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Running head: MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST
Mongolian Morality in the East and the West:
Do Moral Values Change Through Acculturation?
Master`s thesis
Bulgan Altangerel
ANR: 663219
Supervisors: Fieke Wagemans, Michael Bender
Tilburg University
8th July, 2016
MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 2
The journey of writing this thesis hasn’t been easy but it brought me a lot of thought, new wisdom and at the same time left with many questions. I couldn’t have gone through this process without the help of many people. First, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my sister
Khulan Altangerel for her continuous support and confidence that she placed in me. I would like to thank my supervisors, Fieke Wagemans and Professor Michael Bender for all the advice and guidance that they gave me. My gratitude goes to Amantai Merkit, Khongorzul and Tunaljin Bat- erdene, who devoted their precious time to accurately translate the survey and supported the data collection. I am also grateful for the care and encouragement given by my family,
Tsahimurtuu community and my friends. And lastly, I would like to thank all the people who participated in this study.
MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 3
Abstract
Researchers have invested much effort in understanding the development of moral mind within the society one grows in. However, the dynamics of morals in response to environmental change in the case of immigration has received scarce attention in the literature. The present study aims to contribute in understanding to what extent moral standards acquired in the home culture gets modified as a result of acculturation and if yes, which contextual factors can help explain this change. Studying the development of moral mind in the context of immigration can play an important role in enhancing immigrant families’ well-being and fostering tolerance and acceptance in the organizations with diversified workforce. In this cross-sectional study, I investigated whether Mongolian migrants in the Western countries endorsed certain moral values to a higher or to a lesser degree compared to non-migrants living in Mongolia. The contextual factors that was hypothesized to cause this difference was analysed through examining the effects of education, language fluency level, length of immigration and the degree of social interaction with locals. No clear evidence of differences was found. Limitations and suggestions for future studies are discussed.
Keywords: morality, acculturation, immigration, conceptual equivalence, construct validation MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 4
Mongolian Morality in the East and the West:
Do Moral Values Change Through Acculturation?
Immigration is a life experience that produces different psychological changes in individuals mind. Studies have shown that when a person moves to a country of which shared norms are largely different than the socialized norms in the country of origin, the contradictions of the two cultures will likely cause mental distress (Bhugra, 2004; Stevens, Masgoret & Ward,
2007). For example, some values and virtues of the immigrants` culture may contain elements that are not supported or even considered as hostile in the host country. To overcome the culture shock and successfully adapt in the new society immigrants will need to consider integrating new values of their host culture through evaluating and reorganizing their cultural identity acquired in the country of origin (Kuczynski & Navara, 2006).
This study investigates to what extent the acculturation can shape a person`s moral mind in the context of immigration. Morality is regarded as relatively stable construct that is founded in early life (Skitka, 2010), and thus many psychological studies focus on examining the factors that influence moral development in childhood. For example, while social intuitionist approach places emphasis on the evolutionary and cultural characteristics one is born in (Haidt & Joseph,
2004), the cognitive development approach emphasizes the cognitive activities in justice reasoning (Kohlberg & Lickona, 1996), and the social cognitive approach highlights the importance of parental teachings in constructing the moral identity (Lapsley & Narvaez, 2004).
Although the disciplines provide different explanations how morality is constructed in childhood; there is limited research on whether the moral identity continues to mature or which of its components are prone to change through the effects of life experience such as immigration. MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 5
In the context of migration, acculturation is a necessary concept that goes along with rationally reorganizing experiences, rethinking of social identity and one`s values that may contradict with values in the receiving culture. The theoretical framework describes acculturation as the complex pattern of changes in norms, values, behaviours, attitudes that result from sustained contact between two distinct cultures at individual level (Berry, 2003; Berry & Sam,
1997).
Studies addressing acculturation effects on migrants` values report inconsistent results of change. For example, a cross-sectional study (Mesoudi, et. al, 2016) comparing social orientation and cognitive style of the first and second generation of Bangladeshis in the UK reported higher individualism and self-enhancement in the second generation. Similarly, a longitudinal study that measured value change of migrants from Russia to Finland for 19 month period using Schwartz`s
Cultural Value Inventory found that the importance of self transcendence and security values were increased among unemployed immigrants (Lonnqvist et. al, 2011). In another study examining the extent to which Hispanics in the US and in Latin American countries prioritize family relationships, found that endorsement of family value was the same for both groups
(Sabogal, 1987).
Overall, these results indicate that immigration experience does influence certain values to change, but some dimensions of the personal values stay less affected (Marin & Gamba,
2003). To analyse the question of whether moral values have the same cognition process as other values and can alter during the acculturation process it is important to understand the roots of the moral mind.
For decades, moral psychology had debates about whether reasoning or intuition comes first when we decide about right or wrong. According to social cognitive approach, the MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 6
development of a moral mind is a continuous learning process through the influence of parents and social environment; thus similarly to other values the moral thinking can be elaborated and modified in favour of adopting new standards (Turiel, 2006). Another influential theory that explains morality, its origin and cultural variation is the Moral Foundations Theory [MFT]. The theory states that morality is an automatic and intuitive judgment of behaviour and the role of the culture lies on how it shapes and constructs the moral foundations in early life. For example, when a child adopts a particular moral identity, it is because the local culture has set norms in a particular way (Haidt & Joseph, 2004; Haidt & Kesebir, 2010). Although the MFT places great emphasis on the intuitive nature of moral judgments, the theorists also point to the possibility that certain moral concerns, especially the universally accepted values can be more prone to change. For instance, some evidence was found that students’ moral judgments may broaden when they leave their liberal academic environment (Haidt, et al, 1993).
In terms of moral content, Haidt and colleagues propose five distinct patterns of psychological foundations as the basis of moral judgments. These foundations are: 1)
Harm/Care, care for and protect the vulnerable; 2) Fairness/Reciprocity, be fair and strive for social justice; 3) Ingroup/Loyalty, be loyal to your family, team and nation; 4)
Authority/Respect, respect authorities and traditions; 5) Purity/Sanctity, endorsement of chastity and control of desires. These five categories can be grouped into two broader categories: (1) individualizing foundations which regulate moral judgements about individual rights and welfare and (2) binding foundations that are associated with emphasizing proper social structures that bind people into roles and responsibilities (Graham, et al., 2011; Graham, et. al, 2012).
Studies addressing cross-cultural comparison of moral values found that people in
Western societies place less emphasis on Authority, Loyalty and Purity domains and higher MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 7
importance in individualizing domains than people in Asia (Graham, et al, 2011; Kim, Kang &
Yun, 2012). This finding was explained by the authors that many countries in the East are collectivistic oriented and their ideologies rely heavily on binding values to create rituals and religious institutions to strengthen the social bond between people. The endorsement of moral values differed not only between the societies but within the cultures depending on political ideology and gender effects. Graham and colleagues (2011) found that women were focused more on the values of care/harm than men.
Researches (Garvey & Ford, 2014; Haidt, et al, 1993) studying the intuitive and rational nature of the five moral foundations revealed that low rational and high intuitive characteristic applies to binding foundations but the opposite is true for the individualizing moral foundations.
In other words, the endorsement of binding morals is rather emotionally driven; whereas the endorsement of individualizing values can be altered with rational thought and learning processes.
Acculturation is described as a culture learning process that requires reinterpretation of one`s self identity and rethinking of previous experiences (Ward, 1996; Ward & Kagitcibasi,
2010). Based on the insights from acculturation and moral psychology, it is plausible to predict that when a person immigrates from an Eastern society to a Western culture the importance of individualizing morals increase along with successful adaptation. In relation to this, changes in one`s moral judgements can be seen as acculturation outcome. Despite the effects of environmental change, findings of acculturation studies suggest that other contextual factors play important role in the way and the degree to which immigrants adapt to the new society; therefore the migrants differ greatly in the level of acculturation outcome. MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 8
For example, Berry (Berry & Kalin, 1995) found that the extent of acculturation depended on the strategies the migrant adopts to deal with the two cultures such as: integration, assimilation, separation or marginalization.
Additionally, other studies pointed to the importance of examining moderating variables such as personality, language knowledge, education, religion, years of residence, friendship network and social interaction with locals as predictors of the acculturation outcome at individual level (van Tubergen, 2004; Galchenko, 2006). For instance, a study investigating the extend of acculturation patterns among Russian immigrants living in Western European countries, found that Russians in France were better integrated to the French culture and had less identity conflict than those living in Germany and Netherlands. The result was explained by the differences of how much support the migrants received from their ethnic community
(Galchenko, 2006).
Furthermore, a cross-national data analysis investigating the question of religious acculturation, found that the religious commitment of immigrants differed by similarity in religious denomination in the country of origin, education level (higher level was associated with less religiosity) and employment (unemployed immigrants were more religious) (van Tubergen,
2004). Since religion plays an important role in the formation of moral principles, shifting religious denomination or becoming more secular could also go along with revisions of the traditional moral standards.
In the present study, I am interested to investigate whether moral principles change during the acculturation process when Mongolians immigrate to a Western society. The focus will be on examining the endorsement of moral values in migrant and non-migrant Mongolian populations and the conditions that may affect these variations to occur. Due to cross-sectional MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 9
design of the study, only the existence of differences can be observed. The role of immigration experience will be indirectly examined by analyzing the acculturation conditions that help explain this change.
Understanding the moral beliefs of migrants can be important not only in shaping the immigration policies but in addressing the employee satisfaction in organizations with ethnically diversified workforce. Research has shown that companies are willing to hire employees from different countries because social diversity enhances creativity through offering new ways of perspectives and leads to better decision making (Kaur, 2014). However the radically different worldviews in groups can also cause discomfort, lack of trust, greater perceived interpersonal conflict that may result in decision to leave the company, the community (Graham, et al, 2009;
Motyl, et. al, 2013). To put it another way, people arguing on the question of right or wrong often sees actions of other as ethically intolerable, thus the moral conflicts can be difficult in compromise and can be extremely detrimental to the team functioning.
Hence, companies must address the cross-cultural perceptions of moral and immoral behaviour to decrease the conflicts at work and maximize the employee-organization value fit
(Koleva, Beall & Graham, 2015). An example of such analysis was made in whistle blowing situation. Research has shown that employees with higher concern for loyalty and authority values were more willing to commit unethical behaviour for the sake of benefitting the organization. The authors suggest that placing emphasis on the fairness and equality values in workplace could be an effective strategy to prevent such unethical behaviour (Waytz, et. al,
2013).
On the other hand, by understanding the role of contextual factors that may broaden or reshape the moral principles, organizations can stimulate and support the expatriate employees` MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 10
adjustment to the new cultural norms, and create proactive environment that helps to build tolerance and acceptance in the workplace.
This type of study can also be important for those counsellors’, who are willing to help the immigrant families with problems of parent-child conflict. Through socializing influences of peers, immigrant youth may acculturate quicker that their parents (Bornstein & Bohr, 2011). As a result of contradicting traditional and modern values in the family, the immigrant youth likely to have identity conflicts and to rebel against parental expectations on certain behaviours and ideologies (Phinney, 2003). In order to effectively deal with oppositions of moral judgments in the family, both parents and children need to decide what aspects of their belief system should be adjusted to what degree and what aspects should be maintained.
Studying particularly Mongolian immigrants has additional benefits. Since the declaration of democratic society in 1992, many Mongolians left their country to seek a better life in Western societies. However, a recent trend in employment has shown that due to government efforts to encourage remigration, considerable amount of skilled workforce has returned from abroad (Enkh-erdene, 2010). According to observations from human resources professionals, workplace interpersonal conflicts have dramatically increased after hiring repatriates. Most of these conflicts were related to ethical conduct and hierarchy in work settings between local staff and returnees (D. Saruul, 2013). Despite that repatriated were born and raised in Mongolia many did not accept the traditional norms.
The traditional norms in Mongolia are similar to those collectivistic type of values in other Eastern countries (Tsetsenbileg, 2002). For example, Mongolians have deep rooted values in respecting nature and the elders. The role of men and women are still separate in many aspects including responsibilities and decision making; customs related to these values are strongly kept MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 11
in rural areas (Uvsh, 2008). In the 1920s, the political transition of becoming communist country brought new aspects in cultural value orientations. Values such as collective ownership, strict rules and hierarchy in the organizations, loyalty and dedication to the authority became important features of moral teachings (Neupert & Goldstein, 1994).
Having educated and worked in Western cultures where the concept of welfare, justice and right system is different than the virtues in Mongolia, it may well be that these repatriates have internalized new moral values that contradicts with local norms. Thus, studying their moral psychology could be a first step to help the repatriates and locals to decrease the workplace conflicts.
Likewise in other countries, the globalization and international mobility is weakening the importance of traditional values among youth in Mongolia (Tsetsenbileg, 2002; Welzel, 2013).
With the newly acquired skills and experience from abroad, repatriates are seen as having high potential to work in decision making roles. In this regards, re-migrants with differing worldviews play important role in fostering the changes in organizational and societal culture. Therefore, studying the Mongolians moral characteristics becomes important as the inflow of return migration can be further expected.
On the basis of the link between acculturation and moral values, this study predicted that:
H1: Mongolian migrants living in the Western society put higher importance on
Harm/Care and Fairness values than non-migrants living in Mongolia
H2: The moral value differences within the migrants group can be explained by the length of stay in the host country, language proficiency, education level and the degree of social interaction with locals.
MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 12
Method
Participants and procedure
The questionnaire administered on Qualtrics was distributed online through social media channels as well as to Facebook groups that included a large population of immigrant
Mongolians. Respondents voluntarily filled the survey but had chance to participate in lucky draw to win a small prize if they wanted. All read general information about the study and had option to skip the question if they did not want to answer.
Out of 406 completed questionnaires 30 did not meet the requirements such as either did not agree with the informed consent, aged below 18 or did not take the survey seriously
(according to their answers to the “catch items”). From the remaining 376 respondents, further selection was made to distinguish the migrant and non migrant groups according to their country of residence. The non-migrants sample consisted of 160 Mongolian nationals; respectively those who stayed in their home country and never lived abroad. This sample included 50 men and 110 women aged from 18 to 56 years (Mage = 25.2, SD = 7.05).
For the migrants` sample, those were selected who reported living in Western European countries. Those were 39 people in Germany (Mage = 32.9, SD = 7.2), 25 in Sweden (Mage =
34.1, SD = 8.3) and 27 in Austria (Mage = 28.2, SD = 6.9). The proportion of men and women in the migrants sample were identical to the non migrants` sample, consisting of approximately
30% of men and 70% of women. Other participants such as migrants living in countries in Asia were dropped out from the analysis due to the irrelevancy to this study and countries that had less than 10 respondents were excluded as well.
In addition to age and gender, other background information collected in the study was the participants` education, parents` education level, political orientation and the degree of MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 13
spirituality (For the descriptive statistics of the education distribution, see Table B5). The political orientation was measured by self assessment (Where would you place yourself in the continuum of political ideologies?) on the continuum ranging from 0 = left-wing through 50 = neutral to 100 = right-wing. 60% of the participants refused to answer to this question; thus this variable was not included in the analysis.
Materials
The questionnaire used in this study was constructed of two existing scales and demographics (Appendix A).
Moral values. The assessment of the moral values was conducted using the modified version of the Moral Foundations Questionnaire [MFQ] (Graham, et, al. 2008). The original scale consists of 30 items that measures the degree to which people endorse five moral foundations (Harm/Care, Fairness, Loyalty, Authority, Purity). The first set of 15 questions measure attitudes about what factors matter when making decisions about right or wrong (e.g.,
Whether or not some people were treated differently than others). The second set of 15 questions measure attitudes about actual moral judgments (e.g., When the government makes laws, the number one principle should be ensuring that everyone is treated fairly). All the items are rated on a 6 point scale ranging from 0 = not at all relevant/strongly disagree to 5 = extremely relevant/strongly agree.
Because the study was designed to gather data from Mongolians using scales developed in English context; cross-cultural validation of the measuring instrument was important to the study. The procedure of this validation included the following steps: translation of the questionnaire, pretest, data collection and psychometric validation of the MFQ. The modification MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 14
of the questionnaire was the result of this validation. In the below, each section is explained separately.
Translation. Four bilinguals were engaged in the translation process with the objective to achieve semantic equivalence. After the literal translation of the questionnaire, back-translation from Mongolian to English was conducted by a second bilingual and the English-Mongolian translation was revised. This version was distributed to two another bilingual who checked and evaluated the accuracy of the translation independently. Although the bilinguals were not translation practitioners they were scholars in psychology and philosophy studies. At a revision meeting, the committee then discussed the evaluation of the items and agreed on a final version.
In sum, the coders had agreement on 17 item translations out of 30, and the remaining 13 items
(44% of the content) was revised multiple times until they reached agreement on 24 items (80% of the content).
Pretest. Pretest was conducted to identify further problems in the instrument using non- experts judgements. The focus group consisted of 32 respondents (18 men and 14 women, Mage
= 33.6, SD = 7.6), who filled out the full MFQ and gave feedback on the wordings as well as the structure of the items in the survey. The pretest revealed poor psychometric properties of the five foundations with internal consistencies ranging from α = .35 to .54 (Harm/Care α = .35, Fairness
α = .40, Loyalty α = .54, Authority α = .39, Purity α = .52). Based on the discussions with respondents, some items were rephrased and structural shortcomings such as confusion from the positive and negative worded questions were fixed by re-organizing the order of the items
(Colosi, 2005).
Psychometric validation of the MFQ. In order to assess the construct validity by statistical procedures, factor analysis was conducted using SPSS 20 program. The overall sample MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 15
of 376 participants (Mage = 29.5, SD = 8.6, 110 men and 266 women) was used for this analysis.
To compare the factor structures with the American model, sample data from respondents living in the US who completed the MFQ through www.yourmorals.org was obtained from Jesse
Graham (N = 498, men = 320, women = 178, Mage = 42). The following analyses were conducted in both samples separately and the results were compared.
At first, principal axis factoring with direct oblimin rotation was run (Costello &
Osborne, 2005). The data was screened for outliers and the sampling adequacy was confirmed
(American KMO = .899, Mongolian KMO = .818, p < .001). The analysis in the American data yielded clear two-factor solution; binding (Purity, Authority, Loyalty) and individualizing
(Harm/Care, Fairness) foundations (Table B1). The internal consistencies for the five subscales ranged from α = 0.67 to 0.85, consistent with results in the original study (Graham, et. al, 2011).
The results of the same analysis in the Mongolian data were different. A total of nine factors were extracted with eigenvalues greater than one but factor loadings indicated that four or five reasonable underlying dimensions may exist. Out of 30 items 12 had a low proportion of variance explained by the factors (extraction = < .30), and the correlations between the subscale items was weak (Harm α = .41, Fairness α = .49, Loyalty α = .37, Authority α = .46, Purity α =
.40).
Since the purpose of the factor analysis was to check whether factor structure similar to the original model can be obtained, several rounds of analysis and inter-item correlation were done by forcing the number of factors to extract (two for validating the individualizing and binding categories, and five for validating the original foundations of MFT. Because the nature of the questions was different for relevance and judgement items (abstract and concrete), factor analysis was also conducted across these sub-groups of items. Three observations were made MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 16
from this analysis concerning the Mongolian data: (1) The relevance items of each moral foundation had higher internal consistency (Harm/Care α = .49, Fairness α = .68, Loyalty α =
.57, Authority α = .49, Purity α = .38) than the judgement items (Harm/Care α = .31, Fairness
α = .27, Loyalty α = .22, Authority α = .40, Purity α = .19). It is worth to note here, that relevance items all preceded the judgement items, thus this could also be resulted from impact of the order of questions; (2) The two factor model (distinction between the individualizing and binding items) were better fit than the five factor model, but this was only applicable to the relevance items (χ2 (76, N= 372) = 302.623, p < .001, NFI = .83, CFI = .87, RMSEA = .090) and not to the judgement items (χ2 (76, N = 372) = 94.699, p < .001, NFI = .78, CFI = .94,
RMSEA = .026); (3) Loyalty items correlated both with Fairness or Authority items (Table B2).
Based on this analysis, only the relevance items that were clearly loading on two factors were assembled and used in this study. Although the results indicated that for Mongolians the meaning of loyalty could overlap with being fair, Loyalty items were excluded to avoid the ambiguity in interpretation of scales. One item from the Individualizing subscale (Whether or not someone cared for someone weak or vulnerable) and one from Binding subscale (Whether or not someone did something disgusting) that had low correlation with other items were dropped out to enhance the internal consistency. Thus the final scale consisted of 10 items loading on two factors; five representing Individualizing (α = .67) and another five representing the Binding scales (α = .69) (The description of the final scales is shown in Table B3).
Predictors of acculturation in the migrants sample. In order to examine the morality differences in relation with other contextual factors, years of stay in the host country, language proficiency and the degree of social interaction with locals were analysed as predicting variables.
The degree of social interaction was examined by three questions derived from Galchenkos` MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 17
(2006) study: How often do you use the language of your residing country? How often do you socialize with locals? How often do you gather information about what is happening in the country of your residence? (α = .71). The response alternatives were never, once a year, 2 - 3 times a year, once a month, 2 - 3 times a month, 2 - 3 times a week, daily.
The knowledge of the host country language was assessed based on self reports on the five level language proficiency scale (Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages, 2016) The response choices were: I do not speak any, A2 = I can say and understand a few things, B1 = I can make simple sentences and can understand the main points of a conversation but need much more vocabulary, C1 = I speak and understand well but still make mistakes and fail to make myself understood occasionally, C2 = I speak and understand completely fluently).
Results
H1: Mean differences on moral value scores
Multilevel way ANOVA was conducted with country as independent variable and individualizing and binding foundations as dependent variable. The results revealed that non migrants (M = 2.55, SD = 0.94) endorsed binding concerns slightly higher than migrants in
Austria (M = 1.96, SD = 0.99) only. This difference was statistically significant at the p = .003 level (F(1, 249) = 11.467, η2 = .035). No statistical difference was found between other group means in binding as well as in individualizing scores.
Post hoc statistical power analysis was conducted using G power. The power for this significant interaction was 89%. Assuming that non-significant results could be due to small sample size in other migrant groups (N Germany = 39, N Sweden = 25), power analyses (set at
0.80 and α = 05) was conducted on online software (HyLown Consulting, 2016). The analysis MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 18
indicated that another 13 participants from Germany and 43 participants from Sweden would be needed in order to detect group differences to reach at the p = .05.
In the next, the demographic variables as predictors of moral values were examined through linear regression analyses. Age (F(1,247) = 1.157, p = .283, R² = .005) and education
(using dummy variables) (F(1,247) = .149, p = .669, R² = .001) had no effect. The degree of spiritual beliefs predicted the endorsement of binding values for men only (F(1,68) = 4.200, p =
.044, R² = .058). Further analysis showed that migrants with less spiritual beliefs valued individualizing concerns higher than non-migrants but the significant result was applicable only to women in this group (F(1,61) = 4.413, p = .040, R² = .067). The low effect size (less than
10%) of these results indicated that these variables cannot be accounted as valuable predictor.
To analyse gender differences, the mean scores of men and women were compared using one way ANOVA. The findings indicated that Mongolian women (M = 4.12, SD = 0.84) valued the individual focused concerns higher than men (M = 3.56, SD = 1.06, F(1, 249) = 19.33, p <
.001, η2 = .150) and the results were robust across the groups (Table B4).
H2: Other contextual factors as predictors of migrants` morality
The second hypothesis stated that mean scores in the migrants group can be explained by the length of stay in the host country, language proficiency and the degree of social interaction with locals. The results indicated that years of stay in the host country predicted the scores on the individualizing values (F(1,87) = 6.043, p = .016, R² = .065). Yet, the effect size of this relationship was again trivial (6,5%).
To measure whether the level of language knowledge predicted the moral values, four dummy variables of language fluency (A1, B1, C1, C2) were created. Only two people indicated that they did not speak the language of the host country at all; thus they were combined with A1 MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 19
level speakers (Can say and understand a few things) which was taken as reference variable. The findings showed that participants with C2 level language fluency, scored higher on individualizing values than those with poor knowledge (β = .498, R² = .064, t = 2.093, p = .039) but this effect accounted for only 6% of the variance in moral values.
Similarly, multiple regression analysis was conducted to explore the interaction between the degree of social interaction and moral values by using dummy codes. No statistically significant results were found.
Discussion
The main purpose of this study was to examine the moral beliefs of Mongolian migrants compared to non migrants. It was argued that the culture in which migrants live will influence the way they endorse moral values; thus those who migrate to Western European countries where individual welfare is highly emphasized such as Germany, Sweden and Austria, will put higher importance on individualizing norms. It was found that compared to non-migrants, migrants living in Austria were less concerned about binding values but the endorsement of individualizing values did not differ between the groups. However, caution must be applied in interpreting these results as the sample size in this study was not sufficient to represent the migrants` population in the respective three countries.
The Mongolian government strives to encourage the return migration and utilize the skills and knowledge of repatriates for the development of the country. Knowing and understanding the psychological characteristics of migrants might help the organizations to deal with workplace conflicts arising from different worldviews. An area of future research would be directly examining whether and how moral standards of repatriates impact the ethical standards in the workplace when they migrate back. Implications of such studies will be important to support the MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 20
organizations to proactively engage in providing environment in which repatriates can be productive.
The findings of gender differences that Mongolian women endorsed individualizing values higher than men were partly consistent with other study results (Graham, et al, 2011,
Gilligan, 1977) that found that women express higher concern for harm/care and fairness issues.
This result contributes to not only acknowledging the value differences between men and women but also understanding their goals and motivations which can be used for improving organizational efficiency. To enhance work performance, it is important that people are placed in jobs where their personal values fit with the agenda of the role (Koleva, Beall & Graham, 2015;
Merchant, 2012). Based on the findings of the current study, men who are working on human resources or customer service role can be advocated to consider the individual rights and welfare issues to increase their caring and supporting behaviour that will have positive influence on work success. Future studies can focus on directly examining the effects of moral values on work performance and leadership style of men and women.
The next hypothesis investigated whether there was a relationship between moral values and other contextual factors such as language fluency, immigration length, education and social contacts in Mongolian migrants` population. Contrary to expectations, the acculturation aspects examined in this study did not contribute in explaining the moral judgments. The reasons behind this result could be related to several limitations of this study that are discussed below.
Limitations and methodological suggestions for future studies
Perhaps the main weakness is the lack of adequate sample size that may have caused measurement errors in the data analysis. There is likely to be a degree of self-selection bias as well. For example, the people who participated in the online questionnaire were the ones with MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 21
access to the Internet and those without access were not included in the sample. These issues limit the ability to generalize the findings of the study to a wider population. In the future, to gather a representative data from different migrant groups, researchers must consider collaborating with ethnic organizations that represent the migrant communities in the host countries. These organizations could provide a better access to reach the desired population online and offline as well as help promoting the importance of such studies to achieve high response rate. For further studies to fully represent the population in Mongolia it is also crucial to involve those people who do not have internet access and with different socioeconomic status.
Another limitation is that the construct validation of the MFQ raised serious issues of applying the method in the Mongolian context. Unlike the studies which cross-culturally validated the scale through non English measures and found support for the five factor model
(Kim, et. al, 2012; Bowman, 2010; Nilsson & Erlandsson, 2015; Zang & Li, 2015; Yilmaz, et. al
2016) the model was not fully compatible in the Mongolian context. The reasons of poor validation could be related to different issues such as the complexity of the questions, translation errors or potential difference in the conceptualization of morality (Van de Vijver & Leung,1997).
During the translation process, the complexity of the statements became noticeable because the committee had several disagreements in choosing words in Mongolian which accurately represented the original meaning. For example, the word chastity was a challenge not only in translation but also in reaching a mutual understanding what it meant. These experiences may contribute for the improvement of the MFQ as a measurement tool of morality that can be easily applied cross-culturally.
On the other hand, the problems of translation may have caused less error if the committee aimed to achieve content equivalence instead of semantic equivalence. Content MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 22
equivalence means opening the possibility of adding new items to capture the culture-specific aspects of the construct (Harkness & Schoua–Glusberg, 2003; Willgerodt, Kataoka-Yahiro, Kim
& Ceria, 2005). This way the item reduction during subsequent validation tests would have suffered less from low internal consistency of the scales. To detect relevant items, future study could begin with asking Mongolians to generate moral concerns and identify those which overlap with the MFQ items. This could result in constructing a new measurement tool that needs to be further validated with other measures of moral beliefs and norms in. To overcome translation issues, researchers should also consider involving professional translators who are familiar with the Western ideologies as well as bilinguals whose first language is English (Van de Vijver & Leung, 1997).
It is also important to note that this analysis was based on cross-sectional data, which means the comparison of the two groups rests on the assumption that non migrants` values reflect the migrants` values before migration. This assumption may not be accurate as there is a possibility that migrants are generally those people in the population who place less importance on authoritarian values and high importance on individual welfare. The findings presented here therefore cannot provide a direct assessment of the value change.
To fully understand the dynamics of moral mind and establish a causal or developmental order of influences further researchers must conduct longitudinal studies with qualitative approach. Studies must also consider including other moderating and mediating variables such as acculturation strategies, immigrants socio-economic status, parental SES, support from ethnic community, motivations for migration, family status, spouse influence in bicultural families, perceived discrimination and the work environment.
MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 23
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Appendix A
Moral Foundations Questionnaire (Haidt, Graham & Nosek, 2008)
Part 1. When you decide whether something is right or wrong, to what extent are the following considerations relevant to your thinking? Please rate each statement using this scale:
Not at all relevant Extremely relevant
(This consideration has (This is one of the most
nothing to do with my important factors when I
judgments of right and judge right and wrong)
wrong)
0 1 2 3 4 5
1.1. Whether or not someone suffered emotionally
1.2. Whether or not some people were treated differently than others
1.3. Whether or not someone’s action showed love for his or her country
1.4. Whether or not someone showed a lack of respect for authority
1.5. Whether or not someone violated standards of purity and decency
1.6. Whether or not someone was good at math
1.7. Whether or not someone cared for someone weak or vulnerable
1.8. Whether or not someone acted unfairly
1.9. Whether or not someone did something to betray his or her group
1.10. Whether or not someone conformed to the traditions of society
1.11. Whether or not someone did something disgusting
1.12. Whether or not someone was cruel
1.13. Whether or not someone was denied his or her right MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 31
1.14. Whether or not someone showed a lack of loyalty
1.15. Whether or not an action caused chaos or disorder
1.16. Whether or not someone acted in a way that God would approve of
Part 2. Please read the following sentences and indicate your agreement or disagreement:
Strongly Strongly
disagree agree
0 1 2 3 4 5
2.1. Compassion for those who are suffering is the most crucial virtue.
2.2. When the government makes laws, the number one principle should be ensuring that
everyone is treated fairly.
2.3. I am proud of my country’s history.
2.4. Respect for authority is something all children need to learn.
2.5. People should not do things that are disgusting, even if no one is harmed.
2.6. It is better to do bad than to do good.
2.7. One of the worst things a person could do is hurt a defenseless animal.
2.8. Justice is the most important requirement for a society.
2.9. People should be loyal to their family members, even when they have done something
wrong.
2.10. Men and women each have different roles to play in society.
2.11. I would call some acts wrong on the grounds that they are unnatural.
2.12. It can never be right to kill a human being. MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 32
2.13. I think it’s morally wrong that rich children inherit a lot of money while poor children
inherit nothing.
2.14. It is more important to be a team player than to express oneself.
2.15. If I were a soldier and disagreed with my commanding officer’s orders, I would obey
anyway because that is my duty.
2.16. Chastity is an important and valuable virtue.
Part 3. Demographics
3.1. What is your gender: [ ] Male [ ] Female
3.2. What is your current age? ______
3.3. What is your highest level completed education?
[ ] Secondary school not completed
[ ] Secondary school completed
[ ] High school completed
[ ] College/University undergraduate degree
[ ] University post graduate degree
3.4. What is the highest level completed education of your father?
[ ] Secondary school not completed
[ ] Secondary school completed
[ ] High school completed
[ ] College/University undergraduate degree
[ ] University post graduate degree
3.5. What is the highest level completed education of your mother?
[ ] Secondary school not completed MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 33
[ ] Secondary school completed
[ ] High school completed
[ ] College/University undergraduate degree
[ ] University post graduate degree
3.6. Where would you place yourself in the following continuum:
I am non-spiritual ______I am very spiritual
3.7. Where would you place yourself in the continuum of political ideologies:
Left-wing ______Right-wing
3.8. Have you ever lived in a foreign country for more than one year? [ ] Yes [ ] No
3.9. Which country do you currently live in?
[ ] Mongolia
[ ] Other: (specify) ______
3.10. How well do you speak the language of your residing country?
[ ] I speak and understand completely fluently.
[ ] I speak and understand well but still make mistakes and fail to make myself
understood occasionally.
[ ] I can make simple sentences and can understand the main points of a conversation
but need much more vocabulary.
[ ] I can say and understand a few things.
[ ] I do not speak any.
3.11. Please answer the following questions according to how often do you engage in the
following activities.
Never 2 – 3 times Once a 2 – 3 times Once a 2 – 3 times Daily basis MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 34
/year month /month week /week
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
[ ] How often do you speak the language of your residing country?
[ ] How often do you socialize with locals?
[ ] How often do you gather information about what is happening in the country of your residence?
MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 35
Appendix B
Table B 1. Factor matrix for MFQ based on a principal axis analysis (American data from www.yourmorals.org , N = 498)
Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Purity_Rel2_DISG .745 Loyalty_Rel3_LOYA .738 Authority_Rel2_TRAD .734 Authority_Judg3_SOLD .703 Purity_Judg1_HARM .672 .375 Purity_Rel3_GOD .663 Purity_Judg2_UNNA .652 .310 Purity_Judg3_CHAS .650 Authority_Rel1_RESP .641 Purity_Rel1_DECE .584 Loyalty_Rel1_LOVE .567 -.363 -.468 .311 Loyalty_Rel2_BETR .554 Authority_Judg2_SEXR .517 Loyalty_Judg2_FAMI .500 Authority_Rel3_CHAOS .499 Loyalty_Judg1_HIST .499 Authority_Judg1_KIDR .474 Loyalty_Judg3_TEAM .433 Fairness_Rel1_UNFA .660 Harm_care_Judg3_KILL .649 Harm_Care_Rel2_WEAK .617 -.324 Harm_Care_Rel3_CRUE .613 Harm_Care_Rel1_EMOT .592 Fairness_Rel2_TREAT .574 Fairness_Judg2_JUST .528 Fairness_Rel3_RIGHT .519 .309 Fairness_Judg3_RICH .433 Harm_Care_Judg1_COMP .394 Harm_Care_Judg2_ANIM .367 Fairness_Judg1_FAIR .300 Note: Scale: 0= strongly disagree, to 5= strongly agree. Principal axis analysis, Direct oblimin rotation, loadings less than 0.30 not shown
MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 36
Table B 2. Factor matrix for Mongolian MFQ (relevant items only) based on a principal axis analysis (N= 376)
Factor 1 2 3 4 someone did something disgusting .779 someone was cruel .721 someone was denied his or her rights .679 someone cared for someone weak or .640 vulnerable someone showed a lack of loyalty .586 someone did something to betray his .529 or her group someone acted unfairly .500 .411 someone violated standards of purity .688 and decency someone's action showed love for his .660 or her country someone conformed to the traditions .610 of society someone showed a lack of respect for .409 authority an action caused chaos or disorder .312 some people were treated differently .834 than others someone suffered emotionally .614 someone acted in a way that God -.443 would approve of Note: Scale: 0= strongly disagree, to 5= strongly agree. Principal axis analysis, Direct oblimin rotation, loadings less than 0.30 not shown
MONGOLIAN MORALITY IN THE EAST AND THE WEST 37
Table B 3. Items used for measuring the moral values
Individualizing = .67 Binding = .69 someone acted unfairly someone violated standards of purity and decency someone was cruel someone acted in a way that God would approve of someone was denied his or her rights someone conformed to the traditions of society someone cared for someone weak or someone showed a lack of respect for authority vulnerable someone suffered emotionally an action caused chaos or disorder
Table B 4. Descriptive statistics of the mean scores by groups
Individualizing Binding N of items M SD M SD Austria 1 3.79 1.13 1.96 0.99 Germany 1 4.17 6.83 2.11 1 Sweden 1 3.55 1.54 2.25 0.97 Mongolia 1 4 0.83 2.54 0.93
Men 3 3.56 1.07 2.36 1.01 Women 3 4.12 0.846 2.4 0.962 p < .05
Table B 5. Descriptive statistics of the education distribution
Migrant Migrants Migrants Non in in in migrants Austria Germany Sweden All High school competed 38 5 7 9 59 24%
Undergraduate degree 104 16 20 14 154 62%
Post-graduate degree 17 6 11 2 36 14%
159 27 38 25 249 100%