[68] and Judith had married Thomas Quiney, a vintner, two months before Cite error: There are tags on this page, but Shakespeare’s death.[69] Shakespeare signed his last will and the references will not show without a {{reﬂist|group=nb}} testament on 25 March 1616; the following day his new son- template (see the help page). in-law, Thomas Quiney was found guilty of fathering an il- (Modern spelling: Good friend, for Jesus’ sake forbear, / To 8.2. PLAYS 93

dig the dust enclosed here. / Blessed be the man that spares but no source for The Taming of the Shrew has been found, these stones, / And cursed be he that moves my bones.) though it is related to a separate play of the same name and [88] Sometime before 1623, a funerary monument was erected may have derived from a folk story. Like The Two Gen- tlemen of Verona, in which two friends appear to approve of in his memory on the north wall, with a half-eﬃgy of him [89] in the act of writing. Its plaque compares him to Nestor, rape, the Shrew’s story of the taming of a woman’s inde- [80] pendent spirit by a man sometimes troubles modern critics Socrates, and Virgil. In 1623, in conjunction with the [90] publication of the First Folio, the Droeshout engraving was and directors. published.[81] Shakespeare has been commemorated in many statues and memorials around the world, including funeral monuments in Southwark Cathedral and Poets’ Corner in Westminster Abbey.

8.2 Plays

Oberon, Titania and Puck with Fairies Dancing. By William Blake, Procession of Characters from Shakespeare’s Plays by an unknown c. 1786. Tate Britain. artist Shakespeare’s early classical and Italianate comedies, con- Main articles: Shakespeare’s plays and William Shake- taining tight double plots and precise comic sequences, speare’s collaborations give way in the mid-1590s to the romantic atmosphere of his most acclaimed comedies.[91] A Midsummer Night’s Most playwrights of the period typically collaborated with Dream is a witty mixture of romance, fairy magic, and others at some point, and critics agree that Shakespeare did comic lowlife scenes.[92] Shakespeare’s next comedy, the the same, mostly early and late in his career.[82] Some at- equally romantic Merchant of Venice, contains a portrayal tributions, such as Titus Andronicus and the early history of the vengeful Jewish moneylender Shylock, which reflects plays, remain controversial, while The Two Noble Kinsmen Elizabethan views but may appear derogatory to modern and the lost Cardenio have well-attested contemporary doc- audiences.[93] The wit and wordplay of Much Ado About umentation. Textual evidence also supports the view that Nothing,[94] the charming rural setting of As You Like It, and several of the plays were revised by other writers after their the lively merrymaking of Twelfth Night complete Shake- original composition. speare’s sequence of great comedies.[95] After the lyrical The first recorded works of Shakespeare are Richard III Richard II, written almost entirely in verse, Shakespeare in- and the three parts of Henry VI, written in the early 1590s troduced prose comedy into the histories of the late 1590s, during a vogue for historical drama. Shakespeare’s plays Henry IV, parts 1 and 2, and Henry V. His characters be- are difficult to date, however,[83] and studies of the texts come more complex and tender as he switches deftly between comic and serious scenes, prose and poetry, and suggest that Titus Andronicus, The Comedy of Errors, The [96] Taming of the Shrew and The Two Gentlemen of Verona achieves the narrative variety of his mature work. This may also belong to Shakespeare’s earliest period.[84] His period begins and ends with two tragedies: Romeo and Juliet, the famous romantic tragedy of sexually charged ado- first histories, which draw heavily on the 1587 edition of [97] Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and lescence, love, and death; and Julius Caesar—based on [85] Sir Thomas North's 1579 translation of Plutarch's Parallel Ireland, dramatise the destructive results of weak or cor- [98] rupt rule and have been interpreted as a justification for the Lives—which introduced a new kind of drama. Accord- origins of the Tudor dynasty.[86] The early plays were in- ing to Shakespearean scholar James Shapiro, in Julius Cae- fluenced by the works of other Elizabethan dramatists, es- sar “the various strands of politics, character, inwardness, contemporary events, even Shakespeare’s own reflections pecially Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe, by the tra- [99] ditions of medieval drama, and by the plays of Seneca.[87] on the act of writing, began to infuse each other”. The Comedy of Errors was also based on classical models, In the early 17th century, Shakespeare wrote the so-called 94 CHAPTER 8. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

the collaboration, Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Less bleak than the tragedies, these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s, but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors.[109] Some commentators have seen this change in mood as evidence of a more serene view of life on Shakespeare’s part, but it may merely reﬂect the theatrical fashion of the day.[110] Shakespeare collaborated on two further surviving plays, Henry VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen, probably with John Fletcher.[111]

8.2.1 Performances

Main article: Shakespeare in performance Hamlet, Horatio, Marcellus, and the Ghost of Hamlet’s Father. Henry Fuseli, 1780–5. Kunsthaus Zürich. It is not clear for which companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays. The title page of the 1594 edition of Ti- tus Andronicus reveals that the play had been acted by "problem plays" Measure for Measure, Troilus and Cres- [112] sida, and All’s Well That Ends Well and a number of his three different troupes. After the plagues of 1592–3, best known tragedies.[100] Many critics believe that Shake- Shakespeare’s plays were performed by his own company at The Theatre and the Curtain in Shoreditch, north of the speare’s greatest tragedies represent the peak of his art. [113] The titular hero of one of Shakespeare’s most famous Thames. Londoners flocked there to see the first part tragedies, Hamlet, has probably been discussed more than of Henry IV, Leonard Digges recording, “Let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest ... and you scarce shall have a any other Shakespearean character, especially for his fa- [114] mous soliloquy which begins "To be or not to be; that is room”. When the company found themselves in dispute the question".[101] Unlike the introverted Hamlet, whose fa- with their landlord, they pulled The Theatre down and used tal flaw is hesitation, the heroes of the tragedies that fol- the timbers to construct the Globe Theatre, the first playhouse built by actors for actors, on the south bank of the lowed, Othello and King Lear, are undone by hasty errors [115] of judgement.[102] The plots of Shakespeare’s tragedies of- Thames at Southwark. The Globe opened in autumn ten hinge on such fatal errors or flaws, which overturn or- 1599, with Julius Caesar one of the first plays staged. Most [103] of Shakespeare’s greatest post-1599 plays were written for der and destroy the hero and those he loves. In Othello, [116] the villain Iago stokes Othello’s sexual jealousy to the point the Globe, including Hamlet, Othello and King Lear. where he murders the innocent wife who loves him.[104] In King Lear, the old king commits the tragic error of giving up his powers, initiating the events which lead to the torture and blinding of the Earl of Gloucester and the murder of Lear’s youngest daughter Cordelia. According to the critic Frank Kermode, “the play-offers neither its good characters nor its audience any relief from its cruelty”.[105] In Macbeth, the shortest and most compressed of Shake- speare’s tragedies,[106] uncontrollable ambition incites Mac- beth and his wife, Lady Macbeth, to murder the right- ful king and usurp the throne, until their own guilt destroys them in turn.[107] In this play, Shakespeare adds a supernatural element to the tragic structure. His last major tragedies, Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus, contain some of Shakespeare’s finest poetry and were considered his most successful tragedies by the poet and critic T. The reconstructed Globe Theatre, London. S. Eliot.[108] In his final period, Shakespeare turned to romance or After the Lord Chamberlain’s Men were renamed the tragicomedy and completed three more major plays: King’s Men in 1603, they entered a special relationship with Cymbeline, The Winter’s Tale and The Tempest, as well as the new King James. Although the performance records 8.3. POEMS 95

are patchy, the King’s Men performed seven of Shake- speare’s plays at court between 1 November 1604 and 31 October 1605, including two performances of The Mer- chant of Venice.[117] After 1608, they performed at the indoor Blackfriars Theatre during the winter and the Globe during the summer.[118] The indoor setting, combined with the Jacobean fashion for lavishly staged masques, allowed Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate stage devices. In Cymbeline, for example, Jupiter descends “in thunder and lightning, sitting upon an eagle: he throws a thunderbolt. The ghosts fall on their knees.”[119] The actors in Shakespeare’s company included the famous Richard Burbage, William Kempe, Henry Condell and John Heminges. Burbage played the leading role in the ﬁrst performances of many of Shakespeare’s plays, including Richard III, Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear.[120] The popular comic actor Will Kempe played the servant Peter in Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing, among other characters.[121] He was replaced around 1600 by Robert Armin, who played roles such as Touchstone in As You Like It and the fool in King Lear.[122] In 1613, Sir Henry Wotton recorded that Henry VIII “was set forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony”.[123] On 29 June, however, a can- non set ﬁre to the thatch of the Globe and burned the theatre to the ground, an event which pinpoints the date of a Shake- speare play with rare precision.[123]

8.2.2 Textual sources Title page of the First Folio, 1623. Copper engraving of Shake- speare by Martin Droeshout. In 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two of Shakespeare’s friends from the King’s Men, published the First Folio, a collected edition of Shakespeare’s plays. It contained 36 texts, including 18 printed for the first 8.3 Poems time.[124] Many of the plays had already appeared in quarto versions—flimsy books made from sheets of paper folded In 1593 and 1594, when the theatres were closed because twice to make four leaves.[125] No evidence suggests that of plague, Shakespeare published two narrative poems on Shakespeare approved these editions, which the First Fo- erotic themes, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lu- lio describes as “stol'n and surreptitious copies”.[126] Alfred crece. He dedicated them to Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Pollard termed some of them "bad quartos" because of Southampton. In Venus and Adonis, an innocent Adonis their adapted, paraphrased or garbled texts, which may in rejects the sexual advances of Venus; while in The Rape places have been reconstructed from memory.[127] Where of Lucrece, the virtuous wife Lucrece is raped by the lust- several versions of a play survive, each differs from the ful Tarquin.[130] Influenced by Ovid's Metamorphoses,[131] other. The differences may stem from copying or printing the poems show the guilt and moral confusion that result errors, from notes by actors or audience members, or from from uncontrolled lust.[132] Both proved popular and were Shakespeare’s own papers.[128] In some cases, for exam- often reprinted during Shakespeare’s lifetime. A third nar- ple Hamlet, Troilus and Cressida and Othello, Shakespeare rative poem, A Lover’s Complaint, in which a young woman could have revised the texts between the quarto and folio laments her seduction by a persuasive suitor, was printed editions. In the case of King Lear, however, while most in the first edition of the Sonnets in 1609. Most scholars modern editions do conflate them, the 1623 folio version is now accept that Shakespeare wrote A Lover’s Complaint. so different from the 1608 quarto, that the Oxford Shake- Critics consider that its fine qualities are marred by leaden speare prints them both, arguing that they cannot be con- effects.[133] The Phoenix and the Turtle, printed in Robert flated without confusion.[129] Chester’s 1601 Love’s Martyr, mourns the deaths of the leg- 96 CHAPTER 8. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

endary phoenix and his lover, the faithful turtle dove. In resents Shakespeare himself, though Wordsworth believed 1599, two early drafts of sonnets 138 and 144 appeared that with the sonnets “Shakespeare unlocked his heart”.[138] in The Passionate Pilgrim, published under Shakespeare’s [134] “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? name but without his permission. Thou art more lovely and more temperate ...” —Lines from Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18.[139] 8.3.1 Sonnets The 1609 edition was dedicated to a “Mr. W.H.”, credited Main article: Shakespeare’s sonnets as “the only begetter” of the poems. It is not known whether Published in 1609, the Sonnets were the last of Shake- this was written by Shakespeare himself or by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, whose initials appear at the foot of the dedication page; nor is it known who Mr. W.H. was, despite numerous theories, or whether Shakespeare even authorised the publication.[140] Critics praise the Sonnets as a profound meditation on the nature of love, sexual passion, procreation, death, and time.[141]

8.4 Style

Main article: Shakespeare’s style

Shakespeare’s first plays were written in the conventional style of the day. He wrote them in a stylised language that does not always spring naturally from the needs of the characters or the drama.[142] The poetry depends on extended, sometimes elaborate metaphors and conceits, and the language is often rhetorical—written for actors to de- claim rather than speak. The grand speeches in Titus An- dronicus, in the view of some critics, often hold up the action, for example; and the verse in The Two Gentlemen of Verona has been described as stilted.[143] Soon, however, Shakespeare began to adapt the traditional styles to his own purposes. The opening soliloquy of Richard III has its roots in the self-declaration of Vice in medieval drama. At the same time, Richard’s vivid self- Title page from 1609 edition of Shake-Speares Sonnets. awareness looks forward to the soliloquies of Shakespeare’s mature plays.[144] No single play marks a change from the speare’s non-dramatic works to be printed. Scholars are not traditional to the freer style. Shakespeare combined the two throughout his career, with Romeo and Juliet perhaps the certain when each of the 154 sonnets was composed, but ev- [145] idence suggests that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout best example of the mixing of the styles. By the time his career for a private readership.[135] Even before the two of Romeo and Juliet, Richard II, and A Midsummer Night’s unauthorised sonnets appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim in Dream in the mid-1590s, Shakespeare had begun to write a 1599, Francis Meres had referred in 1598 to Shakespeare’s more natural poetry. He increasingly tuned his metaphors “sugred Sonnets among his private friends”.[136] Few an- and images to the needs of the drama itself. alysts believe that the published collection follows Shake- Shakespeare’s standard poetic form was blank verse, com- speare’s intended sequence.[137] He seems to have planned posed in iambic pentameter. In practice, this meant that two contrasting series: one about uncontrollable lust for a his verse was usually unrhymed and consisted of ten syl- married woman of dark complexion (the “dark lady”), and lables to a line, spoken with a stress on every second syl- one about conflicted love for a fair young man (the “fair lable. The blank verse of his early plays is quite different youth”). It remains unclear if these figures represent real from that of his later ones. It is often beautiful, but its sen- individuals, or if the authorial “I” who addresses them rep- tences tend to start, pause, and finish at the end of lines, 8.5. INFLUENCE 97

are reversed, and words are omitted, creating an effect of spontaneity.[151] Shakespeare combined poetic genius with a practical sense of the theatre.[152] Like all playwrights of the time, he dramatised stories from sources such as Plutarch and Holinshed.[153] He reshaped each plot to create several centres of interest and to show as many sides of a narrative to the audience as possible. This strength of design ensures that a Shakespeare play can survive translation, cutting and wide interpretation without loss to its core drama.[154] As Shakespeare’s mastery grew, he gave his characters clearer and more varied motivations and distinctive patterns of speech. He preserved aspects of his earlier style in the later plays, however. In Shakespeare’s late romances, he deliber- Pity by William Blake, 1795, Tate Britain, is an illustration of two ately returned to a more artificial style, which emphasised similes in Macbeth: the illusion of theatre.[155] “And pity, like a naked new-born babe, Striding the blast, or heaven’s cherubim, hors’d Upon the sightless couriers of the air.”[146] 8.5 Influence

[147] with the risk of monotony. Once Shakespeare mastered Main article: Shakespeare’s influence traditional blank verse, he began to interrupt and vary its Shakespeare’s work has made a lasting impression on flow. This technique releases the new power and flexibil- ity of the poetry in plays such as Julius Caesar and Hamlet. Shakespeare uses it, for example, to convey the turmoil in Hamlet’s mind:[148]

Sir, in my heart there was a kind of ﬁghting That would not let me sleep. Methought I lay Worse than the mutines in the bilboes. Rashly— And prais’d be rashness for it—let us know Our indiscretion sometimes serves us well ... — Hamlet, Act 5, Scene 2, 4–8[148]

After Hamlet, Shakespeare varied his poetic style further, particularly in the more emotional passages of the late tragedies. The literary critic A. C. Bradley described this style as “more concentrated, rapid, varied, and, in construction, less regular, not seldom twisted or elliptical”.[149] In the last phase of his career, Shakespeare adopted many techniques to achieve these eﬀects. These included run-on lines, irregular pauses and stops, and extreme variations in sentence structure and length.[150] In Macbeth, for example, the language darts from one unrelated metaphor or simile to another: “was the hope drunk/ Wherein you dressed your- self?" (1.7.35–38); "... pity, like a naked new-born babe/ Macbeth Consulting the Vision of the Armed Head. By Henry Striding the blast, or heaven’s cherubim, hors’d/ Upon the Fuseli, 1793–94. Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington. sightless couriers of the air ...” (1.7.21–25). The listener is challenged to complete the sense.[150] The late romances, later theatre and literature. In particular, he expanded the with their shifts in time and surprising turns of plot, inspired dramatic potential of characterisation, plot, language, and a last poetic style in which long and short sentences are set genre.[156] Until Romeo and Juliet, for example, romance against one another, clauses are piled up, subject and object had not been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy.[157] 98 CHAPTER 8. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

Soliloquies had been used mainly to convey information elsewhere that “Shakespeare wanted art”. about characters or events; but Shakespeare used them to explore characters’ minds.[158] His work heavily influenced later poetry. The Romantic poets attempted to revive Shakespearean verse drama, though with little success. Critic George Steiner described all English verse dramas from Coleridge to Tennyson as “feeble variations on Shake- spearean themes.”[159] Shakespeare influenced novelists such as Thomas Hardy, William Faulkner, and Charles Dickens. The Ameri- can novelist Herman Melville's soliloquies owe much to Shakespeare; his Captain Ahab in Moby-Dick is a classic tragic hero, inspired by King Lear.[160] Scholars have identified 20,000 pieces of music linked to Shakespeare’s works. These include two operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Otello and Falstaff, whose critical standing compares with that of the source plays.[161] Shakespeare has also inspired many painters, including the Romantics and the Pre-Raphaelites. The Swiss Romantic artist Henry Fuseli, a friend of William Blake, even translated Macbeth into German.[162] The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud drew on Shakespearean psychology, in particular that of Hamlet, for his theories of human nature.[163] In Shakespeare’s day, English grammar, spelling and pronunciation were less standardised than they are now,[164] and his use of language helped shape modern English.[165] Samuel Johnson quoted him more often than any other author in his A Dictionary of the English Language, the first serious work of its type.[166] Expressions such as “with bated breath” (Merchant of Venice) and “a foregone conclusion” (Othello) have found their way into everyday English speech.[167]

8.6 Critical reputation A recently garlanded statue of William Shakespeare in Lincoln Park, Chicago, typical of many created in the 19th and early 20th century. Main articles: Shakespeare’s reputation and Timeline of Shakespeare criticism Between the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the end of the 17th century, classical ideas were in vogue. As “He was not of an age, but for all time.” a result, critics of the time mostly rated Shakespeare be- [172] [168] low John Fletcher and Ben Jonson. Thomas Rymer, for —Ben Jonson example, condemned Shakespeare for mixing the comic with the tragic. Nevertheless, poet and critic John Dryden Shakespeare was not revered in his lifetime, but he re- rated Shakespeare highly, saying of Jonson, “I admire him, ceived a large amount of praise.[169] In 1598, the cleric but I love Shakespeare”.[173] For several decades, Rymer’s and author Francis Meres singled him out from a group view held sway; but during the 18th century, critics began of English writers as “the most excellent” in both comedy to respond to Shakespeare on his own terms and acclaim and tragedy.[170] The authors of the Parnassus plays at St what they termed his natural genius. A series of scholarly John’s College, Cambridge numbered him with Chaucer, editions of his work, notably those of Samuel Johnson in Gower and Spenser.[171] In the First Folio, Ben Jonson 1765 and Edmond Malone in 1790, added to his growing called Shakespeare the “Soul of the age, the applause, de- reputation.[174] By 1800, he was ﬁrmly enshrined as the na- light, the wonder of our stage”, though he had remarked tional poet.[175] In the 18th and 19th centuries, his repu- 8.8. SPECULATION ABOUT SHAKESPEARE 99

tation also spread abroad. Among those who championed him were the writers Voltaire, Goethe, Stendhal and Victor Hugo.[176] During the Romantic era, Shakespeare was praised by the poet and literary philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge; and the critic August Wilhelm Schlegel translated his plays in the spirit of German Romanticism.[177] In the 19th century, critical admiration for Shakespeare’s genius often bor- dered on adulation.[178] “That King Shakespeare,” the essayist Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1840, “does not he shine, in crowned sovereignty, over us all, as the noblest, gen- tlest, yet strongest of rallying signs; indestructible”.[179] The Victorians produced his plays as lavish spectacles on a grand scale.[180] The playwright and critic George Bernard Shaw mocked the cult of Shakespeare worship as "bardolatry", claiming that the new naturalism of Ibsen’s plays had made The Plays of William Shakespeare. By Sir John Gilbert, 1849. Shakespeare obsolete.[181] The modernist revolution in the arts during the early fication as comedies, histories and tragedies.[187] Two plays 20th century, far from discarding Shakespeare, eagerly en- not included in the First Folio, The Two Noble Kinsmen listed his work in the service of the avant-garde. The and Pericles, Prince of Tyre, are now accepted as part of Expressionists in Germany and the Futurists in Moscow the canon, with today’s scholars agreeing that Shakespeare mounted productions of his plays. Marxist playwright and made major contributions to the writing of both.[188] No director Bertolt Brecht devised an epic theatre under the Shakespearean poems were included in the First Folio. influence of Shakespeare. The poet and critic T.S. Eliot In the late 19th century, Edward Dowden classified four argued against Shaw that Shakespeare’s “primitiveness” in of the late comedies as romances, and though many schol- fact made him truly modern.[182] Eliot, along with G. Wil- ars prefer to call them tragicomedies, Dowden’s term is of- son Knight and the school of New Criticism, led a move- ten used.[189] These plays and the associated Two Noble ment towards a closer reading of Shakespeare’s imagery. Kinsmen are marked with an asterisk (*) below. In 1896, In the 1950s, a wave of new critical approaches replaced Frederick S. Boas coined the term "problem plays" to de- modernism and paved the way for "post-modern" studies of scribe four plays: All’s Well That Ends Well, Measure for Shakespeare.[183] By the 1980s, Shakespeare studies were Measure, Troilus and Cressida and Hamlet.[190] “Dramas open to movements such as structuralism, feminism, New as singular in theme and temper cannot be strictly called Historicism, African-American studies, and queer stud- comedies or tragedies”, he wrote. “We may therefore bor- ies.[184][185] In a comprehensive reading of Shakespeare’s row a convenient phrase from the theatre of today and class works and comparing Shakespeare literary accomplish- them together as Shakespeare’s problem plays.”[191] The ments to accomplishments among leading figures in philos- term, much debated and sometimes applied to other plays, ophy and theology as well, Harold Bloom has commented remains in use, though Hamlet is definitively classed as a that, “Shakespeare was larger than Plato and than St. Au- tragedy.[192] gustine. He encloses us, because we see with his fundamental perceptions.”[186] 8.8 Speculation about Shakespeare 8.7 Works 8.8.1 Authorship Further information: Shakespeare bibliography and Main article: Shakespeare authorship question Chronology of Shakespeare’s plays

Around 230 years after Shakespeare’s death, doubts began to be expressed about the authorship of the works 8.7.1 Classification of the plays attributed to him.[193] Proposed alternative candidates include Francis Bacon, Christopher Marlowe, and Edward Shakespeare’s works include the 36 plays printed in the de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford.[194] Several “group theories” First Folio of 1623, listed according to their folio classi- have also been proposed.[195] Only a small minority of aca- 100 CHAPTER 8. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE demics believe there is reason to question the traditional 8.8.4 Portraiture attribution,[196] but interest in the subject, particularly the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship, continues into Main article: Portraits of Shakespeare the 21st century.[197] No written contemporary description of Shakespeare’s physical appearance survives, and no evidence suggests that he ever commissioned a portrait, so the Droeshout engrav- 8.8.2 Religion ing, which Ben Jonson approved of as a good likeness,[207] and his Stratford monument provide perhaps the best evi- Main article: Religious views of William Shakespeare dence of his appearance. From the 18th century, the desire for authentic Shakespeare portraits fuelled claims that various surviving pictures depicted Shakespeare. That demand Some scholars claim that members of Shakespeare’s fam- also led to the production of several fake portraits, as well ily were Catholics, at a time when practicing Catholicism as mis-attributions, repaintings and relabelling of portraits [198] in England was against the law. Shakespeare’s mother, of other people.[208] Mary Arden, certainly came from a pious Catholic family. The strongest evidence might be a Catholic statement of faith signed by his father, John Shakespeare, found in 1757 in the rafters of his former house in Henley Street. The 8.9 See also document is now lost, however, and scholars differ as to its authenticity.[199] In 1591 the authorities reported that John • English Renaissance theatre Shakespeare had missed church “for fear of process for debt”, a common Catholic excuse.[200] In 1606, the name • Spelling of Shakespeare’s name of William’s daughter Susanna appears on a list of those • who failed to attend Easter communion in Stratford.[200] World Shakespeare Bibliography As several scholars have noted, whatever his private views, Shakespeare “conformed to the official state religion”, as Park Honan put it.[201][202] Also, Shakespeare’s will uses 8.10 Notes a Protestant formula, and he was a confirmed member of the Church of England, where he was married, his children were baptized, and where he is buried. Other authors argue 8.10.1 Footnotes that there is a lack of evidence about Shakespeare’s reli- [1] Dates follow the Julian calendar, used in England throughout gious beliefs. Scholars find evidence both for and against Shakespeare’s lifespan, but with the start of the year adjusted Shakespeare’s Catholicism, Protestantism, or lack of belief to 1 January (see Old Style and New Style dates). Under the [203] in his plays, but the truth may be impossible to prove. Gregorian calendar, adopted in Catholic countries in 1582, Shakespeare died on 3 May (Schoenbaum 1987, xv).

[2] The “national cult” of Shakespeare, and the “bard” identification, dates from September 1769, when the actor David 8.8.3 Sexuality Garrick organised a week-long carnival at Stratford to mark the town council awarding him the freedom of the town. In Main article: Sexuality of William Shakespeare addition to presenting the town with a statue of Shakespeare, Garrick composed a doggerel verse, lampooned in the Lon- don newspapers, naming the banks of the Avon as the birth- Few details of Shakespeare’s sexuality are known. At 18, place of the “matchless Bard” (McIntyre 1999, 412–432). he married the 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, who was pregnant. Susanna, the first of their three children, was born [3] The exact figures are unknown. See Shakespeare’s collabo- six months later on 26 May 1583. Over the centuries, rations and Shakespeare Apocrypha for further details. some readers have posited that Shakespeare’s sonnets are autobiographical,[204] and point to them as evidence of his [4] Individual play dates and precise writing span are unknown. See Chronology of Shakespeare’s plays for further details. love for a young man. Others read the same passages as the expression of intense friendship rather than sexual [5] The crest is a silver falcon supporting a spear, while the [205] love. The 26 so-called “Dark Lady” sonnets, addressed motto is Non Sanz Droict (French for “not without right”). to a married woman, are taken as evidence of heterosexual This motto is still used by Warwickshire County Council, in liaisons.[206] reference to Shakespeare. 8.10. NOTES 101

[6] In the scribal abbreviations ye for the (3rd line) and yt for [29] Chambers 1930, Vol. 1: 287, 292 that (3rd and 4th lines) the letter y represents in fact th: see article thorn. [30] Greenblatt 2005, 213. [31] Greenblatt 2005, 213; Schoenbaum 1987, 153.

8.10.2 Citations [32] Ackroyd 2006, 176.

[1] “Shakespeare” entry in Collins English Dictionary, Harper- [33] Schoenbaum 1987, 151–52 Collins Publishers, 1998. [34] Wells 2006, 28; Schoenbaum 1987, 144–46; Chambers [2] Greenblatt 2005, 11; Bevington 2002, 1–3; Wells 1997, 399. 1930, Vol. 1: 59.

[3] Dobson 1992, 185–186 [35] Schoenbaum 1987, 184.

[4] Craig 2003, 3. [36] Chambers 1923, 208–209.

[5] Shapiro 2005, xvii–xviii; Schoenbaum 1991, 41, 66, 397– [37] Chambers 1930, Vol. 2: 67–71. 98, 402, 409; Taylor 1990, 145, 210–23, 261–5 [38] Bentley 1961, 36. [6] Chambers 1930, Vol. 1: 270–71; Taylor 1987, 109–134. [39] Schoenbaum 1987, 188; Kastan 1999, 37; Knutson 2001, [7] The Norton Anthology of English Literature: Six- 17 teenth/Early Seventeenth Century, Volume B, 2012, pg. [40] Adams 1923, 275 1168 [41] Wells 2006, 28. [8] Schoenbaum 1987, 14–22. [42] Schoenbaum 1987, 200. [9] Schoenbaum 1987, 24–6. [43] Schoenbaum 1987, 200–201. [10] Schoenbaum 1987, 24, 296; Honan 1998, 15–16. [44] Rowe 1709. [11] Schoenbaum 1987, 23–24. [45] Ackroyd 2006, 357; Wells et al. 2005, xxii [12] Schoenbaum 1987, 62–63; Ackroyd 2006, 53; Wells et al. 2005, xv–xvi [46] Schoenbaum 1987, 202–3.

[13] Baldwin 1944, 464. [47] Hales 1904, pp. 401–2.

[14] Baldwin 1944, 179–80, 183; Cressy 1975, 28, 29. [48] Honan 1998, 121.

[15] Baldwin 1944, 117. [49] Shapiro 2005, 122.

[16] Schoenbaum 1987, 77–78. [50] Honan 1998, 325; Greenblatt 2005, 405.

[17] Wood 2003, 84; Schoenbaum 1987, 78–79. [51] Ackroyd 2006, 476.

[18] Schoenbaum 1987, 93. [52] Wood 1806, pp. ix–x, lxxii.

[19] Schoenbaum 1987, 94. [53] Smith 1964, p. 558.

[20] Schoenbaum 1987, 224. [54] Ackroyd 2006, p. 477.

[21] Bate 2008, 314. [55] Barroll 1991, pp. 179–82.

[22] Schoenbaum 1987, 95. [56] Bate 2008, 354–355.

[23] Schoenbaum 1987, 97–108; Rowe 1709. [57] Honan 1998, 382–83.

[24] Schoenbaum 1987, 144–45. [58] Honan 1998, 326; Ackroyd 2006, 462–464.

[25] Schoenbaum 1987, 110–11. [59] Schoenbaum 1987, 272–274.

[26] Honigmann 1999, 1; Wells et al. 2005, xvii [60] Honan 1998, 387.

[27] Honigmann 1999, 95–117; Wood 2003, 97–109. [61] Schoenbaum 1987, 279.

[28] Wells et al. 2005, 666 [62] Honan 1998, 375–78. 102 CHAPTER 8. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

[63] Schoenbaum 1987, 276. [91] Ackroyd 2006, 235.

[64] His age and the date are inscribed in Latin on his funerary [92] Wood 2003, 161–162. monument: AETATIS 53 DIE 23 APR [93] Wood 2003, 205–206; Honan 1998, 258. [65] Schoenbaum, Samuel. Shakespeare’s Lives. Oxford Univer- sity Press. 1991. ISBN 978-0-19-818618-2. Page 78. [94] Ackroyd 2006, 359. [95] Ackroyd 2006, 362–383. [66] Rowse, A. L. William Shakespeare; A Biography. Harper & Row. 1963. Page 453. [96] Shapiro 2005, 150; Gibbons 1993, 1; Ackroyd 2006, 356.

[67] Kinney, Arthur F., editor. The Oxford Handbook of Shake- [97] Wood 2003, 161; Honan 1998, 206. speare. Oxford University Press. 2012. ISBN 978-0-19- 956610-5. Page 11. Verse by James Mabbe printed in the [98] Ackroyd 2006, 353, 358; Shapiro 2005, 151–153. First Folio. [99] Shapiro 2005, 151. [68] Schoenbaum 1987, 287. [100] Bradley 1991, 85; Muir 2005, 12–16. [69] Schoenbaum 1987, 292, 294. [101] Bradley 1991, 94. [70] “William Shakespeare Featured Article”. Thegenealo- [102] Bradley 1991, 86. gist.co.uk. Retrieved 19 March 2014. [103] Bradley 1991, 40, 48. [71] Schoenbaum 1987, 304. [104] Bradley 1991, 42, 169, 195; Greenblatt 2005, 304. [72] Honan 1998, 395–96. [105] Bradley 1991, 226; Ackroyd 2006, 423; Kermode 2004, [73] Chambers 1930, Vol. 2: 8, 11, 104; Schoenbaum 1987, 296. 141–2.

[74] Chambers 1930, Vol. 2: 7, 9, 13; Schoenbaum 1987, 289, [106] McDonald 2006, 43–46. 318–19. [107] Bradley 1991, 306. [75] Charles Knight, 1842, in his notes on Twelfth Night, quoted in Schoenbaum 1991, 275. [108] Ackroyd 2006, 444; McDonald 2006, 69–70; Eliot 1934, 59. [76] Ackroyd 2006, 483; Frye 2005, 16; Greenblatt 2005, 145–6. [109] Dowden 1881, 57. [77] Schoenbaum 1987, 301–3. [110] Dowden 1881, 60; Frye 2005, 123; McDonald 2006, 15. [78] Schoenbaum 1987, 306–07; Wells et al. 2005, xviii [111] Wells et al. 2005, 1247, 1279 [79] BBC News 2008. [112] Wells et al. 2005, xx [80] Schoenbaum 1987, 308–10. [113] Wells et al. 2005, xxi [81] Cooper 2006, 48. [114] Shapiro 2005, 16. [82] Thomson, Peter, “Conventions of Playwriting”. in Wells & Orlin 2003, 49. [115] Foakes 1990, 6; Shapiro 2005, 125–31.

[83] Frye 2005, 9; Honan 1998, 166. [116] Foakes 1990, 6; Nagler 1958, 7; Shapiro 2005, 131–2. [117] Wells et al. 2005, xxii [84] Schoenbaum 1987, 159–61; Frye 2005, 9. [118] Foakes 1990, 33. [85] Dutton & Howard 2003, 147. [119] Ackroyd 2006, 454; Holland 2000, xli. [86] Ribner 2005, 154–155. [120] Ringler 1997, 127. [87] Frye 2005, 105; Ribner 2005, 67; Cheney 2004, 100. [121] Schoenbaum 1987, 210; Chambers 1930, Vol. 1: 341. [88] Honan 1998, 136; Schoenbaum 1987, 166. [122] Shapiro 2005, 247–9. [89] Frye 2005, 91; Honan 1998, 116–117; Werner 2001, 96– 100. [123] Wells et al. 2005, 1247

[90] Friedman 2006, 159. [124] Wells et al. 2005, xxxvii 8.10. NOTES 103

[125] Wells et al. 2005, xxxiv [159] Steiner 1996, 145.

[126] Pollard 1909, xi. [160] Bryant 1998, 82.

[127] Wells et al. 2005, xxxiv; Pollard 1909, xi; Maguire 1996, [161] Gross, John, “Shakespeare’s Inﬂuence” in Wells & Orlin 28. 2003, 641–2.

[128] Bowers 1955, 8–10; Wells et al. 2005, xxxiv–xxxv [162] Paraisz 2006, 130.

[129] Wells et al. 2005, 909, 1153 [163] Bloom, Harold. The Western Canon. New York, Riverhead Books, p.346 [130] Rowe 2006, 21. [164] Cercignani 1981. [131] Frye 2005, 288. [165] Crystal 2001, 55–65, 74. [132] Rowe 2006, 3, 21. [166] Wain 1975, 194. [133] Rowe 2006, 1; Jackson 2004, 267–294; Honan 1998, 289. [167] Johnson 2002, 12; Crystal 2001, 63. [134] Rowe 2006, 1; Honan 1998, 289; Schoenbaum 1987, 327. [168] Jonson 1996, 10. [135] Wood 2003, 178; Schoenbaum 1987, 180. [169] Dominik 1988, 9; Grady 2001b, 267. [136] Honan 1998, 180. [170] Grady 2001b, 265; Greer 1986, 9. [137] Schoenbaum 1987, 268. [171] Grady 2001b, 266. [138] Honan 1998, 180; Schoenbaum 1987, 180. [172] Grady 2001b, 269. [139] Shakespeare 1914. [173] Dryden 1889, 71. [140] Schoenbaum 1987, 268–269. [174] Grady 2001b, 270–27; Levin 1986, 217. [141] Wood 2003, 177. [175] Dobson 1992 Cited by Grady 2001b, 270. [142] Clemen 2005a, 150. [176] Grady 2001b, 272–274. Grady cites Voltaire’s Philosoph- [143] Frye 2005, 105, 177; Clemen 2005b, 29. ical Letters (1733); Goethe’s Wilhelm Meister’s Apprentice- ship (1795); Stendhal’s two-part pamphlet Racine et Shake- [144] Brooke 2004, 69; Bradbrook 2004, 195. speare (1823–25); and Victor Hugo’s prefaces to Cromwell (1827) and William Shakespeare (1864). [145] Clemen 2005b, 63. [177] Levin 1986, 223. [146] de Sélincourt 1909, 174 [178] Sawyer 2003, 113. [147] Frye 2005, 185. [179] Carlyle 1907, 161. [148] Wright 2004, 868. [180] Schoch 2002, 58–59. [149] Bradley 1991, 91. [181] Grady 2001b, 276. [150] McDonald 2006, 42–6. [182] Grady 2001a, 22–6. [151] McDonald 2006, 36, 39, 75. [183] Grady 2001a, 24. [152] Gibbons 1993, 4. [184] Grady 2001a, 29. [153] Gibbons 1993, 1–4. [185] Drakakis 1985, 16–17, 23–25 [154] Gibbons 1993, 1–7, 15. [186] Harold Bloom (2006). Shakespeare Through the Ages: King [155] McDonald 2006, 13; Meagher 2003, 358. Lear, p. xii.

[156] Chambers 1944, 35. [187] Boyce 1996, 91, 193, 513..

[157] Levenson 2000, 49–50. [188] Kathman 2003, 629; Boyce 1996, 91.

[158] Clemen 1987, 179. [189] Edwards 1958, 1–10; Snyder & Curren-Aquino 2007. 104 CHAPTER 8. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

[190] Schanzer 1963, 1–10. • Bate, Jonathan (2008), The Soul of the Age, London: Penguin, ISBN 978-0-670-91482-1. [191] Boas 1896, 345.

[192] Schanzer 1963, 1; Bloom 1999, 325–380; Berry 2005, 37. • BBC News (28 May 2008). “Bard’s 'cursed' tomb is revamped”. British Broadcasting Corporation. Re- [193] Shapiro 2010, 77–8. trieved 23 April 2010. [194] Gibson 2005, 48, 72, 124. • Bentley, G. E. (1961), Shakespeare: A Biographical [195] McMichael & Glenn 1962, p. 56. Handbook, New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-313-25042-1, OCLC 356416. [196] Did He or Didn't He? That Is the Question, The New York Times, 22 April 2007 • Berry, Ralph (2005), Changing Styles in Shakespeare, [197] Kathman 2003, 620, 625–626; Love 2002, 194–209; London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-35316-5. Schoenbaum 1991, 430–40. • Bertolini, John Anthony (1993), Shaw and Other Play- [198] Pritchard 1979, 3. wrights, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University [199] Wood 2003, 75–8; Ackroyd 2006, 22–3. Press, ISBN 0-271-00908-X. [200] Wood 2003, 78; Ackroyd 2006, 416; Schoenbaum 1987, • Bevington, David (2002), Shakespeare, Oxford: 41–2, 286. Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-22719-9. [201] Rowse, A. L. (1963). William Shakespeare: A Biography. • Bloom, Harold (1999), Shakespeare: The Invention of London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-06-013710-X. the Human, New York: Riverhead Books, ISBN 1- [202] A. L. Rowse, as quoted in The Portsmouth Institute (2013). 57322-751-X. “Newman and the Intellectual Tradition: Portsmouth Re- view”, Sheed & Ward. p. 127: “He died, as he had lived, • Boas, F. S. (1896), Shakspere and His Predecessors, a conforming member of the Church of England. His will New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. made that perfectly clear – in facts, puts it beyond dispute, for it uses the Protestant formula.” • Bowers, Fredson (1955), On Editing Shakespeare and [203] Wilson 2004, 34; Shapiro 2005, 167. the Elizabethan Dramatists, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, OCLC 2993883. [204] Lee 1900, 55 • Boyce, Charles (1996), Dictionary of Shakespeare, [205] Casey 1998; Pequigney 1985; Evans 1996, 132. Ware, Herts, UK: Wordsworth, ISBN 1-85326-372- [206] Fort 1927, 406–414. 9.

[207] Cooper 2006, 48, 57. • Bradbrook, M. C. (2004), “Shakespeare’s Recollec- [208] Schoenbaum 1981, 190. tion of Marlowe”, in Edwards, Philip; Ewbank, Inga- Stina; Hunter, G. K., Shakespeare’s Styles: Essays in Honour of Kenneth Muir, Cambridge University Press, 8.11 References pp. 191–204, ISBN 0-521-61694-8. • Bradley, A. C. (1991), Shakespearean Tragedy: Lec- • Ackroyd, Peter (2006), Shakespeare: The Biography, tures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth, Lon- London: Vintage, ISBN 978-0-7493-8655-9. don: Penguin, ISBN 0-14-053019-3. • Adams, Joseph Quincy (1923), A Life of William • Brooke, Nicholas (2004), “Language and Speaker in Shakespeare, Boston: Houghton Miﬄin, OCLC Macbeth”, in Edwards, Philip; Ewbank, Inga-Stina; 1935264. Hunter, G. K., Shakespeare’s Styles: Essays in Hon- • Baldwin, T. W. (1944), William Shakspere’s Small La- our of Kenneth Muir, Cambridge University Press, pp. tine & Lesse Greek 1, Urbana, Ill: University of Illinois 67–78, ISBN 0-521-61694-8 Press, OCLC 359037. • Bryant, John (1998), "Moby Dick as Revolution”, in • Barroll, Leeds (1991), Politics, Plague, and Shake- Levine, Robert Steven, The Cambridge Companion to speare’s Theater: The Stuart Years, Ithaca: Cornell Herman Melville, Cambridge: Cambridge University University Press, ISBN 0-8014-2479-8. Press, ISBN 0-521-55571-X. 8.11. REFERENCES 105

• Carlyle, Thomas (1907), Adams, John Chester, ed., • de Sélincourt, Basil (1909), William Blake, London: On Heroes, Hero-worship, and the Heroic in History, Duckworth & co. Boston: Houghton, Miﬄin and Company, ISBN 1- • Dobson, Michael (1992), The making of the national 4069-4419-X, OCLC 643782. poet, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, ISBN • Casey, Charles (1998). “Was Shakespeare gay? Son- 978-0-19-818323-5. net 20 and the politics of pedagogy”. College Litera- • Dominik, Mark (1988), Shakespeare–Middleton Col- ture 25 (3): 35–51. doi:10.2307/25112402. JSTOR laborations, Beaverton, OR: Alioth Press, ISBN 0- 25112402.. 945088-01-9. • Cercignani, Fausto (1981), Shakespeare’s Works and • Dowden, Edward (1881), Shakspere, New York: Ap- Elizabethan Pronunciation, Oxford: University Press pleton & Co., OCLC 8164385. (Clarendon Press). • Drakakis, John (1985), Drakakis, John, ed., Alterna- • Chambers, E. K. (1923), The Elizabethan Stage 2, Ox- tive Shakespeares, New York: Meuthen, ISBN 0-416- ford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-811511-3, OCLC 36860-3. 336379. • Dryden, John (1889), Arnold, Thomas, ed., An Essay • Chambers, E. K. (1944), Shakespearean Gleanings, of Dramatic Poesy, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-8492-0506- 81-7156-323-6, OCLC 7847292. 9, OCLC 2364570. • Duncan Jones, Katherine, ed. (1997), Shakespeare’s Sonnets, London: Thomas Learning, retrieved 26 De- • Chambers, E. K. (1930), William Shakespeare: A cember 2013 Study of Facts and Problems, 2 vols., Oxford: Claren- don Press, ISBN 0-19-811774-4, OCLC 353406. • Dutton, Richard; Howard, Jean (2003), A Companion to Shakespeare’s Works: The Histories, Oxford: Black- • Cheney, Patrick Gerard (2004), The Cambridge Com- well, ISBN 0-631-22633-8. panion to Christopher Marlowe, Cambridge: Cam- • bridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-52734-1. Edwards, Phillip (1958), “Shakespeare’s Romances: 1900–1957”, in Nicoll, Allardyce, Shakespeare Survey • Clemen, Wolfgang (2005a), Shakespeare’s Dramatic 11, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0- Art: Collected Essays, New York: Routledge, ISBN 0- 521-21500-5, OCLC 15880120. 415-35278-9. • Eliot, T. S. (1934), Elizabethan Essays, London: Faber • Clemen, Wolfgang (2005b), Shakespeare’s Imagery, & Faber, ISBN 0-15-629051-0, OCLC 9738219. London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-35280-0. • Evans, G. Blakemore (1996), “Commentary”, in Shakespeare, William; Evans, G. Blakemore (ed.), • Clemen, Wolfgang (1987), Shakespeare’s Soliloquies, The Sonnets, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-35277-0. ISBN 0-521-22225-7. • Cooper, Tarnya (2006), Searching for Shakespeare, • Foakes, R. A. (1990), “Playhouses and Players”, in National Portrait Gallery and Yale Center for British Braunmuller, A.; Hattaway, Michael, The Cambridge Art: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-11611- Companion to English Renaissance Drama, Cam- 3. bridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521- 38662-4. • Craig, Leon Harold (2003), Of Philosophers and Kings: Political Philosophy in Shakespeare’s “Mac- • Fort, J. A. (October 1927), “The Story Contained in beth” and “King Lear”, Toronto: University of Toronto the Second Series of Shakespeare’s Sonnets”, The Re- Press, ISBN 0-8020-8605-5. view of English Studies 3 (12).

• Cressy, David (1975), Education in Tudor and Stuart • Friedman, Michael D. (2006), "'I'm not a feminist di- England, New York: St Martin’s Press, ISBN 0-7131- rector but ...': Recent Feminist Productions of The 5817-4, OCLC 2148260. Taming of the Shrew”, in Nelsen, Paul; Schlueter, June, Acts of Criticism: Performance Matters in Shake- • Crystal, David (2001), The Cambridge Encyclopedia speare and his Contemporaries: Essays in Honor of of the English Language, Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- James P. Lusardi, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson versity Press, ISBN 0-521-40179-8. University Press, ISBN 0-8386-4059-1. 106 CHAPTER 8. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

• Frye, Roland Mushat (2005), The Art of the Dramatist, • Johnson, Samuel (2002), Lynch, Jack, ed., Samuel London; New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-35289- Johnson’s Dictionary: Selections from the 1755 Work 4. that Deﬁned the English Language, Delray Beach, FL: Levenger Press, ISBN 1-84354-296-X. • Gibbons, Brian (1993), Shakespeare and Multiplicity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0- • Jonson, Ben (1996), “To the memory of my beloued, 521-44406-3. The AVTHOR MR. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE: AND what he hath left vs”, in Shakespeare, William; • Gibson, H. N. (2005), The Shakespeare Claimants: A Hinman, Charlton (ed.); Blayney, The First Folio of Critical Survey of the Four Principal Theories Concern- Shakespeare (2nd ed.), New York: W. W. Norton & ing the Authorship of the Shakespearean Plays, Lon- Company, ISBN 0-393-03985-4. don: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-35290-8. • Kastan, David Scott (1999), Shakespeare After The- • Grady, Hugh (2001a), “Modernity, Modernism and ory, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-90112-X. Postmodernism in the Twentieth Century’s Shake- • speare”, in Bristol, Michael; McLuskie, Kathleen, Kathman, David (2003), “The Question of Author- Shakespeare and Modern Theatre: The Performance ship”, in Wells, Stanley; Orlin, Lena Cowen, Shake- of Modernity, New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415- speare: an Oxford Guide, Oxford Guides, Oxford Uni- 21984-1. versity Press, pp. 620–32, ISBN 978-0-19-924522-2 • • Grady, Hugh (2001b), “Shakespeare Criticism 1600– Kermode, Frank (2004), The Age of Shakespeare, 1900”, in deGrazia, Margreta; Wells, Stanley, The London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, ISBN 0-297- Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare, Cambridge: 84881-X. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-65094-1. • Knutson, Roslyn (2001), Playing Companies and Com- • Greenblatt, Stephen (2005), Will in the World: How merce in Shakespeare’s Time, Cambridge: Cambridge Shakespeare Became Shakespeare, London: Pimlico, University Press, ISBN 0-521-77242-7. ISBN 0-7126-0098-1. • Lee, Sidney (1900), Shakespeare’s Life and Work, London: Smith Elder & Co.. • Greer, Germaine (1986), William Shakespeare, Ox- ford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-287538-8. • Levenson, Jill L. (2000), “Introduction”, in Shake- speare, William; Levenson, Jill L. (ed.), Romeo and • Hales, John W. (January–June 1904). “London Res- Juliet, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19- idences of Shakespeare”. The Athenaeum (London: 281496-6. John C. Francis): 401–2. Retrieved 8 December 2013.. • Levin, Harry (1986), “Critical Approaches to Shake- speare from 1660 to 1904”, in Wells, Stanley, The • Halliwell-Phillipps, James Orchard (1887), Outlines of Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Studies, Cam- the Life of Shakespeare II, London: Longmans Green bridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521- and Co., retrieved 26 December 2013. 31841-6. • Holland, Peter (2000), “Introduction”, in Shake- • Love, Harold (2002), Attributing Authorship: An In- speare, William; Holland, Peter (ed.), Cymbeline, troduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, London: Penguin, ISBN 0-14-071472-3. ISBN 0-521-78948-6.

• Honan, Park (1998), Shakespeare: A Life, Oxford: • Maguire, Laurie E. (1996), Shakespearean Suspect Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-811792-2. Texts: The “Bad” Quartos and Their Contexts, Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521- • Honigmann, E. A. J. (1999), Shakespeare: The Lost 47364-0. Years (Revised ed.), Manchester: Manchester Univer- sity Press, ISBN 0-7190-5425-7. • McDonald, Russ (2006), Shakespeare’s Late Style, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0- • Jackson, MacDonald P. (2004), “A Lover’s Complaint 521-82068-5. Revisited”, in Zimmerman, Susan, Shakespeare Stud- ies, Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Press, ISBN • McIntyre, Ian (1999), Garrick, Harmondsworth, Eng- 0-8386-4120-2. land: Allen Lane, ISBN 0-7139-9328-6. 8.11. REFERENCES 107

• McMichael, George; Glenn, Edgar M. (1962), Shake- • Schanzer, Ernest (1963), The Problem Plays of Shake- speare and his Rivals: A Casebook on the Author- speare, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, ISBN 0- ship Controversy, New York: Odyssey Press, OCLC 415-35305-X, OCLC 2378165. 2113359. • Schoch, Richard (2002), “Pictorial Shakespeare”, in • Meagher, John C. (2003), Pursuing Shakespeare’s Wells, Stanley; Stanton, Sarah, The Cambridge Com- Dramaturgy: Some Contexts, Resources, and Strategies panion to Shakespeare on Stage, Cambridge: Cam- in his Playmaking, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson bridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-79711-X. University Press, ISBN 0-8386-3993-3. • Schoenbaum, S. (1981), William Shakespeare: • Muir, Kenneth (2005), Shakespeare’s Tragic Sequence, Records and Images, Oxford University Press, ISBN London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-35325-4. 978-0-19-520234-2 • Nagler, A. M. (1958), Shakespeare’s Stage, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300- • Schoenbaum, Samuel (1991), Shakespeare’s Lives, 02689-7. Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-818618- 5. • Paraisz, Júlia (2006), “The Nature of a Romantic Edi- tion”, in Holland, Peter, Shakespeare Survey 59, Cam- • Schoenbaum, Samuel (1987), William Shakespeare: bridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521- A Compact Documentary Life (Revised ed.), Oxford: 86838-6. Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-505161-0. • Pequigney, Joseph (1985), Such Is My Love: A Study • Shakespeare, William (1914), “Sonnet 18”, in Craig, of Shakespeare’s Sonnets, Chicago: University of W. J., The Oxford Shakespeare: the Complete Works of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-65563-6. William Shakespeare (Bartleby.com (2000) ed.), Ox- • Pollard, Alfred W. (1909), Shakespeare Quartos ford: Oxford University Press, retrieved 22 June 2007. and Folios: A Study in the Bibliography of Shake- • Shapiro, James (2005), 1599: A Year in the Life of speare’s Plays, 1594–1685, London: Methuen, OCLC William Shakespeare, London: Faber and Faber, ISBN 46308204. 0-571-21480-0. • Pritchard, Arnold (1979), Catholic Loyalism in Eliza- bethan England, Chapel Hill: University of North Car- • Shapiro, James (2010), Contested Will: Who Wrote olina Press, ISBN 0-8078-1345-1. Shakespeare?, New York: Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-1-4165-4162-2. • Ribner, Irving (2005), The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415- • Smith, Irwin (1964), Shakespeare’s Blackfriars Play- 35314-9. house, New York: New York University Press. • Ringler, William, Jr. (1997), “Shakespeare and His • Snyder, Susan; Curren-Aquino, Deborah (2007), “In- Actors: Some Remarks on King Lear”, in Ogden, troduction”, in Shakespeare, William; Snyder, Susan James; Scouten, In Lear from Study to Stage: Essays (ed.); Curren-Aquino, Deborah (ed.), The Winter’s in Criticism, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson Univer- Tale, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN sity Press, ISBN 0-8386-3690-X. 0-521-22158-7. • Rowe, John (2006), “Introduction”, in Shakespeare, • William; Rowe, John (ed.), The Poems: Venus and Steiner, George (1996), The Death of Tragedy, New Adonis, The Rape of Lucrece, The Phoenix and the Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-06916-2. Turtle, The Passionate Pilgrim, A Lover’s Complaint, • Taylor, Gary (1990), Reinventing Shakespeare: A Cul- by William Shakespeare (2nd revised ed.), Cambridge: tural History from the Restoration to the Present, Lon- Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-85551-9. don: Hogarth Press, ISBN 0-7012-0888-0. • Rowe, Nicholas (1709), Gray, Terry A., ed., Some • Acount of the Life &c. of Mr. William Shakespear Taylor, Gary (1987), William Shakespeare: A Textual (published 1997), retrieved 30 July 2007. Companion, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-812914-9. • Sawyer, Robert (2003), Victorian Appropriations of Shakespeare, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson Univer- • Wain, John (1975), Samuel Johnson, New York: sity Press, ISBN 0-8386-3970-4. Viking, ISBN 0-670-61671-0. 108 CHAPTER 8. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

• Wells, Stanley; Taylor, Gary; Jowett, John; Mont- • The Shakespeare Birthplace Trust gomery, William, eds. (2005), The Oxford Shake- • speare: The Complete Works (2nd ed.), Oxford: Ox- William Shakespeare at the Internet Movie Database ford University Press, ISBN 0-19-926717-0. • Works by William Shakespeare at Project Gutenberg • Wells, Stanley (1997), Shakespeare: A Life in Drama, • Works by or about William Shakespeare at Internet New York: W. W. Norton, ISBN 0-393-31562-2. Archive • Wells, Stanley (2006), Shakespeare & Co, New York: • Works by William Shakespeare at LibriVox (public Pantheon, ISBN 0-375-42494-6. domain audiobooks) • Wells, Stanley; Orlin, Lena Cowen, eds. (2003), Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide, Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press, ISBN 0-19-924522-3. • Werner, Sarah (2001), Shakespeare and Feminist Per- formance, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-22729-1. • Wilson, Richard (2004), Secret Shakespeare: Studies in Theatre, Religion and Resistance, Manchester: Manch- ester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-7024-4. • Wood, Manley, ed. (1806), The Plays of William Shakespeare with Notes of Various Commentators I, London: George Kearsley, retrieved 27 December 2013. • Wood, Michael (2003), Shakespeare, New York: Ba- sic Books, ISBN 0-465-09264-0. • Wright, George T. (2004), “The Play of Phrase and Line”, in McDonald, Russ, Shakespeare: An Anthol- ogy of Criticism and Theory, 1945–2000, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-23488-8.

8.12 External links

• Internet Shakespeare Editions • Folger Digital Texts • Open Source Shakespeare complete works, with search engine and concordance • First Four Folios at Miami University Library, digital collection • The Shakespeare Quartos Archive • Shakespeare’s Words the online version of the best- selling glossary and language companion • Shakespeare and Music • Shakespeare’s Will from The National Archives • Works by William Shakespeare set to music: free scores in the Choral Public Domain Library (Choral- Wiki) Chapter 9

John Donne

For other people named John Donne, see John Donne 9.1 Biography (disambiguation). 9.1.1 Early life John Donne (/ˈdʌn/ DUN) (22 January 1572[1] – 31 March 1631) was an English poet and a cleric in the Church of England. He is considered the pre-eminent representative of the metaphysical poets. His works are noted for their strong, sensual style and include sonnets, love poems, religious poems, Latin translations, epigrams, elegies, songs, satires and sermons. His poetry is noted for its vi- brancy of language and inventiveness of metaphor, especially compared to that of his contemporaries. Donne’s style is characterised by abrupt openings and various paradoxes, ironies and dislocations. These features, along with his frequent dramatic or everyday speech rhythms, his tense syntax and his tough eloquence, were both a reaction against the smoothness of conventional Elizabethan poetry and an adaptation into English of European baroque and manner- ist techniques. His early career was marked by poetry that bore immense knowledge of English society and he met that knowledge with sharp criticism. Another important theme in Donne’s poetry is the idea of true religion, something that he spent much time considering and about which he often theorized. He wrote secular poems as well as erotic and love poems. He is particularly famous for his mastery of metaphysical conceits.[2] A portrait of Donne as a young man, c. 1595, artist unknown, in Despite his great education and poetic talents, Donne lived the collection of the National Portrait Gallery, London[4] in poverty for several years, relying heavily on wealthy friends. He spent much of the money he inherited during Donne was born in London, into a recusant Roman and after his education on womanising, literature, pastimes, Catholic family when practice of that religion was illegal and travel. In 1601, Donne secretly married Anne More, in England.[5] Donne was the third of six children. His fa- with whom he had twelve children.[3] In 1615, he became ther, also named John Donne, was of Welsh descent and a an Anglican priest, although he did not want to take An- warden of the Ironmongers Company in the City of Lon- glican orders. He did so because King James I persistently don. Donne’s father was a respected Roman Catholic who ordered it. In 1621, he was appointed the Dean of St Paul’s avoided unwelcome government attention out of fear of Cathedral in London. He also served as a member of Par- persecution.[6][7] liament in 1601 and in 1614. His father died in 1576, when Donne was four years old, leaving his son fatherless and his widow, Elizabeth Heywood, with the responsibility of raising their children alone.[1] Heywood was also from a recusant Roman

109 110 CHAPTER 9. JOHN DONNE

Catholic family, the daughter of John Heywood, the play- then in Spain, where he made many useful wright, and sister of the Reverend Jasper Heywood, a Jesuit observations of those countries, their laws and priest and translator.[1] She was a great-niece of the Roman manner of government, and returned perfect in Catholic martyr Thomas More.[1] This tradition of martyr- their languages. dom would continue among Donne’s closer relatives, many — Izaak Walton[12] of whom were executed or exiled for religious reasons.[8] Donne was educated privately; however, there is no evidence to support the popular claim that he was taught by By the age of 25 he was well prepared for the diplomatic ca- Jesuits.[1] Donne’s mother married Dr. John Syminges, a reer he appeared to be seeking.[11] He was appointed chief wealthy widower with three children, a few months after secretary to the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, Sir Thomas Donne’s father died. Donne thus acquired a stepfather. Egerton, and was established at Egerton’s London home, Two more of his sisters, Mary and Katherine, died in 1581. York House, Strand close to the Palace of Whitehall, then Donne’s mother lived her last years in the Deanery after the most influential social centre in England. Donne became Dean of St Paul’s, and died just two months before Donne, in January 1631 . 9.1.2 Marriage to Anne More In 1583, the 11-year-old Donne began studies at Hart Hall, now Hertford College, Oxford. After three years of stud- During the next four years Donne fell in love with Egerton’s ies there, Donne was admitted to the University of Cam- niece Anne More, and they were secretly married just bridge, where he studied for another three years.[9] How- before Christmas[5] in 1601, against the wishes of both ever, Donne could not obtain a degree from either institu- Egerton and George More, who was Lieutenant of the tion because of his Catholicism, since he refused to take the Tower and Anne’s father. Upon discovery, this wedding Oath of Supremacy required to graduate.[10] ruined Donne’s career, getting him fired and put in Fleet In 1591 Donne was accepted as a student at the Thavies Inn Prison, along with minister Samuel Brooke, who married legal school, one of the Inns of Chancery in London.[1] On them,[13] and the man who acted as a witness to the wed- 6 May 1592 he was admitted to Lincoln’s Inn, one of the ding. Donne was released shortly thereafter when the mar- Inns of Court.[1] In 1593, five years after the defeat of the riage was proven valid, and he soon secured the release of Spanish Armada and during the intermittent Anglo-Spanish the other two. Walton tells us that when Donne wrote to War (1585–1604), Queen Elizabeth issued the first English his wife to tell her about losing his post, he wrote after his statute against sectarian dissent from the Church of Eng- name: John Donne, Anne Donne, Un-done. It was not until land, titled “An Act for restraining Popish recusants”. It 1609 that Donne was reconciled with his father-in-law and defined “Popish recusants” as those “convicted for not re- received his wife’s dowry. pairing to some Church, Chapel, or usual place of Common Prayer to hear Divine Service there, but forbearing the same contrary to the tenor of the laws and statutes heretofore made and provided in that behalf”. Donne’s brother Henry was also a university student prior to his arrest in 1593 for harbouring a Catholic priest, William Harrington, whom he betrayed under torture.[5] Harrington was tortured on the rack, hanged until not quite dead, and then subjected to disembowelment.[5] Henry Donne died in Newgate prison of bubonic plague, leading Donne to begin questioning his Catholic faith.[7] During and after his education, Donne spent much of his considerable inheritance on women, literature, pastimes and travel.[6] Although no record details precisely where Donne travelled, he did cross Europe and later fought with the Earl of Essex and Sir Walter Raleigh against the Spanish at Cadiz Part of the house where Donne lived in Pyrford (1596) and the Azores (1597), and witnessed the loss of the Spanish flagship, the San Felipe.[1][11] According to Izaak After his release, Donne had to accept a retired coun- Walton, who wrote a biography of Donne in 1658: try life in a small house in Pyrford, Surrey, owned by Anne’s cousin, Sir Francis Wooley, where they resided un- ... he returned not back into England till til the end of 1604.[1][14] In spring 1605 they moved to an- he had stayed some years, first in Italy, and other small house in Mitcham, London, where he scraped 9.1. BIOGRAPHY 111

a meager living as a lawyer,[15] while Anne Donne bore a new baby almost every year. Though he also worked as an assistant pamphleteer to Thomas Morton writing anti- Catholic pamphlets, Donne was in a constant state of ﬁnan- cial insecurity.[1] Anne bore John 12 children in 16 years of marriage, a record at that time, (including two stillbirths — their eighth and then, in 1617, their last child); indeed, she spent most of her married life either pregnant or nursing. The 10 surviving children were Constance, John, George, Francis, Lucy (named after Donne’s patroness Lucy, Countess of Bedford, her godmother), Bridget, Mary, Nicholas, Margaret, and Elizabeth. Three (Francis, Nicholas, and Mary) died before they were ten. In a state of despair that almost drove him to kill himself, Donne noted that the death of a child would mean one mouth fewer to feed, but he could not afford the burial expenses. During this time, Donne wrote but did not publish Biathanatos, his defense of suicide.[16] His wife died on 15 August 1617, ﬁve days after giving birth to their twelfth child, a still-born baby.[1] Donne mourned her deeply, and wrote of his love and loss in his 17th Holy Sonnet.

9.1.3 Career and later life A few months before his death, Donne commissioned this portrait of himself as he expected to appear when he rose from the grave at In 1602 John Donne was elected as Member of Parlia- the Apocalypse.[17] He hung the portrait on his wall as a reminder ment for the constituency of Brackley, but this was not a of the transience of life. paid position.[1] Queen Elizabeth I died in 1603, being succeeded by King James I of Scotland. The fashion for coterie poetry of the period gave Donne a means to seek patronage, his death in 1631. During his period as dean his daughter and many of his poems were written for wealthy friends Lucy died, aged eighteen. In late November and early De- or patrons, especially MP Sir Robert Drury of Hawsted cember 1623 he suﬀered a nearly fatal illness, thought to (1575–1615), whom he met in 1610 and became Donne’s be either typhus or a combination of a cold followed by a chief patron, furnishing him and his family an apartment in period of fever. During his convalescence he wrote a se- his large house in Drury Lane.[11] ries of meditations and prayers on health, pain, and sickness that were published as a book in 1624 under the ti- In 1610 and 1611 Donne wrote two anti-Catholic polemics: tle of Devotions upon Emergent Occasions. One of these Pseudo-Martyr and Ignatius his Conclave for Morton.[1] He meditations, Meditation XVII, later became well known then wrote two Anniversaries, An Anatomy of the World for its phrases “No man is an Iland" (often modernised (1611) and Of the Progress of the Soul[18] (1612) for Drury. as "No man is an island") and "...for whom the bell tolls". Although James was pleased with Donne’s work, he refused In 1624 he became vicar of St Dunstan-in-the-West, and to reinstate him at court and instead urged him to take holy 1625 a prolocutor to Charles I.[1] He earned a reputation orders.[7] At length, Donne acceded to the king’s wishes, as an eloquent preacher and 160 of his sermons have sur- and in 1615 was ordained into the Church of England.[11] vived, including the famous Death’s Duel sermon delivered In 1615 Donne was awarded an honorary doctorate in divin- at the Palace of Whitehall before King Charles I in Febru- ity from Cambridge University, and became a Royal Chap- ary 1631. lain in the same year, and a Reader of Divinity at Lincoln’s Inn in 1616,[1] where he served in the chapel as minister until 1622.[19] In 1618 he became chaplain to Viscount Don- 9.1.4 Death caster, who was on an embassy to the princes of Germany. Donne did not return to England until 1620.[14] In 1621 It is thought that Donne’s ﬁnal illness was stomach can- Donne was made Dean of St Paul’s, a leading and well- cer, although this has not been proven. He died on 31 paid position in the Church of England, which he held until March 1631 having written many poems, most of which 112 CHAPTER 9. JOHN DONNE

Donne’s early career was also notable for his erotic poetry, especially his elegies, in which he employed uncon- ventional metaphors, such as a ﬂea biting two lovers being compared to sex.[11] In "Elegy XIX: To His Mistris Going to Bed" he poetically undressed his mistress and compared the act of fondling to the exploration of America. In “Elegy XVIII” he compared the gap between his lover’s breasts to the Hellespont.[11] Donne did not publish these poems, although he did allow them to circulate widely in manuscript form.[11]

... any mans death diminishes me, because I am involved in Mankinde; And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; It tolls for thee.. — Donne, Meditation XVII[21]

Some have speculated that Donne’s numerous illnesses, financial strain, and the deaths of his friends all contributed to the development of a more somber and pious tone in his later poems.[11] The change can be clearly seen in "An Anatomy of the World" (1611), a poem that Donne wrote in memory of Elizabeth Drury, daughter of his patron, Sir Robert Drury of Hawstead, Suffolk. This poem treats Memorial to John Donne, St Paul’s Cathedral Elizabeth’s demise with extreme gloominess, using it as a symbol for the Fall of Man and the destruction of the universe.[11] were circulated in manuscript during his lifetime. Donne The poem "A Nocturnal upon S. Lucy’s Day, Being the was buried in old St Paul’s Cathedral, where a memorial Shortest Day", concerns the poet’s despair at the death of a statue of him was erected (carved from a drawing of him in loved one. In it Donne expresses a feeling of utter negation his shroud), with a Latin epigraph probably composed by and hopelessness, saying that “I am every dead thing ... re- himself. Donne’s monument survived the 1666 fire, and is begot / Of absence, darkness, death.” This famous work was on display in the present building.[20] probably written in 1627 when both Donne’s friend Lucy, Countess of Bedford, and his daughter Lucy Donne died. Three years later, in 1630, Donne wrote his will on Saint 9.2 Writings Lucy’s day (13 December), the date the poem describes as “Both the year’s, and the day’s deep midnight”. 9.2.1 Early poetry The increasing gloominess of Donne’s tone may also be observed in the religious works that he began writing during Donne’s earliest poems showed a developed knowledge of the same period. His early belief in the value of scepti- English society coupled with sharp criticism of its prob- cism now gave way to a firm faith in the traditional teach- lems. His satires dealt with common Elizabethan topics, ings of the Bible. Having converted to the Anglican Church, such as corruption in the legal system, mediocre poets, and Donne focused his literary career on religious literature. He pompous courtiers. His images of sickness, vomit, manure, quickly became noted for his sermons and religious poems. and plague reflected his strongly satiric view of a world pop- The lines of these sermons and devotional works would ulated by all the fools and knaves of England. His third come to influence future works of English literature, such as satire, however, deals with the problem of true religion, a Ernest Hemingway's For Whom the Bell Tolls, which took matter of great importance to Donne. He argued that it was its title from a passage in Meditation XVII of Devotions better to examine carefully one’s religious convictions than upon Emergent Occasions, and Thomas Merton's No Man blindly to follow any established tradition, for none would is an Island, which took its title from the same source. be saved at the Final Judgment, by claiming “A Harry, or a Towards the end of his life Donne wrote works that chal- Martin taught [them] this.”[8] lenged death, and the fear that it inspired in many men, 9.4. LEGACY 113

on the grounds of his belief that those who die are sent tives. Common subjects of Donne’s poems are love (es- to Heaven to live eternally. One example of this challenge pecially in his early life), death (especially after his wife’s is his Holy Sonnet X, "Death Be Not Proud", from which death), and religion.[16] come the famous lines “Death, be not proud, though some John Donne’s poetry represented a shift from classical have called thee / Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so.” forms to more personal poetry. Donne is noted for his Even as he lay dying during Lent in 1631, he rose from his poetic metre, which was structured with changing and sickbed and delivered the Death’s Duel sermon, which was jagged rhythms that closely resemble casual speech (it was later described as his own funeral sermon. Death’s Duel for this that the more classical-minded Ben Jonson com- portrays life as a steady descent to suffering and death, yet mented that “Donne, for not keeping of accent, deserved sees hope in salvation and immortality through an embrace hanging”).[16] of God, Christ and the Resurrection.[16][11][22] Some scholars believe that Donne’s literary works reflect the changing trends of his life, with love poetry and satires 9.3 Style from his youth and religious sermons during his later years. Other scholars, such as Helen Gardner, question the validity of this dating—most of his poems were published posthu- His work has received much criticism over the years, espe- mously (1633). The exception to these is his Anniversaries, cially concerning his metaphysical form. Donne is generally which were published in 1612 and Devotions upon Emergent considered the most prominent member of the metaphysical Occasions published in 1624. His sermons are also dated, poets, a phrase coined in 1781 by Samuel Johnson, follow- sometimes specifically by date and year. ing a comment on Donne by John Dryden. Dryden had written of Donne in 1693: “He affects the metaphysics, not only in his satires, but in his amorous verses, where nature only should reign; and perplexes the minds of the fair sex 9.4 Legacy with nice speculations of philosophy, when he should engage their hearts, and entertain them with the softnesses of [23] Donne is commemorated as a priest in the calendar of the love.” In Life of Cowley (from Samuel Johnson’s 1781 Church of England and in the Calendar of Saints of the work of biography and criticism Lives of the Most Eminent Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on 31 March.[25] English Poets), Johnson refers to the beginning of the seventeenth century in which there “appeared a race of writ- Sylvia Plath, interviewed on BBC Radio in late 1962, said ers that may be termed the metaphysical poets”. Donne’s the following about a book review of her collection of po- immediate successors in poetry therefore tended to regard ems titled The Colossus and Other Poems that had been pub- his works with ambivalence, with the Neoclassical poets re- lished in the United Kingdom two years earlier: “I remem- garding his conceits as abuse of the metaphor. However ber being appalled when someone criticised me for begin- he was revived by Romantic poets such as Coleridge and ning just like John Donne but not quite managing to finish Browning, though his more recent revival in the early twen- like John Donne, and I felt the weight of English literature [26] tieth century by poets such as T. S. Eliot and critics like F on me at that point.” R Leavis tended to portray him, with approval, as an anti- The memorial to Donne, modelled after the engraving pic- [24] Romantic. tured above, was one of the few such memorials to survive Donne is considered a master of the metaphysical conceit, the Great Fire of London in 1666 and now appears in St [20] an extended metaphor that combines two vastly different Paul’s Cathedral where Donne is buried. In 2012 a bust ideas into a single idea, often using imagery.[8] An example of Donne by the sculptor Nigel Boonham was unveiled in [27] of this is his equation of lovers with saints in "The Can- St Paul’s Cathedral Churchyard. onization". Unlike the conceits found in other Elizabethan poetry, most notably Petrarchan conceits, which formed clichéd comparisons between more closely related objects 9.5 Donne in literature (such as a rose and love), metaphysical conceits go to a greater depth in comparing two completely unlike objects. One of the most famous of Donne’s conceits is found in Donne has appeared in several works of literature: "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning" where he compares two lovers who are separated to the two legs of a compass. • An excerpt from “Meditation 17 Devotions Upon Donne’s works are also witty, employing paradoxes, puns, Emergent Occasions” serves as the opening for Ernest and subtle yet remarkable analogies. His pieces are often Hemingway’s For Whom The Bell Tolls, and also pro- ironic and cynical, especially regarding love and human mo- duces the book’s title. 114 CHAPTER 9. JOHN DONNE

• One of the major plotlines of Diana Wynne Jones' novel Howl’s Moving Castle is based upon the poem “Song: Go and Catch a Falling Star,” with each of the lines in the poem coming true or being fulﬁlled by the main male character.

• Donne’s Songs and Sonnets feature in The Calligrapher (2003), a novel by Edward Docx.

• In the 2006 novel The Meaning of Night by Michael Cox, Donne’s works are frequently quoted.

• Donne appears, along with his wife Anne and daughter Pegge, in the award-winning novel Conceit (2007) by Mary Novik.

• Joseph Brodsky has a poem called “Elegy for John Donne”.

• The love story of Donne and Anne More is the subject of Maeve Haran’s 2010 historical novel The Lady and the Poet.

• Marilynne Robinson's Pulitzer prize-winning novel Gilead makes several references to Donne’s work.

• Donne’s poem 'A Fever' (incorrectly called 'The Fever') is mentioned in the penultimate paragraph of the novel "The Silence of the Lambs" by Thomas Har- ris.

John Donne Memorial by Nigel Boonham, 2012, St Paul’s Cathe- • Edmund “Bunny” Corcoran writes a paper on Donne dral Churchyard in Donna Tartt's novel The Secret History, in which he ties together Donne and Izaak Walton with help of an • The William Styron novel Set This House on Fire has its imaginary philosophy called “Metahemeralism”. title taken from one of Donne’s sermons and an excerpt • of that same sermon serves as the novel’s epigraph. Donne plays a significant role in Christie Dickason’s The Noble Assassin (2011), a novel based on the life • Donne is the favourite poet of Dorothy Sayers' fictional of Donne’s patron and putative lover, Lucy Russell, detective Lord Peter Wimsey, and the Wimsey books Countess of Bedford. include numerous quotations from, and allusions to, his work. • Donne is featured prominently in a number of Gwen Harwood's poems, including “A Valediction” and • Donne is mentioned in T. S. Eliot's poem Whispers of “The Sharpness of Death”. Immortality. • An excerpt from “Meditation 17 Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions” is paraphrased in E.B. White’s 9.6 Donne in popular culture essay “Death of a Pig.”[28] • The lines “I runne to Death, and Death meets me as • In Margaret Edson's Pulitzer prize-winning play Wit fast, and all my Pleasures are like Yesterday” from (1999), the main character, a professor of 17th- the “Holy Sonnet VII” are being quoted in the final century poetry specialising in Donne, is dying of can- scene of Val Lewton's 1943 horror movie The Sev- cer. The play was adapted for the HBO film Wit star- enth Victim. Another Lewton produced film, Cat Peo- ring Emma Thompson. ple (1942) directed by Jacques Tourneur, closes with • The plot of Neil Gaiman's novel Stardust is based upon a quote from the Holy Sonnets: “But black sin hath be- the poem “Song: Go and Catch a Falling Star,” with trayed to endless night. My world’s both parts and, O, the fallen star turned into a major character. both parts must die.” 9.7. WORK 115

• In 1962, Donne’s works were cited by physicist Robert • Donne’s poem 'Love’s Deity' serves as the lyrical basis Oppenheimer as having been the inspiration for choos- for the song “God of Love” by Stereo Alchemy featuring the code name "Trinity" for the first nuclear bomb ing Melissa Kaplan. test,[29] specifically the passage • The Lady and the Poet by Maeve Haran is a work of As West and East historical fiction, detailing the life of Donne’s wife Ann In all flatt Maps—and I am More, her meeting, and subsequent illicit relationship one—are one, with Donne himself. So death doth touch the Resurrec- • tion. In the opening scene of the episode “Rent” of the television series “Outlander” (S01E05), Caitriona Balfe, from the poem "Hymn to God, My God, as Claire Randall, and soon joined by Bill Paterson, as in My Sickness",[30] and the opening line Ned Gowan, recites the opening stanza of the poem to Holy Sonnets, Holy Sonnet 14:[31] “Absence, Hear thou my Protestation”, which they at- Batter my heart, three person'd tribute to John Donne: God Absence, hear thou my protesta- • John Renbourn, on his 1966 debut album John Ren- tion bourn, sings a version of the poem, “Song: Go and Against thy strength, Catch a Falling Star”. (He alters the last line to “False, Distance and length: ere I count one, two, three.”) Do what thou canst for alteration; For hearts of truest mettle • Tarwater, in their album Salon des Refusés, have put Absence doth still [sic: join], and “The Relic” to song. time doth settle. • Bob Chilcott has arranged a choral piece to Donne’s However, the poem should be attributed to “Go and Catch a Falling Star”. the poet John Hoskins. • • Van Morrison pays tribute to the poet in “Rave On In 2009, the American composer Jennifer Higdon John Donne” from his album "Inarticulate Speech of composed the choral piece On the Death of the Righ- [32] the Heart" and makes references in many other songs. teous set to the text of Donne. • • Lost in Austen, the British mini series based on Jane In 2015, the Russian сomposer Anton Batagov re- Austen's Pride and Prejudice, has Bingley refer to leased a recording of the vocal cycle to the poerty of Donne when he describes taking Jane to America, John Donne “I Fear No More. Selected Songs and “John Donne, don't you know? 'License my roving Meditations of John Donne” composed by him and hands,' and so forth.” performed by The State Academic Symphony Orches- tra of Russia.[33] • Las Cruces, in their album Ringmaster, used a sample • of “Death be not Proud” from the movie The Exorcist In the television series Alias, there are references to III for their song “Black Waters”. John Donne, and the opening lines of “No Man is an Island” are recited by CIA/SD6 double agent Sydney • In the beginning of the movie About a Boy, the quiz Bristow to unlock the subconscious of a man who was show mentions “No man is an island”, asking the com- programmed to be an assassin. petitors who coined the phrase. Donne is one of the answers and is of course, the correct answer. Hugh Grant, the main character, turns off the TV before 9.7 Work viewers are given the answer, and he himself answers the question incorrectly. • Biathanatos (1608) • In the computer game The Walking Dead, one of the • Pseudo-Martyr (1610) side characters, Chuck, says “Ask not for whom the bell tolls, for it tolls for thee”, a common misquotation • Ignatius His Conclave (1611) of a passage from Donne’s "Meditation XVII". • Devotions upon Emergent Occasions (1624) • Michael John Trotta has used the text from “Break of Day” in a choral setting for SATB voices. • Poems (1633) 116 CHAPTER 9. JOHN DONNE

9.8 See also [19] The chapel at Lincoln’s Inn guide book, plus commemorative plaque within 9.9 Notes [20] Cottrell, Dr Philip (University College Dublin). “The John Donne Monument (d. 1631) by Nicholas Stone”. Church Monuments Society. Retrieved 27 April 2012. [1] Colclough, “Donne, John (1572–1631)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September [21] The version of Meditation XVII found on wikiquote. Other 2004; online edn, October 2007 oxforddnb.com. Retrieved sources change Donne’s original orthography, phrasing and 18 May 2010 emphases, and have "... never ask for whom ...”

[2] Bookrags.com [22] Fulﬁlling the Circle: A Study of John Donne’s Thought by Terry G. Sherwood University of Toronto Press, 1984, p. [3] Luminarium.org 231

[4] Portraits of John Donne at the National Portrait Gallery, [23] Dryden, John, A Discourse Concerning the Original and London Progress of Satire (London, 1693)

[5] Schama, Simon (26 May 2009). “Simon Schama’s John [24] The Best Poems of the English Language. Harold Bloom. Donne”. BBC2. Retrieved 18 June 2009. HarperCollins Publishers, New York: 2004. pp. 138–139.

[6] “Donne, John” by Richard W. Langstaﬀ. Article from Col- [25] Evangelical Lutheran Worship – Final Draft (PDF). Augs- lier’s Encyclopedia, Volume 8. Bernard Johnston, general burg Fortress Press. 2006. Archived from the original editor. P.F. Colliers Inc., New York: 1988. pp. 346–349. (PDF) on 5 February 2012.

[7] “Donne, John”. Article in British Authors Before 1800: [26] Voices and Visions television documentary episode about A Biographical Dictionary. Edited by Stanley Kunitz and Sylvia Plath telecast on PBS for the ﬁrst time on 14 August Howard Haycraft. The H.W. Wilson Company, New York: 1988. Her recollection of the book revewier comparing her 1952. pp. 156–158 to Donne is from an audio clip of one of her BBC radio ap- pearances that she made in late 1962 after separating from [8] Greenblatt, Stephen. The Norton anthology of English liter- her husband, poet Ted Hughes. ature Eighth edition. W. W. Norton and Company, 2006. ISBN 0-393-92828-4. pp. 600–602 [27] “New John Donne statue unveiled in the shadow of St Paul’s”. The Chapter of St Paul’s Cathedral. 15 June 2012. [9] “Donne, John (DN615J)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. Retrieved 9 October 2015. University of Cambridge. [28] White, E.B. Essays of E.B. White, HarperPerennial, 1977. [10] Walton, Izaak (1999). Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions ISBN 0-06-0932236; p. 28. and Death’s Duel. New York: Random House. p. 180. ISBN 0375705481. [29] Rhodes 1986, pp. 571–572.

[11] Will and Ariel Durant. The Story of Civilization: Part VII: [30] Donne 1896, pp. 211–212. The Age of Reason Begins. Simon and Schuster: New York, 1961. pp. 154–156. [31] Donne 1896, p. 165.

[12] Walton, Izaak. The life of John Donne, Dr. in Divinity, and [32] Webster, Daniel (31 March 2009). “Two stirring requiems: late Dean of Saint Pauls, pr. by J. G. for R. Marriot, 1658. One old, the other new”. The Philadelphia Inquirer. Re- trieved 14 September 2015. [13] "Brooke, Samuel". Dictionary of National Biography. Lon- don: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. [33] “Anton Batagov - I fear no more”. FANCYMUSIC. 1 June 2015. Retrieved 23 October 2015. [14] Jokinen, Anniina. “The Life of John Donne”. Luminarium, 22 June 2006. Retrieved 22 January 2007.

[15] www.nndb.com 9.10 References

[16] Stephen Greenblatt, ed. (2012). “John Donne, 1572–1631”. • Bald, Robert Cecil (1970). John Donne, a Life. Ox- Norton Anthology of English Literature B (9 ed.). New York: ford University Press. Norton. pp. 1370–72. ISBN 9780393912500. • Brooks, Cleanth (2004). “The Language of Paradox”. [17] Lapham, Lewis. The End of the World. Thomas Dunne Books: New York, 1997. p. 98. In Julie Rivkin; Michael Ryan. Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed.). Wiley. pp. 28–39. ISBN 978-1- [18] www.poetryfoundation.org 4051-0696-2. 9.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 117

• Le Comte, Edward, Grace to a Witty Sinner: A Life of • Works by John Donne at LibriVox (public domain au- Donne, (Walker, 1965) diobooks)

• Lim, Kit, John Donne: An Eternity of Song, Penguin, • John Donne at Luminarium.org 2005. • Poems by John Donne at PoetryFoundation.org • Morrissey, Mary, Politics and the Paul’s Cross Ser- • mons, 1558–1642 (Oxford, 2011) John Donne’s Monument, St Paul’s Cathedral • • Sullivan, Ceri, The Rhetoric of the Conscience in Homepage of the John Donne Society Donne, Herbert, and Vaughan (Oxford, 2008) • Complete sermons of John Donne • Walton, Izaak, The life of John Donne, Dr. in Divinity, • John Donne: Sparknotes and late Dean of Saint Pauls, pr. by J.G. for R.Marriot, 1658. • The Donne Variorum

• Warnke, Frank J. John Donne, (U of Mass., Amherst • Digital Donne (digital images of early Donne editions 1987) and manuscripts)

• "Donne, John (1573-1631)". Dictionary of National • Michael John Trotta’s setting of Break of Day for Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. SATB/piano/English Horn

• Bald, R. C.: Donne’s Inﬂuence in English Literature. Peter Smith, Gloucester, Massachusetts USA, 1965.

• Carey, John: John Donne. Life, Mind and Art. Faber and Faber Limited, London 1981, revised and republished 1990.

• Berman, Antoine: Pour une critique des traductions: John Donne, Gallimard, Paris, 1995. Translated into English by Françoise Massardier-Kenney with the title Towards a Translation Criticism: John Donne.

• Colclough, David (2003). John Donne’s Professional Lives. DS Brewer. ISBN 978-0-85991-775-9.

• Grierson, Herbert J. C. (Ed.) (1902) The Poems of John Donne. Two volumes. (Oxford UP, 1912).

• Guibbory, Achsah (Editor): The Cambridge Compan- ion to Donne. Cambridge University Press, Cam- bridge, 2006.

• Stephen, Leslie (1898). "John Donne". Studies of a Biographer. London: Duckworth and Co. pp. 36–82.

• Stubbs, John (2007). John Donne: The Reformed Soul. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-14-190241-8.

9.11 External links

• John Donne on Encyclopædia Britannica

• Works by John Donne at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about John Donne at Internet Archive Chapter 10

Villette (novel)

Villette /viːˈlɛt/ is an 1853 novel by Charlotte Brontë. After 10.2 Locale an unspecified family disaster, the protagonist Lucy Snowe travels from England to the fictional French-speaking city The novel is set in the English countryside, in London, of Villette to teach at a girls’ school, where she is drawn and (mainly) in the fictional city of Villette (based upon into adventure and romance. Brussels) in the fictional Kingdom of Labassecour (based Villette was Charlotte Brontë's fourth novel. It was preceded upon Belgium). “Labassecour” is French for farmyard. by the posthumously published The Professor, her first, and then by Jane Eyre and Shirley. 10.3 Characters

Lucy Snowe: The narrator and main character of Villette. 10.1 Author’s background A quiet, self-reliant, intelligent, 23-year-old woman. Lucy has, as Miss Ginevra Fanshawe asserts, “no attractive accomplishments – no beauty.” She seems to have no living In 1842 Charlotte Brontë, at the age of 26, travelled to relatives. Brussels, Belgium, with her sister Emily. There they en- Though usually reserved and emotionally self-controlled, rolled in a pensionnat (boarding school) run by M. and Lucy has strong feelings and affections for those whom Mme. Constantin Héger. In return for board and tuition, she really values. She even sincerely cares for the giddy Charlotte taught English and Emily taught music. Ginevra, albeit in a blunt, curmudgeonly fashion. She is a The sisters’ time at the pensionnat was cut short when their firm Protestant and denounces Roman Catholicism as false aunt, Elizabeth Branwell, died in October 1842. Elizabeth (“God is not with Rome”). had joined the Brontë family to care for their children after M. Paul Emanuel: An irascible, autocratic, and male the death of Maria Brontë, née Maria Branwell, the mother chauvinist professor at Mme. Beck’s pensionnat. He is also of the Brontë sisters. a relative of Mme. Beck. Lucy relishes his good qualities. Charlotte returned, alone, to Brussels in January 1843 to He is generous; he delights in giving Lucy secret presents. take up a teaching post at the pensionnat. Her second stay He is kind and magnanimous, as is shown by his supporting in Brussels was not a happy one. She became lonely and and sheltering the elderly grandmother of his dead fiancée, homesick, and fell in love with M. Héger, a married man. Justine Marie, together with his former tutor and a servant. She finally returned to her family’s rectory in Haworth, He is a Catholic and tries to convert Lucy, a Protestant, to England, in January 1844. Catholicism but fails. At the end of the novel, it is strongly Charlotte drew on this source material for her first (albeit hinted that he dies in a shipwreck. unsuccessful) novel The Professor. After several publishers Dr. John Graham Bretton: A handsome young English had rejected it, Brontë reworked the material and made it gentleman who is a physician. He is the son of Lucy’s god- the basis of Villette. Most literary historians believe that the mother, Mrs. Bretton. He is described as “cheerful,” “be- character of M. Paul Emanuel is closely based upon that of nignant,” and “bland.” Lucy, when young, showed no par- M. Héger. Furthermore, the character of Graham Bretton is ticular fondness for him. However, when they meet again widely acknowledged to have been modelled upon Brontë's ten years later, their cool friendship is more than rekindled, publisher, George Murray Smith, who was her suitor at one and Lucy secretly begins to cherish an affection for him. He time . does not return this affection, however, and calls her “quiet

118 10.4. PLOT SUMMARY 119

Lucy Snowe” and “a being inoffensive as a shadow.” He has, bourgeois … .” She has good sense and is an excellent ad- at first, a passion for Ginevra Fanshawe, which she treats as ministrator. Lucy says, "[S]he had no heart to be touched: something that is “for amusement, sometimes.” Her love of it reminded her where she was impotent and dead.” Lucy money and a sneer at Mrs. Bretton quenches his love at last, further describes her as “wise, firm, faithless; secret, crafty, and he then falls in love with Polly. They eventually marry. passionless; watchful and inscrutable; acute and insensate Lucy conquers her love for him and buries all his treasured — withal perfectly decorous — what more could be de- letters to her, saying, “Good-night, Dr. John; you are good, sired?" She seems to have an attraction to Graham at first, you are beautiful but you are not mine. Good-night, and but that dies away quickly and she then seeks to marry M. God bless you!" Paul Emanuel. She does all she can to keep Lucy and Paul Mrs. Bretton: Dr. John Graham Bretton’s mother and apart. Lucy’s godmother. She is a widow and has “health with- Rosine: The pretty but unprincipled portress at Madame out flaw, and her spirits of that tone and equality which are Beck’s boarding school. She is “smart, trim, and pert” and better than a fortune to the possessor.” “not a bad sort of person,” according to Lucy. She likes to Polly Home/Countess Paulina Mary de Bassompierre: be bribed. A 17-year-old English girl who is a cousin of Ginevra Fan- shawe. She is first introduced to the story as a very young girl, who is called Polly. As a child, she was very fond of Graham Bretton. She grows to be a beautiful young 10.4 Plot summary lady who is delicate and intelligent. Upon meeting Graham again, their friendship develops into love, and they eventu- Villette begins with its famously passive protagonist, Lucy ally marry. She is somewhat prideful. Lucy says of her, Snowe, age 14, staying at the home of her godmother Mrs. “She looked a mere doll,” and describes her as shaped like Bretton in “the clean and ancient town of Bretton”, in Eng- “a model.” She and Lucy are friends. Although Lucy is of- land. Also in residence are Mrs. Bretton’s son, John Gra- ten pained by Polly’s relationship with Graham, she looks ham Bretton (whom the family calls Graham), and a young upon their happiness without a grudge. visitor, Paulina Home (who is called Polly). Polly is a pecu- Count de Bassompierre: Polly’s father, who inherited his liar little girl who soon develops a deep devotion to Graham, noble title within recent years. He is a sensitive and thought- who showers her with attention. But Polly’s visit is cut short ful Count who loves his daughter. When he notices Polly’s when her father arrives to take her away. relationship with Graham, he is very averse to parting with For reasons that are not stated, Lucy leaves Mrs. Bretton’s her. He regards her as a mere child and calls her his “lit- home a few weeks after the Polly’s departure. Some years tle treasure” or “little Polly.” He at last relinquishes Polly to pass, during which an unspecified family tragedy leaves Graham, saying, “May God deal with you as you deal with Lucy without family, home, or means. After some initial her!" hesitation, she is hired as a caregiver by Miss Marchmont, a Ginevra Fanshawe: A beautiful but shallow and vain 18- rheumatic crippled woman. Lucy is soon accustomed to her year-old English girl with a light, careless temperament. work and has begun to feel content with her quiet lifestyle. She is an incorrigible coquette and has a relish for flirtation. During an evening of dramatic weather changes, Miss She is a student at Madame Beck’s, and it is her passing re- Marchmont regains all her energy and feels young again. mark, “I wish you would come to Madame Beck’s; she has She shares with Lucy her sad love story of 30 years previ- some marmots you might look after: she wants an English ously, and concludes that she should treat Lucy better and gouvernante, or was wanting one two months ago,” which be a better person. She believes that death will reunite her prompts Lucy to go to Villette. Despite Ginevra’s faults, with her dead lover. The next morning, Lucy finds Miss Lucy cherishes a certain fondness for her. Ginevra thinks Marchmont dead. of Lucy as “caustic, ironic, and cynical,” calling her “old lady,” “dear crosspatch,” and most frequently "Timon" (af- Lucy then leaves the English countryside and goes to ter a Greek misanthrope who lived during the 5th century London. At the age of 23, she boards a ship for Labassecour BC). She eventually elopes with a man named Count Alfred despite knowing very little French. She travels to the city de Hamal and keeps in touch with Lucy via letters. of Villette, where she finds employment as a bonne (nanny) at Mme. Beck’s boarding school for girls. (This school is Madame Beck: The owner and headmistress of the board- seen as being based upon the Hégers’ Brussels pensionnat). ing school for girls where Lucy is employed. She is short After a time, she is hired to teach English at the school, and stout, but not uncomely. Her complexion is fresh and in addition to having to mind Mme. Beck’s three children. sanguine, with the colour, but not the texture, of youth. Her She thrives despite Mme. Beck’s constant surveillance of eyes are blue and serene; “She looked well, though a little the staff and students. 120 CHAPTER 10. VILLETTE (NOVEL)

“Dr. John,” a handsome English doctor, frequently visits 10.5 Themes the school because of his love for the coquette Ginevra Fan- shawe. In one of Villette's famous plot twists, “Dr. John” is Villette is noted not so much for its plot as for its acute trac- later revealed to be John Graham Bretton, a fact that Lucy ing of Lucy’s psychology. has known but has deliberately concealed from the reader. After Dr. John (i.e., Graham) discovers Ginevra’s unwor- The novel is sometimes celebrated as an exploration of thiness, he turns his attention to Lucy, and they become gender roles and repression. In The Madwoman in the Attic, close friends. She values this friendship highly despite her critics Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar have argued that usual emotional reserve. the character of Lucy Snowe is based in part on William Wordsworth's Lucy poems. Gilbert and Gubar emphasise We meet Polly (Paulina Home) again at this point; her fa- the idea of feminine re-writing. Some critics have explored ther has inherited the title “de Bassompierre” and is now the issues of Lucy’s psychological state in terms of what a Count. Thus her name is now Paulina Home de Bassom- they call “patriarchal constructs” which form her cultural pierre. Polly and Graham soon discover that they knew each context.[1] other in the past and renew their friendship. They fall in love and eventually marry. Villette also explores isolation and cross-cultural conflict in Lucy’s attempts to master the French language, as Lucy becomes progressively closer to a colleague, the iras- well as conflicts between her English Protestantism and cible, autocratic, and male chauvinist professor, M. Paul Catholicism. Her denunciation of Catholicism is unspar- Emanuel, a relative of Mme. Beck. Lucy and Paul evening: e.g., “God is not with Rome.” tually fall in love. However, a group of conspiring antagonists, including Mme. Beck, the priest Père Silas, and the relatives of M. 10.6 Criticism Paul’s long-dead fiancée, work to keep the two apart. They finally succeed in forcing M. Paul’s departure for the West Indies to oversee a plantation there. He nonetheless declares "Villette is a still more wonderful book than Jane Eyre. his love for Lucy before his departure and arranges for her There is something almost preternatural in its power.”— to live independently as the headmistress of her own day George Eliot school, which she later expands into a pensionnat (boarding “There are so few books, and so many volumes. Among the school). few stands Villette.”—George Henry Lewes During the course of the novel, Lucy has three encounters “It is her finest novel. All her force, and it is the more with the figure of a nun — which may be the ghost of a nun tremendous for being constricted, goes into the assertion, who was buried alive on the school’s grounds as punishment 'I love. I hate. I suffer.'"—Virginia Woolf for breaking her vow of chastity. In a highly symbolic scene The Daily Telegraph, 21 Apr 2014, Lucy Hughes-Hallett : near the end of the novel, she discovers the “nun’s” habit in “Charlotte Brontë : Why Villette is better than Jane Eyre” her bed and destroys it. She later finds out that it was a disguise worn by Ginevra’s amour, Alfred de Hamal. The episodes with the nun no doubt contributed substantially to the novel’s reputation as a gothic novel. 10.7 Adaptations Villette's final pages are ambiguous. Although Lucy says that she wants to leave the reader free to imagine a happy 10.7.1 In print ending, she hints strongly that M. Paul’s ship was destroyed by a storm during his return journey from the West Indies. Jamaica Kincaid's novel Lucy (1990) draws numerous She says that, “M. Emanuel was away three years. Reader, themes, character names, and plot elements from Villette, they were the three happiest years of my life.” This passage both echoing its concern of female repression while also of- suggests that he was drowned by the “destroying angel of fering an implicit postcolonial critique of the novel’s slave- tempest.” owning love interest.[2] Brontë described the ambiguity of the ending as a “little puzzle.” 10.7.2 In dramatisations

In 1970, the BBC produced a television miniseries based on Villette, directed by Moira Armstrong and written by Lennox Phillips. It starred Judy Parﬁtt as Lucy Snowe, 10.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 121

Bryan Marshall as Dr. John Graham Bretton, Peter Jeﬀrey as Paul Emanuel, and Mona Bruce as Mme. Beck.[3] In 1999, the novel was adapted as a three-hour radio serial for BBC Radio 4.[4] It was broadcast in February 1999 with Catherine McCormack as Lucy Snowe, Joseph Fiennes as Dr. Graham Bretton, Harriet Walter as Mme. Beck, James Laurenson as M. Paul Emanuel, and Keira Knightley as Polly. It was directed by Catherine Bailey and written by James Friel. Villette went on to win a Sony Award.[5] In August 2009, the novel was adapted as a two-week-long serial for BBC Radio 4,[6] directed by Tracey Neale and with Anna Maxwell Martin as Lucy Snowe.

10.8 See also

• Jane Eyre • The Professor (novel)

• Shirley (novel)

10.9 References

[1] Machuca, Daniela, “My own still shadow-world” : melancholy and feminine intermediacy in Charlotte Brontë's Vil- lette, eCommons@USASK.

[2] Yost, David. “A Tale of Three Lucys.” MELUS 31.2 (2006).

[3] Villette at the IMDb

[4] Actors fear for future of radio drama, BBC News (15 Jan- uary 1999)

[5] Villette on BBC7 (3 February 2006)

[6] Woman’s Hour Drama

10.10 External links

•

• Villette at Project Gutenberg

• Villette public domain audiobook at LibriVox • Villette free ebook in PDF, PDB and LIT formats

• Villette at Classic Reader • Villette Map Chapter 11

Charlotte Brontë

Charlotte Brontë (/ˈbrɒnti/, commonly /ˈbrɒnteɪ/;[1] 21 exist in incomplete manuscripts, some of which have been April 1816 – 31 March 1855) was an English novelist and published as juvenilia. They provided them with an obses- poet, the eldest of the three Brontë sisters who survived into sive interest during childhood and early adolescence, which adulthood and whose novels have become classics of En- prepared them for literary vocations in adulthood.[4] glish literature. She ﬁrst published her works (including her best known novel, Jane Eyre) under the pen name Currer Bell.

11.1 Early life and education

Charlotte was born in Thornton, west of Bradford in the West Riding of Yorkshire, in 1816, the third of the six children of Maria (née Branwell) and Patrick Brontë (formerly surnamed Brunty or Prunty), an Irish Anglican clergyman. In 1820 her family moved a few miles to the village of Haworth, where her father had been appointed perpetual curate of St Michael and All Angels Church. Maria died of cancer on 15 September 1821, leaving five daughters, Maria, Elizabeth, Charlotte, Emily and Anne, and a son, Branwell, to be taken care of by her sister, Elizabeth Bran- well. Roe Head School In August 1824 Patrick sent Charlotte, Emily, Maria and Elizabeth to the Clergy Daughters’ School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire. Charlotte maintained that the school’s poor Between 1831 and 1832 Charlotte continued her education conditions permanently affected her health and physical de- at Roe Head in Mirfield, where she met her lifelong friends velopment, and hastened the deaths of Maria (born 1814) and correspondents Ellen Nussey and Mary Taylor.[2] In and Elizabeth (born 1815), who both died of tuberculosis in 1833 she wrote a novella, The Green Dwarf, using the name June 1825. After the deaths of her older sisters her father Wellesley. She returned to Roe Head as a teacher from removed Charlotte and Emily from the school.[2] Charlotte 1835 to 1838. used the school as the basis for Lowood School in Jane Eyre. In 1839 she took up the first of many positions as governess At home in Haworth Parsonage Charlotte acted as “the to families in Yorkshire, a career she pursued until 1841. In motherly friend and guardian of her younger sisters”.[3] She particular, from May to July 1839 she was employed by the and her surviving siblings — Branwell, Emily and Anne – Sidgwick family at their summer residence, Stone Gappe, created their own fictional worlds, and began chronicling in Lothersdale, where one of her charges was John Benson the lives and struggles of the inhabitants of their imaginary Sidgwick (1835–1927), an unruly child who on one occa- kingdoms. Charlotte and Branwell wrote Byronic stories sion threw a Bible at Charlotte, an incident that may have about their jointly imagined country, Angria, and Emily been the inspiration for a part of the opening chapter of and Anne wrote articles and poems about Gondal. The Jane Eyre in which John Reed throws a book at the young sagas they created were episodic and elaborate, and they Jane.[5]

122 11.4. THE PROFESSOR AND JANE EYRE 123

11.2 Brussels of writing and thinking was not what is called “feminine” – we had a vague impression that au- thoresses are liable to be looked on with prejudice; we had noticed how critics sometimes use for their chastisement the weapon of personality, and for their reward, a ﬂattery, which is not true praise.[7]

Although only two copies of the collection of poems were sold, the sisters continued writing for publication and began their ﬁrst novels, continuing to use their noms de plume when sending manuscripts to potential publishers.

11.4 The Professor and Jane Eyre Plaque in Brussels Main article: Jane Eyre In 1842 Charlotte and Emily travelled to Brussels to enrol Charlotte’s ﬁrst manuscript, The Professor, did not secure at the boarding school run by Constantin Héger (1809–96) and his wife Claire Zoé Parent Héger (1804–87). In return for board and tuition Charlotte taught English and Emily taught music. Their time at the school was cut short when their aunt Elizabeth Branwell, who had joined the family in Haworth to look after the children after their mother’s death, died of internal obstruction in October 1842. Char- lotte returned alone to Brussels in January 1843 to take up a teaching post at the school. Her second stay was not happy: she was homesick and deeply attached to Constantin Héger. She returned to Haworth in January 1844 and used the time spent in Brussels as the inspiration for some of the events in The Professor and Villette.

11.3 First publication

In May 1846 Charlotte, Emily and Anne self-ﬁnanced the publication of a joint collection of poems under their assumed names Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell. The pseudonyms veiled the sisters’ gender while preserving their initials; thus Charlotte was Currer Bell. “Bell” was the middle name of Haworth’s curate, Arthur Bell Nicholls whom Charlotte later married, whilst “Currer” was the surname of Frances Mary Richardson Currer who had funded their school (and maybe their father).[6] Of the decision to use noms de plume, Charlotte wrote:

Averse to personal publicity, we veiled our own names under those of Currer, Ellis and Ac- ton Bell; the ambiguous choice being dictated Title page of the first edition of Jane Eyre by a sort of conscientious scruple at assuming Christian names positively masculine, while we a publisher, although she was heartened by an encouraging did not like to declare ourselves women, because response from Smith, Elder & Co. of Cornhill, who ex- — without at that time suspecting that our mode pressed an interest in any longer works Currer Bell might 124 CHAPTER 11. CHARLOTTE BRONTË wish to send.[8] Charlotte responded by finishing and send- second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, an action which ing a second manuscript in August 1847. Six weeks later had a deleterious effect on Anne’s popularity as a novelist Jane Eyre: An Autobiography was published. It tells the and has remained controversial amongst the sisters’ biogra- story of a plain governess, Jane, who, after difficulties in phers ever since.[17] her early life, falls in love with her employer, Mr Rochester. They marry, but only after Rochester’s insane first wife, of whom Jane initially has no knowledge, dies in a dramatic house fire. The book’s style was innovative, combining naturalism with gothic melodrama, and broke new ground in being written from an intensely evoked first-person female perspective.[9] Charlotte believed art was most con- vincing when based on personal experience; in Jane Eyre she transformed the experience into a novel with universal appeal.[10] Jane Eyre had immediate commercial success and initially received favourable reviews. G. H. Lewes wrote that it was “an utterance from the depths of a struggling, suffering, much-enduring spirit,” and declared that it consisted of "suspiria de profundis!" (sighs from the depths).[10] Spec- ulation about the identity and gender of the mysterious Currer Bell heightened with the publication of Wuthering Heights by Ellis Bell (Emily) and Agnes Grey by Acton Bell (Anne).[11] Accompanying the speculation was a change in the critical reaction to Charlotte’s work, as accusations were made that the writing was “coarse”,[12] a judgement more readily made once it was suspected that Currer Bell was a woman.[13] However, sales of Jane Eyre continued to be strong and may even have increased as a result of the novel developing a reputation as an “improper” book.[14]

Disputed photograph taken about 1855; sources are in disagree- 11.5 Shirley and bereavements ment over whether this image is of Charlotte or of her friend, Ellen Nussey.[18][19] In 1848 Charlotte began work on the manuscript of her second novel, Shirley. It was only partially completed when the Brontë family suffered the deaths of three of its members within eight months. In September 1848 Branwell 11.6 In society died of chronic bronchitis and marasmus, exacerbated by heavy drinking, although Charlotte believed that his death In view of the success of her novels, particularly Jane Eyre, was due to tuberculosis. Branwell was also a suspected Charlotte was persuaded by her publisher to make occa- "opium eater"; a laudanum addict. Emily became seriously sional visits to London, where she revealed her true identity ill shortly after Branwell’s funeral and died of pulmonary and began to move in more exalted social circles, becoming tuberculosis in December 1848. Anne died of the same friends with Harriet Martineau and Elizabeth Gaskell, and disease in May 1849. Charlotte was unable to write at this acquainted with William Makepeace Thackeray and G.H. time. Lewes. She never left Haworth for more than a few weeks at After Anne’s death Charlotte resumed writing as a way of a time, as she did not want to leave her ageing father. Thack- dealing with her grief,[15] and Shirley, which deals with eray’s daughter, writer Anne Isabella Thackeray Ritchie, re- themes of industrial unrest and the role of women in so- called a visit to her father by Charlotte: ciety, was published in October 1849. Unlike Jane Eyre, which is written in the first person, Shirley is written in the ... two gentlemen come in, leading a tiny, del- third person and lacks the emotional immediacy of her first icate, serious, little lady, with fair straight hair novel,[16] and reviewers found it less shocking. Charlotte, as and steady eyes. She may be a little over thirty; her late sister’s heir, suppressed the republication of Anne’s she is dressed in a little barège dress with a pattern 11.8. MARRIAGE 125

of faint green moss. She enters in mittens, in si- a first-person perspective (that of Lucy Snowe); the tech- lence, in seriousness; our hearts are beating with nique she had used in Jane Eyre. Another similarity to Jane wild excitement. This then is the authoress, the Eyre lies in the use of aspects of her own life as inspiration unknown power whose books have set all Lon- for fictional events;[22] in particular her reworking of the don talking, reading, speculating; some people time she spent at the pensionnat in Brussels. Villette was even say our father wrote the books – the won- acknowledged by critics of the day as a potent and sophisti- derful books. ... The moment is so breathless cated piece of writing although it was criticised for “coarse- that dinner comes as a relief to the solemnity of ness” and for not being suitably “feminine” in its portrayal the occasion, and we all smile as my father stoops of Lucy’s desires.[23] to offer his arm; for, genius though she may be, Miss Brontë can barely reach his elbow. My own personal impressions are that she is somewhat 11.8 Marriage grave and stern, specially to forward little girls who wish to chatter. ... Everyone waited for the Before the publication of Villette Charlotte received a pro- brilliant conversation which never began at all. posal of marriage from Arthur Bell Nicholls, her father’s Miss Brontë retired to the sofa in the study, and curate, who had long been in love with her. She initially murmured a low word now and then to our kind turned down his proposal and her father objected to the governess ... the conversation grew dimmer and union at least partly because of Nicholls’s poor financial more dim, the ladies sat round still expectant, my status.[24] Elizabeth Gaskell, who believed that marriage father was too much perturbed by the gloom and provided “clear and defined duties” that were beneficial for the silence to be able to cope with it at all ... af- a woman,[24] encouraged Charlotte to consider the positive ter Miss Brontë had left, I was surprised to see aspects of such a union and tried to use her contacts to my father opening the front door with his hat on. engineer an improvement in Nicholls’s finances.[24] Char- He put his fingers to his lips, walked out into the lotte meanwhile was increasingly attracted to Nicholls and darkness, and shut the door quietly behind him by January 1854 she had accepted his proposal. They ... long afterwards ... Mrs Procter asked me if I gained the approval of her father by April and married in knew what had happened. ... It was one of the June.[25] They took their honeymoon in Banagher, Co. Of- dullest evenings [Mrs Procter] had ever spent in faly, Ireland.[26] her life ... the ladies who had all come expecting so much delightful conversation, and the gloom and the constraint, and how finally, overwhelmed by the situation, my father had quietly left the 11.9 Death room, left the house, and gone off to his club.[20] Charlotte became pregnant soon after her wedding, but Charlotte’s friendship with Elizabeth Gaskell, while not par- her health declined rapidly and, according to Gaskell, she ticularly close, was significant in that Gaskell wrote the first was attacked by “sensations of perpetual nausea and ever- biography of Charlotte after her death in 1855. recurring faintness.”[27] She died, with her unborn child, on 31 March 1855, aged 38. Her death certificate gives the cause of death as phthisis, but many biographers suggest 11.7 Villette that she died from dehydration and malnourishment due to vomiting caused by severe morning sickness or hyperemesis Charlotte’s third novel, the last published in her lifetime, gravidarum. There is also evidence that she died from was Villette, which appeared in 1853. Its main themes in- typhus, which she may have caught from Tabitha Ackroyd, clude isolation, how such a condition can be borne,[21] and the Brontë household’s oldest servant, who died shortly be- the internal conflict brought about by social repression of fore her. Charlotte was interred in the family vault in the individual desire.[22] Its main character, Lucy Snowe, trav- Church of St Michael and All Angels at Haworth. els abroad to teach in a boarding school in the fictional The Professor, the first novel Charlotte had written, was town of Villette, where she encounters a culture and reli- published posthumously in 1857. The fragment of a new gion different from her own, and falls in love with a man novel she had been writing in her last years has been twice (Paul Emanuel) whom she cannot marry. Her experiences completed by recent authors, the more famous version be- result in a breakdown but eventually she achieves indepen- ing Emma Brown: A Novel from the Unfinished Manuscript dence and fulfilment through running her own school. A by Charlotte Brontë by Clare Boylan in 2003. Most of her substantial amount of the novel’s dialogue is in the French writings about the imaginary country Angria have also been language. Villette marked Charlotte’s return to writing from published since her death. 126 CHAPTER 11. CHARLOTTE BRONTË

11.10 The Life of Charlotte Brontë 11.11 Héger letters

On 29 July 1913 The Times of London printed four letters Charlotte had written to Constantin Héger after leaving Brussels in 1844.[32] Written in French except for one postscript in English, the letters broke the prevailing image of Charlotte as an angelic martyr to Christian and female duties that had been constructed by many biographers, beginning with Gaskell.[32] The letters, which formed part of a larger and somewhat one-sided correspondence in which Héger frequently appears not to have replied, reveal that she had been in love with a married man, although they are complex and have been interpreted in numerous ways, including as an example of literary self-dramatisation and an expression of gratitude from a former pupil.[32]

11.12 Publications

Portrait by J. H. Thompson at the Brontë Parsonage Museum

Elizabeth Gaskell's biography The Life of Charlotte Brontë was published in 1857. It was an important step for a leading female novelist to write a biography of another,[28] and Gaskell’s approach was unusual in that, rather than analysing her subject’s achievements, she concentrated on private details of Charlotte’s life, emphasising those aspects that countered the accusations of “coarseness” that had been levelled at her writing.[28] The biography is frank in places, but omits details of Charlotte’s love for Héger, a married man, as being too much of an affront to contemporary morals and a likely source of distress to Charlotte’s father, widower and friends.[29] Mrs Gaskell also provided doubtful and inaccurate information about Patrick Brontë, claiming that he did not allow his children to eat meat. This is refuted by one of Emily Brontë's diary papers, in which she describes preparing meat and potatoes for dinner at the parsonage.[30] It has been argued that Gaskell’s approach Branwell Brontë, Painting of the 3 Brontë Sisters, l to r Anne, Emily transferred the focus of attention away from the 'difficult' and Charlotte Brontë. Branwell painted himself out of this portrait novels, not just Charlotte’s, but all the sisters’, and began a of his three sisters. process of sanctification of their private lives.[31] 11.13. NOTES 127

• The Duke of Zamorna • Henry Hastings • Caroline Vernon • The Roe Head Journal Fragments

The Green Dwarf, A Tale of the Perfect Tense was written in 1833 under the pseudonym Lord Charles Albert Flo- rian Wellesley. It shows the inﬂuence of Walter Scott, and Charlotte’s modiﬁcations to her earlier gothic style have led Christine Alexander to comment that, in the work, “it is clear that Brontë was becoming tired of the gothic mode per se".[33]

11.12.2 Novels

• Jane Eyre, published 1847 • Shirley, published in 1849 • Villette, published in 1853 • The Professor, written before Jane Eyre, submitted at ﬁrst along with Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey, then separately, and rejected by many publishing houses, published posthumously in 1857 • Emma, unﬁnished; Charlotte Brontë wrote only 20 An idealised posthumous portrait by Duyckinick, 1873, based on a pages of the manuscript, published posthumously in drawing by George Richmond 1860. In recent decades at least two continuations of this fragment have appeared: 11.12.1 Juvenilia • Emma, by “Charlotte Brontë and Another Lady”, published 1980; although this has been at- • The Young Men’s Magazine, Number 1 – 3 (August tributed to Elizabeth Goudge,[34] the actual au- 1830) thor was Constance Savery.[35] • • The Spell Emma Brown, by Clare Boylan, published 2003

• The Secret 11.12.3 Poetry • Lily Hart • Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell (1846) • The Foundling • Selected Poems of the Brontës, Everyman Poetry • The Green Dwarf (1997) • My Angria and the Angrians

• Albion and Marina 11.13 Notes • Tales of the Islanders [1] As given by Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of Literature (Merriam-Webster, incorporated, Publishers: Springfield, • Tales of Angria (written 1838–1839 – a collection of Massachusetts, 1995), p viii: “When our research shows that childhood and young adult writings including five short an author’s pronunciation of his or her name differs from novels) common usage, the author’s pronunciation is listed first, and the descriptor commonly precedes the more familiar pro- • Mina Laury nunciation.” See also entries on Anne, Charlotte and Emily • Stancliffe’s Hotel Brontë, pp 175–176. 128 CHAPTER 11. CHARLOTTE BRONTË

[2] Fraser 2008, p. 261. [27] “Real life plot twists of famous authors”. CNN. 25 Septem- ber 2007. Retrieved 12 June 2013. [3] Cousin, John (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. E.P. Dutton & Co. [28] Miller 2002, p. 57.

[4] Miller 2005, p. 5. [29] Lane 1953, pp. 178–83.

[5] Phillips-Evans 2012, pp. 260–261. [30] Juliet Barker, The Brontës

[6] Lee, Colin (2004). “Currer, Frances Mary Richardson [31] Miller 2002, pp. 57–58. (1785–1861)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. [32] Miller 2002, p. 109. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 1 November 2014. [33] Alexander 1993, pp. 430–432. [7] “Biographical Notice of Ellis And Acton Bell”, from the preface to the 1910 edition of Wuthering Heights. [34] “Review of Emma Brown by Charlotte Cory”. The Indepen- dent. 13 September 2003. Archived from the original on 19 [8] Miller 2002, p. 14. September 2011. Retrieved 12 June 2013.

[9] Miller 2002, pp. 12–13. [35] “Constance Savery, Life and Works”. www. constancesavery.com. Retrieved 12 June 2013.; see [10] Miller 2002, p. 13. for example Publishers of Savery’s Adult Novels. [11] Miller 2002, p. 15. [12] Fraser 2008, p. 24. 11.14 References [13] Miller 2002, p. 17. • Alexander, Christine (March 1993). "'That King- [14] North American Review, October 1848, cited in The Bron- dom of Gloo': Charlotte Brontë, the Annuals and the tës: The Critical Heritage by Allott, M. (ed.), Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974, cited in Miller (p18) Gothic”. Nineteenth-Century Literature 47 (4): 409– 436. [15] Letter from Charlotte to her publisher, 25 June 1849, from • Smith, M, ed. (1995). The Letters of Charlotte Brontë: Vol- Fraser, Rebecca (2008). Charlotte Brontë: A Writer’s ume Two, 1848 – 1851. Clarendon Press. cited in Miller Life (2 ed.). New York: Pegasus Books LLC. p. 261. 2002, p. 19 ISBN 978-1-933648-88-0.

[16] Miller 2002, p. 19. • Lane, Margaret (1953). The Brontë Story: a reconsid- eration of Mrs. Gaskell’s Life of Charlotte Brontë. [17] The Novels of Anne Brontë. • Miller, Lucasta (2002). The Brontë Myth. London: [18] http://www.the-tls.co.uk/tls/public/article1613719.ece Vintage. ISBN 0-09-928714-5. [19] Side-by-side comparisons between the photo and un- • Miller, Lucasta (2005). The Brontë Myth. New York: doubted photographs of Nussey can be found at http://www. Anchor. ISBN 978-1400078356. brontesisters.co.uk/Photo-of-Charlotte-Bronte.html • Phillips-Evans, James (2012). The Longcrofts: 500 [20] Anne Isabella Thackeray Ritchie. Chapters from Some Memoirs. cited in Sutherland, James (ed.) The Oxford Book Years of a British Family. Amazon. pp. 260–261. of Literary Anecdotes. OUP, 1975. ISBN 0-19-812139-3. ISBN 978-1481020886. • [21] Reid Banks, L. (1977). Path to the Silent Country. Penguin. This article incorporates text from a publication now p. 113. in the public domain: Cousin, John William (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. [22] Miller 2002, p. 47. London: J. M. Dent & Sons. Wikisource [23] Miller 2002, p. 52. [24] Miller 2002, p. 54. 11.15 Further reading [25] Miller 2002, p. 55. • The Letters of Charlotte Brontë, 3 volumes edited by [26] Alexander, Christine; Sellars, Jane (1995). The Art of the Margaret Smith Brontës. Cambridge University Press. p. 402. ISBN 0-521- 43248-0. • The Life of Charlotte Brontë, Elizabeth Gaskell 11.16. EXTERNAL LINKS 129

• Charlotte Brontë, Winifred Gérin • Charlotte Brontë – Drawing by George Richmond (National Portrait Gallery) • Charlotte Brontë: a passionate life, Lyndal Gordon • Modern Day Images of Charlotte Brontë Residences • The Literary Protégées of the Lake Poets, Dennis Low (Chapter 1 contains a revisionist contextualisation of • Charlotte Brontë at the Internet Book List Robert Southey’s infamous letter to Charlotte Brontë) • More Information about Charlotte Brontë • Charlotte Brontë: Unquiet Soul, Margot Peters • Charlotte’s Web: A Hypertext on Charlotte Brontë's • In the Footsteps of the Brontës, Ellis Chadwick Jane Eyre

• The Brontës, Juliet Barker • Memorial Page for Charlotte Brontë on FindaGrave

• Charlotte Brontë and her Dearest Nell, Barbara White- • Various images depicting residences of Charlotte head Brontë

• The Brontë Myth, Lucasta Miller • List of the 100 greatest novels of all time

• A Life in Letters, selected by Juliet Barker • 'The Secret' and 'Lily Hart': An Early Manuscript by Charlotte Brontë • Charlotte Brontë and Defensive Conduct: The Author and the Body at Risk, Janet Gezari, University of Penn- sylvania Press, 1992

• Charlotte Brontë: Truculent Spirit, by Valerie Grosvenor Myer, 1987

• Charlotte Brontë and her Family, Rebecca Fraser

• The Oxford Reader’s Companion to the Brontës, Chris- tine Alexander & Margaret Smith

• A Brontë Family Chronology, Edward Chitham

• The Crimes of Charlotte Brontë, James Tully, 1999

• I Love Charlotte Brontë, Michelle Daly 2009

11.16 External links

• Website of the Brontë Society and Parsonage Museum in Haworth, Yorkshire

• Online editions of Charlotte Brontë's works at eBooks@Adelaide

• Works by Charlotte Brontë at Project Gutenberg

• Charlotte Brontë and Her Circle, by Clement K. Shorter, from Project Gutenberg • 'Napoleon and the Spectre', taken from the manuscript of the Green Dwarf

• Works by or about Charlotte Brontë at Internet Archive

• Works by Charlotte Brontë at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Chapter 12

In Search of Lost Time

“Swann’s Way” redirects here. For other similar titles, see 12.1 Initial publication Swans Way (disambiguation). The novel was initially published in seven volumes: In Search of Lost Time (French: À la recherche du temps perdu)—also translated as Remembrance of Things 1. Swann’s Way (Du côté de chez Swann, sometimes Past—is a novel in seven volumes by Marcel Proust (1871– translated as The Way by Swann’s) (1913) was rejected 1922). His most prominent work, it is known both for its by a number of publishers, including Fasquelle, Ollen- length and its theme of involuntary memory, the most fa- dorff, and the Nouvelle Revue Française (NRF). André mous example being the “episode of the madeleine" which Gide was famously given the manuscript to read to occurs early in the first volume. It gained fame in English in advise NRF on publication and, leafing through the translations by C. K. Scott Moncrieff and Terence Kilmartin seemingly endless collection of memories and philos- as Remembrance of Things Past, but the title In Search of ophizing or melancholic episodes, came across a few Lost Time, a literal rendering of the French, has gained us- minor syntactic errors, which made him decide to turn age since D. J. Enright adopted it for his revised translation the work down in his audit. Proust eventually arranged published in 1992. with the publisher Grasset to pay the cost of pub- The novel began to take shape in 1909. Proust continued lication himself. When published it was advertised to work on it until his final illness in the autumn of 1922 as the first of a three-volume novel (Bouillaguet and forced him to break off. Proust established the structure Rogers, 316-7). Du côté de chez Swann is divided into early on, but even after volumes were initially finished he four parts: "Combray I” (sometimes referred to in En- kept adding new material and edited one volume after an- glish as the “Overture”), “Combray II,” “Un Amour other for publication. The last three of the seven volumes de Swann,” and “Noms de pays: le nom.” ('Names of contain oversights and fragmentary or unpolished passages, places: the name'). A third-person novella within Du as they existed only in draft form at the death of the author; côté de chez Swann, “Un Amour de Swann” is some- the publication of these parts was overseen by his brother times published as a volume by itself. As it forms Robert. the self-contained story of Charles Swann’s love affair with Odette de Crécy and is relatively short, it is gener- The work was published in France between 1913 and 1927. ally considered a good introduction to the work and is Proust paid for the publication of the first volume (by the often a set text in French schools. “Combray I” is also Grasset publishing house) after it had been turned down similarly excerpted; it ends with the famous madeleine by leading editors who had been offered the manuscript in cake episode, introducing the theme of involuntary longhand. Many of its ideas, motifs and scenes are fore- memory. In early 1914 Gide, who had been involved shadowed in Proust’s unfinished novel, Jean Santeuil (1896– in NRF’s rejection of the book, wrote to Proust to 99), though the perspective and treatment there are differ- apologize and to offer congratulations on the novel. ent, and in his unfinished hybrid of philosophical essay and “For several days I have been unable to put your book story, Contre Sainte-Beuve (1908–09). The novel had great down.... The rejection of this book will remain the influence on twentieth-century literature; some writers have most serious mistake ever made by the NRF and, since sought to emulate it, others to parody it. In the centenary I bear the shame of being very much responsible for it, year of Du côté de chez Swann, Edmund White pronounced one of the most stinging and remorseful regrets of my À la recherche du temps perdu “the most respected novel of life” (Tadié, 611). Gallimard (the publishing arm of [1] the twentieth century.” NRF) offered to publish the remaining volumes, but Proust chose to stay with Grasset.

130 12.2. SYNOPSIS 131

2. In the Shadow of Young Girls in Flower (À l'ombre used the title La Fugitive. The second, even more au- des jeunes filles en fleurs, also translated as Within a thoritative French edition (1987–89) uses the title Al- Budding Grove) (1919) was scheduled to be published bertine disparue and is based on an unmarked type- in 1914 but was delayed by the onset of World War script acquired in 1962 by the Bibliothèque Nationale. I. At the same time, Grasset’s firm was closed down To complicate matters, after the death in 1986 of when the publisher went into military service. This Proust’s niece, Suzy Mante-Proust, her son-in-law dis- freed Proust to move to Gallimard, where all of the covered among her papers a typescript that had been subsequent volumes were published. Meanwhile, the corrected and annotated by Proust. The late changes novel kept growing in length and in conception. When Proust made include a small, crucial detail and the published, the novel was awarded the Prix Goncourt in deletion of approximately 150 pages. This version was 1919. published as Albertine disparue in France in 1987.

3. The Guermantes Way (Le Côté de Guermantes) 7. Finding Time Again (Le Temps retrouvé, also trans- (1920/1921) was originally published in two volumes lated as Time Regained and The Past Recaptured) as Le Côté de Guermantes I and Le Côté de Guermantes (1927) is the final volume in Proust’s novel. Much II. of the final volume was written at the same time as Swann’s Way, but was revised and expanded during 4. Sodom and Gomorrah (Sodome et Gomorrhe, some- the course of the novel’s publication to account for, to times translated as Cities of the Plain) (1921/1922) a greater or lesser success, the then unforeseen mate- was originally published in two volumes. The first rial now contained in the middle volumes (Terdiman, forty pages of Sodome et Gomorrhe initially appeared 153n3). This volume includes a noteworthy episode at the end of Le Côté de Guermantes II (Bouillaguet describing Paris during the First World War. and Rogers, 942), the remainder appearing as Sodome et Gomorrhe I (1921) and Sodome et Gomorrhe II (1922). It was the last volume over which Proust su- 12.2 Synopsis pervised publication before his death in November 1922. The publication of the remaining volumes was carried out by his brother, Robert Proust, and Jacques The novel recounts the experiences of the Narrator (who is Rivière. never definitively named) while he is growing up, learning about art, participating in society, and falling in love. 5. The Prisoner (La Prisonnière, also translated as The Captive) (1923) is the first volume of the section within In Search of Lost Time known as “le Roman 12.2.1 Volume One: Swann’s Way d'Albertine” (“the Albertine novel”). The name “Al- bertine” first appears in Proust’s notebooks in 1913. The material in volumes 5 and 6 were developed during the hiatus between the publication of volumes 1 and 2 and they are a departure of the original three- volume series originally planned by Proust. This is the first of Proust’s books published posthumously.

6. The Fugitive (Albertine disparue, also titled La Fugi- tive, sometimes translated as The Sweet Cheat Gone [last line of Walter de la Mare's poem “The Ghost"] or Albertine Gone) (1925) is the second and final volume in “le Roman d'Albertine” and the second volume published after Proust’s death. It is the most editorially vexed volume. As noted, the final three volumes of the novel were published posthumously, and without Proust’s final corrections and revisions. Illiers, the country town overlooked by a church steeple where The first edition, based on Proust’s manuscript, was Proust spent time as a child and which he described as “Combray” in published as Albertine disparue to prevent it from be- the novel. The town adopted the name Illiers-Combray in homage. ing confused with Rabindranath Tagore's La Fugitive (1921).[2] The first authoritative edition of the novel The Narrator begins by noting, “For a long time, I went to in French (1954), also based on Proust’s manuscript, bed early.” He comments on the way sleep seems to alter 132 CHAPTER 12. IN SEARCH OF LOST TIME one’s surroundings, and the way Habit makes one indiffer- played and Swann realizes Odette’s love for him is gone. ent to them. He remembers being in his room in the family’s He tortures himself wondering about her true relationships country home in Combray, while downstairs his parents en- with others, but his love for her, despite renewals, gradually tertain their friend Charles Swann, an elegant man of Jew- diminishes. He moves on and marvels that he ever loved a ish origin with strong ties to society. Due to Swann’s visit, woman who was not his type. the Narrator is deprived of his mother’s goodnight kiss, but he gets her to spend the night reading to him. This memory is the only one he has of Combray, until years later the taste of a madeleine cake dipped in tea inspires a nostal- gic incident of involuntary memory. He remembers having a similar snack as a child with his invalid aunt Leonie, and it leads to more memories of Combray. He describes their servant Françoise, who is uneducated but possesses an earthy wisdom and a strong sense of both duty and tradition. He meets an elegant “lady in pink” while visiting his uncle Adolphe. He develops a love of the theater, especially the actress Berma, and his awkward Jewish friend Bloch introduces him to the works of the writer Bergotte. He learns Swann made an unsuitable marriage but has social ambitions for his beautiful daughter Gilberte. Legrandin, a snobbish friend of the family, tries to avoid introducing the boy to his well-to-do sister. The Narrator describes two routes for country walks the child and his parents often enjoyed: the way past Swann’s home (the Méséglise way), and the Guermantes way, both containing scenes of natural beauty. Taking the Méséglise way, he sees Gilberte Swann standing in her yard with a lady in white, Mme Swann, and her supposed lover: Baron de Charlus, a friend of Swann’s. Gilberte makes a gesture that the Narrator interprets as a rude dismissal. During another walk, he spies a lesbian scene involving Mlle Vinteuil, daughter of a composer, and her friend. The Guermantes way is symbolic of the Guer- mantes family, the nobility of the area. The Narrator is awed by the magic of their name, and is captivated when he Portrait of Mme Georges Bizet, née Geneviève Halévy, by Jules- first sees Mme de Guermantes. He discovers how appear- Élie Delaunay, in Musée d'Orsay (1878). She served as partial inspiration for the character of Odette. ances conceal the true nature of things, and tries writing a description of some nearby steeples. Lying in bed, he seems transported back to these places until he awakens. Mme Verdurin is an autocratic hostess who, aided by her husband, demands total obedience from the guests in her “little clan.” One guest is Odette de Crecy, a former courtesan, who has met Swann and invites him to the group. Swann is too refined for such company, but Odette gradually intrigues him with her unusual style. A sonata by Vinteuil, which features a “little phrase,” becomes the motif for their deepening relationship. The Verdurins host M. de Forcheville; their guests include Cottard, a doctor; Brichot, an academic; Saniette, the object of scorn; and a painter, M. Biche. Swann grows jealous of Odette, who now keeps him at arm’s length, and suspects an affair between her and Forcheville, aided by the Verdurins. Swann seeks respite by attending a society concert that includes Legrandin’s sister and a young Mme de Guermantes; the “little phrase” is The beach at Cabourg, a seaside resort that was the model for Bal- bec in the novel 12.2. SYNOPSIS 133

At home in Paris, the Narrator dreams of visiting Venice his grandmother comforts him. He admires the seascape, or the church in Balbec, a resort, but he is too unwell and and learns about the colorful staff and customers around the instead takes walks in the Champs-Élysées, where he meets hotel: Aime, the discreet headwaiter; the lift operator; M. and befriends Gilberte. He holds her father, now married to de Stermaria and his beautiful young daughter; and M. de Odette, in the highest esteem, and is awed by the beautiful Cambremer and his wife, Legrandin’s sister. His grand- sight of Mme Swann strolling in public. Years later, the old mother encounters an old friend, the blue-blooded Mme sights of the area are long gone, and he laments the fugitive de Villeparisis, and they renew their friendship. The three nature of places. of them go for rides in the country, openly discussing art and politics. The Narrator longs for the country girls he sees alongside the roads, and has a strange feeling of unex- 12.2.2 Volume Two: In the Shadow of Young plained memory while admiring a row of three trees. Mme Girls in Flower de Villeparisis is joined by her glamorous great-nephew Robert de Saint-Loup, who is involved with an unsuitable The Narrator’s parents are inviting M. de Norpois, a diplo- woman. Despite initial awkwardness, the Narrator and his mat colleague of the Narrator’s father, to dinner. With Nor- grandmother become good friends with him. Bloch, the pois’s intervention, the Narrator is finally allowed to go see childhood friend from Combray, turns up with his family, Berma perform in a play, but is disappointed by her act- and acts in typically inappropriate fashion. Saint-Loup’s ing. Afterwards, at dinner, he watches Norpois, who is ex- ultra-aristocratic and extremely rude uncle the Baron de tremely diplomatic and correct at all times, expound on so- Charlus arrives. The Narrator discovers Mme de Villepari- ciety and art. The Narrator gives him a draft of his writ- sis, her nephew M. de Charlus, and his nephew Saint-Loup ing, but Norpois gently indicates it is not good. The Nar- are all of the Guermantes family. Charlus ignores the Nar- rator continues to go to the Champs-Élysées and play with rator, but later visits him in his room and lends him a book. Gilberte. Her parents distrust him, so he writes to them The next day, the Baron speaks shockingly informally to in protest. He and Gilberte wrestle and he has an orgasm. him, then demands the book back. The Narrator ponders Gilberte invites him to tea, and he becomes a regular at Saint-Loup’s attitude towards his aristocratic roots, and his her house. He observes Mme Swann’s inferior social sta- relationship with his mistress, a mere actress whose recital tus, Swann’s lowered standards and indifference towards bombed horribly with his family. One day, the Narrator his wife, and Gilberte’s affection for her father. The Nar- sees a “little band” of teenage girls strolling beside the sea, rator contemplates how he has attained his wish to know and becomes infatuated with them, along with an unseen the Swanns, and savors their unique style. At one of their hotel guest named Mlle Simonet. He joins Saint-Loup for parties he meets and befriends Bergotte, who gives his im- dinner and reflects on how drunkenness affects his percep- pressions of society figures and artists. But the Narrator tions. Later they meet the painter Elstir, and the Narrator is still unable to start writing seriously. His friend Bloch visits his studio. The Narrator marvels at Elstir’s method of takes him to a brothel, where there is a Jewish prostitute renewing impressions of ordinary things, as well as his con- named Rachel. He showers Mme Swann with flowers, be- nections with the Verdurins (he is “M. Biche”) and Mme ing almost on better terms with her than with Gilberte. One Swann. He discovers the painter knows the teenage girls, day, he and Gilberte quarrel and he decides never to see her particularly one dark-haired beauty who is Albertine Si- again. However, he continues to visit Mme Swann, who has monet. Elstir arranges an introduction, and the Narrator become a popular hostess, with her guests including Mme becomes friends with her, as well as her friends Andrée, Bontemps, who has a niece named Albertine. The Narrator Rosemonde, and Gisele. The group goes for picnics and hopes for a letter from Gilberte repairing their friendship, tours the countryside, as well as playing games, while the but gradually feels himself losing interest. He breaks down Narrator reflects on the nature of love as he becomes at- and plans to reconcile with her, but spies from afar some- tracted to Albertine. Despite her rejection, they become one resembling her walking with a boy and gives her up for close, although he still feels attracted to the whole group. good. He stops visiting her mother also, who is now a cele- At summer’s end, the town closes up, and the Narrator is brated beauty admired by passersby, and years later he can left with his image of first seeing the girls walking beside recall the glamour she displayed then. the sea. Two years later, the Narrator, his grandmother, and Françoise set out for the seaside town of Balbec. The Nar- rator is almost totally indifferent to Gilberte now. During 12.2.3 Volume Three: The Guermantes Way the train ride, his grandmother, who only believes in proper books, lends him her favorite: the Letters of Mme de Se- The Narrator’s family has moved to an apartment connected vigne. At Balbec, the Narrator is disappointed with the with the Guermantes residence. Françoise befriends a fel- church and uncomfortable in his unfamiliar hotel room, but low tenant, the tailor Jupien and his niece. The Narrator 134 CHAPTER 12. IN SEARCH OF LOST TIME

M. de Charlus’s brother. Mme Swann arrives, and the Nar- rator remembers a visit from Morel, the son of his uncle Adolphe’s valet, who revealed that the “lady in pink” was Mme Swann. Charlus asks the Narrator to leave with him, and offers to make him his protégé. At home, the Narrator’s grandmother has worsened, and while walking with him she suffers a stroke. The family seeks out the best medical help, and she is often visited by Bergotte, himself unwell, but she dies, her face reverting to its youthful appearance. Several months later, Saint-Loup, now single, convinces the Narrator to ask out the Stermaria daughter, newly divorced. Albertine visits; she has matured and they share a kiss. The Narrator then goes to see Mme de Villeparisis, where Mme de Guer- mantes, whom he has stopped following, invites him to dinner. The Narrator daydreams of Mme de Stermaria, but she abruptly cancels, although Saint-Loup rescues him from despair by taking him to dine with his aristocratic friends, who engage in petty gossip. Saint-Loup passes on an invitation from Charlus to come visit him. The next day, at the Guermantes’s dinner party, the Narrator admires their El- stir paintings, then meets the cream of society, including the Princess of Parma, who is an amiable simpleton. He learns more about the Guermantes: their hereditary features; their less-refined cousins the Courvoisiers; and Mme de Guer- Élisabeth, Countess Greffulhe 1905, by Philip Alexius de Laszlo, mantes’s celebrated humor, artistic tastes, and exalted dic- who served as the model for the character of the Duchesse de Guer- tion (although she does not live up to the enchantment of her mantes name). The discussion turns to gossip about society, including Charlus and his late wife; the affair between Norpois and Mme de Villeparisis; and aristocratic lineages. Leav- is fascinated by the Guermantes and their life, and is awed ing, the Narrator visits Charlus, who falsely accuses him of by their social circle while attending another Berma per- slandering him. The Narrator stomps on Charlus’s hat and formance. He begins staking out the street where Mme de storms out, but Charlus is strangely unperturbed and gives Guermantes walks every day, to her evident annoyance. He him a ride home. Months later, the Narrator is invited to decides to visit her nephew Saint-Loup at his military base, the Princesse de Guermantes’s party. He tries to verify the to ask to be introduced to her. After noting the landscape invitation with M. and Mme de Guermantes, but first sees and his state of mind while sleeping, the Narrator meets something he will describe later. They will be attending and attends dinners with Saint-Loup’s fellow officers, where the party but do not help him, and while they are chatting, they discuss the Dreyfus Affair and the art of military strat- Swann arrives. Now a committed Dreyfusard, he is very egy. But the Narrator returns home after receiving a call sick and nearing death, but the Guermantes assure him he from his aging grandmother. Mme de Guermantes declines will outlive them. to see him, and he also finds he is still unable to begin writing. Saint-Loup visits on leave, and they have lunch and attend a recital with his actress mistress: Rachel, the Jew- 12.2.4 Volume Four: Sodom and Gomorrah ish prostitute, toward whom the unsuspecting Saint-Loup is crazed with jealousy. The Narrator then goes to Mme de The Narrator describes what he had seen earlier: while Villeparisis’s salon, which is considered second-rate despite waiting for the Guermantes to return so he could ask about its public reputation. Legrandin attends and displays his his invitation, he saw Charlus encounter Jupien in their social climbing. Bloch stridently interrogates M. de Nor- courtyard. The two then went into Jupien’s shop and had in- pois about the Dreyfus Affair, which has ripped all of soci- tercourse. The Narrator reflects on the nature of "inverts", ety asunder, but Norpois diplomatically avoids answering. and how they are like a secret society, never able to live The Narrator observes Mme de Guermantes and her aristo- in the open. He compares them to flowers, whose repro- cratic bearing, as she makes caustic remarks about friends duction through the aid of insects depends solely on hap- and family, including the mistresses of her husband, who is penstance. Arriving at the Princesse’s party, his invitation 12.2. SYNOPSIS 135

to speak to him. The Narrator visits the Verdurins, who are renting a house from the Cambremers. On the train with him is the little clan: Brichot, who explains at length the derivation of the local place-names; Cottard, now a celebrated doctor; Saniette, still the butt of everyone’s ridicule; and a new member, Ski. The Verdurins are still haughty and dictatorial toward their guests, who are as pedantic as ever. Charlus and Morel arrive together, and Charlus’s true nature is barely concealed. The Cambremers arrive, and the Verdurins barely tolerate them. Back at the hotel, the Narrator ruminates on sleep and time, and observes the amusing mannerisms of the staff, who are The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, John Martin, 1852. mostly aware of Charlus’s proclivities. The Narrator and The fourth volume opens with a discussion of the inhabitants of the Albertine hire a chauffeur and take rides in the country, two Biblical “cities of the plain.” leading to observations about new forms of travel as well as country life. The Narrator is unaware that the chauffeur and Morel are acquainted, and he reviews Morel’s amoral character and plans towards Jupien’s niece. The Narrator is seems valid as he is greeted warmly by her. He sees Char- jealously suspicious of Albertine but grows tired of her. She lus exchanging knowing looks with the diplomat Vaugob- and the Narrator attend evening dinners at the Verdurins, ert, a fellow invert. After several tries, the Narrator man- taking the train with the other guests; Charlus is now a reg- ages to be introduced to the Prince de Guermantes, who ular, despite his obliviousness to the clan’s mockery. He then walks off with Swann, causing speculation on the topic and Morel try to maintain the secret of their relationship, of their conversation. Mme de Saint-Euverte tries to re- and the Narrator recounts a ploy involving a fake duel that cruit guests for her party the next day, but is subjected to Charlus used to control Morel. The passing station stops scorn from some of the Guermantes. Charlus is captivated remind the Narrator of various people and incidents, in- by the two young sons of M. de Guermantes’s newest mis- cluding two failed attempts by the Prince de Guermantes to tress. Saint-Loup arrives and mentions the names of sev- arrange liaisons with Morel; a final break between the Ver- eral promiscuous women to the Narrator. Swann takes the durins and Cambremers; and a misunderstanding between Narrator aside and reveals the Prince wanted to admit his the Narrator, Charlus, and Bloch. The Narrator has grown and his wife’s pro-Dreyfus leanings. Swann is aware of his weary of the area and prefers others over Albertine. But she old friend Charlus’s behavior, then urges the Narrator to reveals to him as they leave the train that she has plans with visit Gilberte, and departs. The Narrator leaves with M. Mlle Vinteuil and her friend (the lesbians from Combray) and Mme de Guermantes, and heads home for a late-night which plunges him into despair. He invents a story about meeting with Albertine. He grows frantic when first she is a broken engagement of his, to convince her to go to Paris late and then calls to cancel, but he convinces her to come. with him, and after hesitating she suddenly agrees to go im- He writes an indifferent letter to Gilberte, and reviews the mediately. The Narrator tells his mother: he must marry changing social scene, which now includes Mme Swann’s Albertine. salon centered on Bergotte. He decides to return to Balbec, after learning the women mentioned by Saint-Loup will be there. At Balbec, grief 12.2.5 Volume Five: The Prisoner at his grandmother’s suffering, which was worse than he knew, overwhelms him. He ponders the intermittencies The Narrator is living with Albertine in his family’s apart- of the heart and the ways of dealing with sad memories. ment, to Françoise’s distrust and his absent mother’s cha- His mother, even sadder, has become more like his grand- grin. He marvels that he has come to possess her, but has mother in homage. Albertine is nearby and they begin grown bored with her. He mostly stays home, but has en- spending time together, but he starts to suspect her of les- listed Andrée to report on Albertine’s whereabouts, as his bianism and of lying to him about her activities. He fakes a jealousy remains. The Narrator gets advice on fashion from preference for her friend Andrée to make her become more Mme de Guermantes, and encounters Charlus and Morel trustworthy, and it works, but he soon suspects her of know- visiting Jupien and her niece, who is being married off to ing several scandalous women at the hotel, including Lea, Morel despite his cruelty towards her. One day, the Narra- an actress. On the way to visit Saint-Loup, they meet Morel, tor returns from the Guermantes and finds Andrée just leav- the valet’s son who is now an excellent violinist, and then the ing, claiming to dislike the smell of their flowers. Albertine, aging Charlus, who falsely claims to know Morel and goes who is more guarded to avoid provoking his jealousy, is ma- 136 CHAPTER 12. IN SEARCH OF LOST TIME

her friend are expected (although they do not come). Morel joins in performing a septet by Vinteuil, which evokes com- monalities with his sonata that only the composer could create. Mme Verdurin is furious that Charlus has taken control of her party; in revenge the Verdurins persuade Morel to repudiate him, and Charlus falls temporarily ill from the shock. Returning home, the Narrator and Albertine fight about his solo visit to the Verdurins, and she denies having affairs with Lea or Mlle Vinteuil, but admits she lied on occasion to avoid arguments. He threatens to break it off, but they reconcile. He appreciates art and fashion with her, and ponders her mysteriousness. But his suspicion of her and Andrée is renewed, and they quarrel. After two awkward days and a restless night, he resolves to end the affair, but in the morning Françoise informs him: Albertine has asked for her boxes and left.

12.2.6 Volume Six: The Fugitive

The Narrator is anguished at Albertine’s departure and absence. He dispatches Saint-Loup to convince her aunt Mme Bontemps to send her back, but Albertine insists the Nar- rator should ask, and she will gladly return. The Narrator lies and replies he is done with her, but she just agrees with him. He writes to her that he will marry Andrée, then hears from Saint-Loup of the failure of his mission to the aunt. Desperate, he begs Albertine to return, but receives word: she has died in a riding accident. He receives two last letters from her: one wishing him and Andrée well, and one ask- Léontine Lippmann (1844–1910), better known by her married ing if she can return. The Narrator plunges into suffering name of Madame Arman or Madame Arman de Caillavet, was the amid the many different memories of Albertine, intimately model for Proust’s Madame Verdurin. linked to all of his everyday sensations. He recalls a suspicious incident she told him of at Balbec, and asks Aime, the headwaiter, to investigate. He recalls their history together turing into an intelligent and elegant young lady. The Narra- and his regrets, as well as love’s randomness. Aime reports tor is entranced by her beauty as she sleeps, and is only con- back: Albertine often engaged in affairs with girls at Bal- tent when she is not out with others. She mentions wanting bec. The Narrator sends him to learn more, and he reports to go to the Verdurins, but the Narrator suspects an ulterior other liaisons with girls. The Narrator wishes he could have motive and analyzes her conversation for hints. He suggests known the true Albertine, whom he would have accepted. she go instead to the Trocadéro with Andrée, and she reluc- He begins to grow accustomed to the idea of her death, de- tantly agrees. The Narrator compares dreams to wakeful- spite constant reminders that renew his grief. Andrée ad- ness, and listens to the street vendors with Albertine, then mits her own lesbianism but denies being with Albertine. she departs. He remembers trips she took with the chauf- The Narrator knows he will forget Albertine, just as he has feur, then learns Lea the notorious actress will be at the forgotten Gilberte. Trocadero too. He sends Françoise to retrieve Albertine, He happens to meet Gilberte again; her mother Mme Swann and while waiting, he muses on music and Morel. When became Mme de Forcheville and Gilberte is now part of she returns, they go for a drive, while he pines for Venice high society, received by the Guermantes. The Narrator fi- and realizes she feels captive. He learns of Bergotte’s finally publishes an article in Le Figaro. Andrée visits him nal illness. That evening, he sneaks off to the Verdurins to and confesses relations with Albertine and also explains the try to discover the reason for Albertine’s interest in them. truth behind her departure: her aunt wanted her to marry He encounters Brichot on the way, and they discuss Swann, another man. The Narrator finally visits Venice with his who has died. Charlus arrives and the Narrator reviews the mother, which enthralls him in every aspect. They happen Baron’s struggles with Morel, then learns Mlle Vinteuil and to see Norpois and Mme de Villeparisis there. A telegram 12.2. SYNOPSIS 137

signed from Albertine arrives, but the Narrator is indiffer- sanatorium and is walking the streets during a blackout. He ent and it is only a misprint anyway. Returning home, the reflects on the changed norms of art and society, with the Narrator and his mother receive surprising news: Gilberte Verdurins now highly esteemed. He recounts a 1914 visit will marry Saint-Loup, and Jupien’s niece will be adopted from Saint-Loup, who was trying to enlist secretly. He re- by Charlus and then married to Legrandin’s nephew, an in- calls descriptions of the fighting he subsequently received vert. There is much discussion of these marriages among from Saint-Loup and Gilberte, whose home was threat- society. The Narrator visits Gilberte in her new home, ened. He describes a call paid on him a few days previ- and is shocked to learn of Saint-Loup’s affair with Morel, ously by Saint-Loup; they discussed military strategy. Now among others. He despairs for their friendship. on the dark street, the Narrator encounters Charlus, who has completely surrendered to his impulses. Charlus reviews Morel’s betrayals and his own temptation to seek 12.2.7 Volume Seven: Time Regained vengeance; critiques Brichot’s new fame as a writer, which has ostracized him from the Verdurins; and admits his general sympathy with Germany. The last part of the conversation draws a crowd of suspicious onlookers. After parting the Narrator seeks refuge in what appears to be hotel, where he sees someone who looks familiar leaving. Inside, he discovers it to be a male brothel, and spies Charlus using the services. The proprietor turns out to be Jupien, who expresses a perverse pride in his business. A few days later, news comes that Saint-Loup has been killed in com- bat. The Narrator pieces together that Saint-Loup had visited Jupien’s brothel, and ponders what might have been had he lived. Years later, again in Paris, the Narrator goes to a party at the house of the Prince de Guermantes. On the way he sees Charlus, now a mere shell of his former self, being helped by Jupien. The paving stones at the Guermantes house inspire another incident of involuntary memory for the Narrator, quickly followed by two more. Inside, while waiting in the library, he discerns their meaning: by putting him in contact with both the past and present, the impressions allow him to gain a vantage point outside time, af- fording a glimpse of the true nature of things. He realizes his whole life has prepared him for the mission of describing events as fully revealed, and (finally) resolves to begin writing. Entering the party, he is shocked at the disguises old age has given to the people he knew, and at the changes in society. Legrandin is now an invert, but is no longer a snob. Bloch is a respected writer and vital figure in society. Robert de Montesquiou, the main inspiration for Baron de Charlus Morel has reformed and become a respected citizen. Mme in À la recherche du temps perdu de Forcheville is the mistress of M. de Guermantes. Mme Verdurin has married the Prince de Guermantes after both The Narrator is staying with Gilberte at her home near their spouses died. Rachel is the star of the party, abetted Combray. They go for walks, on one of which he is stunned by Mme de Guermantes, whose social position has been to learn the Méséglise way and the Guermantes way are ac- eroded by her affinity for theater. Gilberte introduces her tually linked. Gilberte also tells him she was attracted to daughter to the Narrator; he is struck by the way the daugh- him when young, and had made a suggestive gesture to him ter encapsulates both the Méséglise and Guermantes ways as he watched her. Also, it was Lea she was walking with the within herself. He is spurred to writing, with help from evening he had planned to reconcile with her. He considers Françoise and despite signs of approaching death. He real- Saint-Loup’s nature and reads an account of the Verdurins’ izes that every person carries within them the accumulated salon, deciding he has no talent for writing. baggage of their past, and concludes that to be accurate he The scene shifts to a night in 1916, during World War I, must describe how everyone occupies an immense range “in when the Narrator has returned to Paris from a stay in a 138 CHAPTER 12. IN SEARCH OF LOST TIME

Time”. tention to an earlier episode of the novel. Although Proust wrote contemporaneously with Sigmund Freud, with there being many points of similarity between their thought on 12.3 Themes the structures and mechanisms of the human mind, neither author read the other.[4] À la recherche made a decisive break with the 19th cen- The madeleine episode reads: tury realist and plot-driven novel, populated by people of action and people representing social and cultural groups or morals. Although parts of the novel could be read as an exploration of snobbism, deceit, jealousy and suffering and No sooner had the warm liquid mixed with although it contains a multitude of realistic details, the fo- the crumbs touched my palate than a shudder ran cus is not on the development of a tight plot or of a coherent through me and I stopped, intent upon the ex- evolution but on a multiplicity of perspectives and on the traordinary thing that was happening to me. An formation of experience. The protagonists of the first vol- exquisite pleasure had invaded my senses, some- ume (the narrator as a boy and Swann) are by the standards thing isolated, detached, with no suggestion of its of 19th century novels, remarkably introspective and pas- origin. And at once the vicissitudes of life had sive, nor do they trigger action from other leading charac- become indifferent to me, its disasters innocu- ters; to contemporary readers, reared on Balzac, Hugo and ous, its brevity illusory – this new sensation hav- Tolstoy, they would not function as centers of a plot. While ing had on me the effect which love has of filling there is an array of symbolism in the work, it is rarely deme with a precious essence; or rather this essence fined through explicit “keys” leading to moral, romantic or was not in me it was me. ... Whence did it come? philosophical ideas. The significance of what is happening What did it mean? How could I seize and appre- is often placed within the memory or in the inner contem- hend it? ... And suddenly the memory revealed plation of what is described. This focus on the relationship itself. The taste was that of the little piece of between experience, memory and writing and the radical madeleine which on Sunday mornings at Com- de-emphasizing of the outward plot, have become staples bray (because on those mornings I did not go out of the modern novel but were almost unheard of in 1913. before mass), when I went to say good morning Roger Shattuck elucidates an underlying principle in under- to her in her bedroom, my aunt Léonie used to standing Proust and the various themes present in his novel: give me, dipping it first in her own cup of tea or tisane. The sight of the little madeleine had re- Thus the novel embodies and manifests the called nothing to my mind before I tasted it. And principle of intermittence: to live means to per- all from my cup of tea. ceive different and often conflicting aspects of reality. This iridescence never resolves itself completely into a unitive point of view. Accordingly, it is possible to project out of the Search itself a Gilles Deleuze believed that the focus of Proust was not series of putative and intermittent authors... The memory and the past but the narrator’s learning the use portraitist of an expiring society, the artist of roof “signs” to understand and communicate ultimate real- mantic reminiscence, the narrator of the lami- ity, thereby becoming an artist.[5] While Proust was bit- nated “I,” the classicist of formal structure--all terly aware of the experience of loss and exclusion—loss of these figures are to be found in Proust...[3] loved ones, loss of affection, friendship and innocent joy, which are dramatized in the novel through recurrent jealousy, betrayal and the death of loved ones—his response 12.3.1 Memory to this, formulated after he had discovered Ruskin, was that the work of art can recapture the lost and thus save it The role of memory is central to the novel, introduced with from destruction, at least in our minds. Art triumphs over the famous madeleine episode in the first section of the the destructive power of time. This element of his artis- novel and in the last volume, Time Regained, a flashback tic thought is clearly inherited from romantic platonism, but similar to that caused by the madeleine is the beginning of Proust crosses it with a new intensity in describing jealousy, the resolution of the story. Throughout the work many sim- desire and self-doubt. (The last quatrain of Baudelaire’s ilar instances of involuntary memory, triggered by sensory poem “Une Charogne": “Then, O my beauty! say to the experiences such as sights, sounds and smells conjure im- worms who will Devour you with kisses, That I have kept portant memories for the narrator and sometimes return at- the form and the divine essence of my decomposed love!"). 12.3. THEMES 139

12.3.2 Separation anxiety The narrator invariably suspects his lovers of liaisons with other women, a repetition of the suspicions held by Charles Proust begins his novel with the statement, “For a long time Swann about his mistress and eventual wife, Odette, in I used to go to bed early.” This leads to lengthy discussion “Swann’s Way.” The first chapter of “Cities of the Plain” of his anxiety at leaving his mother at night and his attempts includes a detailed account of a sexual encounter between to force her to come and kiss him goodnight, even on nights M. de Charlus, the novel’s most prominent male homosex- when the family has company, culminating in a spectacular ual, and his tailor. Critics have often observed that while the success, when his father suggests that his mother stay the character of the narrator is ostensibly heterosexual, Proust night with him after he has waylaid her in the hall when she intimates that the narrator is a closeted homosexual.[6][7] is going to bed. The narrator’s manner towards male homosexuality is con- sistently aloof, yet the narrator (or Proust?) is unaccount- His anxiety leads to manipulation, much like the manipula- ably knowledgeable. This strategy enables Proust to pur- tion employed by his invalid aunt Leonie and all the lovers in sue themes related to male homosexuality—in particular the entire book, who use the same methods of petty tyranny the nature of closetedness—from both within and without a to manipulate and possess their loved ones. homosexual perspective. Proust does not designate Charlus’ homosexuality until the middle of the novel, in “Cities"; af- 12.3.3 Nature of art terwards the Baron’s ostentatiousness and flamboyance, of which he is blithely unaware, completely absorb the narrator’s perception. Lesbianism, on the other hand, tortures The nature of art is a motif in the novel and is often explored Swann and the narrator because it presents an inaccessible at great length. Proust sets forth a theory of art in which we world. Whereas male homosexual desire is recognizable, are all capable of producing art, if by this we mean taking insofar as it encompasses male sexuality, Odette’s and Al- the experiences of life and transforming them in a way that bertine’s lesbian trysts represent Swann and the narrator’s shows understanding and maturity. Writing, painting, and painful exclusion from characters they desire. music are also discussed at great length. Morel the violinist is examined to give an example of a certain type of “artistic” There is much debate as to how great a bearing Proust’s character, along with other fictional artists like the novelist sexuality has on understanding these aspects of the novel. Bergotte, the composer Vinteuil, and the painter Elstir. Although many of Proust’s close family and friends suspected that he was homosexual, Proust never admitted this. As early as the Combray section of Swann’s Way, the nar- It was only after his death that André Gide, in his publica- rator is concerned with his ability to write, since he desires tion of correspondence with Proust, made public Proust’s to pursue a writing career. The transmutation of the expe- homosexuality. In response to Gide’s criticism that he hid rience of a scene in one of the family’s usual walks into a his actual sexuality within his novel, Proust told Gide that short descriptive passage is described and the sample pas- “one can say anything so long as one does not say 'I'.”[8] sage given. The narrator presents this passage as an early The nature of Proust’s intimate relations with such indi- sample of his own writing, in which he has only had to al- viduals as Alfred Agostinelli and Reynaldo Hahn are well ter a few words. The question of his own genius relates documented, though Proust was not “out and proud,” ex- to all the passages in which genius is recognized or misun- cept perhaps in close-knit social circles. In 1949, the critic derstood because it presents itself in the guise of a humble Justin O'Brien published an article in the PMLA called “Al- friend, rather than a passionate artiste. bertine the Ambiguous: Notes on Proust’s Transposition of The question of taste or judgement in art is also an impor- Sexes” which proposed that some female characters are best tant theme, as exemplified by Swann’s exquisite taste in art, understood as actually referring to young men. Strip off the which is often hidden from his friends who do not share it feminine ending of the names of the Narrator’s lovers— or subordinated to his love interests. Albertine, Gilberte, Andrée—and one has their masculine counterpart. This theory has become known as the “transposition of sexes theory” in Proust criticism, which in turn 12.3.4 Homosexuality has been challenged in Epistemology of the Closet (1990) by Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick and in “Proust’s Lesbianism” Questions pertaining to homosexuality appear throughout (1999) by Elisabeth Ladenson. Feminized forms of mascu- the novel, particularly in the later volumes. The first ar- line names were and are commonplace in French. rival of this theme comes in the Combray section of Swann’s Way, where the daughter of the piano teacher and composer Vinteuil is seduced and perverted, and the narrator observes her having lesbian relations in front of the portrait of her recently deceased father. 140 CHAPTER 12. IN SEARCH OF LOST TIME

12.4 Critical reception

In Search of Lost Time is considered the definitive modern novel by many scholars. It has had a profound effect on subsequent writers such as the Bloomsbury Group.[9] “Oh if I could write like that!" marveled Virginia Woolf in 1922 (2:525). Literary critic Harold Bloom wrote that In Search of Lost Time is now “widely recognized as the major novel of the twentieth century.”[10] Vladimir Nabokov, in a 1965 in- Main characters of the novel. Blue lines denote acquaintances and terview, named the greatest prose works of the 20th cen- pink lines love interests. tury as, in order, "Joyce's Ulysses, Kafka's The Metamor- phosis, Bely's Petersburg, and the first half of Proust’s fairy • The Narrator: A sensitive young man who wishes to tale In Search of Lost Time.”[11] J. Peder Zane's book The become a writer, whose identity is kept vague. In Top Ten: Writers Pick Their Favorite Books, collates 125 volume 5, The Captive, he addresses the reader thus: “top 10 greatest books of all time” lists by prominent living “Now she began to speak; her first words were 'dar- writers; In Search of Lost Time is placed eighth.[12] In the ling' or 'my darling,' followed by my Christian name, 1960s, Swedish literary critic Bengt Holmqvist described which, if we give the narrator the same name as the the novel as “at once the last great classic of French epic author of this book, would produce 'darling Marcel' prose tradition and the towering precursor of the 'nouveau or 'my darling Marcel.'" (Proust, 64) roman'", indicating the sixties vogue of new, experimental French prose but also, by extension, other post-war attempts • The Narrator’s father: A diplomat who initially dis- to fuse different planes of location, temporality and frag- courages the Narrator from writing. mented consciousness within the same novel.[13] Pulitzer • Prize-winning author Michael Chabon has called it his fa- The Narrator’s mother: A supportive woman who wor- vorite book.[14] ries for her son’s career. Proust’s influence (in parody) is seen in Evelyn Waugh's A • Bathilde Amédée: The narrator’s grandmother. Her Handful of Dust (1934), in which Chapter 1 is entitled “Du life and death greatly influence her daughter and grand- Côté de Chez Beaver” and Chapter 6 “Du Côté de Chez son. Tod.”[15] Waugh did not like Proust: in letters to Nancy • Aunt Léonie: A sickly woman whom the Narrator vis- Mitford in 1948, he wrote, “I am reading Proust for the its during stays at Combray. first time ...and am surprised to find him a mental defec- tive” and later, “I still think [Proust] insane...the structure • Uncle Adolphe: The Narrator’s great-uncle, who has must be sane & that is raving.”[16] many actress friends. Since the publication in 1992 of a revised English trans- • Françoise: The narrator’s faithful, stubborn maid. lation by The Modern Library, based on a new definitive French edition (1987–89), interest in Proust’s novel in the The Guermantes English-speaking world has increased. Two substantial new biographies have appeared in English, by Edmund White • Palamède, Baron de Charlus: An aristocratic, deca- and William C. Carter, and at least two books about the dent aesthete with many antisocial habits. Model is experience of reading Proust have appeared by Alain de Robert de Montesquiou. Botton and Phyllis Rose. The Proust Society of America, founded in 1997, has three chapters: at The Mercantile Li- • Oriane, Duchesse de Guermantes: The toast of Paris brary of New York City,[17] the Mechanic’s Institute Li- high society. She lives in the fashionable Faubourg brary in San Francisco,[18] and the Boston Athenæum Li- St. Germain. Models are Comtesse Greffulhe and brary. Comtesse de Chevigné. • Robert de Saint-Loup: An army officer and the narrator’s best friend. Despite his patrician birth (he is the nephew of M. de Guermantes) and affluent lifestyle, 12.5 Main characters Saint-Loup has no great fortune of his own until he marries Gilberte. Models are Gaston de Cavaillet and The Narrator’s household Clement de Maugny. 12.5. MAIN CHARACTERS 141

• Marquise de Villeparisis: The aunt of the Baron de • M. Verdurin: The husband of Mme Verdurin, who is Charlus. She is an old friend of the Narrator’s grand- her faithful accomplice. mother. • Cottard: A doctor who is very good at his work. • Basin, Duc de Guermantes: Oriane’s husband and • Brichot: A pompous academic. Charlus’s brother. He is a pompous man with a succession of mistresses. • Saniette: A palaeographer who is subjected to ridicule by the clan. • Prince de Guermantes: The cousin of the Duc and • Duchess. M. Biche: A painter who is later revealed to be Elstir.

• Princesse de Guermantes: Wife of the Prince. The “little band” of Balbec girls • Albertine Simonet: A privileged orphan of average The Swanns beauty and intelligence. The narrator’s romance with her is the subject of much of the novel. • Charles Swann: A friend of the narrator’s family (he • Andrée: Albertine’s friend, whom the Narrator occa- is modelled on at least two of Proust’s friends, Charles sionally feels attracted to. Haas and Charles Ephrussi). His political views on the Dreyfus Aﬀair and marriage to Odette ostracize him • Gisèle and Rosemonde: Other members of the little from much of high society. band.

• Odette de Crécy: A beautiful Parisian courtesan. • Octave: Also known as “I'm a wash-out”, a rich boy Odette is also referred to as Mme Swann, the lady in who leads an idle existence at Balbec and is involved pink, and in the ﬁnal volume, Mme de Forcheville. with several of the girls.

• Gilberte Swann: The daughter of Swann and Odette. Others She takes the name of her adopted father, M. de • Forcheville, after Swann’s death, and then becomes Charles Morel: The son of a former servant of the nar- Mme de Saint-Loup following her marriage to Robert rator’s uncle and a gifted violinist. He proﬁts greatly de Saint-Loup, which joins Swann’s Way and the from the patronage of the Baron de Charlus and later Guermantes Way. Robert de Saint-Loup. • Rachel: A prostitute and actress who is the mistress of Artists Robert de Saint-Loup. • Marquis de Norpois: A diplomat and friend of the • Elstir: A famous painter whose renditions of sea and Narrator’s father. He is involved with Mme de sky echo the novel’s theme of the mutability of human Villeparisis. life. Modeled on James Whistler. • Albert Bloch: A pretentious Jewish friend of the Nar- • Bergotte: A well-known writer whose works the narrator, later a successful playwright. rator has admired since childhood. The models are • Jupien: A tailor who has a shop in the courtyard of the Anatole France and Paul Bourget Guermantes hotel. He lives with his niece. • Vinteuil: An obscure musician who gains posthu- • Madame Bontemps: Albertine’s aunt and guardian. mous recognition for composing a beautiful, evocative sonata. • Legrandin: A snobbish friend of the Narrator’s family. Engineer and man of letters. • Berma: A famous actress who specializes in roles by • Marquis and Marquise de Cambremer: Provincial Jean Racine. gentry who live near Balbec. Mme de Cambremer is LeGrandin’s sister. The Verdurins’ “Little Clan” • Mlle Vinteuil: Daughter of the composer Vinteuil. She has a wicked friend who encourages her to les- • Madame Verdurin (Sidonie Verdurin): A poseur and bianism. a salonnière who rises to the top of society through inheritance, marriage, and sheer single-mindedness. • Léa: A notorious lesbian actress in residence at Bal- One of the models is Madame Arman de Caillavet. bec. 142 CHAPTER 12. IN SEARCH OF LOST TIME

12.6 Publication in English year. They are based on the public domain translations of C. K. Scott Moncrieff (and probably Stephen Hudson), modernized and corrected, with extensive annotations. Swann’s The first six volumes were first translated into English by Way was published in the centenary year of 2013;[19] In the the Scotsman C. K. Scott Moncrieff under the title Remem- Shadow of Young Girls in Flower in 2015.[20] brance of Things Past, a phrase taken from Shakespeare's Sonnet 30; this was the first translation of the Recherche into English-language translations in print another language. The individual volumes were Swann’s Way (1922), Within a Budding Grove (1924), The Guer- mantes Way (1925), Cities of the Plain (1927), The Captive • In Search of Lost Time (Edited and annotated by (1929), and The Sweet Cheat Gone (1930). The final vol- William C. Carter. New Haven: Yale University ume, Le Temps retrouvé, was initially published in English Press, 2013, 2015). in the UK as Time Regained (1931), translated by Stephen • Hudson (a pseudonym of Sydney Schiff), and in the US as (Volume titles: Swann’s Way ISBN 978- The Past Recaptured (1932) in a translation by Frederick 0300185430; In the Shadow of Young Girls in Blossom. Although cordial with Scott Moncrieff, Proust Flower ISBN 978-0300185423.) grudgingly remarked in a letter that Remembrance elimi- • nated the correspondence between Temps perdu and Temps In Search of Lost Time (General Editor: Christopher retrouvé (Painter, 352). Terence Kilmartin revised the Scott Prendergast), translated by Lydia Davis, Mark Tre- Moncrieff translation in 1981, using the new French edition harne, James Grieve, John Sturrock, Carol Clark, Pe- of 1954. An additional revision by D.J. Enright - that is, a ter Collier, & Ian Patterson. London: Allen Lane, revision of a revision - was published by the Modern Li- 2002 (6 vols). Based on the French “La Pléiade” edi- brary in 1992. It is based on the “La Pléiade” edition of the tion (1987–89), except The Fugitive, which is based French text (1987–89), and rendered the title of the novel on the 1954 definitive French edition. The first four more literally as In Search of Lost Time. volumes have been published in New York by Viking, 2003–2004. In 1995, Penguin undertook a fresh translation based on the “La Pléiade” French text (published in 1987–89) of In • (Volume titles: The Way by Swann’s (in the Search of Lost Time by a team of seven different translators U.S., Swann’s Way) ISBN 0-14-243796-4; In overseen by editor Christopher Prendergast. The six vol- the Shadow of Young Girls in Flower ISBN 0- umes were published in Britain under the Allen Lane im- 14-303907-5; The Guermantes Way ISBN 0- print in 2002, each volume under the name of a separate 14-303922-9; Sodom and Gomorrah ISBN 0- translator, the first volume being American writer Lydia 14-303931-8; The Prisoner; and The Fugitive— Davis, and the others under English translators and one Finding Time Again.) Australian, James Grieve. The first four have since been published in the US under the Viking imprint and in paper- • In Search of Lost Time, translated by C. K. Scott- back under the Penguin Classics imprint. The remaining Moncrieff, Terence Kilmartin and Andreas Mayor volumes are scheduled to come out in 2018. (Vol. 7). Revised by D.J. Enright. London: Chatto Both the Modern Library and Penguin translations provide and Windus, New York: The Modern Library, 1992. a detailed plot synopsis at the end of each volume. The last Based on the French “La Pléiade” edition (1987–89). volume of the Modern Library edition, Time Regained, also ISBN 0-8129-6964-2 includes Kilmartin’s “A Guide to Proust,” an index of the • (Volume titles: Swann’s Way—Within a Bud- novel’s characters, persons, places, and themes. The Mod- ding Grove—The Guermantes Way—Sodom and ern Library volumes include a handful of endnotes, and al- Gomorrah—The Captive—The Fugitive—Time ternative versions of some of the novel’s famous episodes. Regained.) The Penguin volumes each provide an extensive set of brief, non-scholarly endnotes that help identify cultural references • A Search for Lost Time: Swann’s Way, translated by perhaps unfamiliar to contemporary English readers. Re- James Grieve. Canberra: Australian National Univer- views which discuss the merits of both translations can be sity, 1982 ISBN 0-7081-1317-6 found online at the Observer, the Telegraph, The New York Review of Books, The New York Times, TempsPerdu.com, • Remembrance of Things Past, translated by C. K. Scott and Reading Proust. Moncrieff, Terence Kilmartin, and Andreas Mayor Most recently, Yale University Press has begun to issue In (Vol. 7). New York: Random House, 1981 (3 vols). Search of Lost Time at the promised rate of one volume a ISBN 0-394-71243-9 12.9. IN POPULAR CULTURE 143

• (Published in three volumes: Swann’s Way— • Time Regained (Le Temps retrouvé), a 1999 film by Within a Budding Grove; The Guermantes Raúl Ruiz starring Catherine Deneuve, Emmanuelle Way—Cities of the Plain; The Captive—The Béart, and John Malkovich. Fugitive—Time Regained.) • La Captive, a 2000 film by Chantal Akerman. • Quartetto Basileus (1982) uses segments from Sodom 12.7 A Reader’s Guide to The Re- and Gomorrah and Time Regained. Le Intermittenze del cuore (2003) concerns a director working on a membrance of Things Past movie about Proust’s life. Both from Italian director Fabio Carpi.[22] Terence Kilmartin compiled a comprehensive Reader’s • À la recherche du temps perdu (2011) by Nina Com- Guide to the Remembrance of Things Past (1983). The panéez, a four-hour, two-part French TV movie that Guide comprises four separate indices: an index of char- covers all seven volumes acters in the Remembrance; an index of actual persons; an index of places; and an index of themes. The reader is Stage thus enabled to locate almost any reference, e.g. Berlioz, or The Arabian Nights, or Madame Verdurin in any par- • A Waste of Time, by Philip Prowse and Robert David ticular scene or setting, or Versailles. The volume and page MacDonald. A 4-hour long adaptation with a huge numbers are keyed to the 3-volume Remembrance of Things cast. Dir. by Philip Prowse at the Glasgow Citizens’ Past of 1981, translated by Scott Moncrieff and revised by Theatre in 1980, revived 1981 plus European tour. Kilmartin himself. • Remembrance of Things Past, by Harold Pinter and Di Trevis, based on Pinter’s The Proust Screenplay. Dir. 12.8 Adaptations by Trevis (who had acted in A Waste of Time - see above) at the Royal National Theatre in 2000.[23] Print • Eleven Rooms of Proust, adapted and directed by Mary Zimmerman. A series of 11 vignettes from In Search of Lost Time, staged throughout an abandoned factory • The Proust Screenplay, a film adaptation by Harold in Chicago. Pinter published in 1978 (never filmed). • My Life With Albertine, a 2003 Off-Broadway musi- • Remembrance of Things Past, Part One: Combray; cal with book by Richard Nelson, music by Ricky Ian Part Two: Within a Budding Grove, vol.1; Part Three: Gordon, and lyrics by both. Within a Budding Grove, vol.2; and Part Four: Un amour de Swann, vol.1 are graphic novel adaptations Radio by Franco-Belgian comics artist Stéphane Heuet in 1988. • The Proust Screenplay, a radio play adapted from Harold Pinter's screenplay by Michael Bakewell, di- • Albertine, a novel based on a rewriting of Albertine by rected by Ned Chaillet, featuring Pinter as narrator, Jacqueline Rose. Vintage UK, 2002. broadcast on BBC Radio 3 on May 11, 1997.[24] • Work from Memory: In Response to in Search of Lost • In Search of Lost Time dramatised by Michael Butt for Time by Marcel Proust by Dan Beachy Quick. Ah- The Classic Serial, broadcast on BBC Radio 4 between sahta, 2012. February 6, 2005 and March 13, 2005. Starring James Wilby, it condensed the entire series into six episodes. Screen Although considerably shortened, it received excellent reviews.[25] • Swann in Love (Un Amour de Swann), a 1984 film by Volker Schlöndorff starring Jeremy Irons and Ornella Muti. 12.9 In popular culture

• “102 Boulevard Haussmann”, a 1990 made-for-TV • Andy Warhol's book, A La Recherche du Shoe Perdu movie that aired as part of the BBC’s “Screen Two” (1955), marked Warhol’s “transition from commercial series, starring Alan Bates.[21] to gallery artist”.[26] 144 CHAPTER 12. IN SEARCH OF LOST TIME

• The British television series Monty Python’s Flying Cir- [6] "...the by now authentically banal exposure of Proust’s nar- cus (1969-1974) references the book and its author rator as a closeted homosexual” Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. in two episodes.[27] In the “Fish Licence” sketch, Mr. “Proust and the Spectacle of the Closet.” Epistemology of Praline mentions that Proust “had an 'addock" as a pet the Closet. Berkeley: University of California, 1990. 223. ﬁsh, and warns, when his listener laughs, “if you're [7] Lucey, Michael. “Proust’s Queer Metalapses” Never Say I: calling the author of À la recherche du temps perdu Sexuality and the First Person in Colette, Gide, and Proust. a looney, I shall have to ask you to step outside!" In Durham: Duke UP, 2006. 218. another sketch entitled “The All-England Summarize Proust Competition,” contestants are required to sum- [8] Lucey. Ibid. marize all of Proust’s seven volumes of the novel in 15 [9] Bragg, Melvyn. “In Our Time: Proust”. BBC Radio 4. April [27] seconds. 17, 2003.

• The novel is also referenced in Pier Paolo Pasolini's [10] Farber, Jerry. “Scott Moncrieff’s Way: Proust in Transla- 1975 film Salò, or the 120 Days of Sodom. tion”. Proust Said That. Issue No. 6. March 1997. Archived February 7, 2012 at the Wayback Machine • In Haruki Murakami's 1Q84 (2009), the main character Aomame spends an entire fall locked in an apart- [11] “Nabokov’s interview. (05) TV-13 NY [1965]". Lib.ru. Re- ment, where the book becomes her only entertain- trieved 2014-01-02. ment. Aomame’s days are spent eating, sleeping, [12] Grossman, Lev. “The 10 Greatest Books of All Time”. working out, staring off the balcony to the city below Time. January 15, 2007. and the moon above, and slowly reading through Lost Time.[28] [13] Holmqvist,B. 1966, Den moderna litteraturen, Bonniers för- lag, Stockholm • In the 2012 film adaptation of Jack Kerouac’s novel On the Road, the book is seen as a connecting element be- [14] The Morning News LLC; www.themorningnews.org (May tween the film’s three protagonists: Sal Paradise, Dean 24, 1963). “Michael Chabon”. The Morning News. Re- trieved 2014-01-02. Moriarty, and Marylou. [15] Troubled Legacies, ed. Allan Hepburn, p. 256

[16] Charlotte Mosley, ed. (1996). The Letters of Nancy Mitford 12.10 See also and Evelyn Waugh. Hodder & Stoughton.

• Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century [17] “The Mercantile Library • Proust Society”. Mercantileli- brary.org. November 9, 2013. Retrieved 2014-01-02.

[18] Proust Society of America Archived May 2, 2015 at the 12.11 Notes and references Wayback Machine [19] “Swann’s Way In Search of Lost Time, Volume 1”. Yale Notes University Press.

[20] “In the Shadow of Young Girls in Flower In Search of Lost [1] Edmund White, “Proust the Passionate Reader,” New York Time, Volume 2”. Yale University Press. Review of Books (April 4, 2013), p. 20. [21] “Screen Two” 102 Boulevard Haussmann (TV Episode [2] Calkins, Mark. Chronology of Proust’s Life. 1990) - IMDb TempsPerdu.com. May 25, 2005. [22] Beugnet and Marion Schmid, 206 [3] Shattuck, Roger. Marcel Proust. Princeton: Princeton Uni- versity Press, 1982, p. 6 [23] Productions: Remembrance of Things Past. NationalTheatre.org. Retrieved April 25, 2006. [4] Bragg, Melvyn. “In Our Time: Proust”. BBC Radio 4. April 17, 2003. See also Malcolm Bowie, “Freud, Proust, and La- [24] Robert Hanks (May 17, 1997). “Giving Proust the Pinter can: Theory as Fiction,” Cambridge: Cambridge University treatment”. Independent. Retrieved 2014-01-02. Press, 1987. For diﬀerences between Freud and Proust, see Joshua Landy, “Philosophy As Fiction: Self, Deception, and [25] Reviews of radio adaptation Archived August 20, 2008 at Knowledge in Proust,” New York: Oxford University Press, the Wayback Machine 2004, pp. 29, 165. [26] Smith, John W., Pamela Allara, and Andy Warhol. Posses- [5] Ronald Bogue, Deleuze and Guattari, p. 36 See also Culler, sion Obsession: Andy Warhol and Collecting. Pittsburgh, PA: Structuralist Poetics, p.122 Andy Warhol Museum, 2002, p. 46. ISBN 0-9715688-0-4 12.13. EXTERNAL LINKS 145

[27] Chapman, Graham; Cleese, John; Gilliam, Terry; Idle, Eric; • Deleuze, Gilles. Proust and Signs. (Translation by Jones, Terry; Palin, Michael (1990) [1989]. Monty Python’s Richard Howard.) George Braziller, Inc. 1972. Flying Circus: Just the Words. London: Mandarin. ISBN 0-7493-0226-7. • Karpeles, Eric. Paintings in Proust: A Visual Com- panion to in Search of Lost Time. Thames & Hudson, [28] Murakami, Haruki, 1Q84: Book Three (Vintage Books: 2008. ISBN 978-0500238547 2011), p. 29. • O'Brien, Justin. “Albertine the Ambiguous: Notes on Proust’s Transposition of Sexes”, PMLA 64: 933-52, Bibliography 1949. • • Bouillaguet, Annick and Rogers, Brian G. Dictionnaire Pugh, Anthony. The Birth of a LA Recherche Du Marcel Proust. Paris: Honoré Champion, 2004. ISBN Temps Perdu, French Fourm Publishers, 1987. 2-7453-0956-0 • Pugh, Anthony. The Growth of A la recherche du temps perdu: A Chronological Examination of Proust’s • Douglas-Fairbank, Robert. “In search of Marcel Manuscripts from 1909 to 1914, University of Toronto Proust” in the Guardian, November 17, 2002. Press, 2004 (two volumes). • Kilmartin, Terence. “Note on the Translation.” Re- • Rose, Phyllis. The Year of Reading Proust. New York: membrance of Things Past. Vol. 1. New York: Vin- Scribner, 1997. ISBN 0-684-83984-9 tage, 1981: ix-xii. ISBN 0-394-71182-3 • Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. Epistemology of the Closet. • Painter, George. Marcel Proust: A Biography. Vol. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. ISBN 2. New York: Random House, 1959. ISBN 0-394- 0-520-07874-8 50041-5 • White, Edmund. Marcel Proust. New York: Penguin • Proust, Marcel. (Carol Clark, Peter Collier, trans.) USA, 1999. ISBN 0-670-88057-4 The Prisoner and The Fugitive. London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2003. ISBN 0-14-118035-8 12.13 External links • Shattuck, Roger. Proust’s Way: A Field Guide To in Search of Lost Time. New York: W W Norton, 2000. • Marcel Proust - In Search of Lost Time - Swann’s Way ISBN 0-393-32180-0 (EN): Video - Audio Book, Read by Denny Sayers and Andrew Coleman. Public Domain. • Tadié, J-Y. (Euan Cameron, trans.) Marcel Proust: A Life. New York: Penguin Putnam, 2000. ISBN 0-14- • Marcel Proust - À la Recherche du Temps Perdu - 100203-4 Œuvre Intégrale (FR): Vidéo - Audio Book 17 tomes. Public Domain. • Terdiman, Richard. Present Past: Modernity and the Memory Crisis. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1993. ISBN 0- • Alarecherchedutempsperdu.com: French text 8014-8132-5 • Proust Ink: William Carter’s Proust resources, with • Woolf, Virginia. The Letters of Virginia Woolf. Eds. streaming lectures Nigel Nicolson and Joanne Trautmann. 7 vols. New • TempsPerdu.com: a site devoted to the novel York: Harcourt, 1976,1977. • Reading Proust: alternative English translations, espe- • Beugnet, Martin and Schmid, Marion. Proust at the cially the “Penguin Proust” Movies. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004. • University of Adelaide Library: electronic versions of the original novels and the translations of C. K. Scott Moncrieﬀ 12.12 Further reading • Project Gutenberg: Proust ebooks in French and En- glish • Carter, William C. Marcel Proust: A Life. New Haven: Yale UP, 2000. ISBN 0-300-08145-6 • Gregory, Woods. “Proust, Marcel (1871-1922): À la recherche du temps perdu". glbtq.com. Retrieved • de Botton, Alain. How Proust Can Change Your Life. February 4, 2015. New York: Pantheon 1997. ISBN 0-679-44275-8 Chapter 13

Marcel Proust

“Proust” redirects here. For other uses, see Proust (disam- attack, and thereafter he was considered a sickly child. biguation). Proust spent long holidays in the village of Illiers. This village, combined with recollections of his great-uncle’s Valentin Louis Georges Eugène Marcel Proust house in Auteuil, became the model for the fictional town of Combray, where some of the most important scenes of In (/pruːst/;[1] French: [maʁsɛl pʁust]; 10 July 1871 – 18 November 1922) was a French novelist, critic, and essayist Search of Lost Time take place. (Illiers was renamed Illiers- best known for his monumental novel À la recherche du Combray in 1971 on the occasion of the Proust centenary temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time; earlier translated as celebrations.) Remembrance of Things Past), published in seven parts In 1882, at the age of eleven, Proust became a pupil at the between 1913 and 1927. He is considered by many to be Lycée Condorcet, but his education was disrupted by his one of the greatest authors of all time.[2][3] illness. Despite this he excelled in literature, receiving an award in his final year. Thanks to his classmates, he was able to gain access to some of the salons of the upper bour- geoisie, providing him with copious material for In Search 13.1 Biography of Lost Time.[7] Despite his poor health, Proust served a year (1889–90) en- Proust was born in Auteuil (the south-western sector of listed in the French army, stationed at Coligny Barracks Paris’s then-rustic 16th arrondissement) at the home of his in Orléans, an experience that provided a lengthy episode great-uncle on 10 July 1871, two months after the Treaty in The Guermantes’ Way, part three of his novel. As a of Frankfurt formally ended the Franco-Prussian War. His young man, Proust was a dilettante and a social climber birth took place during the violence that surrounded the whose aspirations as a writer were hampered by his lack suppression of the Paris Commune, and his childhood cor- of self-discipline. His reputation from this period, as responded with the consolidation of the French Third Re- a snob and an amateur, contributed to his later troubles public. Much of In Search of Lost Time concerns the vast with getting Swann’s Way, the first part of his large-scale changes, most particularly the decline of the aristocracy and novel, published in 1913. At this time, he attended the sa- the rise of the middle classes that occurred in France during lons of Mme Straus, widow of Georges Bizet and mother the Third Republic and the fin de siècle. of Proust’s childhood friend Jacques Bizet, of Madeleine Proust’s father, Adrien Proust, was a prominent pathologist Lemaire and of Mme Arman de Caillavet, one of the mod- and epidemiologist, studying cholera in Europe and Asia. els for Madame Verdurin, and mother of his friend Gaston He was the author of numerous articles and books on Arman de Caillavet, with whose fiancée (Jeanne Pouquet) medicine and hygiene. Proust’s mother, Jeanne Clémence he was in love. It is through Mme Arman de Caillavet that Weil, was the daughter of a wealthy Jewish family from he made the acquaintance of Anatole France, her lover. Alsace.[4] Literate and well-read, she demonstrates a well- In an 1892 article published in Le Banquet entitled developed sense of humour in her letters, and her command “L'Irréligion d'État” and again in a 1904 Le Figaro article of English was sufficient to help with her son’s translations entitled “La mort des cathédrales”, Proust argued against of John Ruskin.[5] Proust was raised in his father’s Catholic the separation of church and state, declaring that socialism faith.[6] He was baptized (on 5 August 1871, at the church posed a greater threat to society than the Church and em- of Saint-Louis d'Antin) and later confirmed as a Catholic phasizing the latter’s role in sustaining a cultural and edu- but he never formally practised that faith. cational tradition.[8] By the age of nine Proust had had his first serious asthma

146 13.2. EARLY WRITING 147

13.2 Early writing

Proust was involved in writing and publishing from an early age. In addition to the literary magazines with which he was associated, and in which he published, while at school, La Revue verte and La Revue lilas, from 1890 to 1891 Proust published a regular society column in the journal Le Men- suel.[5] In 1892 he was involved in founding a literary review called Le Banquet (also the French title of Plato's Symposium), and throughout the next several years Proust published small pieces regularly in this journal and in the prestigious La Revue Blanche. In 1896 Les Plaisirs et les Jours, a compendium of many of these early pieces, was published. The book included a foreword by Anatole France, drawings by madame Lemaire in the salon of whom Proust would be a frequent guest, and who was a model for Mme Verdurin. She invited him and Reynaldo Hahn in her château de Réveillon (the model for Mme Verdurin’s La Raspelière) in summer 1894 and three weeks in 1895. This book was so sumptuously produced that it cost twice the normal price of a book its size. That year Proust also began working on a novel, which was eventually published in 1952 and titled Jean Santeuil by his posthumous editors. Many of the themes later developed Marcel Proust (seated), Robert de Flers (left) and Lucien Daudet in In Search of Lost Time find their first articulation in this (right), ca. 1894. unfinished work, including the enigma of memory and the necessity of reflection; several sections of In Search of Lost Time can be read in the first draft in Jean Santeuil. The portrait of the parents in Jean Santeuil is quite harsh, in marked contrast to the adoration with which the parents are painted in Proust’s masterpiece. Following the poor reception of Les Plaisirs et les Jours, and internal troubles with resolving Proust had a close relationship with his mother. To appease the plot, Proust gradually abandoned Jean Santeuil in 1897 his father, who insisted that he pursue a career, Proust ob- and stopped work on it entirely by 1899. tained a volunteer position at Bibliothèque Mazarine in the Beginning in 1895 Proust spent several years reading summer of 1896. After exerting considerable effort, he ob- Carlyle, Emerson, and John Ruskin. Through this reading tained a sick leave that extended for several years until he Proust began to refine his own theories of art and the role was considered to have resigned. He never worked at his of the artist in society. Also, in Time Regained Proust’s uni- job, and he did not move from his parents’ apartment until [5] versal protagonist recalls having translated Ruskin’s Sesame after both were dead. and Lilies. The artist’s responsibility is to confront the ap- His life and family circle changed markedly between 1900 pearance of nature, deduce its essence and retell or explain and 1905. In February 1903, Proust’s brother, Robert that essence in the work of art. Ruskin’s view of artis- Proust, married and left the family home. His father died in tic production was central to this conception, and Ruskin’s November of the same year.[9] Finally, and most crushingly, work was so important to Proust that he claimed to know Proust’s beloved mother died in September 1905. She left “by heart” several of Ruskin’s books, including The Seven him a considerable inheritance. His health throughout this Lamps of Architecture, The Bible of Amiens, and Prae- period continued to deteriorate. terita.[11] Proust spent the last three years of his life mostly confined Proust set out to translate two of Ruskin’s works into to his bedroom, sleeping during the day and working at French, but was hampered by an imperfect command of night to complete his novel.[10] He died of pneumonia and English. To compensate for this he made his translations a pulmonary abscess in 1922. He was buried in the Père a group affair: sketched out by his mother, the drafts were Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. first revised by Proust, then by Marie Nordlinger, the En- 148 CHAPTER 13. MARCEL PROUST

glish cousin of his friend and sometime lover Reynaldo Begun in 1909, À la recherche du temps perdu consists of Hahn, then again finally polished by Proust. Confronted seven volumes totaling around 3,200 pages (about 4,300 about his method by an editor, Proust responded, “I don't in The Modern Library’s translation) and featuring more claim to know English; I claim to know Ruskin”.[12][13] than 2,000 characters. Graham Greene called Proust the The Bible of Amiens, with Proust’s extended introduction, “greatest novelist of the 20th century”, and W. Somerset was published in French in 1904. Both the translation and Maugham called the novel the “greatest fiction to date”. the introduction were very well reviewed; Henri Bergson Proust died before he was able to complete his revision of called Proust’s introduction “an important contribution to the drafts and proofs of the final volumes, the last three the psychology of Ruskin” and had similar praise for the of which were published posthumously and edited by his translation.[5] At the time of this publication, Proust was brother, Robert. already at work on translating Ruskin’s Sesame and Lilies, The book was translated into English by C. K. Scott Mon- which he completed in June 1905, just before his mother’s crieff, appearing under the title Remembrance of Things death, and published in 1906. Literary historians and Past between 1922 and 1931. Scott Moncrieff translated critics have ascertained that, apart from Ruskin, Proust’s volumes one through six of the seven volumes, dying be- chief literary influences included Saint-Simon, Montaigne, fore completing the last. This last volume was rendered by Stendhal, Flaubert, George Eliot, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and other translators at different times. When Scott Moncrieff’s Leo Tolstoy. translation was later revised (first by Terence Kilmartin, 1908 was an important year for Proust’s development as a then by D. J. Enright) the title of the novel was changed writer. During the first part of the year he published in var- to the more literal In Search of Lost Time. ious journals pastiches of other writers. These exercises In 1995 Penguin undertook a fresh translation of the book in imitation may have allowed Proust to solidify his own by editor Christopher Prendergast and seven translators in style. In addition, in the spring and summer of the year three countries, based on the latest, most complete and au- Proust began work on several different fragments of writing thoritative French text. Its six volumes, comprising Proust’s that would later coalesce under the working title of Contre seven, were published in Britain under the Allen Lane im- Sainte-Beuve. Proust described what he was working on in a print in 2002. letter to a friend: “I have in progress: a study on the nobility, a Parisian novel, an essay on Sainte-Beuve and Flaubert, an essay on women, an essay on pederasty (not easy to publish), a study on stained-glass windows, a study on tombstones, a 13.4 Personal life study on the novel”.[5] From these disparate fragments Proust began to shape a Proust was homosexual, and his sexuality and relationships [14] novel on which he worked continually during this period. with men are often discussed by his biographers. Al- The rough outline of the work centered on a first-person though his housekeeper, Céleste Albaret, denies this aspect [15] narrator, unable to sleep, who during the night remembers of Proust’s sexuality in her memoirs, her denial runs con- waiting as a child for his mother to come to him in the trary to the statements of many of Proust’s friends and con- [16] morning. The novel was to have ended with a critical ex- temporaries, including fellow writer André Gide, as well [17] amination of Sainte-Beuve and a refutation of his theory as his valet Ernest A. Forssgren. that biography was the most important tool for understand- During his life Proust never openly admitted to his homo- ing an artist’s work. Present in the unfinished manuscript sexuality, though his family and close friends either knew or notebooks are many elements that correspond to parts of suspected it. In 1897 he even fought a duel with writer Jean the Recherche, in particular, to the “Combray” and “Swann Lorrain, who publicly questioned the nature of Proust’s re- in Love” sections of Volume 1, and to the final section of lationship with Lucien Daudet. Despite Proust’s own public Volume 7. Trouble with finding a publisher, as well as a denial, his romantic relationship with composer Reynaldo gradually changing conception of his novel, led Proust to Hahn, and his infatuation with his chauffeur and secretary shift work to a substantially different project that still con- Alfred Agostinelli are well documented. tained many of the same themes and elements. By 1910 he The exact influence of Proust’s sexuality on his writing is was at work on À la recherche du temps perdu. a topic of debate.[18] However, In Search of Lost Time dis- cusses homosexuality at length and features several principal characters, both men and women, who are either homo- 13.3 In Search of Lost Time sexual or bisexual: the Baron de Charlus, Robert de Saint- Loup, and Albertine Simonet.[19] Homosexuality also ap- Main article: In Search of Lost Time pears as a theme in Les plaisirs et les jours and his unfinished novel, Jean Santeuil. 13.7. TRANSLATIONS 149

13.5 Gallery 13.7 Translations

• Jean Béraud, La Sortie du lycée Condorcet • La Bible d'Amiens (translation of John Ruskin’s The Bible of Amiens) (1896) • 102 Boulevard Haussmann, Paris, where Marcel Proust lived from 1907 to 1919 • Sésame et les lys: des trésors des rois, des jardins des reines (translation of John Ruskin’s Sesame and Lilies) • Robert de Montesquiou, the main inspiration for (1906) Baron de Charlus in À la recherche du temps perdu • Mme Arman de Caillavet • Grave of Marcel Proust at Père Lachaise Cemetery 13.8 See also

• Albertine, a novel based on a character in À la 13.6 Bibliography recherche du temps perdu by Jacqueline Rose London 2001

• Pleasures and Days (Les plaisirs et les jours; illus- • Céleste, a German ﬁlm dramatising part of Proust’s trations by Madeleine Lemaire, preface by Anatole life, seen from the viewpoint of his housekeeper France, and four piano works by Reynaldo Hahn) Céleste Albaret (1896) • Involuntary memory • In Search of Lost Time (À la recherche du temps perdu published in seven volumes, previously translated as • Le Temps Retrouvé, d'après l'oeuvre de Marcel Proust Remembrance of Things Past) (1913–1927) (Time Regained), ﬁlm by director Raul Ruiz,1999

• Mme Proust and the Kosher Kitchen, a novel by Kate 1. Swann’s Way (Du côté de chez Swann, sometimes Taylor that includes a fictional diary written by Proust’s translated as The Way by Swann’s) (1913) mother 2. In the Shadow of Young Girls in Flower (À l'ombre des • jeunes filles en fleurs, also translated as Within a Bud- "Proust", an essay by Samuel Beckett ding Grove) (1919) • Proust Questionnaire 3. The Guermantes Way (Le Côté de Guermantes originally published in two volumes) (1920/1921) 13.9 References 4. Sodom and Gomorrah (Sodome et Gomorrhe originally published in two volumes, sometimes translated as Cities of the Plain) (1921/1922) [1] “Proust”. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary. 5. The Prisoner (La Prisonnière, also translated as The [2] Harold Bloom, Genius, pp. 191–224. Captive) (1923) [3] https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/w/white-proust.html

6. The Fugitive (Albertine disparue, also titled La Fugi- [4] Allan Massie – Madame Proust: A Biography By Evelyne tive, sometimes translated as The Sweet Cheat Gone or Bloch-Dano, translated by Alice Kaplan Literary Review. Albertine Gone) (1925) [5] Tadié, J-Y. (Euan Cameron, trans.) Marcel Proust: A life. 7. Time Regained (Le Temps retrouvé, also translated as New York: Penguin Putnam, 2000. Finding Time Again and The Past Recaptured) (1927) [6] NYSL TRAVELS: Paris: Proust’s Time Regained Archived 27 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine • Pastiches, or The Lemoine Aﬀair (Pastiches et mélanges – a novella) (1919) [7] Painter, George D. (1959) Marcel Proust: a biography; Vols. 1 & 2. London: Chatto & Windus • Jean Santeuil (three volumes published posthumously 1952) [8] Hughes, Edward J. (2011). Proust, Class, and Nation. Ox- ford University Press. pp. 36–40. • Against Sainte-Beuve (Contre Sainte-Beuve: suivi de Nouveaux mélanges) (published posthumously 1954) [9] Carter (2002) 150 CHAPTER 13. MARCEL PROUST

[10] Marcel Proust: Revolt against the Tyranny of Time. Harry • Carter, William C. (2006), Proust in Love. New Slochower .The Sewanee Review, 1943. Haven: Yale University Press

[11] Tadié; p. 350 • Chardin, Philippe (2006), Proust ou le bonheur du petit personnage qui compare. Paris: Honoré Champion [12] Tadié; p. 326 • [13] Karlin, Daniel (2005) Proust’s English; p. 36 Chardin, Philippe et alii (2010), Originalités prousti- ennes. Paris: Kimé [14] Painter (1959), White (1998), Tadié (2000), Carter (2002 and 2006) • Compagnon, Antoine, Proust Between Two Centuries, Columbia U. Press [15] Albaret (2003) • Davenport-Hines, Richard (2006), A Night at [16] Harris (2002) the Majestic. London: Faber and Faber ISBN [17] Forssgren (2006) 9780571220090

[18] Sedgwick (1992) and O'Brien (1949) • De Botton, Alain (1998), How Proust Can Change Your Life. New York: Vintage Books [19] Sedgwick (1992), Ladenson (1999), and Bersani (2013) • Deleuze, Gilles (2004), Proust and Signs: the complete text. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 13.10 Further reading • De Man, Paul (1979), Allegories of Reading: Figu- ral Language in Rousseau, Nietzsche, Rilke, and Proust • Aciman, André (2004), The Proust Project. New York: ISBN 0-300-02845-8 Farrar, Straus and Giroux • Descombes, Vincent, Proust: Philosophy of the Novel. • Adorno, Theodor (1967), Prisms. Cambridge, Mass.: Stanford, CA: Stanford U. Press MIT Press • Forssgren, Ernest A. (William C. Carter, ed.) (2006), • Adorno, Theodor, “Short Commentaries on Proust,” The Momoirs of Ernest A. Forssgren: Proust’s Swedish Notes to Literature, trans. S. Weber-Nicholsen (New Valet. New Haven: Yale University Press York: Columbia University Press, 1991). • Genette, Gérard, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in • Albaret, Céleste (Barbara Bray, trans.) (2003), Mon- Method. Ithaca, NY: Cornell U. Press sieur Proust. New York: The New York Review of Books • Gracq, Julien, “Proust Considered as An End Point,” in Reading Writing (New York: Turtle Point Press,), • Beckett, Samuel, Proust, London: Calder 113–130. • Benjamin, Walter, “The Image of Proust,” Illumina- • Green, F. C. The Mind of Proust (1949) tions, trans. Harry Zohn (New York: Schocken Books, 1969) 201–215. • Harris, Frederick J. (2002), Friend and Foe: Marcel Proust and André Gide. Lanham: University Press of • Bernard, Anne-Marie (2002), The World of Proust, as America seen by Paul Nadar. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press • • Bersani, Leo, Marcel Proust: The Fictions of Life and Hillerin, Laure La comtesse Greﬀulhe, L'ombre des of Art (2013), Oxford: Oxford U. Press Guermantes, Paris, Flammarion, 2014. Part V, La Chambre Noire des Guermantes. About Marcel Proust • Bowie, Malcolm, Proust Among the Stars, London: and comtesse Greﬀulhe’s relationship, and the key role Harper Collins she played in the genesis of La Recherche.

• Capetanakis, Demetrios, “A Lecture on Proust”, • Karlin, Daniel (2005), Proust’s English. Oxford: Ox- in Demetrios Capetanakis A Greek Poet in England ford University Press ISBN 978-0199256884 (1947) • Kristeva, Julia, Time and Sense. Proust and the Expe- • Carter, William C. (2002), Marcel Proust: a life. New rience of Literature. New York: Columbia U. Press, Haven: Yale University Press 1996. 13.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 151

• Ladenson, Elisabeth (1991), Proust’s Lesbianism. • The Album of Marcel Proust, Marcel Proust receives Ithaca, NY: Cornell U. Press a tribute in this album of “recomposed photographs”.

• Landy,Joshua, Philosophy as Fiction: Self, Deception, • Swann’s Way Exhibited at The Morgan Library and Knowledge in Proust. Oxford: Oxford U. Press • “Why Proust? And Why Now?" Essay on the lasting • O'Brien, Justin. “Albertine the Ambiguous: Notes on relevance of Proust and his work. 13 April 2000 New Proust’s Transposition of Sexes”, PMLA 64: 933-52, York Times 1949. • University of Adelaide Library French text of volumes • Painter, George D. (1959), Marcel Proust: a biogra- 1–4 and the complete novel in English translation phy; Vols. 1 & 2. London: Chatto & Windus

• Poulet, Georges, Proustian Space. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U. Press

• Prendergast, Christopher Mirages and Mad Beliefs: Proust the Skeptic ISBN 9780691155203

• Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky (1992), “Epistemology of the Closet”. Berkeley: University of California Press

• Shattuck, Roger (1963), Proust’s Binoculars: a study of memory, time, and recognition in "À la recherche du temps perdu”. New York: Random House

• Spitzer, Leo, “Proust’s Style,” [1928] in Essays in Stylistics (Princeton, Princeton U. P., 1948).

• Shattuck, Roger (2000), Proust’s Way: a ﬁeld guide to “In Search of Lost Time”. New York: W. W. Norton

• Tadié, Jean-Yves (2000), Marcel Proust: A Life. New York: Viking

• White, Edmund (1998), Marcel Proust. New York: Viking Books

13.11 External links

• Marcel Proust at DMOZ

• BBC audio ﬁle. In Our TIme discussion, Radio 4.

• The Kolb-Proust Archive for Research. University of Illinois.

• Works by Marcel Proust at Project Gutenberg

• Works by Marcel Proust at Project Gutenberg Aus- tralia

• Works by or about Marcel Proust at Internet Archive

• Works by Marcel Proust at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

• Works by Marcel Proust at Open Library Chapter 14

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

For the 1977 ﬁlm adaptation, see A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (ﬁlm).

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is the first novel of Irish writer James Joyce.A Künstlerroman in a modernist style, it traces the religious and intellectual awakening of young Stephen Dedalus, a fictional alter ego of Joyce and an allusion to Daedalus, the consummate craftsman of Greek mythology. Stephen questions and rebels against the Catholic and Irish conventions under which he has grown, culminating in his self-exile from Ireland to Europe. The work uses techniques that Joyce developed more fully in Ulysses (1922) and Finnegans Wake (1939). A Portrait began life in 1903 as Stephen Hero—a projected 63-chapter autobiographical novel in a realistic style. Af- ter 25 chapters, Joyce abandoned Stephen Hero in 1907 and set to reworking its themes and protagonist into a condensed five-chapter novel, dispensing with strict realism and making extensive use of free indirect speech that allows the reader to peer into Stephen’s developing consciousness. American modernist poet Ezra Pound had the novel serialised in the English literary magazine The Egoist in 1914 and 1915, and published as a book in 1916 by B. W. Hueb- sch of New York. The publication of A Portrait and the short story collection Dubliners (1914) earned Joyce a place at the forefront of literary modernism. In 1998, the Modern Library named the novel third on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th cen- James Joyce in 1915 tury.[1]

Stanislaus refused to make confession or take communion, 14.1 Background and when she passed into a coma they refused to kneel and pray for her. James Joyce then took jobs teaching, singing Born into a middle-class family in Dublin, Ireland, James and reviewing books, while drinking heavily. Joyce (1882–1941) excelled as a student, graduating from Joyce made his ﬁrst attempt at a novel, Stephen Hero, in University College, Dublin, in 1902. He moved to Paris to early 1904. That June he met Nora Barnacle, with whom study medicine, but soon gave it up. He returned to Ire- he eloped to Europe, ﬁrst staying in Zürich before settling land at his family’s request as his mother was dying of can- for ten years in Trieste (then in Austria-Hungary), where cer. Despite her pleas, the impious Joyce and his brother he taught English. There Nora gave birth to their children,

152 14.3. PUBLICATION HISTORY 153

George in 1905 and Lucia in 1907, and Joyce wrote fic- niscient third-person narrator, but in Portrait Joyce adopts tion, signing some of his early essays and stories “Stephen the free indirect style, a change that reflects the moving of Daedalus”. The short stories he wrote made up the collec- the narrative centre of consciousness firmly and uniquely tion Dubliners (1914). He reworked the core themes of the onto Stephen. Persons and events take their significance novel Stephen Hero he had begun in Ireland in 1904 and from Stephen, and are perceived from his point of view.[11] abandoned in 1907 into A Portrait, published in 1916, a Characters and places are no longer mentioned simply be- year after he had moved back to Zürich in the midst of the cause the young Joyce had known them. Salient details are First World War. carefully chosen and fitted into the aesthetic pattern of the novel.[12] 14.2 Composition 14.3 Publication history Et ignotas animum dimiit in artes. (“And he turned his mind to unknown arts.”) — Ovid, Epigraph to A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man[2]

At the request of its editors, Joyce submitted a work of philosophical fiction entitled “A Portrait of the Artist” to the Irish literary magazine Dana on 7 January 1904.[3] Dana's editor, W. K. Magee, rejected it, telling Joyce, “I can't print what I can't understand.”[4] On his 22nd birthday, 2 February 1904, Joyce began a realist autobiographical novel, Stephen Hero, which incorporated aspects of the aesthetic philosophy expounded in A Portrait.[5] He worked on the book until mid-1905 and brought the manuscript with him when he moved to Trieste that year. Though his main attention turned to the stories that made up Dubliners, Joyce continued work on Stephen Hero. At 914 manuscript pages, Joyce considered the book about half-finished, having completed 25 of its 63 intended chapters.[6] In September 1907, however, he abandoned this work, and began a complete revision of the text and its structure, producing what became A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.[7] By 1909 the work had taken shape and Joyce showed some of the draft chapters to Ettore Schmitz, one of his language students, as an exercise. Schmitz, himself a respected writer, was impressed and with his encouragement Joyce continued Ezra Pound had A Portrait brought into print. work on the book. In 1913 the Irish poet W. B. Yeats recommended Joyce’s In 1911 Joyce flew into a fit of rage over the continued work to the avant-garde American poet Ezra Pound, who refusals by publishers to print Dubliners and threw the was assembling an anthology of verse. Pound wrote to manuscript of Portrait into the fire. It was saved by a “family [13] [8] [7][lower-alpha 1] Joyce, and in 1914 Joyce submitted the first chapter of fire brigade” including of his sister Eileen. the unfinished Portrait to Pound, who was so taken with it Chamber Music, a book of Joyce’s poems, was published in [9] that he pressed to have the work serialised in the London 1907. literary magazine The Egoist. Joyce hurried to complete the Joyce showed, in his own words, “a scrupulous meanness” in novel,[3] and it appeared in The Egoist in twenty-five instal- his use of materials for the novel. He recycled the two ear- ments from 2 February 1914 to 1 September 1915.[14] lier attempts at explaining his aesthetics and youth, A Por- There was difficulty finding a British publisher for the fin- trait of the Artist and Stephen Hero, as well as his notebooks ished novel, so Pound arranged for its publication by an from Trieste concerning the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas [10] American publishing house, B. W. Huebsch, which issued expounded in the book in five carefully paced chapters. it on 29 December 1916.[3] The Egoist Press republished it Stephen Hero is written from the point of view of an om- in the United Kingdom on 12 February 1917 and Jonathan 154 CHAPTER 14. A PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A YOUNG MAN

Cape took over its publication in 1924. In 1964 Viking He was baby tuckoo. The moocow came down Press issued a corrected version overseen by Chester Ander- the road where Betty Byrne lived: she sold lemon son. Garland released a “copy text” edition by Hans Walter platt. Gabler in 1993.[14] — James Joyce, Opening to A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man 14.4 Major characters The childhood of Stephen Dedalus is recounted using vo- Stephen Dedalus – The main character of A Portrait of the cabulary that changes as he grows, in a voice not his own but Artist as a Young Man. Growing up, Stephen goes through sensitive to his feelings. The reader experiences Stephen’s long phases of hedonism and deep religiosity. He eventually fears and bewilderment as he comes to terms with the adopts a philosophy of aestheticism, greatly valuing beauty world[15] in a series of disjointed episodes.[16] Stephen at- and art. Stephen is essentially Joyce’s alter ego, and many tends the Jesuit-run Clongowes Wood College, where the of the events of Stephen’s life mirror events from Joyce’s apprehensive, intellectually gifted boy suffers the ridicule own youth. His surname is taken from the ancient Greek of his classmates while he learns the schoolboy codes of mythical figure Daedalus, who also engaged in a struggle behaviour. While he cannot grasp their significance, at for autonomy. a Christmas dinner he is witness to the social, political and religious tensions in Ireland involving Charles Stew- Simon Dedalus – Stephen’s father, an impoverished former art Parnell, which drive wedges between members of his medical student with a strong sense of Irish nationalism. family, leaving Stephen with doubts over which social in- Sentimental about his past, Simon Dedalus frequently remi- stitutions he can place his faith in.[17] Back at Clongowes, nisces about his youth. Loosely based on Joyce’s own father word spreads that a number of older boys have been caught and their relationship. “smugging"; discipline is tightened, and the Jesuits increase Emma Clery – Stephen’s beloved, the young girl to whom he use of corporal punishment. Stephen is strapped when one is fiercely attracted over the course of many years. Stephen of his instructors believes he has broken his glasses to avoid constructs Emma as an ideal of femininity, even though (or studying, but, prodded by his classmates, Stephen works because) he does not know her well. up the courage to complain to the rector, Father Conmee, Charles Stewart Parnell – An Irish political leader who is not who assures him there will be no such recurrence, leaving [18] an actual character in the novel, but whose death influences Stephen with a sense of triumph. many of its characters. Parnell had powerfully led the Irish Stephen’s father gets into debt and the family leaves its Parliamentary Party until he was driven out of public life pleasant suburban home to live in Dublin. Stephen realises after his affair with a married woman was exposed. that he will not return to Clongowes. However, thanks to a Cranly – Stephen’s best friend at university, in whom he scholarship obtained for him by Father Conmee, Stephen is confides some of his thoughts and feelings. In this sense able to attend Belvedere College, where he excels academ- [19] Cranly represents a secular confessor for Stephen. Eventu- ically and becomes a class leader. Stephen squanders a ally Cranly begins to encourage Stephen to conform to the large cash prize from school, and begins to see prostitutes, [20] wishes of his family and to try harder to fit in with his peers, as distance grows between him and his drunken father. advice that Stephen fiercely resents. Towards the conclu- As Stephen abandons himself to sensual pleasures, his class sion of the novel he bears witness to Stephen’s exposition is taken on a religious retreat, where the boys sit through of his aesthetic philosophy. It is partly due to Cranly that sermons.[21] Stephen pays special attention to those on Stephen decides to leave, after witnessing Cranly’s budding pride, guilt, punishment and the Four Last Things (death, (and reciprocated) romantic interest in Emma. judgement, Hell, and Heaven). He feels that the words of the sermon are directed at himself and, overwhelmed, comes to desire forgiveness. Overjoyed at his return to the 14.5 Synopsis Church, he devotes himself to acts of repentance, though they soon devolve to mere acts of routine, as his thoughts Once upon a time and a very good time it was turn elsewhere. His devotion comes to the attention of the there was a moocow coming down along the road Jesuits, and they encourage him to consider entering the and this moocow that was coming down along the priesthood.[22] Stephen takes time to consider, but has a cri- road met a nicens little boy named baby tuckoo ... sis of faith because of the conflict between his spiritual be- His father told him that story: his father liefs and his aesthetic ambitions. Along Dollymount Strand looked at him through a glass: he had a hairy he spots a girl wading, and has an epiphany in which he is face. overcome with the desire to find a way to express her beauty 14.7. ANALYSIS 155

person narration for Stephen’s diary entries in the concluding pages of the novel, perhaps to suggest that Stephen has finally found his own voice and no longer needs to absorb the stories of others.[28] Joyce fully employs the free indirect style to demonstrate Stephen’s intellectual development from his childhood, through his education, to his increasing independence and ultimate exile from Ireland as a young man. The style of the work progresses through each of its five chapters, as the complexity of language and Stephen’s ability to comprehend the world around him both gradually increase.[29] The book’s opening pages communicate Stephen’s first stirrings of consciousness when he is a child. Throughout the work language is used to describe indirectly the state of mind of the protagonist and the subjective effect of the events of his life.[30] Stephen Dedalus has an aesthetic epiphany along Dollymount Strand. The writing style is notable also for Joyce’s omission of quotation marks: he indicates dialogue by beginning a paragraph with a dash, as is commonly used in French, Spanish in his writing.[23] or Russian publications. As a student at University College, Dublin, Stephen grows The novel, like all of Joyce’s published works, is not dedi- increasingly wary of the institutions around him: Church, cated to anyone. school, politics and family. In the midst of the disinte- gration of his family’s fortunes his father berates him and his mother urges him to return to the Church.[24] An increasingly dry, humourless Stephen explains his alienation from the Church and the aesthetic theory he has developed to his friends, who find that they cannot accept either of 14.7 Analysis them.[25] Stephen concludes that Ireland is too restricted to allow him to express himself fully as an artist, so he decides that he will have to leave. He sets his mind on self-imposed According to the literary scholar Hugh Kenner, “every exile, but not without declaring in his diary his ties to his theme in the entire life-work of James Joyce is stated on [26] homeland: the first two pages of the Portrait".[31] The highly condensed recounting of young Stephen’s growing consciousness “en- ... I go to encounter for the millionth time the act[s] the entire action [of the novel] in microcosm. An reality of experience and to forge in the smithy of Aristotelian catalogue of senses, faculties, and mental ac- my soul the uncreated conscience of my race. tivities is counterpointed against the unfolding of the infant conscience”,[32] and themes that run through Joyce’s later novels find expression there.[33] 14.6 Style The epigraph quotes from Ovid's Metamorphoses: the inventor Daedalus, who has built a labyrinth to imprison the The novel mixes third-person narrative with free indirect Minotaur, and his son Icarus who are forbidden to leave the speech, which allows both identification with and distance Island of Crete by its King, Minos. Daedalus, “turning his from Stephen. The narrator refrains from judgement. The mind to unknown arts”, fashions wings of birds’ feathers omniscient narrator of the earlier Stephen Hero informs the and wax with which he and his son flee their island prison. reader as Stephen sets out to write “some pages of sorry Icarus flies so close to the sun that the wax on his pair melts verse,” while Portrait gives only Stephen’s attempts, leaving and he plummets into the sea. To A. Nicholas Fargnoli and the evaluation to the reader.[27] Michael Patrick Gillespie the epigraph parallels the heights and depths that end and begin each chapter, and can be seen The novel is written primarily as a third-person narrative [2] with minimal dialogue until the final chapter. This chap- to proclaim the interpretive freedom of the text. ter includes dialogue-intensive scenes alternately involving A Portrait belongs to the genres of Bildungsroman, the novel Stephen, Davin and Cranly. An example of such a scene is of education or coming of age, and Künstlerroman, a story the one in which Stephen posits his complex Thomist aes- of artistic development, of which A Portrait is the primary thetic theory in an extended dialogue. Joyce employs first- example in English.[34] 156 CHAPTER 14. A PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A YOUNG MAN

14.9 Adaptations

A film version adapted for the screen by Judith Rascoe and directed by Joseph Strick was released in 1977. It features Bosco Hogan as Stephen Dedalus and T. P. McKenna as Simon Dedalus. John Gielgud plays Father Arnall, the priest whose lengthy sermon on Hell terrifies the teenage Stephen.[37] Hugh Leonard's stage work Stephen D is an adaptation of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Stephen Hero. It was first produced at the Gate Theatre during the Dublin Theatre Festival of 1962.[38]

14.10 Notes

[1] The story is sometimes erroneously repeated as involving Stephen Hero and Joyce’s common-law wife, Nora Barna- cle. The error was ﬁrst publicised by Joyce’s patron Sylvia Beach in 1935, and was included in Herbert Gorman’s biography James Joyce (1939).[7]

14.11 References The myth of Daedalus and Icarus has parallels in the structure of the novel, and gives Stephen his surname. [1] “100 Best Novels”. Random House. 1999. Retrieved 15 August 2014. This ranking was by the Modern Library Ed- itorial Board of authors.

14.7.1 Autobiography [2] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, pp. 136–137.

[3] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, p. 134. Stephen Hero is a directly autobiographical novel, including people and events because Joyce had personally expe- [4] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, pp. 134–135. rienced them. In contrast, in A Portrait Joyce refines his [5] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, p. 154. approach by selectively drawing on life events and reflecting them through the consciousness of Stephen Dedalus, a [6] Bulson (2006:47) fictional character.[35] [7] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, p. 155.

[8] Bulson (2006:47)

[9] Read 1967, p. 2.

[10] Johnson (2000:xviii) 14.8 Reception [11] Johnson (2000:xvii)

[12] Johnson (2000:xvii) A Portrait won Joyce a reputation for his literary skills, as well as a patron, Harriet Shaw Weaver, the business man- [13] Read 1967, p. 1. ager of The Egoist.[3] [14] Herbert 2009, p. 7. In 1917 H. G. Wells wrote that “one believes in Stephen Dedalus as one believes in few characters in ﬁction,” while [15] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, p. 137. warning readers of Joyce’s "cloacal obsession,” his insis- [16] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, p. 136. tence on the portrayal of bodily functions that Victorian morality had banished from print.[36] [17] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, p. 138. 14.12. FURTHER READING 157

[18] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, p. 138–139. • Read, Forrest, ed. (1967). Pound/Joyce; the Letters of Ezra Pound to James Joyce: With Pound’s Essays [19] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, p. 139. on Joyce. New Directions Publishing. ISBN 978-0- [20] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, pp. 139–140. 8112-0159-9.

[21] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, p. 140. • Herbert, Stacey (2009). “Composition and publishing history of the major works: an overview”. In [22] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, p. 141. McCourt, John. James Joyce in Context. Cambridge [23] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, pp. 141–142. University Press. pp. 3–16. ISBN 978-0-521-88662- 8. [24] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, p. 142.

[25] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, pp. 142—143. • Johnson, Jeri (2000). “Introduction”. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Oxford world’s classics. [26] Fargnoli & Gillespie 2006, p. 143. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283998-5. [27] Belanger 2001, p. xviii. • Wollaeger, Mark A. (2003). James Joyce’s A Portrait [28] Bulson (2006:51) of the Artist as a Young Man: A Casebook. Oxford [29] Bulson (2006:50) University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515076-6.

[30] Pericles Lewis. “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man” (PDF). Cambridge Introduction to Modernism. Retrieved 8 14.12 Further reading May 2012. [31] Kenner 1948, p. 365. • Attridge, Derek, ed. The Cambridge Companion to James Joyce, 2nd edition, Cambridge UP, 2004. ISBN [32] Kenner 1948, p. 362. 0-521-54553-6. [33] Kenner 1948, pp. 363–363. • Bloom, Harold. James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist [34] Bulson (2006:49) as a Young Man. New York: Chelsea House, 1988. ISBN 1-55546-020-8. [35] Bulson (2006:50) • Brady, Philip and James F. Carens, eds. Critical Essays [36] Wollaeger 2003, p. 4. on James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young [37] A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man at the Internet Movie Man. New York: G. K. Hall, 1998. ISBN 978-0- Database 7838-0035-6. [38] Irish Playography, Stephen D by Hugh Leonard retrieved 7 • Doherty, Gerald. Pathologies of Desire: The Vicissi- July 2013 tudes of the Self in James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. New York: Peter Lang, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8204-9735-8. 14.11.1 Works cited • Empric, Julienne H. The Woman in the Portrait: The • Belanger, Jacqueline (2001). “Introduction”. A Por- Transforming Female in James Joyce’s A Portrait of the trait of the Artist as a Young Man. Wordsworth Edi- Artist as a Young Man. San Bernardino, CA: Borgo tions. pp. i–xxxii. ISBN 978-1-85326-006-3. Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0-89370-193-2. • Bulson, Eric (2006). “3”. The Cambridge Introduction • Epstein, Edmund L. The Ordeal of Stephen Dedalus: to James Joyce. Cambridge University Press. pp. 47– The Conﬂict of Generations in James Joyce’s A Portrait 62. ISBN 0-521-84037-6. of the Artist as a Young Man. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1971. ISBN 978-0-8093-0485-1 . • Fargnoli, A. Nicholas; Gillespie, Michael Patrick (2006). Critical Companion to James Joyce: A Literary • Harkness, Marguerite. Portrait of the Artist as a Young Reference to His Life and Work. Infobase Publishing. Man: Voices of the Text. Boston: Twayne, 1989. ISBN 978-1-4381-0848-3. ISBN 978-0-8057-8125-0. • Kenner, Hugh (Summer 1948). “The 'Portrait' in Per- • Morris, William E. and Cliﬀord A. Nault, eds. Por- spective” 10 (3). Kenyon College. pp. 361–381. traits of an Artist: A Casebook on James Joyce’s Por- JSTOR 4332957. trait. New York: Odyssey, 1962. 158 CHAPTER 14. A PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A YOUNG MAN

• Seed, David. James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-312-08426-4.

• Staley, Thomas F. and Bernard Benstock, ed. Ap- proaches to Joyce’s Portrait: Ten Essays. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1976. ISBN 978-0-82- 293331-1.

• Thornton, Weldon. The Antimodernism of Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse UP, 1994. ISBN 978-0-8156-2587-2. • Tindall, William York (1995). A Reader’s Guide to James Joyce. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0- 8156-0320-7. • Wollaeger, Mark A., ed. James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man: A Casebook. Oxford and New York: Oxford UP, 2003. ISBN 978-0-19- 515075-9. • Yoshida, Hiromi. Joyce & Jung: The “Four Stages of Eroticism” in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. New York: Peter Lang, 2007. ISBN 978-0-8204- 6913-3.

14.13 External links

•

• A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man at Project Gutenberg

• Hypertextual, self-referential version based on the Project Gutenberg edition, from an Imperial College London website • Digitized copy of the ﬁrst edition from Internet Archive

• A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man public domain audiobook at LibriVox

• Study guide from SparkNotes • Map of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Chapter 15

James Joyce

This article is about the 20th-century writer. For other peo- lection Dubliners (1914), and the novels A Portrait of the ple with the same name, see James Joyce (disambiguation). Artist as a Young Man (1916) and Finnegans Wake (1939). James Augustine[1] Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 – His other writings include three books of poetry, a play, occasional journalism, and his published letters. Joyce was born in 41 Brighton Square, Rathgar, Dublin— about half a mile from his mother’s birthplace in Terenure—into a middle-class family on the way down. A brilliant student, he excelled at the Jesuit schools Clongowes and Belvedere, despite the chaotic family life imposed by his father’s alcoholism and unpredictable ﬁnances. He went on to attend University College Dublin. In 1904, in his early twenties, Joyce emigrated permanently to continental Europe with his partner Nora Barnacle. They lived in Trieste, Paris, and Zurich. Though most of his adult life was spent abroad, Joyce’s ﬁctional universe centres on Dublin, and is populated largely by characters who closely resemble family members, enemies and friends from his time there. Ulysses in particular is set with precision in the streets and alleyways of the city. Shortly after the publication of Ulysses, he elucidated this preoccupation somewhat, saying, “For myself, I always write about Dublin, because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I can get to the heart of all the cities of the world. In the particular is contained the universal.”[2]

15.1 Biography

Joyce in Zurich, c. 1918 15.1.1 1882–1904: Dublin

James Augustine Aloysius Joyce was born on 2 February 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist and poet, considered 1882 to John Stanislaus Joyce and Mary Jane “May” Mur- to be one of the most inﬂuential writers in the modernist ray, in the Dublin suburb of Rathgar. He was baptized ac- avant-garde of the early 20th century. cording to the Rites of the Catholic Church in the nearby St Joyce is best known for Ulysses (1922), a landmark work Joseph’s Church in Terenure on 5 February by Rev. John in which the episodes of Homer's Odyssey are paralleled in O'Mulloy. His godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann. an array of contrasting literary styles, perhaps most promi- He was the eldest of ten surviving children; two of his sib- nent among these the stream of consciousness technique he lings died of typhoid. utilized. Other well-known works are the short-story col- His father’s family, originally from Fermoy in Cork, had

159 160 CHAPTER 15. JAMES JOYCE

Joyce’s birth and baptismal certificate once owned a small salt and lime works. Joyce’s father and paternal grandfather both married into wealthy families, though the family’s purported ancestor, Seán Mór Seoighe (fl. 1680) was a stonemason from Connemara.[3] In 1887, his father was appointed rate collector (i.e., a collector of local property taxes) by Dublin Corporation; the family sub- Joyce aged six, 1888 sequently moved to the fashionable adjacent small town of Bray 12 miles (19 km) from Dublin. Around this time Joyce was attacked by a dog, which engendered in him a lifelong came about because of a chance meeting his father had with cynophobia. He also suffered from astraphobia, as a super- a Jesuit priest who knew the family and Joyce was given a stitious aunt had described thunderstorms to him as a sign [7] [4] reduction in fees to attend Belvedere. In 1895, Joyce, now of God’s wrath. aged 13, was elected to join the Sodality of Our Lady by his In 1891 Joyce wrote a poem on the death of Charles Stew- peers at Belvedere.[8] The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas art Parnell. His father was angry at the treatment of Par- continued to have a strong influence on him for most of his nell by the Catholic church, the Irish Home Rule Party and life.[9] the British Liberal Party and the resulting collaborative fail- Joyce enrolled at the recently established University College ure to secure Home Rule for Ireland. The Irish Party had Dublin (UCD) in 1898, studying English, French and Ital- dropped Parnell from leadership. But the Vatican’s role ian. He also became active in theatrical and literary circles in allying with the British Conservative Party to prevent [5] in the city. In 1900 his laudatory review of Henrik Ibsen's Home Rule left a lasting impression on the young Joyce. When We Dead Awaken was published in Fortnightly Re- The elder Joyce had the poem printed and even sent a part view; it was his first publication and, after learning basic to the Vatican Library. In November of that same year, Norwegian to send a fan letter to Ibsen, he received a let- John Joyce was entered in Stubbs Gazette (a publisher of ter of thanks from the dramatist. Joyce wrote a number of bankruptcies) and suspended from work. In 1893, John other articles and at least two plays (since lost) during this Joyce was dismissed with a pension, beginning the family’s period. Many of the friends he made at University College slide into poverty caused mainly by his drinking and general [6] Dublin appeared as characters in Joyce’s works. His clos- financial mismanagement. est colleagues included leading figures of the generation, Joyce had begun his education at Clongowes Wood Col- most notably, Thomas Kettle, Francis Sheehy-Skeffington lege, a Jesuit boarding school near Clane, County Kildare, and Oliver St. John Gogarty. Joyce was first introduced to in 1888 but had to leave in 1892 when his father could no the Irish public by Arthur Griffith in his newspaper, The longer pay the fees. Joyce then studied at home and briefly United Irishman, in November 1901. Joyce had written an at the Christian Brothers O'Connell School on North Rich- article on the Irish Literary Theatre and his college maga- mond Street, Dublin, before he was offered a place in the zine refused to print it. Joyce had it printed and distributed Jesuits’ Dublin school, Belvedere College, in 1893. This locally. Griffith himself wrote a piece decrying the censor- 15.1. BIOGRAPHY 161 ship of the student James Joyce.[10][11] In 1901, the National study medicine, but he soon abandoned this. Richard Ell- Census of Ireland lists James Joyce (19) as an English- and mann suggests that this may have been because he found Irish-speaking scholar living with his mother and father, six the technical lectures in French too difficult. Joyce had al- sisters and three brothers at Royal Terrace (now Inverness ready failed to pass chemistry in English in Dublin. But Road), Clontarf, Dublin.[12] Joyce claimed ill health as the problem and wrote home that he was unwell and complained about the cold weather .[13] He stayed on for a few months, appealing for finance his family could ill afford and reading late in the Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève. When his mother was diagnosed with cancer, his father sent a telegram which read, “NOTHER [sic] DYING COME HOME FATHER”.[14] Joyce returned to Ireland. Fearing for her son’s impiety, his mother tried unsuccessfully to get Joyce to make his confession and to take communion. She finally passed into a coma and died on 13 August, James and Stanislaus having refused to kneel with other members of the family praying at her bedside.[15] After her death he continued to drink heavily, and conditions at home grew quite appalling. He scraped a living reviewing books, teaching, and singing—he was an accom- plished tenor, and won the bronze medal in the 1904 Feis Ceoil.[16][17] On 7 January 1904 Joyce attempted to publish A Portrait of the Artist, an essay-story dealing with aesthetics, only to have it rejected by the free-thinking magazine Dana. He decided, on his twenty-second birthday, to revise the story into a novel he called Stephen Hero. It was a fictional rendering of Joyce’s youth, but he eventually grew frustrated with its direction and abandoned this work. It was never published in this form, but years later, in Trieste, Joyce completely rewrote it as A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. The unfinished Stephen Hero was published after his death.[18] The same year he met Nora Barnacle, a young woman from Galway City who was working as a chambermaid. On 16 June 1904, they first stepped out together, an event which would be commemorated by providing the date for the action of Ulysses. Joyce remained in Dublin for some time longer, drinking heavily. After one of these drinking binges, he got into a fight over a misunderstanding with a man in St Stephen’s Green;[19] he was picked up and dusted off by a minor acquaintance of his father, Alfred H. Hunter, who took him into his home to tend to his injuries.[20] Hunter was ru- moured to be a Jew and to have an unfaithful wife, and would serve as one of the models for Leopold Bloom, the protagonist of Ulysses.[21] He took up with medical student Oliver St John Gogarty, who formed the basis for the character Buck Mulligan in Ulysses. After staying for six nights in the Martello Tower that Gogarty was renting in Sandy- cove, he left in the middle of the night following an alterca- Bust of Joyce on St Stephen’s Green, Dublin tion which involved another student he lived with, the unsta- ble Dermot Chenevix Trench (Haines in Ulysses), who fired After graduating from UCD in 1902, Joyce left for Paris to a pistol at some pans hanging directly over Joyce’s bed.[22] 162 CHAPTER 15. JAMES JOYCE

Joyce walked the 8 miles (13 km) back to Dublin to stay 1905, when the Austrians—having discovered an espionage with relatives for the night, and sent a friend to the tower ring in the city—expelled all aliens. With Artifoni’s help, the next day to pack his trunk. Shortly thereafter he left he moved back to Trieste and began teaching English there. Ireland with Nora to live on the Continent. He remained in Trieste for most of the next ten years.[23] Later that year Nora gave birth to their first child, Gior- 15.1.2 1904–20: Trieste and Zurich gio. Joyce then managed to talk his brother, Stanislaus, into joining him in Trieste, and secured him a position teaching at the school. Joyce’s ostensible reasons were desire for Stanislaus’s company and the hope of offering him a more interesting life than that of his simple clerking job in Dublin. Joyce also hoped to augment his family’s mea- gre income with his brother’s earnings.[24] Stanislaus and Joyce had strained relations throughout the time they lived together in Trieste, with most arguments centring on Joyce’s drinking habits and frivolity with money.[25] Joyce became frustrated with life in Trieste and moved to Rome in late 1906, having secured employment as a letter- writing clerk in a bank. He intensely disliked Rome, and moved back to Trieste in early 1907. His daughter Lucia was born later that year.[26] Joyce returned to Dublin in mid-1909 with George, to visit his father and work on getting Dubliners published. He visited Nora’s family in Galway and liked Nora’s mother very much.[27] While preparing to return to Trieste he decided to take one of his sisters, Eva, back with him to help Nora run the home. He spent only a month in Trieste before returning to Dublin, this time as a representative of some cinema owners and businessmen from Trieste. With their backing he launched Ireland’s first cinema, the Volta Cinemato- graph, which was well-received, but fell apart after Joyce left. He returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister, Eileen, in tow.[28] Eva became homesick for Dublin and returned there a few years later, but Eileen spent the rest of her life on the continent, eventually marrying Czech bank cashier Frantisek Schaurek.[29] Joyce returned to Dublin again briefly in mid-1912 during his years-long fight with Dublin publisher George Roberts over the publication of Dubliners. His trip was once again Joyce in Zürich, in 1915 fruitless, and on his return he wrote the poem “Gas from a Burner”, an invective against Roberts. After this trip, Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile, moving first to he never again came closer to Dublin than London, despite Zurich in Switzerland, where he had supposedly acquired a many pleas from his father and invitations from fellow Irish post to teach English at the Berlitz Language School through writer William Butler Yeats. an agent in England. It turned out that the agent had been swindled; the director of the school sent Joyce on to Trieste, One of his students in Trieste was Ettore Schmitz, better which was then part of Austria-Hungary (until World War known by the pseudonym Italo Svevo. They met in 1907 I), and is today part of Italy. Once again, he found there and became lasting friends and mutual critics. Schmitz was was no position for him, but with the help of Almidano Ar- a Catholic of Jewish origin and became a primary model for tifoni, director of the Trieste Berlitz school, he finally se- Leopold Bloom; most of the details about the Jewish faith cured a teaching position in Pola, then also part of Austria- in Ulysses came from Schmitz’s responses to queries from [30] Hungary (today part of Croatia). He stayed there, teach- Joyce. While living in Trieste, Joyce was first beset with ing English mainly to Austro-Hungarian naval officers sta- eye problems that ultimately required over a dozen surgical [31] tioned at the Pola base, from October 1904 until March operations. 15.1. BIOGRAPHY 163

Joyce concocted a number of money-making schemes dur- Pound, supposedly for a week, but the family ended up living this period, including an attempt to become a cinema ing there for the next twenty years. magnate in Dublin. He also frequently discussed but ultimately abandoned a plan to import Irish tweed to Tri- este. Correspondence relating to that venture with the Irish 15.1.3 1920–41: Paris and Zurich Woollen Mills were for a long time displayed in the windows of their premises in Dublin. Joyce’s skill at borrowing money saved him from indigence. What income he had came partially from his position at the Berlitz school and partially from teaching private students.

The so-called James-Joyce-Kanzel (plateau) at the conﬂuence of the Sihl and Limmat rivers in Zurich where Joyce loved to relax

In 1915, after most of his students in Trieste were conscripted to fight in World War I, Joyce moved to Zurich. In Paris, 1924. Portrait by Patrick Tuohy. Two influential private students, Baron Ambrogio Ralli and Count Francesco Sordina, petitioned officials for an exit permit for the Joyces, who in turn agreed not to take any Joyce set himself to finishing Ulysses in Paris, delighted to action against the emperor of Austria-Hungary during the find that he was gradually gaining fame as an avant-garde war.[32] In Zurich, Joyce met one of his most enduring and writer. A further grant from Miss Shaw Weaver meant he important friends, the English socialist painter Frank Bud- could devote himself full-time to writing again, as well as gen, whose opinion Joyce constantly sought through the consort with other literary figures in the city. During this writing of Ulysses and Finnegans Wake. It was also here era, Joyce’s eyes began to give him more and more prob- that Ezra Pound brought him to the attention of English lems. He was treated by Dr Louis Borsch in Paris, un- feminist and publisher Harriet Shaw Weaver, who would dergoing nine operations before Borsch’s death in 1929. become Joyce’s patron, providing him with thousands of Throughout the 1930s he travelled frequently to Switzer- pounds over the next 25 years and relieving him of the bur- land for eye surgeries and for treatments for his daugh- den of teaching to focus on his writing. While in Zurich ter Lucia, who, according to the Joyces, suffered from he wrote Exiles, published A Portrait..., and began serious schizophrenia. Lucia was analysed by Carl Jung at the time, who after reading Ulysses, is said to have concluded that her work on Ulysses. Zurich during the war was home to exiles [33] and artists from across Europe, and its bohemian, multilin- father had schizophrenia. Jung said she and her father were two people heading to the bottom of a river, except gual atmosphere suited him. Nevertheless, after four years [34][35][36] he was restless, and after the war he returned to Trieste as that Joyce was diving and Lucia was sinking. he had originally planned. He found the city had changed, In Paris, Maria and Eugene Jolas nursed Joyce during his and some of his old friends noted his maturing from teacher long years of writing Finnegans Wake. Were it not for their to artist. His relations with his brother Stanislaus (who had support (along with Harriet Shaw Weaver’s constant finan- been interned in an Austrian prison camp for most of the cial support), there is a good possibility that his books might war due to his pro-Italian politics) were more strained than never have been finished or published. In their literary mag- ever. Joyce went to Paris in 1920 at an invitation from Ezra azine "transition,” the Jolases published serially various sec- 164 CHAPTER 15. JAMES JOYCE

Blue plaque, 28 Campden Grove, Kensington, London

cording to ﬁrst-hand testimonies coming from himself, his brother Stanislaus Joyce, and his wife:

My mind rejects the whole present social order and Christianity—home, the recognised Grave of James Joyce in Zurich-Fluntern virtues, classes of life, and religious doctrines. [...] Six years ago I left the Catholic church, hat- ing it most fervently. I found it impossible for me tions of Finnegans Wake under the title Work in Progress. to remain in it on account of the impulses of my Joyce returned to Zurich in late 1940, fleeing the Nazi oc- nature. I made secret war upon it when I was a cupation of France. student and declined to accept the positions it of- On 11 January 1941, he underwent surgery in Zurich for fered me. By doing this I made myself a beggar a perforated ulcer. While he at first improved, he relapsed but I retained my pride. Now I make open war the following day, and despite several transfusions, fell into upon it by what I write and say and do.[37] a coma. He awoke at 2 a.m. on 13 January 1941, and asked for a nurse to call his wife and son, before losing conscious- My brother’s breakaway from Catholicism ness again. They were still on their way when he died 15 was due to other motives. He felt it was impera- minutes later. tive that he should save his real spiritual life from being overlaid and crushed by a false one that he Joyce’s body was interred in the Fluntern Cemetery near had outgrown. He believed that poets in the mea- Zurich Zoo. Swiss tenor Max Meili sang Addio terra, ad- sure of their gifts and personality were the repos- dio cielo from Monteverdi's L'Orfeo at the burial service. itories of the genuine spiritual life of their race Although two senior Irish diplomats were in Switzerland at and the priests were usurpers. He detested falsity the time, neither attended Joyce’s funeral, and the Irish gov- and believed in individual freedom more thor- ernment later declined Nora’s offer to permit the repatria- oughly than any man I have ever known. [...] The tion of Joyce’s remains. Nora, who had married Joyce in interest that my brother always retained in the London in 1931, survived him by 10 years. She is buried philosophy of the Catholic Church sprang from by his side, as is their son Giorgio, who died in 1976. the fact that he considered Catholic philosophy to be the most coherent attempt to establish such an intellectual and material stability.[38] 15.1.4 Joyce and religion When the arrangements for Joyce’s burial were being made, The issue of Joyce’s relationship with religion is somewhat a Catholic priest offered a religious service, which Joyce’s controversial. Early in life, he lapsed from Catholicism, ac- wife Nora declined, saying: “I couldn't do that to him.”[39] 15.1. BIOGRAPHY 165

However, L. A. G. Strong, William T. Noon, Robert Boyle 15.1.5 Joyce and music and others have argued that Joyce, later in life, reconciled with the faith he rejected earlier in life and that his parting with the faith was succeeded by a not so obvious re- Music is central to Joyce’s biography and to the understand- [49] union, and that Ulysses and Finnegans Wake are essentially ing of his writings. In turn, Joyce’s poetry and prose be- Catholic expressions.[40] Likewise, Hugh Kenner and T.S. came an inspiration for composers and musicians. There Eliot believed they saw between the lines of Joyce’s work are at least five aspects to consider: the outlook of a serious Christian and that beneath the 1. Joyce’s musicality: Joyce had considerable musical tal- veneer of the work lies a remnant of Catholic belief and ent, which expressed itself in his singing, piano and gui- attitude.[41] Kevin Sullivan maintains that, rather than rec- tar playing, as well as in a melody that he composed. His onciling with the faith, Joyce never left it.[42] Critics holding own musicality (which once made him consider music as a this view insist that Stephen, the protagonist of the semi- profession) is the root of his strong adoption of music as a autobiographical A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man as major driving force in his fiction, in addition to his own ex- well as Ulysses, is not Joyce.[42] Somewhat cryptically, in an perience of music in Ireland before he left in 1904. Joyce interview after completing Ulysses, in response to the ques- had a light tenor voice; he was taught by Vincent O'Brien tion “When did you leave the Catholic Church”, Joyce an- and Benedetto Palmieri; in 1904 won a bronze medal at the swered, “That’s for the Church to say.”[43] Eamonn Hughes competitive music festival Feis Ceoil. His only composition maintains that Joyce takes a dialectic approach, both af- is a melody to his poem Bid adieu, to which a piano accom- firming and denying, saying that Stephen’s much noted non- paniment was added in the 1920s in Paris by the American serviam is qualified—"I will not serve that which I no longer composer Edmund J. Pendleton (1899–1987). believe...”, and that the non-serviam will always be balanced 2. The music Joyce knew: Music frequently found its by Stephen’s “I am a servant...” and Molly’s “yes”.[44] It is way into Joyce’s poetry and prose. Often this happens in also known from first hand testimonies and his own writ- the form of allusions to (or partial quotations from) texts ing that Joyce attended Catholic Mass and Orthodox Sa- of Irish traditional songs, popular ballads, Roman Catholic cred Liturgy, especially during Holy Week, purportedly for chant and opera arias. His operatic references include aesthetic reasons.[45] His sisters also noted his Holy Week works by Balfe, Wallace and Arthur Sullivan, in addition attendance and that he did not seek to dissuade them.[45] to Meyerbeer, Mozart, and Wagner (among many others). One friend witnessed him cry “secret tears” upon hearing Joyce also makes frequent use of the Irish Melodies of Jesus’ words on the cross and another accused him of being Thomas Moore and ballads such as George Barker’s Dublin a “believer at heart” because of his frequent attendance at Bay and J.L. Molloy's Love’s Old Sweet Song. church.[45] 3. Opera as a genre: Joyce had a lifelong preoccupation Umberto Eco compares Joyce to the ancient episcopi va- with opera as a generic precedent for his own fiction. Al- gantes (wandering bishops) in the Middle Ages. They left though Joyce scholarship has long identified an explicit re- a discipline, not a cultural heritage or a way of thinking. course to musical structures in Ulysses (in particular the Like them, the writer retains the sense of blasphemy held 'Sirens’ episode) and Finnegans Wake, more recent criti- as a liturgical ritual.[46] cism has established a decisive reliance on Wagner’s Ring in Some critics and biographers have opined along the lines of Finnegans Wake[50] and an attempt to adapt the structures Andrew Gibson: “The modern James Joyce may have vig- of opera and oratorio to the medium of fiction, notably in orously resisted the oppressive power of Catholic tradition. the 'Cyclops’ episode of Ulysses.[51] George Antheil's unfin- But there was another Joyce who asserted his allegiance to ished setting of 'Cyclops’ as an opera attests this attempt. that tradition, and never left it, or wanted to leave it, be- 4. Music to Joyce’s words: Music that uses Joyce’s texts hind him.” Gibson argues that Joyce “remained a Catholic most frequently appears as settings of his poems in songs, intellectual if not a believer” since his thinking remained and occasionally as excerpts from prose works. Irish com- influenced by his cultural background, even though he dis- posers were among the first to set Joyce’s poetry, including sented from that culture.[47] His relationship with religion Geoffrey Molyneux Palmer (1882–1957), Herbert Hughes was complex and not easily understood, even perhaps by (1882–1937) and Brian Boydell (1917–2000),[52] but the himself. He acknowledged the debt he owed to his early Je- musical qualities of Joyce’s verse also attracted European suit training. Joyce told the sculptor August Suter, that from and North American composers, with early settings by his Jesuit education, he had 'learnt to arrange things in such Karol Szymanowski (Songs to Words by James Joyce op. a way that they become easy to survey and to judge.'[48] 54, 1926) and Samuel Barber (Three Songs op. 10, 1936) in addition to settings by major exponents of the 1950s and '60s avant-garde such as Elliot Carter (String Quartet No. 1, 1951) and Luciano Berio (Chamber Music, 1953; Thema 166 CHAPTER 15. JAMES JOYCE

(Ommagio a Joyce), 1958; etc.) In 2015 Waywords and Meansigns presented an unabridged version of Finnegans Wake, collaboratively read and set to music, by contributors from around the globe.[53] 5. Music inspired by Joyce: Often, instrumental music was also inspired by Joyce’s writings, including works by Pierre Boulez, Klaus Huber, Rebecca Saunders, Toru Takemitsu and Gerard Victory. With Luciano Berio's Thema (Omaggio a Joyce) (1958) there is also a key work in the development of electro-acoustic music. In 2014 the English composer Stephen Crowe set Joyce’s explicit letters to Nora as a song-cycle for tenor and ensemble. Joyce himself took a keen interest in musical settings of his work, performed some of them himself, and corresponded with many of the composers. He was particularly fond of the early settings by Palmer.[54]

15.2 Major works

15.2.1 Dubliners

Main article: Dubliners Joyce’s Irish experiences constitute an essential element of his writings, and provide all of the settings for his ﬁction and much of its subject matter. His early volume of short stories, Dubliners, is a penetrating analysis of the stagna- tion and paralysis of Dublin society. The stories incorpo- The title page of the ﬁrst edition of Dubliners rate epiphanies, a word used particularly by Joyce, by which he meant a sudden consciousness of the “soul” of a thing. 15.2.3 Exiles and poetry

15.2.2 A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Main articles: Pomes Penyeach and Chamber Music (book)

Main article: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play, Exiles, begun shortly after the outbreak of World A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is a nearly com- War I in 1914 and published in 1918. A study of a husband plete rewrite of the abandoned novel Stephen Hero. Joyce and wife relationship, the play looks back to The Dead (the attempted to burn the original manuscript in a fit of rage final story in Dubliners) and forward to Ulysses, which Joyce during an argument with Nora, though to his subsequent began around the time of the play’s composition. relief it was rescued by his sister. A Künstlerroman, Por- Joyce also published a number of books of poetry. His trait is a heavily autobiographical[55] coming-of-age novel first mature published work was the satirical broadside “The depicting the childhood and adolescence of protagonist Holy Office” (1904), in which he proclaimed himself to be Stephen Dedalus and his gradual growth into artistic self- the superior of many prominent members of the Celtic Re- consciousness. Some hints of the techniques Joyce fre- vival. His first full-length poetry collection Chamber Music quently employed in later works, such as stream of con- (1907) (referring, Joyce joked, to the sound of urine hit- sciousness, interior monologue, and references to a charac- ting the side of a chamber pot) consisted of 36 short lyrics. ter’s psychic reality rather than to his external surroundings, This publication led to his inclusion in the Imagist Anthol- are evident throughout this novel.[56] Joseph Strick directed ogy, edited by Ezra Pound, who was a champion of Joyce’s a film of the book in 1977 starring Luke Johnston, Bosco work. Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes Hogan, T. P. McKenna and John Gielgud. “Gas From A Burner” (1912), Pomes Penyeach (1927) and 15.2. MAJOR WORKS 167

“Ecce Puer” (written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grand- tunately, this publication encountered censorship problems son and the recent death of his father). It was published by in the United States; serialisation was halted in 1920 when the Black Sun Press in Collected Poems (1936). the editors were convicted of publishing obscenity.[57] Al- though the conviction was based on the “Nausicaä" episode of Ulysses, The Little Review had fuelled the fires of con- 15.2.4 Ulysses troversy with dada poet Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven's defence of Ulysses in an essay “The Modest Woman.”[58] Main article: Ulysses (novel) Joyce’s novel was not published in the United States until As he was completing work on Dubliners in 1906, Joyce 1933.[59] Partly because of this controversy, Joyce found it difficult to get a publisher to accept the book, but it was published in 1922 by Sylvia Beach from her well-known Rive Gauche bookshop, Shakespeare and Company. An English edition published the same year by Joyce’s patron, Harriet Shaw Weaver, ran into further difficulties with the United States authorities, and 500 copies that were shipped to the States were seized and possibly destroyed. The following year, John Rodker produced a print run of 500 more intended to replace the missing copies, but these were burned by En- glish customs at Folkestone. A further consequence of the novel’s ambiguous legal status as a banned book was that a number of “bootleg” versions appeared, most notably a number of pirate versions from the publisher Samuel Roth. In 1928, a court injunction against Roth was obtained and he ceased publication. With the appearance of both Ulysses and T. S. Eliot's poem, The Waste Land, 1922 was a key year in the history of English-language literary modernism. In Ulysses, Joyce employs stream of consciousness, parody, jokes, and virtually every other established literary technique to present his characters.[60] The action of the novel, which takes place in a single day, 16 June 1904, sets the characters and incidents of the Odyssey of Homer in modern Dublin and represents Odysseus (Ulysses), Penelope and Telemachus in the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wife Molly Bloom and Stephen Dedalus, parodically contrasted with their lofty models. Both Bloom and Dedalus represent Joyce in dif- Announcement of the initial publication of Ulysses. ference ages: youth and middle age. And both relate to each other symbolically in the novel as father and son. The considered adding another story featuring a Jewish advertis- key to this father/son relationship is revealed by Stephen on ing canvasser called Leopold Bloom under the title Ulysses. the Sandymount strand when he contemplates the Nicene Although he did not pursue the idea further at the time, he Creed and the 'consubstantial' relationship of God the Fa- eventually commenced work on a novel using both the title ther to Son.[61] The book explores various areas of Dublin and basic premise in 1914. The writing was completed in life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Nevertheless, October 1921. Three more months were devoted to work- the book is also an affectionately detailed study of the city, ing on the proofs of the book before Joyce halted work and Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed in shortly before his self-imposed deadline, his 40th birthday some catastrophe it could be rebuilt, brick by brick, us- (2 February 1922). ing his work as a model.[62] To achieve this level of accuracy, Joyce used the 1904 edition of Thom’s Directory—a Thanks to Ezra Pound, serial publication of the novel in the work that listed the owners and/or tenants of every resi- magazine The Little Review began in 1918. This magazine dential and commercial property in the city. He also bom- was edited by Margaret Anderson and Jane Heap, with the barded friends still living there with requests for information backing of John Quinn, a New York attorney with an inter- and clarification. The book consists of 18 chapters, each est in contemporary experimental art and literature. Unfor- 168 CHAPTER 15. JAMES JOYCE

covering roughly one hour of the day, beginning around book, but in the 1930s, progress slowed considerably. This 8 a.m. and ending sometime after 2 a.m. the following was due to a number of factors, including the death of morning. Each chapter employs its own literary style, and his father in 1931, concern over the mental health of his parodies a specific episode in Homer’s Odyssey. Further- daughter Lucia and his own health problems, including fail- more, each chapter is associated with a specific colour, art ing eyesight. Much of the work was done with the assis- or science, and bodily organ. This combination of kalei- tance of younger admirers, including Samuel Beckett. For doscopic writing with an extreme formal schematic struc- some years, Joyce nursed the eccentric plan of turning over ture renders the book a major contribution to the develop- the book to his friend James Stephens to complete, on the ment of 20th-century modernist literature.[63] The use of grounds that Stephens was born in the same hospital as classical mythology as an organising framework, the near- Joyce exactly one week later, and shared the first name of obsessive focus on external detail, and the occurrence of sig- both Joyce and of Joyce’s fictional alter-ego, an example of nificant action within the minds of characters have also con- Joyce’s superstitions.[68] tributed to the development of literary modernism. Never- Reaction to the work was mixed, including negative com- theless, Joyce complained that, “I may have oversystema- ment from early supporters of Joyce’s work, such as Pound tised Ulysses,” and played down the mythic correspondences and the author’s brother, Stanislaus Joyce.[69] To counter- by eliminating the chapter titles that had been taken from [64] act this hostile reception, a book of essays by supporters of Homer. Joyce was reluctant to publish the chapter titles the new work, including Beckett, William Carlos Williams because he wanted his work to stand separately from the and others was organised and published in 1929 under the Greek form. It was only when Stuart Gilbert published his title Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incam- critical work on Ulysses in 1930 that the schema was sup- ination of Work in Progress. At his 57th birthday party plied by Joyce to Gilbert. But as Terrence Killeen points out at the Jolases’ home, Joyce revealed the final title of the this schema was developed after the novel had been written work and Finnegans Wake was published in book form on and was not something that Joyce consulted as he wrote the 4 May 1939. Later, further negative comments surfaced novel.[61] A first edition copy of Ulysses is on display at The [65] from doctor and author Hervey Cleckley, who questioned Little Museum of Dublin. the significance others had placed on the work. In his book, The Mask of Sanity, Cleckley refers to Finnegans Wake as 15.2.5 Finnegans Wake “a 628-page collection of erudite gibberish indistinguish- able to most people from the familiar word salad produced by hebephrenic patients on the back wards of any state Main article: Finnegans Wake hospital.”[70] Having completed work on Ulysses, Joyce was so exhausted Joyce’s method of stream of consciousness, literary allusions and free dream associations was pushed to the limit in Finnegans Wake, which abandoned all conventions of plot and character construction and is written in a peculiar and obscure language, based mainly on complex multi-level puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than that used by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky. This has Joyce as depicted on the Irish £10 banknote, issued 1993–2002 led many readers and critics to apply Joyce’s oft-quoted description in the Wake of Ulysses as his “usylessly unreadable that he did not write a line of prose for a year.[66] On 10 Blue Book of Eccles”[71] to the Wake itself. However, read- March 1923 he informed a patron, Harriet Weaver: “Yes- ers have been able to reach a consensus about the central terday I wrote two pages—the first I have since the final cast of characters and general plot. Yes of Ulysses. Having found a pen, with some difficulty I Much of the wordplay in the book stems from the use of copied them out in a large handwriting on a double sheet of multilingual puns which draw on a wide range of languages. foolscap so that I could read them. Il lupo perde il pelo ma The role played by Beckett and other assistants included non il vizio, the Italians say. 'The wolf may lose his skin but collating words from these languages on cards for Joyce to [67] not his vice' or 'the leopard cannot change his spots.'" use and, as Joyce’s eyesight worsened, of writing the text Thus was born a text that became known, first, as Work in from the author’s dictation.[72] Progress and later Finnegans Wake. The view of history propounded in this text is very strongly By 1926 Joyce had completed the first two parts of the influenced by Giambattista Vico, and the metaphysics of book. In that year, he met Eugene and Maria Jolas who Giordano Bruno of Nola are important to the interplay of offered to serialise the book in their magazine transition. the “characters.” Vico propounded a cyclical view of his- For the next few years, Joyce worked rapidly on the new 15.4. BIBLIOGRAPHY 169 tory, in which civilisation rose from chaos, passed through Ulysses No. 1, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man No. theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then 3, and Finnegans Wake No. 77, on its list of the 100 best lapsed back into chaos. The most obvious example of the English-language novels of the 20th century.[94] influence of Vico’s cyclical theory of history is to be found The work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 in the opening and closing words of the book. Finnegans June, known as Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing Wake opens with the words “riverrun, past Eve and Adam’s, number of cities worldwide, and critical studies in scholarly from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a com- publications, such as the James Joyce Quarterly, continue. modius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and En- Both popular and academic uses of Joyce’s work were ham- virons.” (“vicus” is a pun on Vico) and ends “A way a lone a pered by restrictions placed by Stephen J. Joyce, Joyce’s last a loved a long the.” In other words, the book ends with grandson and executor of his literary estate.[95] On 1 Jan- the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of the [73] uary 2012, those restrictions were lessened by the expiry same sentence, turning the book into one great cycle. In- of copyright protection for much of the published work of deed, Joyce said that the ideal reader of the Wake would suf- James Joyce.[96][97] fer from “ideal insomnia”[74] and, on completing the book, would turn to page one and start again, and so on in an end- In April 2013 the Central Bank of Ireland issued a silver less cycle of reading. €10 commemorative coin in honour of Joyce that mis- quoted a famous line from his masterwork Ulysses[98] despite being warned on at least two occasions by the De- partment of Finance over difficulties with copyright and 15.3 Legacy design.[99] On 9 July 2013 it was announced that the second ship of the Joyce’s work has been subject to intense scrutiny by schol- Samuel Beckett-class offshore patrol vessel (OPV) would ars of all types. He has also been an important influence on be named in Joyce’s honour.[100] The LÉ James Joyce (P62) writers and scholars as diverse as Samuel Beckett,[75] Seán is due to be delivered to the Irish Naval Service in May Ó Ríordáin,[76] Jorge Luis Borges,[77] Flann O'Brien,[78] 2015.[101] Salman Rushdie,[79] Robert Anton Wilson,[80] John Up- dike,[81] David Lodge[82] and Joseph Campbell.[83] Ulysses has been called “a demonstration and summation of the 15.4 Bibliography entire [Modernist] movement”.[84] French literary theorist Julia Kristéva characterised Joyce’s novel writing as “poly- • phonic” and a hallmark of postmodernity alongside poets Chamber Music (poems, 1907) [85] Mallarmé and Rimbaud. • Dubliners (short-story collection, 1914) Some scholars, most notably Vladimir Nabokov, have • A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (novel, 1916) mixed feelings on his work, often championing some of his fiction while condemning other works. In Nabokov’s opin- • Exiles (play, 1918) ion, Ulysses was brilliant,[86] Finnegans Wake horrible[87]— an attitude Jorge Luis Borges shared.[88] • Ulysses (novel, 1922) Joyce’s influence is also evident in fields other than lit- • Pomes Penyeach (poems, 1927) erature. The sentence “Three quarks for Muster Mark!" in Joyce’s Finnegans Wake[89] is the source of the word • Collected Poems (poems, 1936, which includes Cham- "quark", the name of one of the elementary particles pro- ber Music, Pomes Penyeach, and other previously pub- posed by the physicist Murray Gell-Mann in 1963.[90] The lished works) French philosopher Jacques Derrida has written a book on • Finnegans Wake (novel, 1939) the use of language in Ulysses, and the American philosopher Donald Davidson has written similarly on Finnegans Wake in comparison with Lewis Carroll. Psychoanalyst Posthumous publications Jacques Lacan used Joyce’s writings to explain his concept of the sinthome. According to Lacan, Joyce’s writing is the • Stephen Hero (precursor to A Portrait; written 1904– supplementary cord which kept Joyce from psychosis.[91] 06, published 1944)

In 1999, Time Magazine named Joyce one of the 100 Most • Giacomo Joyce (written 1907, published 1968) Important People of the 20th century,[92] and stated; “Joyce ... revolutionised 20th century ﬁction”.[93] In 1998, the • Letters of James Joyce Vol. 1 (Ed. Stuart Gilbert, Modern Library, US publisher of Joyce’s works, ranked 1957) 170 CHAPTER 15. JAMES JOYCE

• The Critical Writings of James Joyce (Eds. Ellsworth [5] In Search of Ireland’s Heroes: Carmel McCaﬀrey pp 279- Mason and Richard Ellmann, 1959) 286

• The Cat and the Devil (London: Faber and Faber, [6] Ellmann (1982), pp. 32–34. 1965) [7] James Joyce: Richard Ellmann 1982 PP 54-55 • Letters of James Joyce Vol. 2 (Ed. Richard Ellmann, 1966) [8] Themodernworld.com • Letters of James Joyce Vol. 3 (Ed. Richard Ellman, [9] Ellmann (1982), pp. 60, 190, 340, 342; Cf. Portrait of the 1966) Artist as a Young Man, Wordsworth 1992, Intro. & Notes J. Belanger, 2001, 136, n. 309: "Synopsis Philosophiae ad • Selected Letters of James Joyce (Ed. Richard Ellmann, mentem D. Thomae This appears to be a reference to Ele- 1975) menta Philosophiae ad mentem D. Thomae Aquinatis, a se- lection of Thomas Aquinas’s writings edited and published • The Cats of Copenhagen (Ithys Press, 2012) by G. M. Mancini,” professor of theology at the Pontiﬁcal University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum in Rome • Finn’s Hotel (Ithys Press, 2013) (see The Irish Ecclesiastical Record, Vol V, Year 32, No. 378, June 1899, p. 570 15.5 See also [10] Jordan, Anthony, “An Irishman’s Diary”, Irish Times, 20 February 2012

• 2012 in public domain [11] Arthur Griﬃth with James Joyce & WB Yeats- Liberating Ireland by Anthony J. Jordan p. 53. Westport Books 2013. ISBN 978-0-957622906 15.6 Notes [12] “Residents of a house 8.1 in Royal Terrace (Clontarf West, Dublin)". National Archives of Ireland. 1901. Retrieved 16 [1] The second name was mistakenly registered as “Augusta”. May 2012. Joyce was actually named and baptized James Augustine Joyce, for his paternal grandfather, Costello (1992) p. 53, [13] Richard Ellmann: James Joyce (1959)pp 117-118 and the Birth and Baptismal Certiﬁcate reproduced in the article also shows “Augustine”. Ellman says: “The second [14] She was originally diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver, but child, James Augusta (as the birth was incorrectly registered) this proved incorrect, and she was diagnosed with cancer in ...”. Ellmann (1982) p. 21. April 1903. Ellmann (1982), pp. 128–129

[2] Ellman, p. 505, citing Power, From an Old Waterford House [15] Ellmann (1982), pp. 129, 136 (London, n.d.), pp. 63–64 [16] History of the Feis Ceoil Association at the Wayback Ma- [3] Jackson, John Wyse; Costello, Peter (July 1998). “John chine (archived 1 April 2007). Siemens Feis Ceoil Associa- Stanislaus Joyce: the voluminous life and genius of James tion. 1 April 2007 version retrieved from the Internet archive Joyce’s father” (book excerpt). excerpt appearing in the New on 9 November 2009. York Times (New York: St. Martin’s Press). ch.1 “Ances- tral Joyces”. ISBN 9780312185992. OCLC 38354272. Re- [17] Michael Parsons. “Michael Flatley conﬁrms he owns medal trieved 25 September 2012. To ﬁnd the missing link in the won by James Joyce”. Irishtimes.com. Retrieved 20 chain it is necessary to turn south to County Kerry. Some September 2015. time about 1680, William FitzMaurice, nineteenth of the Lords of Kerry ... required a new steward for the house- [18] “Joyce – Other works”. The James Joyce Centre. Retrieved hold at his family seat at Lixnaw on the Brick river, a few 22 February 2010. miles south-west of Listowel in the Barony of Clanmaurice in North Kerry. He found Seán Mór Seoighe (Big John [19] “On this day...30 September” Joyce) ... Seán Mór Seoige came from Connemara, most [20] Ellmann (1982), pp. 161–62. likely from in or near the Irish-speaking Joyce Country itself, in that wild area south of Westport, County Mayo. [21] Ellmann (1982), p. 230.

[4] "'Why are you so afraid of thunder?' asked [Arthur] Power, [22] Ellmann, p. 175. 'your children don't mind it.' 'Ah,' said Joyce contemptu- ously, 'they have no religion.' Joyce’s fears were part of his [23] McCourt 2001. identity, and he had no wish, even if he had had the power, to slough any of them oﬀ.” (Ellmann (1982), p. 514, citing [24] According to Ellmann, Stanislaus allowed Joyce to collect Power, From an Old Waterford House (London, n.d.), p. 71 his pay, “to simplify matters” (p. 213). 15.6. NOTES 171

[25] The worst of the conﬂicts were during July 1910 (Ellmann [44] Hughs, Eamonn in Robert Welch’s Irish writers and religion (1982), pp. 311–13). , pp.116–137, Rowman & Littleﬁeld 1992

[26] Williams, Bob. Joycean Chronology. The Modern World, 6 [45] R.J. Schork, “James Joyce and the Eastern Orthodox November 2002, Retrieved on 9 November 2009. Church” in Journal of Modern Greek Studies, vol. 17, 1999

[27] Beja, Morris (1992). James Joyce: A Literary Life. Colum- [46] Free translation from: Eco, Umberto. Las poéticas de Joyce. bus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press. p. 54. ISBN 0- Barcelona: DeBolsillo, 2011. ISBN 978-84-9989-253-5, p. 8142-0599-2. 17

[28] Ellmann (1982), pp. 300–03, 308, 311. [47] Gibson, Andrew, James Joyce, p. 41, Reaktion Books 2006

[29] Ellmann (1982), pp. 384–85. [48] “James Joyce and the Jesuits: a sort of homecoming”. Catholicireland.net. Retrieved 20 September 2015. [30] Ellmann (1982), p. 272. [49] See, among others, Martin Ross: Music and James Joyce [31] Ellmann (1982), pp. 268, 417. (Chicago, 1936); Matthew J.C. Hodgart & Mabel P. Wor- thington: Songs in the Works of James Joyce (New York, [32] Ellman (1982), p. 386. 1959); Zack R. Bowen: Musical Allusions in the Works [33] Shloss, p. 278. of James Joyce: Early Poetry Through Ulysses (New York, 1975); Ruth Bauerle (ed.): Picking up Airs: Hearing [34] Pepper, Tara the Music in Joyce’s Text (Gainesville, Florida, 1993); M.J.C. Hodgart & R. Bauerle: Joyce’s Grand Operoar: [35] Shloss p. 297. Opera in Finnegan’s Wake (Urbana, Illinois, 1997); Se- bastian D.G. Knowles (ed.): Bronze by Gold: The Mu- [36] The literary executor of the Joyce estate, Stephen J. Joyce, sic of Joyce (New York, 1999); Judith Harrington: James burned letters written by Lucia that he received upon Lucia’s Joyce, Suburban Tenor (Dublin, 2005); see also http://www. death in 1982.(Stanley, Alessandra. "Poet Told All; Ther- james-joyce-music.com. apist Provides the Record,” The New York Times, 15 July 1991. Retrieved 9 July 2007). Stephen Joyce stated in a [50] Timothy P. Martin: Joyce and Wagner. A Study of Influence letter to the editor of The New York Times that “Regarding (Cambridge, 1991) the destroyed correspondence, these were all personal letters from Lucia to us. They were written many years after both [51] Harry White: “The 'Thought-Tormented Music' of James Nonno and Nonna [i.e. Mr and Mrs Joyce] died and did not Joyce”, in: H. White: Music and the Irish Literary Imagina- refer to them. Also destroyed were some postcards and one tion (Oxford, 2008) telegram from Samuel Beckett to Lucia. This was done at [52] Axel Klein: "'The Distant Music Mournfully Murmereth': Sam’s written request.” Joyce, Stephen (31 December 1989). The Influence of James Joyce on Irish Composers”, in: Ars “The Private Lives of Writers” (Letter to the Editor). The Lyrica 14 (2004), p. 71–94. New York Times. Retrieved 9 November 2009. [53] Emily Carson (19 March 2015). “Finnegans Wake set to [37] Letter to Nora Barnacle. 29 August 1904. In Selected Letters Music by Waywords and Meansigns | The James Joyce Cen- of James Joyce. Richard Ellmann, ed. London: Faber and tre”. Jamesjoyce.ie. Retrieved 20 September 2015. Faber, 1975. ISBN 0-571-09306-X pp. 25–26 [54] JamesJoyce (2014-03-25). “On this day…25 March | The [38] Joyce, Stanislaus. My Brother’s Keeper. Faber and Faber. James Joyce Centre”. Jamesjoyce.ie. Retrieved 20 Septem- London, 1982. ISBN 0-571-11803-8 p. 120 ber 2015. [39] Ellmann (1982), p. 742, citing a 1953 interview with George [55] MacBride, p. 14. (“Giorgio”) Joyce. [56] Deming, p. 749. [40] Segall, Jeffrey Joyce in America: cultural politics and the trials of Ulysses, p. 140, University of California Press 1993 [57] Gillers, pp. 251–62.

[41] Segall, Jeﬀrey Joyce in America: cultural politics and the [58] Gammel, Irene. Baroness Elsa: Gender, Dada and Everyday trials of Ulysses, p. 142, University of California Press 1993 Modernity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002, 253.

[42] Segall, Jeﬀrey Joyce in America: cultural politics and the [59] The fear of prosecution for publication ended with the court trials of Ulysses, p. 160, University of California Press 1993 decision of United States v. One Book Called Ulysses, 5 F.Supp. 182 (S.D.N.Y. 1933). Ellman, pp. 666–67. [43] Davison, Neil R., James Joyce, Ulysses, and the Construc- tion of Jewish Identity: Culture, Biography, and 'the Jew' [60] Examined at length in Vladimir Nabokov's Lectures on in Modernist Europe , p. 78, Cambridge University Press, Ulysses. A Facsimile of the Manuscript. Bloomﬁeld 1998 Hills/Columbia: Bruccoli Clark, 1980. 172 CHAPTER 15. JAMES JOYCE

[61] Ulysses Unbound: Terence Killeen [81] Updike has referred to Joyce as inﬂuential in a number of interviews and essays. The most recent of such references [62] Adams, David. Colonial Odysseys: Empire and Epic in the is in the foreword to The Early Stories:1953–1975 (London: Modernist Novel. Cornell University Press, 2003, p. 84. Hamish Hamilton, 2003),p. x. John Collier wrote favorably of “that city of modern prose,” and added, “I was struck by [63] Sherry, Vincent B. James Joyce: Ulysses. Cambridge Uni- the great number of magniﬁcent passages in which words are versity Press, 2004, p. 102. used as they are used in poetry, and in which the emotion [64] Dettmar, Kevin J. H. Rereading the New: A Backward which is originally Other instances include an interview with Glance at Modernism. University of Michigan Press, 1992, Frank Gado in First Person:Conversations with Writers and p. 285. their Writing (New York:Union College Press, 1973), p.92, and James Plath’s Conversations with John Updike (Jackson: [65] Tour Guides (13 February 2015). “Tour Guides of the Lit- University of Mississippi Press, 1994), p.197 and p.223. tle Museum — The Little Museum of Dublin”. Littlemu- seum.ie. Retrieved 27 October 2015. [82] Guignery, Vanessa; François Gallix (2007). Pre and Post- publication Itineraries of the Contemporary Novel in English. [66] Bulson, Eric. The Cambridge Introduction to James Joyce. Publibook. p. 126. ISBN 9782748335101. Retrieved 26 Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 14. May 2012.

[67] Joyce, James. Ulysses: The 1922 Text. Oxford University [83] “About Joseph Campbell” at the Wayback Machine Press, 1998, p. xlvii. (archived 1 January 2007), Joseph Campbell Foundation. 1 January 2007 version retrieved from the Internet archive on [68] Ellmann (1982), pp. 591–592. 9 November 2009.

[69] Ellmann (1982), pp. 577–85. [84] Beebe, p. 176.

[70] Cleckley, Hervey (1982). The Mask of Sanity. Revised Edi- [85] Julia Kristéva, La Révolution du langage poétique, Paris, tion. Mosby Medical Library. ISBN 0-452-25341-1. Seuil, 1974.

[71] Finnegans Wake, 179.26–27. [86] “When I want good reading I reread Proust’s A la Recherche du Temps Perdu or Joyce’s Ulysses" (Nabokov, letter to Elena [72] Gluck, p. 27. Sikorski, 3 August 1950, in Nabokov’s Butterﬂies: Unpub- [73] Shockley, Alan (2009). “Playing the Square Circle: Musi- lished and Uncollected Writings [Boston: Beacon, 2000], pp. cal Form and Polyphony in the Wake". In Friedman, Alan 464–465). Nabokov put Ulysses at the head of his list of the W.; Rossman, Charles. De-Familiarizing Readings: Essays “greatest twentieth century masterpieces” (Nabokov, Strong from the Austin Joyce Conference. European Joyce Studies Opinions [New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974] excerpt). 18. Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi. p. 104. ISBN 978-90- [87] “Of course, it would have been unseemly for a monarch to 420-2570-7. appear in the robes of learning at a university lectern and [74] Finnegans Wake, 120.9–16. present to rosy youths Finnigan’s Wake [sic] as a monstrous extension of Angus MacDiarmid's “incoherent transactions” [75] Friedman, Melvin J. A review of Barbara Reich Gluck’s and of Southey's Lingo-Grande. . .” (Nabokov, Pale Fire Beckett and Joyce: friendship and ﬁction, Bucknell Univer- [New York: Random House, 1962], p. 76). The compar- sity Press (June 1979), ISBN 0-8387-2060-9. Retrieved 3 ison is made by an unreliable narrator, but Nabokov in an December 2006. unpublished note had compared “the worst parts of James Joyce” to McDiarmid and to Swift's letters to Stella (quoted [76] Sewell, Frank (2000). Modern Irish Poetry: A New Alham- by Brian Boyd, “Notes” in Nabokov’s Novels 1955–1962: bra (PDF). Oxford University Press. pp. Introduction p3. Lolita / Pnin / Pale Fire [New York: Library of America, ISBN 9780198187370. Retrieved 26 May 2012. 1996], 893).

[77] Williamson, pp. 123–124, 179, 218. [88] Borges, p. 195.

[78] For example, Hopper, p. 75, says “In all of O'Brien’s work [89] Three quarks for Muster Mark! Text of Finnegans Wake at the ﬁgure of Joyce hovers on the horizon ...”. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario. Retrieved 11 June 2011. [79] Interview of Salman Rushdie, by Margot Dijkgraaf for the Dutch newspaper NRC Handelsblad, translated by K. Gwan [90] “quark” at the Wayback Machine (archived 2 July 2007), Go. Retrieved 3 December 2006. American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition 2000. 2 July 2007 version retrieved from [80] Edited transcript of an 23 April 1988 interview of Robert the Internet archive on 9 November 2009. Anton Wilson by David A. Banton, broadcast on HFJC, 89.7 FM, Los Altos Hills, California. Retrieved 3 December [91] Evans, Dylan, An Introductory Dictionary of Lacanian Psy- 2006. choanalysis, Routledge, 1996, p.189 15.8. FURTHER READING 173

[92] “TIME 100 Persons of the Century”. Time. 14 June 1999. • Deming, Robert H. James Joyce: The Critical Heritage. Retrieved 11 January 2010. Routledge, 1997.

[93] “James Joyce – Time 100 People of the Century”. Time. 8 • Ellmann, Richard, James Joyce. Oxford Univer- June 1998. Retrieved 11 January 2010. sity Press, 1959, revised edition 1982. ISBN 0-19- [94] “100 Best Novels”. Random House. 1999. Retrieved 11 503103-2. January 2010. This ranking was by the Modern Library Ed- • Gammel, Irene. Baroness Elsa: Gender, Dada and Ev- itorial Board of authors. eryday Modernity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002, [95] Max, D.T. (19 June 2006). “The Injustice Collector”. The 253. New Yorker. • Gillers, Stephen (2007). “A Tendency to Deprave and [96] Kileen, Terence (16 June 2011). “Joyce enters the public Corrupt: The Transformation of American Obscen- domain”. The Irish Times. Archived from the original on 4 ity Law from Hicklin to Ulysses" (PDF). Washington January 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2012. University Law Review 85 (2): 215–96. Retrieved 5 October 2009. [97] Kileen, Terence (31 December 2011). “EU copyright on Joyce works ends at midnight”. The Irish Times. Archived • Gluck, Barbara Reich. Beckett and Joyce: Friendship from the original on 4 January 2012. Retrieved 4 January and Fiction. Bucknell University Press, 1979. 2012. • Hopper, Keith, Flann O'Brien: A Portrait of the Artist [98] “Error in Ulysses line on special €10 coin issued by Central Bank”. RTÉ News. 10 April 2013. as a Young Post-Modernist, Cork University Press (May 1995). ISBN 1-85918-042-6. [99] “Bank alerted to Joyce coin risk”. Evening Herald. 25 May 2013. • Jordan, Anthony J, 'Arthur Griﬃth with James Joyce & WB Yeats - Liberating Ireland', [Westport Books ] [100] “Houses of the Oireachtas - Naval Service Vessels”. (September 2013) ISBN 978-0-957622906. Oireachtas (Hansard). • Joyce, Stanislaus, My Brother’s Keeper, New York: [101] “Navy to use drones to improve surveillance”. Irish Exam- Viking Press, 1969. iner. Retrieved 30 September 2014. • MacBride, Margaret. Ulysses and the Metamorphosis of Stephen Dedalus. Bucknell University Press, 2001. 15.7 References • McCourt, John, The Years of Bloom: James Joyce in Trieste, 1904–1920, The Lilliput Press, May 2001. • Beebe, Maurice (Fall 1972). "Ulysses and the Age ISBN 1-901866-71-8. of Modernism”. James Joyce Quarterly (University of Tulsa) 10 (1): 172–88 • McCourt, John, ed. James Joyce in Context. Cam- bridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, • Beja, Morris. James Joyce: A Literary Life. Colum- 2009. ISBN 978-0-521-88662-8. bus: Ohio State University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8142- 0599-2. • Pepper, Tara. “Portrait of the Daughter: Two works seek to reclaim the legacy of Lucia Joyce.” Newsweek • Borges, Jorge Luis, (ed.) Eliot Weinberger, Borges: International . 8 March 2003. Selected Non-Fictions, Penguin (31 October 2000). ISBN 0-14-029011-7. • Shloss, Carol Loeb. Lucia Joyce: To Dance in the Wake. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2004. ISBN • Bulson, Eric. The Cambridge Introduction to James 0-374-19424-6. Joyce. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-521-84037-8. • Williamson, Edwin, Borges: A Life, Viking Adult (5 August 2004). ISBN 0-670-88579-7. • Cavanaugh, Tim, “Ulysses Unbound: Why does a book so bad it “defecates on your bed” still have so many admirers?", reason, July 2004. 15.8 Further reading • Costello, Peter. James Joyce: the years of growth, 1892–1915. New York: Pantheon Books, a division • Burgess, Anthony, Here Comes Everybody: An In- of Random House, 1992. ISBN 0-679-42201-3. troduction to James Joyce for the Ordinary Reader, 174 CHAPTER 15. JAMES JOYCE

Faber & Faber (1965). (Published in America as Re • Archival material relating to James Joyce listed at the JoyceHamlyn Paperbacks Rev. ed edition (1982)). UK National Archives ISBN 0-600-20673-4. • The James Joyce Scholars’ Collection from the • Burgess, Anthony, Joysprick: An Introduction to the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center. Language of James Joyce (1973), Harcourt (March • 1975). ISBN 0-15-646561-2. The James Joyce Collection from the University at Buffalo Libraries. • Clark, Hilary, The Fictional Encyclopaedia: Joyce, • Pound, Sollers. Taylor & Francis, 1990. James Joyce from Dublin to Ithaca Exhibition from the collections of Cornell University • Fennell, Conor. A Little Circle of Kindred Minds: • Joyce in Paris. Green Lamp Editions, 2011. Bibliography of Joycean Scholarship and Literary Criticism • Levin, Harry (ed. with introduction and notes). The • Essential James Joyce. Cape, 1948. Revised edition The James Joyce Checklist: A Bibliography of Pri- Penguin in association with Jonathan Cape, 1963. mary and Secondary Materials from the Harry Ran- som Center, The University of Texas at Austin. • Jordan, Anthony J, 'Arthur Griffith with James Joyce • & WB Yeats. Liberating Ireland'. Westport Books Works by James Joyce at Project Gutenberg 2013. • Works by or about James Joyce at Internet Archive • Levin, Harry, James Joyce. Norfolk, CT: New Direc- tions, 1941 (1960). Portraits • Quillian, William H. Hamlet and the new poetic: James • Portraits of James Joyce at the National Portrait Joyce and T. S. Eliot. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Gallery, London Press, 1983. • Photos of James Joyce from the University at Buffalo • Read, Forrest. Pound/Joyce: The Letters of Ezra Libraries. Pound to James Joyce, with Pound’s Essays on Joyce. New Directions, 1967. • Gisèle Freund Photographs of James Joyce in Paris at University of Victoria, • Special issue on James Joyce, In-between: Essays & Studies in Literary Criticism, Vol. 12, 2003. [Articles] Audio • Irish Writers on Writing featuring James Joyce. Edited by Eavan Boland (Trinity University Press, 2007). • Works by James Joyce at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) 15.9 External links • An Audio tour of the history of James Joyce’s writings

• James Joyce Centre (Dublin)

Joyce Papers

• The Joyce Papers 2002, c.1903–1928 from the National Library of Ireland.

• The James Joyce – Paul Léon Papers, 1930–1940 from the National Library of Ireland.

• Hans E. Jahnke Bequest at the Zurich James Joyce Foundation online at the National Library Of Ireland, 2014 from the National Library of Ireland.

Resources 15.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 175

Wax ﬁgure of James Joyce at the National Wax Plus Museum, Dublin

Statue of James Joyce on North Earl Street, Dublin. 176 CHAPTER 15. JAMES JOYCE

James Joyce’s bust at St Stephen’s Green in Dublin Chapter 16

Lila (Robinson novel)

Lila is a novel written by Marilynne Robinson that was pub- [4] “National Book Critics Circle Announces Finalists for Pub- lished in 2014. Her fourth novel, it is the third installment lishing Year 2014”. National Book Critics Circle. January of the Gilead trilogy. The novel focuses on the courtship 19, 2015. Retrieved January 29, 2015. and marriage of Lila and John Ames, as well as the back- [5] Alexandra Alter (March 12, 2015). "‘Lila’ Honored as Top story of Lila’s transient past and her complex attachments. Fiction by National Book Critics Circle”. The New York It won the 2014 National Book Critics Circle Award. Times. Retrieved March 12, 2015.

16.1 Reception

Lila has received widespread acclaim. In a review for The Atlantic Leslie Jamison praised the novel as “brilliant and deeply affecting.”[1] In another review, Sarah Churchwell wrote, “Lila... offers Robinson’s characteristic delights: glorious prose, subtle wisdom and a darkly numinous atmosphere, lit at moments by a visionary wonder shading into exaltation.”[2] In Books and Culture Linda Moore offers “a dissent- ing view,” critiquing the Christianity that Robinson writes about as “gospel thin, exiguous, a story slight and wanting, and Flannery isn't here to say so.”[3]

16.2 Awards

• 2014 National Book Critics Circle Award (Fiction)[4][5]

16.3 References

[1] http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/10/ the-power-of-grace/379334/

[2] http://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/nov/07/ marilynne-robinson-lila-great-achievement-contemporary-us-fiction-gilead

[3] http://www.booksandculture.com/articles/webexclusives/ 2014/december/lila.html?paging=off

177 Chapter 17

Marilynne Robinson

Marilynne Summers Robinson (born November 26, of Arts and Sciences.[6] In May 2011, Robinson delivered 1943) is an American novelist and essayist. She has re- Oxford University's annual Esmond Harmsworth Lecture in ceived several awards including the Pulitzer Prize for Fic- American Arts and Letters at the university’s Rothermere tion in 2005 and the 2012 National Humanities Medal.[1] American Institute. She currently teaches at the Iowa Writ- ers’ Workshop and lives in Iowa City. She was the keynote speaker for the Workshop’s 75th anniversary celebration in 17.1 Biography June 2011. In 2012, Brown University awarded Robin- son the degree of Doctor of Literature, honoris causa. On February 18, 2013, she was the speaker at the Easter Convo- Robinson (née Summers) was born and grew up in cation of the University of the South, Sewanee, Tennessee Sandpoint, Idaho, and did her undergraduate work at and was awarded the degree of Doctor of Literature, hon- Pembroke College, the former women’s college at Brown oris causa. Holy Cross College, Notre Dame, Amherst Col- University, receiving her B.A., magna cum laude in 1966, lege, Skidmore College and Oxford University have also where she was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. She received awarded Robinson honorary degrees. She has been elected her Ph.D. in English from the University of Washington in a fellow of Mansfield College, Oxford University. 1977.[2][3] Robinson was raised as a Presbyterian and later became Robinson has written four highly acclaimed novels: a Congregationalist, worshipping and sometimes preach- Housekeeping (1980), Gilead (2004), Home (2008), and ing at the Congregational United Church of Christ in Iowa Lila (2014). Housekeeping was a finalist for the 1982 City.[7][8] Her Congregationalism, and her interest in the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction (US), Gilead was awarded the ideas of John Calvin, have been important in her works, 2005 Pulitzer, and Home received the 2009 Orange Prize including Gilead, which centers on the life and theological for Fiction (UK). Home is a companion to Gilead and concerns of a fictional Congregationalist minister.[9] In an focuses on the Boughton family during the same time interview with the Church Times in 2012, Robinson said: “I period.[4][5] think, if people actually read Calvin, rather than read Max She is also the author of non-fiction works including Mother Weber, he would be rebranded. He is a very respectable [10] Country: Britain, the Welfare State, and Nuclear Pollution thinker.” (1989), The Death of Adam: Essays on Modern Thought The former Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, (1998), Absence of Mind: The Dispelling of Inwardness has described Robinson as “one of the world’s most com- from the Modern Myth of the Self (2010), and When I Was pelling English-speaking novelists”, and said: “Robinson’s a Child I Read Books: Essays (2012). She has written arti- is a voice we urgently need to attend to in both Church and cles, essays and reviews for Harper’s, The Paris Review and society here [in the UK].”[11] On January 24, 2013, Robin- The New York Times Book Review. son was announced to be among the finalists for the 2013 [12] She has been writer-in-residence or visiting professor Man Booker International Prize. at many universities, including the University of Kent, On June 26, 2015, President Barack Obama quoted Robin- Amherst, and the University of Massachusetts Amherst' son in his eulogy for the Reverend Clementa C. Pinckney MFA Program for Poets and Writers. In 2009, she held of Emanuel AME Church in Charleston, South Carolina. a Dwight H. Terry Lectureship at Yale University, giving In speaking about “an open heart,” President Obama said: a series of talks titled Absence of Mind: The Dispelling of "[w]hat a friend of mine, the writer Marilynne Robinson, Inwardness from the Modern Myth of the Self. On April 19, calls 'that reservoir of goodness, beyond, and of another 2010, she was elected a fellow of the American Academy

178 17.4. REFERENCES 179 kind, that we are able to do each other in the ordinary cause • 2004: National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction of things.'” [13] for Gilead

• 2005: Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for Gilead

17.2 Bibliography • 2005: Ambassador Book Award for Gilead

• 2006: University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award in This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding Religion[17] it. • 2008: National Book Award ﬁnalist for Home

• 2008: Los Angeles Times Book Prize for ﬁction for 17.2.1 Fiction Home

• Housekeeping (1980) • 2009: Orange Prize for Fiction for Home

• Gilead (2004) • 2011: Man Booker International Prize nominee

• Home (2008) • 2012: Honorary Doctorate of Letters from Brown University[18] • Lila (2014)[14] • 2012: National Humanities Medal for “grace and intelligence in writing”[19] 17.2.2 Nonﬁction • 2013: Man Booker International Prize nominee

Books • 2013: Park Kyong-ni Prize[20]

• Mother Country: Britain, the Welfare State, and Nu- • 2014: National Book Critics Circle Award for Lila[21] clear Pollution (1989)

• The Death of Adam: Essays on Modern Thought (1998) 17.4 References

• Absence of Mind: The Dispelling of Inwardness from [1] “Pres Obama acknowledges Marilynne Robinson | Video”. the Modern Myth of the Self (2010) C-SPAN.org. 2013-08-02. Retrieved 2015-10-29.

• When I Was a Child I Read Books: Essays (2012) [2] "History & Literature of the Paciﬁc Northwest: Marilynne Robinson, 1943". Center for the Study of the Paciﬁc North- • The Givenness of Things (2015) west, University of Washington. n.d. Retrieved 2008-04-13.

[3] Lister, Rachel (2006-10-21). “Marilynne Robinson (1947– Essays and reporting )". The Literary Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2009-06-22. [4] "Home by Marilynne Robinson”. Us.macmillan.com. Re- 17.3 Awards trieved 2015-10-29. [5] Dave Itzkoff, “Marilynne Robinson Wins Orange Prize”, • 1982: Hemingway Foundation/PEN Award for best The New York Times, June 3, 2009. first novel for Housekeeping[15] [6] “American Academy of Arts & Sciences”. Amacad.org. • 1982: Pulitzer Prize for Fiction shortlist for Retrieved 2015-10-29. Housekeeping [16] [7] “Marilynne Robinson interview: The faith behind the fic- • 1989: National Book Award for Nonfiction shortlist tion”, Reform, September 2010. for Mother Country: Britain, the Welfare State, and Nu- [8] “Marilynne Robinson”, Religion & Ethics Newsweekly, clear Pollution September 18, 2009.

• 1999: PEN/Diamonstein-Spielvogel Award for the [9] “Marilynne Robinson”, Religion & Ethics Newsweekly, Art of the Essay for The Death of Adam March 18, 2005. 180 CHAPTER 17. MARILYNNE ROBINSON

[10] Wroe, Martin, "A minister of the word", Church Times, 22 June 2012

[11] Williams, Rowan, "Mighty plea for reasonableness", Church Times, 12 August 2012

[12] “Man Booker International Prize 2013 Finalists Announced | The Man Booker Prizes”. Themanbookerprize.com. 2013- 01-24. Retrieved 2015-10-29.

[13] “Remarks by the President in Eulogy for the Honorable Rev- erend Clementa Pinckney”. whitehouse.gov. 2015-06-26. Retrieved 2015-10-29.

[14] “Five books for 2014”, The Economist November 21, 2013

[15] “PEN/Hemingway Award Winners”. The Hemingway Soci- ety. Retrieved 7 March 2015.

[16] “1982 Finalists”. The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved 7 March 2015.

[17] “2006- Marilynne Robinson”. Grawemeyer.org. Retrieved 2015-10-29.

[18] “Simmons among nine honorary degree recipients”. Brown University. 16 May 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2014.

[19] President Obama to Award 2012 National Medal of Arts and National Humanities Medal Whitehouse.gov, retrieved 30 June 2013

[20] Julie Jackson (September 26, 2013). “Park Kyung-ni literary prize goes to Robinson”. Korea Herald. Retrieved July 7, 2014.

[21] Alexandra Alter (March 12, 2015). "‘Lila’ Honored as Top Fiction by National Book Critics Circle”. New York Times. Retrieved March 12, 2015.

17.5 External links

• Works by or about Marilynne Robinson in libraries (WorldCat catalog) • Recognitions by: Marilynne Robinson on her opinion of Marcel Proust, PEN American Center 17.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 181

17.6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

17.6.1 Text • Rigveda Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda?oldid=697414650 Contributors: AxelBoldt, XJaM, Arvindn, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Zimriel, Youandme, Lir, Tim Starling, Paul Barlow, Llywrch, Yann, Mdebets, Bogdangiusca, Pizza Puzzle, Tarosan~enwiki, Taxman, Stormie, Jfruh, Car- lossuarez46, Xiaopo, Goethean, Emyth, Ambarish, Unfree, Wiglaf, Wighson, Meursault2004, Bradeos Graphon, Varlaam, Yekrats, Macrakis, Kukkurovaca, Ragib, Munge, Gadfium, Utcursch, LordSimonofShropshire, Mukerjee, Yanamad, Zfr, Mamgeorge, Beginning, Neutrality, Di- dactohedron, Hillel, Kmccoy, CALR, Chaipau, Rich Farmbrough, Florian Blaschke, Murtasa, Foonly, Dbachmann, Mani1, Bender235, Nabla, CanisRufus, Alren, El C, Diamonddavej, Alcidebava, John Vandenberg, Draconiszeta, Haham hanuka, Ogress, Anthony Appleyard, Marnen, Eric Kvaalen, Geke, Paleorthid, Svartalf, Vadakkan, Cmapm, Ssammu, Lkinkade, Angr, Woohookitty, Shreevatsa, Spettro9, Batten8, Jeff3000, Dangerous-Boy, John Hill, Isnow, Kingsleyj, Joe Roe, Lusitana, Machaon, Graham87, Pranathi, Grammarbot, Dpv, Ketiltrout, FlaBot, Askol- nick, RexNL, Chobot, DaGizza, Spasemunki, Bgwhite, Hariraja, Wavelength, Eraserhead1, Avecit, Deeptrivia, TodorBozhinov, RussBot, Pig- man, Epolk, Gaius Cornelius, Theelf29, NawlinWiki, JFD, Chandroos, Ch dh, Crm911, Doldrums, Rudrasharman, Fang Aili, RickReinckens, Kubra, WIN, Miklos, WikiFew, Crystallina, Tadorne, SmackBot, Imz, Prodego, Dbkasar, Baad, ARYAN818, Jagged 85, Miljoshi, Kintet- subuffalo, Carbonix, Srkris, Nyckname, Holy Ganga, Bluebot, Madmedea~enwiki, MalafayaBot, Freedom skies, SchfiftyThree, J. Spencer, Colonies Chris, Mladifilozof, SundarBot, Grover cleveland, Fullstop, Leaflord, Ligulembot, Ged UK, Andrew Dalby, Zahid Abdassabur, John, NongBot~enwiki, RandomCritic, Tarikur, MarcAurel, Beetstra, Rayfield, JoeBot, Z1gg1, Nikolus, CapitalR, Courcelles, Kkm5848, Nobleeagle, Sarvagnya, Daedalus969, Joey80, CmdrObot, VedicFollower, Amalas, Mohitkhullar, Pnrangan, ShelfSkewed, Moreschi, Cydebot, Jgtl2, Aristo- phanes68, Viscious81, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Lo2u, Thijs!bot, Missvain, Astynax, Nick Number, Gkandlikar, IAF, AntiVandalBot, Jive472, Gohdan, Naveen Sankar, Ekabhishek, Bakasuprman, Shaul1, Magioladitis, Faizhaider, Sindhutvavadin, ASingh723, SunSw0rd, Vssun, Philg88, Khalid Mahmood, Enaidmawr, Rickard Vogelberg, Skumarla, Sandeep slash, J.delanoy, Abecedare, Trusilver, Sarfarosh2, TomS TDotO, Mu- daliar, Zerokitsune, Rosenknospe, DadaNeem, Nareshgupta, Chitvamasi, JSlocum, Tygrrr, DorganBot, Squids and Chips, Redtigerxyz, Xnuala, Deor, AlnoktaBOT, MenasimBot, TXiKiBoT, Java7837, NayakDeepti, Hqb, Rei-bot, Winana, Kumarrao, Sintaku, JhsBot, Buddhipriya, Cos- mos416, Terrymacro, Philwkpd, Tommytocker, Munci, EmxBot, Bhaktivinode, Cvenky, SieBot, Ivan Štambuk, Hulagu, Pallab1234, Scarian, WereSpielChequers, CDPLPCPL, Atmamatma, OKBot, Suyashmanjul, Randy Kryn, Vonones, Vinay Jha, WikipedianMarlith, Winfx, Martar- ius, Doergood, ClueBot, Drmies, Alexbot, Exact~enwiki, Tripping Nambiar, Abrech, Sun Creator, Jotterbot, Antiquary, SchreiberBike, Karthik tk, Compower, Parister, XLinkBot, Cminard, SilvonenBot, ICouldBeWrong, MystBot, Addbot, AVand, Revelation2:27, DWhiskaZ, Gaus- sius, Pgargey, Ka Faraq Gatri, Looie496, LaaknorBot, Jonoikobangali, SpBot, LinkFA-Bot, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Mayankjohri, Lightbot, OlEnglish, First Light, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou, Knowledge is free for all, AnomieBOT, Galoubet, Krishmandu ks, Shambar, Citation bot, Kalamkaar, Xqbot, Mulachand Patel, The sock that should not be, Capricorn42, J04n, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Detlef108, Novicex0, His- torylover4, Green Cardamom, LucienBOT, D'ohBot, Aditya soni, Citation bot 1, Sshas75, SpacemanSpiff, MastiBot, AustralianMelodrama, Mjs1991, Lotje, Atrijoshi, Tbhotch, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Rarevogel, Vikramaditiya, Hari6389, Vivekchudamani, AvicBot, Kkm010, CanadaPies, Ben Shamos, BritishIndian, Mlang.Finn, ChuispastonBot, Mclnsharma, LarsJanZeeuwRules, DASHBotAV, Sudhav82, Pebble101, HinduPundit, Accusativen hos Olsson, Kasirbot, HotWinters, Helpful Pixie Bot, Avenugopalarao2011, BG19bot, MKar, Vktrip, Solomon7968, Floating Boat, Joshua Jonathan, VediKboy, Khazar2, BrightStarSky, Dexbot, Mogism, Rahul Ramamoorthy, Benfold, Notthebestusername, Bladesmulti, Barnwalusa, Anoopc23, Ms Sarah Welch, D4iNa4, Mohanbhan, Tears And Treachery, Jeffgr9, KasparBot, Knife-in-the-drawer, Wpaul1972, Deepp213, Harpreetrhappy and Anonymous: 202 • Oresteia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oresteia?oldid=697960524 Contributors: Fubar Obfusco, SimonP, Hephaestos, Asilvahalo, Sannse, Delirium, Ihcoyc, Ellywa, John K, Alex S, Adam Bishop, Raul654, Wetman, Dimadick, Robbot, Pigsonthewing, Donreed, Oji- giri~enwiki, Dehumanizer, JackofOz, Henryhartley, Antandrus, StewartMine, Bender235, Zenohockey, Wareh, Owenjonesuk, Azn king28, Raymond, Tony Sidaway, Inge-Lyubov, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Carcharoth, BD2412, Arabani, Terribleman, Xiao Li, Talia679, Ni- hiltres, CHE~enwiki, Vilcxjo, Brianmacian, Kenmayer, Thecurran, Bgwhite, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Wavelength, Ravenous, Mcrespi, Rmky87, FlyingPenguins, Deucalionite, Darthkt, BusterD, Thegreyanomaly, Wknight94, J. Van Meter, Mllefifi, JoanneB, Opiaterein, Smack- Bot, Pschelden, Eskimbot, Evanreyes, Bluebot, Te24409nsp, Feralnostalgia, Colonies Chris, Akhilleus, Jwy, Jlarson, Mtmelendez, Vblanton, Qmwne235, SashatoBot, J. Finkelstein, Astroangie, SteveG23, The Man in Question, Yourmotherisanastronaut, MikeWazowski, Norm mit, Nonexistant User, Twas Now, Bertport, JForget, Moreschi, Neelix, Cydebot, Paulromney, Meladina, In Defense of the Artist, FrancoGG, Biruitorul, Uncoding, Meheren, TonyTheTiger, Noneofyourbusiness, JustAGal, Lunamaria, Centrepull, Fayenatic london, D. Webb, JAnDbot, WANAX, FOLEM, Twospoonfuls, .anacondabot, Philip.marshall, JPG-GR, Solowords, CCS81, CommonsDelinker, Eliz81, Manderso, Har- veyTheFrog, Spshu, Heliogabalus227, Sparafucil, Natalieharrower, TonyPS214, Synthebot, AlleborgoBot, Andqso, SieBot, Rlendog, Swliv, Peter cohen, Athanata, Goustien, Geo257, Elassint, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Treeish, Thrasymachus1964, Ifnkovhg, Wikijens, Bluebean10, RafaAzevedo, Notjustkidding, Singinglemon~enwiki, Ehagedorn, BOTarate, Catalographer, Rossen4, WikHead, Kbdankbot, Ad- dbot, Wran, Captain-tucker, Download, CarsracBot, BobMiller1701, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Zorrobot, Yobot, Donfbreed, Macravin, AnomieBOT, Kellogg257~enwiki, Jeffwang, Omnipaedista, Artimaean, Anna Roy, Hanknoel, Cedole, FriscoKnight, Tim1357, TobeBot, Jlw80, Doomsheep, Brucekmcg87, Wilytilt, Ravenmewtwo, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Jfmantis, Slon02, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, 4me- ter4, JSquish, ZéroBot, AndrewOne, SporkBot, Music Sorter, Donner60, Spicemix, ClueBot NG, One50ne, Frietjes, BG19bot, Davidiad, AlexSpencerJones, DrCruse, Goshen37, Hmainsbot1, Profmeganlewis, Gplummer317, Bobwolfe23, CiprianAgapi, Vladimir Alexiev, Metchley, Emelch12, Mvallianatos, Imdabes7, AKS.9955, Rothwell.jcf, JamesMacMillan, KasparBot, VA795, MahneLV, Musa Raza and Anonymous: 256 • Aeschylus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeschylus?oldid=697352160 Contributors: Kpjas, Bryan Derksen, -- April, Danny, Oliv- erkroll, Ortolan88, William Avery, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Ichelhof, Llywrch, Dominus, Ixfd64, Zanimum, Delirium, Docu, PJT, Tusixoh, Jdfor- rester, Ugen64, Andres, John K, Adam Bishop, EmphasisMine, Stone, Tjunier, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, Grendelkhan, Topbanana, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Dimadick, Robbot, Peak, Hadal, UtherSRG, Nerval, TOO, Christopher Parham, Fastfission, Solipsist, Ehusman, Chow- bok, Antandrus, The Singing Badger, Kaldari, Vina, DragonflySixtyseven, Ganymead, Cornischong, Karl-Henner, Niten, Neutrality, HamYoyo, Slothrop~enwiki, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Esperant, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Guanabot, LindsayH, Maksym Ye., Dbachmann, Wade- witz, Bender235, Djordjes, Mr. Billion, Rick MILLER~enwiki, El C, Kwamikagami, PhilHibbs, Triona, EmilJ, Etz Haim, Wareh, Semper discens, Malafaya, Nicke Lilltroll~enwiki, Jguk 2, Sampo Torgo, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Gary, Sherurcij, Ninio, Sligocki, Bart133, DreamGuy, 182 CHAPTER 17. MARILYNNE ROBINSON

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Clef, Winner 42, K6ka, 15turnsm, NathanielTheBold, Toadmaster86, AndrewOne, Symp8738, L Kensington, Lilith of golden flowers, Chewings72, Operalover49, Carmichael, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Piast93, EauLibrarian, Widr, ERIDU-DREAMING, Ryan Vesey, PaoloNapolitano, Metaknowledge, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, KLBot2, Hardicanute, BG19bot, McCronion, Davidiad, Baileygrace77, Klilidiplomus, Reddde, Pratyya Ghosh, Haymouse, McOoee, EuroCarGT, Inalja, Gre regiment, VIAFbot, Epicgenius, ArmbrustBot, HoboMcJoe, Abrasax108, Stamptrader, FrB.TG, JaconaFrere, LiteraryFanHi, Elidanisangalli, TropicAces, Porkfrier, Jim Carter, Laberinto16, Archiloc, 1000caves, SamuelOdinga, 17sm12003, Tcrackcrack, KasparBot and Anonymous: 402 • Mabinogion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mabinogion?oldid=695877085 Contributors: Derek Ross, Rmhermen, Deb, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Jimfbleak, Bogdangiusca, Djnjwd, Raven in Orbit, JASpencer, Jallan, Jwrosenzweig, Maximus Rex, Rls, Rossumcapek, DigitalMedievalist, DocWatson42, Yak, Varlaam, Mboverload, Telsa, Mako098765, Jossi, Kuralyov, Sam Hocevar, Discospinster, Rich Farm- brough, Snow steed~enwiki, CanisRufus, Kwamikagami, QuartierLatin1968, Haxwell, Briséis~enwiki, Lyndafis, Dave.Dunford, Nicknack009, NantonosAedui, Angr, Woohookitty, Wikibancroft64, Isnow, SDC, Cuchullain, BD2412, RadioActive~enwiki, Phoenix-forgotten, Crazynas, R.e.b., Matt Deres, FlaBot, Old Moonraker, John Baez, Maire, Vidkun, Chobot, YurikBot, Pigman, Gaius Cornelius, Joel7687, Alarichall, Ynysgrif, Zzuuzz, Open2universe, Curpsbot-unicodify, SmackBot, Deiaemeth, Betacommand, GwydionM, OrangeDog, Hibernian, DMacks, Straif, SilkTork, Glynhughes, Stoa, RandomCritic, A. Parrot, Lucio Di Madaura, Joseph Solis in Australia, Edricson, Reywas92, Oosoom, Aristophanes68, Bellerophon5685, Doug Weller, Wachowich, PFSchaffner, Sluzzelin, Haltiamieli, Husond, Rothorpe, Bencherlite, Creation- law, VoABot II, Yangtze2000, Snowded, Profgumby, Enaidmawr, B9 hummingbird hovering, MacAuslan, J.delanoy, FruitMonkey, STBotD, Chromancer, Thisisborin9, Andrewkfryer, Stephenkirkup, Ajrabagl, Shadaez, Falcon8765, Goustien, Randy Kryn, Motyka, Martarius, ClueBot, Ideal gas equation, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rdwperl, Qwertyco, Razorflame, Antiquary, Aitias, Koro Neil, Shiroise, MystBot, Addbot, Daicaregos, Peti610botH, Ehrenkater, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Captain Quirk, Kingpin13, Kaltaugh, Anna Frodesiak, Omnipaedista, Rosenburg, FrescoBot, Henrystreusel, Enjaytom, Gwybedyn, HaiHaiRakuen, Finn Bjørklid, Johnmikethomas, Ida Shaw, Ὁ οἶστρος, Llightex, ClueBot NG, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Neomokun, ElfishMusuda437, Jan Götesson, Lewisbookreviews, Ninja5100, Stanley- fk, John Eben, Coolabahapple, Lady Charlotte Guest Group, Gdsmithtx, KasparBot, Carteki and Anonymous: 99 • Four Branches of the Mabinogi Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Branches_of_the_Mabinogi?oldid=689511009 Contributors: Deb, Wighson, Ryanmcdaniel, Cuchullain, Pigman, Pegship, SmackBot, Gilliam, GwydionM, Iridescent, Aristophanes68, Thijs!bot, Enaid- mawr, R'n'B, LinguisticDemographer, BigrTex, ElectricValkyrie, Chromancer, Lunathemoona, Steven J. Anderson, Cymrodor, Anchor Link Bot, Randy Kryn, Gwidonordu, Blueporch, Shiroise, Addbot, Redheylin, Ehrenkater, LilHelpa, Ll1324, Xxglennxx, Cau1khead, J36miles, Gwyn-ap-Nudd, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Boydstra, Knife-in-the-drawer and Anonymous: 20 • One Thousand and One Nights Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights?oldid=696746714 Contributors: The Epopt, Uriyan, Tarquin, BlckKnght, Sjc, -- April, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Moly, Danny, Ortolan88, Zoe, Imran, Stevertigo, Mrwojo, Nealmcb, Earth, Dominus, Liftarn, Skysmith, Paul A, SebastianHelm, Tregoweth, Anders Feder, Error, Bogdangiusca, Evercat, Mxn, Charles Matthews, Motor, Itai, Joy, Ccady, Raul654, Farshadrbn, Wetman, Robbot, Chealer, Waerth, Jmabel, Mayooranathan, Postdlf, P0lyglut, KellyCoinGuy, Ojigiri~enwiki, Andrew Levine, JackofOz, Mandel, DocWatson42, Kbahey, Tom harrison, Chardon, Dratman, Alibaba, Dm- maus, Gracefool, Macrakis, Bobblewik, Wmahan, Nova77, Zeimusu, Sonjaaa, Noe, Antandrus, Piotrus, Kaldari, Andyabides, Untifler, Satori, Agro r, Robin klein, Hillel, Shamino, Haiduc, EricBright, Rich Farmbrough, Parishan, Heenan73, Dbachmann, Mani1, SpaceFrog, Stbalbach, Lachatdelarue, Bender235, Breon, CanisRufus, MBisanz, El C, Kotuku33, Sole Soul, Flammifer, Daf, Jonsafari, Pharos, Irishpunktom, OGon- cho, Merenta, Alansohn, Free Bear, Wiki-uk, Rgclegg, Philip Cross, Mr Adequate, Andreala, DreamGuy, Silroquen, Ravenhull, Fivetrees, SidP, 17.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 183

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DÄP, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Espeh, IntelligenceisAttractive, Williamjt, Mhenderson5, Zyma, Hill- billyholiday, Dharmabhanjaka, Ekips39, Epicgenius, Murmeldjur55, Thewildhunt, JamesMoose, Rabe3 Mallah, Eatmark, CensoredScribe, RabeaMalah, PrivateMasterHD, Jianhui67, Acalycine, MrScorch6200, Infantom, Sportsguy17, JaconaFrere, Parthian2014, AdAstraEliz, Dup- pyDutch, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Fish storm, Frhingiran, Jayakumar RG, Aluminum finish, Alinematzadeh, Juansolothe, Ebda3.us, Tralala0, Xtremedood, Khashayar854, Macadooz, KasparBot, BD2412bot, Sir Edward Jones, Upupupuupup000, Carteki and Anonymous: 709 • Hamlet Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamlet?oldid=697878199 Contributors: Kpjas, Tarquin, Sjc, -- April, Ed Poor, Eclecticology, Danny, Vaganyik, Gianfranco, Oliverkroll, William Avery, Jinian, Leandrod, Ubiquity, Bdesham, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Pmmenneg, Llywrch, Dreamword, Modster, Dominus, Jketola, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Gaurav, Cyde, Paul A, Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc, Bdonlan, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Darrell Greenwood, KoyaanisQatsi, Angela, Nanobug, Jebba, DropDeadGorgias, Ugen64, Poor Yorick, Kwekubo, John K, Rob Hooft, Lee M, Agtx, Popsracer, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Dino, Lfh, Dysprosia, Dandrake, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, Cleduc, Itai, Tempshill, Mattworld, Fibonacci, Dsebesta, Ccady, Mackensen, Stormie, Rbellin, Jerzy, Finlay McWalter, Major Danby, Francs2000, Jeffq, Bearcat, Nufy8, Rob- bot, RichiH, Chrism, Fredrik, Huppybanny, Aliter, Donreed, Moondyne, Altenmann, Ajd, Modulatum, Lowellian, Burn the asylum, Postdlf, P0lyglut, Sverdrup, Academic Challenger, Sunray, Cataclysm12, JackofOz, Mandel, HaeB, Cecropia, Xanzzibar, Alan Liefting, David Ger- ard, Centrx, Andromeda~enwiki, ShaneCavanaugh, Angmering, Obli, Everyking, Anville, Alison, Michael Devore, Henry Flower, Gamaliel, Brequinda, Jaan513, Jackol, Tagishsimon, Max power, OldakQuill, Andycjp, MShades, Alexf, Mike R, R. fiend, Gdr, SarekOfVulcan, Antan- drus, The Singing Badger, OverlordQ, MisfitToys, Lesgles, ShakataGaNai, Lynda Finn, Jesster79, Ellsworth, Harry R, Pmanderson, Yossarian, Atulsohan, Dave L, Gscshoyru, Ukexpat, Jewbacca, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, TheCustomOfLife, Lacrimosus, Grstain, DavidL (usurped), Mike Rosoft, Oskar Sigvardsson, Alkivar, Freakofnurture, Ham II, Rich Farmbrough, KillerChihuahua, Rhobite, Factitious, Ld, Bishonen, David Schaich, Luxdormiens, Eric Shalov, Xezbeth, Mjpieters, Erolos, D-Notice, Mani1, Wadewitz, DGoncz, Bender235, ESkog, Android79, 184 CHAPTER 17. MARILYNNE ROBINSON

MyNameIsNotBob, Narcisse, Syp, Pjf, Nysalor, El C, Edward Z. 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MARILYNNE ROBINSON

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 187

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MARILYNNE ROBINSON

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 189

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Boone, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Hohenloh, Rsquire3, Yngvadottir, Iful, Victoriaearle, Memgab, DORC, TheMovieBuff, MassimoAr, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Galoubet, Princess Maria, Piano non troppo, Crystal whacker, Materialscientist, RobertEves92, Chapmandave, Thelittlegreyman, Jchthys, Xqbot, Ian Mac- Dove, JimVC3, Capricorn42, 4twenty42o, AuthorSyrieJ, Jmundo, Anonymous from the 21st century, Omnipaedista, Backpackadam, SassoBot, Quasium, INeverCry, Dodder0, Green Cardamom, Jonsaxon, FrescoBot, Artimaean, Anna Roy, Kendaniszewski, Amilnerwhite, MBelzer, Al- عبقري ,loashley, Cannolis, RedBot, Reconsider the static, Bodrugan, Merlion444, Countugolino, Kgrad, Callanecc, 05ambran, Duoduoduo 2009, Reaper Eternal, Vikeke, Skamecrazy123, EmausBot, GoingBatty, Jim Michael, K6ka, Nicolaeh, AvicBot, ZéroBot, Fæ, Mishyanne, Aeonx, Suslindisambiguator, Makecat, Tolly4bolly, Donner60, LOLsinead, Taste Arrise, ChuispastonBot, Clementina, WoundedWolfgirl, Son- 190 CHAPTER 17. MARILYNNE ROBINSON

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• In Search of Lost Time Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Search_of_Lost_Time?oldid=694329631 Contributors: Tarquin, Ap, Rmher- men, Deb, Zadcat, Mjb, Olivier, Gabbe, Paul A, Kricxjo, Ronz, Hectorthebat, John K, RodC, Tpbradbury, Morn, Nightsky, Wetman, AlainV, Naddy, Postdlf, Merovingian, Litefantastic, Blainster, Mandel, Xanzzibar, Wayland, Unfree, David Gerard, Vfp15, Dratman, Henry Flower, Gamaliel, Varlaam, Waltpohl, DO'Neil, Solipsist, Andycjp, Tothebarricades.tk, Thincat, Zfr, Yossarian, MakeRocketGoNow, Glasperlenspiel, Grstain, Eep², Simonides, Rich Farmbrough, Ahkond, LeeHunter, Dfan, Violetriga, *drew, Zenohockey, Tverbeek, Arcadian, Ahpsp, Pearle, Jumbuck, Evangeline, Chrisjohnson, Jliberty, Ksnow, Benson85, Spot, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mark K. Jensen, GregorB, ZephyrAnycon, Ste- fanomione, Mandarax, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Markkawika, Koavf, Mikem, The wub, MarnetteD, Tbone, JdforresterBot, Quuxplusone, Cubdriver, Chobot, AllyD, VolatileChemical, Mattderojas, Bgwhite, Banaticus, EamonnPKeane, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Carolynparrishfan, RussBot, Quinlan Vos~enwiki, Fabartus, Hede2000, Ancatdubh2, Eleassar, Arichnad, NYScholar, Sylvain1972, Nick, VI- GNERON, Andersonblog, Mooncowboy, Gadget850, Mcalkins, Pydos, Nikkimaria, NYArtsnWords, Fram, Caballero1967, PhS, SmackBot, Lestrade, McGeddon, QBKooky, Unyoyega, Straitgate, Commander Keane bot, B.Wind, The Famous Movie Director, Betacommand, Kev- inalewis, Chris the speller, Guermantes, Sadads, Earbox, Sct72, JohnWheater, Writtenright, Korinth111, Estephan500, Bigturtle, Qirtaiba, Badgerpatrol, Only, Smerus, JzG, NormalGoddess, John, NewTestLeper79, Raaj1290, Aspirex, The Man in Question, JHunterJ, DwightK- ingsbury, Keith-264, Lainzilla, Twas Now, JayHenry, BBuchbinder, CRGreathouse, CmdrObot, CWY2190, The Advocate, John Thaxter, Ken Gallager, C5mjohn, Cydebot, Treybien, Jainituos, Xxanthippe, Lugnuts, Omicronpersei8, BetacommandBot, Thijs!bot, TonyTheTiger, Miss- vain, Java13690, JustAGal, Strausszek, ValeOfAldur, MrMarmite, Quintote, Modernist, Sluzzelin, KBry, Instinct, Coreydragon, Roleplayer, TAnthony, Rothorpe, Steveprutz, Promking, Lawikitejana, Magioladitis, Faizhaider, Rich257, Froid, Mamlsmds, $yD!, PeaceAnywhere, Gw- ern, Gacelo, InnocuousPseudonym, CommonsDelinker, Hendo1769, Hans Dunkelberg, Athaenara, Komowkwa, Hispanosuiza, M-le-mot-dit, Bermy88, Vanished user 47736712, Jim Craigie, Prhartcom, KValade, GrahamHardy, DoctorWorm, VolkovBot, Off-shell, Derekbd, Margacst, Harfarhs, Station1, Hippofloss, Oakside, Steven J. Anderson, Kirkmc, Ontoraul, Carlsbad science, Liquidcow, 3th0s, Softlavender, Tempo- raluser, Jtownson, Oldpilot, Lesterama, Paradoctor, Bentogoa, Le Pied-bot~enwiki, Patrickalexander, Randy Kryn, SummerWithMorons, Victor Chmara, Procrastinatrix, Gregcaletta, Bicycle legs, Rekcuflemac2, Septuor, Jtle515, DumZiBoT, Princesstoqueen, XLinkBot, Good Olfactory, Miro modo, Addbot, GargoyleBot, Eboepple, MrOllie, Jomunro, LinkFA-Bot, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Locate Words!, Turb, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace, Andreasmperu, Donfbreed, Maksimilijan, Wiki-ph2008, Mitaboni, AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Nanosecond- man, Versadar, Ranjockeyest, Jsulliva01, FreeKnowledgeCreator, Ronnievanzandt, FrescoBot, Meissen, Papa Spank, Eschatologicalguy, Yana- jin33, CafeBustelo, Hart, aber ungerecht, Surfeit of palfreys, Gerda Arendt, Declan Clam, Pollinosisss, Ale And Quail, Nsrodrig11, Cmich6430, Ktlynch, Beardedbiblio, In ictu oculi, EmausBot, JimJoyce2, GoingBatty, IBO, Roy singleton, Reim, AndrewOne, Sellersf, Polisher of Cob- webs, Res08yuq, Nallar, Helpsome, Peter James, Mahir256, Helpful Pixie Bot, Phantom Connoisseur, BG19bot, W.andrea, Ofarh, Toccata quarta, Achim55, Lerire, Cyberbot II, Breakfast with Proust, JYBot, Dexbot, XXILitt, Violynne, Everything Is Numbers, JustAMuggle, Bu- dro6, OccultZone, Twoeyedjack, Ibewinnerz, Hallward’s Ghost, Calucido, KasparBot, Professor JR, ProustReader, Brizzenden and Anonymous: 270

• Marcel Proust Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Proust?oldid=697041037 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Kpjas, Tarquin, Schewek, DW, Hephaestos, Olivier, Fred Bauder, Yann, Delirium, Paul A, Kricxjo, Ronz, Pweemeeuw, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Vic- tor Gijsbers, Andres, Sethmahoney, John K, Raven in Orbit, Dcw~enwiki, Guaka, Daniel Quinlan, SatyrTN, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Mir Harven, Morn, Fvw, Curero, Dimadick, Chuunen Baka, Bearcat, Robbot, Moncrief, Goethean, Mayooranathan, Stewartadcock, Gbog, Jack- ofOz, Wereon, Mandel, Adam78, Marc Venot, Gobeirne, Sj, Lupin, Everyking, Henry Flower, Areicher, Beta m, Maarten van Vliet, Bluejay Young, Ragib, Explendido Rocha, Spjholland, Lesgles, SethTisue, Imlepid, Maximaximax, Tothebarricades.tk, Bk0, Yossarian, Lacrimosus, Glasperlenspiel, Grstain, D6, Simonides, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Violetriga, Kwamikagami, Cmdrjameson, Ahpsp, Nk, Rje, Troels Nybo~enwiki, Pearle, Gary, Philip Cross, Jliberty, Headisdead, Bbsrock, SidP, Wintceas, Dirac1933, Skyring, Prattflora~enwiki, Var- tan84, Chrysaor, Fontgirl, FeanorStar7, Rocastelo, MrDarcy, Fred J, Astanhope, Palica, Mandarax, Chun-hian, Markkawika, Koavf, Jweiss11, JHMM13, Anonymoustom, SeanMack, FlaBot, Oliver Chettle, Gurch, Cubdriver, Ldnew, Piniricc65, King of Hearts, Chobot, Alec.brady, Svencb, Korg, Adrian Robson, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Hyad, Koffieyahoo, The Ogre, UDScott, Herve661, Rmackenzie, VIGNERON, Tony1, EEMIV, Mcalkins, BraneJ, Tanet, Homagetocatalonia, Imaninjapirate, Nikkimaria, NYArtsnWords, Doktor Waterhouse, Whobot, Tsiaojian lee, Greatal386, Stumps, SG, Attilios, SmackBot, Roger Davies, Lestrade, Pavlovič, Bertrand Meyer, Cynthia B., Chaojoker, Guer- mantes, Bluebot, Paulcardan, MK8, Thumperward, MalafayaBot, CSWarren, DHN-bot~enwiki, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Coyau, Or- phanBot, Edivorce, Wybot, Smerus, Bidabadi~enwiki, Ohconfucius, Kkailas, Lambiam, Nishkid64, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Teneriff, JzG, NormalGoddess, John, Ddruker, 16@r, The Eye of Timaeus, Kyoko, Collywolly, SandyGeorgia, Deutschmann~enwiki, Jose77, Andreworkney, Scorpios, Iridescent, Dekaels~enwiki, Melnicki, Dariusofthedark, Ziusudra, Namiba, Cyrusc, RCS, CRGreathouse, Irwangatot, CWY2190, Tantris, Chicheley, Marc Shepherd, Yaris678, Cydebot, Jainituos, Xxanthippe, Damian.kelleher, Studerby, ID burn, Nabokov, Advocatus di- aboli, Ivy Shoots, TonyTheTiger, N5iln, Folantin, Massimo Macconi, Cursed Pretzel, Heroeswithmetaphors, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Fatid- iot1234, Quintote, Fayenatic london, Geape, Zigzig20s, Luis m luque, Myanw, Stradkid27, Avidd, KBry, Jrtak, MER-C, Dsp13, Michaelarabin, C. C. Perez, Rothorpe, Magioladitis, Spontini, Chaica, Exiledone, DerHexer, Grunge6910, Markus451, JdeJ, Purslane, Pleidhce, MartinBot, Anne97432, LipstickVogue1216, InnocuousPseudonym, Kostisl, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Sasajid, Nev1, Libroman, 88888, Faustandsecond, Gorka alustiza~enwiki, (jarbarf), Wynia, Tanaats, KylieTastic, DMCer, Dolugen, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, DagnyB, Paranoidblogger, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Miguel Chong, BerlinDramaturg, Bxcarracer13, Ontoraul, Jackfork, Time and Space, Cantiorix, Tcbently, Alcmaeonid, EmxBot, Oldpilot, Lesterama, SieBot, Tomasboij, Paradoctor, Gerakibot, TheKING&&&122121, Yintan, Cowpoke49, Oda Mari, Mone- gasque, BenoniBot~enwiki, OKBot, Seedbot, Bodhi Peace, Martin H., Wahrmund, AnalogWeapon, Slothrop87, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, All Hallow’s Wraith, Elsweyn, Parkwells, Solar-Wind, DragonBot, Jeanenawhitney, PixelBot, Lucy- moran, Richardcassin, Ptbuddha, NuclearWarfare, Peltosaari, 6afraidof7, Mapadin, NumaNumaDud, Wikimancer, Indopug, Princesstoqueen, XLinkBot, Werdnawerdna, Bigbander, TFBCT1, Surtsicna, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, PhilT2, Lucytang, Wingspeed, Scientus, Leszek Jańczuk, Haugenbraum, 5 albert square, DixitAgna, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Gail, Zorrobot, Marksdaman, Jim, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 17.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 191

2D, Maksimilijan, Wiki-ph2008, AnomieBOT, Tryptoﬁsh, 1exec1, Romy1938, Patrickalexanderlane, RobertEves92, Xqbot, Estlandia~enwiki, Pratinavanil, Bartonarmy, J JMesserly, Almabot, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, GhalyBot, Mattis, Lprideux, Mincht, Spongefrog, Green Car- damom, Ana Bruta, FrescoBot, Meissen, Anna Roy, Levalley, D'ohBot, Dt2668, Wamstorﬁa, Joebigwheel, Bmclaughlin9, RedBot, Masti- Bot, FoxBot, The Rose of Castille, Leondumontfollower, Paopp, Frodo&miki, Diannaa, Jimsteele9999, Aimsworthy, RjwilmsiBot, Ripchip Bot, Chaumot, Phlegat, Kro2009, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, JimJoyce2, Richardhugh, Pumpkinkiller, GoingBatty, Mychele Trempetich, Hen- ryXVII, ZéroBot, Fæ, Averaver, Res08yuq, PackagingMyself, Think88, Tablethree, DASHBotAV, Jshannonj, Frieda48, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Grey1322, Ariseexacting, Swansnic, Snow Rise, Mark Arsten, Frimoussou, Smmmaniruzzaman, The Traditionalist, Gobineau, Ninmacer20, Cyberbot II, Breakfast with Proust, Huytue, JYBot, XXILitt, Cerabot~enwiki, Lynne cohen, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Pyrame~enwiki, CsDix, Reg Snowdon, Joedude1635, Ldemartino, Laure Brissaud, Steven Rogers, Surfscoter, Floric19, Zumoarirodoka, LawrencePrincipe, Jim Carter, LesVegas, Hollyrood, Matiia, Dr. Trampsaver, Mizette, Fallinggrass, KasparBot, Daisy 595, Zenedits and Anonymous: 384

• A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Portrait_of_the_Artist_as_a_Young_Man?oldid= 694258730 Contributors: SimonP, Michael Hardy, Paul A, John K, Dysprosia, Tpbradbury, Wetman, LGagnon, Mandel, Lupo, Amir Dekel, Matt Gies, DocWatson42, Ike~enwiki, Cobra libre, ShaneCavanaugh, Anville, Gamaliel, Fergananim, McCart42, MakeRocketGoNow, O'Dea, Zarxos, Rich Farmbrough, Pie4all88, MeltBanana, Violetriga, RJHall, Pjrich, JRM, Filiocht, Dkeithley, Hesperian, A2Kaﬁr, Ronline, Fuzlogic, Snowolf, Guthrie, Ghirlandajo, Woohookitty, GregorB, Stefanomione, Cuchullain, DePiep, Jkatzen, Matteo~enwiki, RexNL, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Quentin X, Tonyfuchs1019, Tony1, The Halo, Stumps, SmackBot, Nick Dillinger, Zazaban, Tarret, IstvanWolf, Betacommand, Kev- inalewis, Oli Filth, Greatgavini, TheLeopard, CSWarren, Toughpigs, Emurphy42, Atropos, Alaiche~enwiki, Dharmabum420, Knate15, Curly Turkey, Tesseran, Ohconfucius, Brenmar, Jergosh, Shamrox, Joseph Solis in Australia, Twas Now, Ewulp, AshcroftIleum, CmdrObot, Jayunder- scorezero, MILH, Cydebot, Reywas92, Jainituos, Patking90, Thijs!bot, Lord Hawk, Pabiggin, Natalie Erin, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Ozzieboy, JAnDbot, DuncanHill, TAnthony, Moralist, Magioladitis, Edgarisaballer, Rich257, Jim Nightshade, Cgingold, Tt 225, Agamemnon117, CliﬀC, Quywompka, Zen Muster, StaticDust, Eybot~enwiki, M-le-mot-dit, InspectorTiger, TottyBot, Alan012, GrahamHardy, Malik Shabazz, Short- ride, TXiKiBoT, Symane, NHRHS2010, Ulmus procera, SieBot, PeterCanthropus, Nihil novi, Phe-bot, ClueBot, Ribaldhumor, KC29, Fadesga, DBased, Circamuska701, Txanpon, Alexbot, Arjayay, Lord Cornwallis, Hyoshida, Good Olfactory, Peterbobbe, Addbot, Lithoderm, RTG, An- dersBot, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Joule36e5, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Opasatika, Almabot, Fattonyni, Michaelfralic, Escubi Serrano, Despartaco, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, Moonraker, MondalorBot, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Max425, CobraBot, Ktlynch, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot, IncognitoErgoSum, ZéroBot, Josve05a, Klavierspieler, AndrewOne, Erianna, ClueBot NG, Widr, Spencer231, Félix Wolf, TheJJJunk, Zoe Bertrand, Dkeyesbyrne, Floric19, James Holliday, Gloombot, Monkbot, Je.est.un.autre, KasparBot, MahneLV, Amieenoch and Anonymous: 150

• James Joyce Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce?oldid=696725676 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Eloquence, Mav, Sjc, Ed Poor, Danny, XJaM, Meempants, Atorpen, Unukorno, Deb, Ortolan88, SimonP, Zadcat, Isis~enwiki, Modemac, Edward, Jahsonic, Yann, Delir- ium, Paul A, Card~enwiki, Ellywa, Mdebets, Ronz, Jimfbleak, Snoyes, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Jdforrester, Ijon, Netsnipe, Jiang, John K, Jod, Colmlinehan, Jengod, Charles Matthews, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Jm34harvey, Fuzheado, Rednblu, Doradus, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Tempshill, Ed g2s, Wetman, Flockmeal, Lumos3, Dimadick, Bearcat, Kryptos, Fredrik, Hernanm, Naddy, Kokiri, Mayooranathan, Postdlf, Meelar, Timrollpickering, Tanuki Z, UtherSRG, Profoss, Anthony, JerryFriedman, Amir Dekel, Pabouk, Cobra libre, Amorim Parga, Netoholic, Lupin, Anville, Alison, Henry Flower, Jdavidb, Chips Critic, Beardo, Djegan, Thomas Ludwig, JillandJack, Rparle, SWAdair, Bob- blewik, Tagishsimon, Btphelps, Espetkov, Vivero~enwiki, Fergananim, Utcursch, MikeX, Cckkab, Antandrus, Eroica, MisfitToys, Ryano, Bod- notbod, Two Bananas, Lumidek, Danielsh, JohnArmagh, MakeRocketGoNow, Demiurge, Trevor MacInnis, Jfpierce, RevRagnarok, Guppyfin- soup, D6, Ta bu shi da yu, Simonides, O'Dea, Poccil, George V Reilly, CGP, Buffyg, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Qutezuce, Ericam- ick, Ahkond, Mani1, Paul August, Night Gyr, Stbalbach, Bender235, Steerpike, Autrijus, Shanes, Susvolans, Cacophony, Bobo192, Smalljim, Func, Redlentil, Icarusfall, Filiocht, RadetzkyVonRadetz, Jpecora, SpeedyGonsales, Rajah, Rje, Saluyot, Andrewbadr, Polylerus, Mareino, Knucmo2, Jumbuck, Red Winged Duck, Alansohn, JYolkowski, Prometheus7Unbound, Philip Cross, Dachannien, Andrew Gray, Calton, SlimVirgin, InShaneee, Mysdaao, Bart133, Velella, Benson85, Suruena, Dirac1933, Marcello, Ghirlandajo, Stemonitis, FrancisTyers, Angr, Boothy443, Ivana1, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, RHaworth, TigerShark, Etacar11, Camw, TheoClarke, ^demon, WadeSimMiser, Ardfern, MONGO, Jok2000, Lapsed Pacifist, GregorB, Isnow, Jacj, Palica, Graham87, BD2412, Grammarbot, Sjö, Ash211, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Eoghanacht, Seidenstud, Lugnad, Tangotango, SpNeo, Vegaswikian, Lairor, Brighterorange, Nandesuka, Husky, Mikecron, Ian Pitchford, RobertG, Musical Linguist, Who, RexNL, Gurch, Organisciak, Ben-w, Piniricc65, WouterBot, K2wiki, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Wave- length, Huw Powell, Snappy, Tznkai, Zafiroblue05, Splash, Pigman, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Ugur Basak, Nawl- inWiki, Wiki alf, Veledan, Chick Bowen, RazorICE, Dogcow, Anetode, Silvery, [email protected], Mikeblas, Mooncowboy, Denihiloni- hil, Semperf, Tony1, Occono, Klutzy, Jpeob, Fenian Swine, Nlu, Vicent Tur i Serra, Fallout boy, StanHubrio, Zzuuzz, Homagetocatalonia, Dast, Bhumiya, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, Nolanus (usurped), [email protected], Doktor Waterhouse, Harabanar, Hurakan, Hender- [email protected], Fram, Tobble, Whobot, Mais oui!, Curpsbot-unicodify, Gorgan almighty, Red Darwin, GrinBot~enwiki, Iago Dali, Stumps, DVD R W, Kf4bdy, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Brian1979, Ralphbk, Classicfilms, Moeron, Haza-w, Herostratus, Griot~enwiki, KnowledgeOfSelf, Bowsie Jnr, CRKingston, Blue520, Leki, Jtascarella, JJay, Alsandro, IstvanWolf, Sebesta, SmartGuy Old, Gaff, Perdita, Eclecticerudite, Gilliam, Kazkaskazkasako, SauliH, Jethero, Acheloys, MK8, Deepsky, Papa November, Cretanforever, Ryecatcher773, Dlo- hcierekim’s sock, El Gringo, DHN-bot~enwiki, Alfion, A. B., Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Sumahoy, Quartermaster, Cripipper, Atropos, Ww2censor, Addshore, AltheaJ, Seduisant, Dharmabum420, MartinRobinson, Jwy, Nakon, Blake-, Nick125, Artie p, Jklin, Smerus, Drewalan- walker, Ohconfucius, Yannismarou, Rory096, Bcasterline, Vriullop, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, BrownHairedGirl, Zahid Abdassabur, Broom eater, Kuru, John, Loodog, Pthag, Arialblack, Tktktk, Jmhuculak, AMac2002, Kransky, IronGargoyle, Ckatz, MarkSutton, Kyoko, Waggers, SandyGeorgia, Jayzel68, Vagary, Dl2000, Christian Roess, SubSeven, Hu12, Iridescent, Dekaels~enwiki, Mosa123ic, Joeteller, Wikeawade, JStewart, Toocold, Blehfu, AGK, Biff boffkins, IronJohnSr, Tawkerbot2, Jgjournalist, AshcroftIleum, Briancua, Norasl, Daedalus969, JFor- get, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Dycedarg, BeenAroundAWhile, Nunquam Dormio, Yarnalgo, Leujohn, Lazulilasher, Brandubh Blathmac, Neelix, Kronecker, Martinramble, Cydebot, John McCarthy, Slp1, Jainituos, Aristophanes68, Mattergy, Flowerpotman, Xxanthippe, Bornsommer, A Softer Answer, NRZarrugh, RelHistBuff, DBaba, Kozuch, Bob Stein - VisiBone, Archnoble, Omicronpersei8, Maziotis, Jimcripps, Mamalujo, BetacommandBot, Mattisse, Jon C., Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Lord Hawk, Fourchette, Kablammo, Edwardx, Evil Angry Cat, Bwthurbe, Tjpob, Folantin, JustAGal, Farrtj, Taxelrod, AlefZet, Escarbot, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Opelio, Will1604, Quintote, Leghorn, Fayenatic london, Modernist, Pistolpierre, Spencer, Wahabijaz, Sluzzelin, Albany NY, Sarah777, MegX, Rothorpe, Magioladitis, Celithemis, Bongwar- rior, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, Edgarisaballer, Enormousrat, JNW, Tedickey, Ppival, Nick Carraway, Hekerui, Lassic81, Acornwithwings, Tt 225, 192 CHAPTER 17. MARILYNNE ROBINSON

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My Country., Bill.D Nguyen, Riley Huntley, Toploftical, Chernyi, I1990k, Neuroforever, Mediran, Khazar2, Ehlslaw, Dexbot, FiverFan65, Brhaughey, VIAFbot, Frosty, Mona Samulescu, Universitate ub, Choor monster, I am One of Many, Julian Felsenburgh, Atlas-maker, BealBoru, Nigellwh, Ugog Nizdast, Zenibus, Paul2520, Monkbot, LawrencePrincipe, Jim Carter, Vanished user 31lk45mnzx90, Aklein62, Learnerktm, Solomon262, Coinred, Reibe67, Connaught4, Sekine93, Mr Big Eichelhäher, Jansena1, Killeaney, Duganc525, Dave Bowman 2001, SandSpietta90, Monsieurdionysus, Nøkkenbuer, KasparBot, Psy- choanalymass, Professor JR, Tomd88, Anna livia 100 and Anonymous: 832 • Lila (Robinson novel) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lila_(Robinson_novel)?oldid=651584455 Contributors: Salavat, TAnthony, Nin- jaRobotPirate, T.w.s.hunt, Green Cardamom, BartlebytheScrivener, BG19bot and Anonymous: 1 • Marilynne Robinson Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marilynne_Robinson?oldid=691096786 Contributors: Seglea, Timrollpickering, David Gerard, Dbenbenn, Beginning, Jcw69, MementoVivere, D6, Xezbeth, Bender235, Hello sailor, John Vandenberg, Chasuk, Pinar, Calton, FactFinder, Stephen, Sandover, CS42, Halcatalyst, Dvyost, Rjwilmsi, Amysayrawr, Koavf, Ground Zero, Snarkibartfast, Cshbell, Whosasking, CambridgeBayWeather, CDA, Hansen law, NBS525, PKtm, SmackBot, DLH, JuanOso, Sumahoy, Derek R Bullamore, Ser Amantio di Nico- lao, John, Merchbow, Josh a brewer, Meb53, JForget, ShelfSkewed, Ken Gallager, Icarus of old, Cydebot, Writersblock2222, TonyTheTiger, Ronald W Wise, Sophielou, Rsand21266, Chrisvnicholson, Libroman, Aboutmovies, TXiKiBoT, Jtellerelsberg, Addere, Kzirkel, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fs78721231, Mazdakabedi, CutOffTies, All Hallow’s Wraith, Od Mishehu AWB, Ktr101, Draggleduck, Psantry, Pmtwik, Hrdinský, Zaneselvans, Winston Barclay, T.w.s.hunt, Gmtaylor3, Mifter, Addbot, Elmondo21st, Sabina77, Tpgraham, Lightbot, Tootledum, Marcustisk, Arxiloxos, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Pohick2, AnomieBOT, ThothinChina, Sunwin1960, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Mattis, Green Car- damom, FrescoBot, Tmillerok, Anna Roy, LucienBOT, Unitanode, D'ohBot, Borbolia777, Timharrap, Livingrm, ZéroBot, Ὁ οἶστρος, Ac- cotink2, BartlebytheScrivener, ClueBot NG, Jaceksoci68, Iselilja, 7HallPlace, BattyBot, VIAFbot, Martin Petherbridge, Hewan25, Madcloud01, Dollarlikemoney, Marilynne robinson, NPopincourt, KasparBot, Ameliabg and Anonymous: 61

17.6.2 Images • File:AUM_symbol,_the_primary_(highest)_name_of_the_God_as_per_the_Vedas.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Rugby471 assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:A_Scene_from_Troilus_and_Cressida_-_Angelica_Kauffmann.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/ A_Scene_from_Troilus_and_Cressida_-_Angelica_Kauffmann.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID pga.03274. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: Angelica Kauﬀman • File:Aeschylus_Bust.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Aeschylus_Bust.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Alexisrael • File:Aischylos_Büste.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Aischylos_B%C3%BCste.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scan by User:Gabor Original artist: Unknown 17.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 193

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• File:CharlotteBronte.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/CharlotteBronte.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:CharlotteBrontePortrait.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/CharlotteBrontePortrait.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Bronte Parsonage Museum Original artist: J. H. Thompson • File:Charlotte_Brontë.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: University of Texas: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/exhibits/portraits/index.php?img=54 Original artist: Painted by Evert A. Duyckinick, based on a drawing by George Richmond • File:Claudius_at_Prayer_Hamlet_3-3_Delacroix_1844.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Claudius_at_ Prayer_Hamlet_3-3_Delacroix_1844.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Craig’{}s_design_(1908)_for_Hamlet_1-2_at_Moscow_Art_Theatre.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 4/4b/Craig%27s_design_%281908%29_for_Hamlet_1-2_at_Moscow_Art_Theatre.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Christopher Innes, Edward Gordon Craig, ISBN 0521273838. Original artist: Edward Gordon Craig • File:Czachórski_Actors_before_Hamlet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Czach%C3%B3rski_Actors_ before_Hamlet.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: www.sztuka.com.pl Original artist: Władysław Czachórski • File:Daedalus_und_Ikarus_MK1888.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Daedalus_und_Ikarus_MK1888. png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Dagger-14-plain.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Dagger-14-plain.png License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: RexxS • File:Ddraig.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Draig.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on Image:Flag of Wales 2.svg Original artist: Liftarn • File:Delacroix-1834-I2-QueenConsolesHamlet.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/ Delacroix-1834-I2-QueenConsolesHamlet.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) Original artist: Eugène Delacroix • File:DeverellAsYouLikeIt.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/DeverellAsYouLikeIt.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.english.emory.edu/classes/Shakespeare_Illustrated/Deverell.AYLI.html Originally uploaded to the Afrikaans Wikipedia by Anrie. Original artist: Walter Deverell • File:DollymountStrand_3647w.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/DollymountStrand_3647w.JPG Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Original uploader was Sarah777 at en.wikipedia • File:Donne-shroud.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Donne-shroud.png License: Public domain Contribu- tors: ? Original artist: A working drawing for en:Nicholas Stone's 1631 effigy to him in Westminster Abbey • File:Dubliners_title_page.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e5/Dubliners_title_page.jpg License: PD-US Contribu- tors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Edward_the_third_title_page_(2).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Edward_the_third_title_page_ %282%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: William Shakespeare • File:Edwin_Booth_Hamlet_1870.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Edwin_Booth_Hamlet_1870.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: 19th century photograph Original artist: J. Gurney & Son, N.Y. • File:Elizabeth,_Comtesse_Greffulhe_1905_,_by_Philip_Alexius_de_Laszlo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/9/95/Elizabeth%2C_Comtesse_Greffulhe_1905_%2C_by_Philip_Alexius_de_Laszlo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://jssgallery.org/Other_Artists/Philip_Alexius_de_Laszlo/Elizabeth_Comtesse_Greffuhle.htm Original artist: Philip Alexius de Laszlo • File:En-Hamlet.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/En-Hamlet.ogg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: • Derivative of Hamlet Original artist: Speaker: karltalk Authors of the article 17.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 195

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• John Taylor[#cite_note-NPG-1 [1]] • File:Shakespeare_coat-of-arms.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Shakespeare_coat-of-arms.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: College of Heralds, London Original artist: not known for certain, some say it may be William Shakespeare • File:Shakespeare_grave_-Stratford-upon-Avon_-3June2007.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/ Shakespeare_grave_-Stratford-upon-Avon_-3June2007.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as And curst be he yt moves my bones Original artist: David Jones • File:Shylock_icon.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Shylock_icon.png License: Public domain Contribu- tors: • C_macklin_shylock.jpg Original artist: Johann Zoffany • File:Sonnets1609titlepage.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Sonnets1609titlepage.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Shake-Speare’s Sonnets, quarto published by Thomas Thorpe, London, 1609, http://www.folger.edu/imgdtl.cfm?imageid= 642&cid=926 Original artist: William Shakespeare • File:Souchon1872ImogenCymbeline.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Souchon1872ImogenCymbeline. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.binbin.net/compare/Imogen-from-Shakespeares-Cymbeline-1872-Giclee-Print.htm Original artist: Wilhelm Ferdinand Souchon (German, 1825-1876) • File:Sound-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Sound-icon.svg License: LGPL Contributors: Derivative work from Silsor's versio Original artist: Crystal SVG icon set • File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: No machine-readable source provided. 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Lith. of Cleveland, Ohio. • File:TimonAthens01.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/TimonAthens01.JPG License: Public domain Con- tributors: Tales from Shakespeare Original artist: McLoughlin Brothers, NY • File:Title_page_William_Shakespeare’{}s_First_Folio_1623.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Title_ page_William_Shakespeare%27s_First_Folio_1623.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Yale University [2] Original artist: Martin Droeshout 200 CHAPTER 17. MARILYNNE ROBINSON

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