Volume 34, Number 4 ■ October, 2019 Center for the Study of the First Americans Department of Anthropology Texas A&M University 4352 TAMU College Station, TX 77843-4352 www.centerfirstamericans.com

A Deadly Dance Paleoamerican hunters harass an enraged giant ground sloth in this drama told by footprints found at White Sands National Monument in New . Research team leader Matthew Bennett of Bourne­mouth University, U.K., dates the footprints to the terminal . Let your imagination determine the outcome of this encounter. See our lead story on page 1. Image: Alex McClelland, Bournemouth University

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City State Zip daytime phone (in case we have a question about your order) Volume 34, Number 4 Center for the Study of the First Americans Department of Anthropology October, 2019 Texas A&M University, 4352 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-4352 ISSN 8755-6898

World Wide Web site http://centerfirstamericans.com and http://anthropology.tamu.edu Ghost Fossils 5 Boat people 13,000 years ago left a lasting impression on British Columbia Duncan McLaren's team, digging at the water's edge on Calvert Island, finds the oldest footprints in . 12 A steeped in Mazama ash is revisited by Tom Connolly Once lauded as the site of the earliest occupation in , Cave cedes that distinction to Paisley , but it's still home to the oldest footwear found in the Americas. 16 This site in South Carolina basks in superlatives It's the queen of quarry-related sites, the southernmost excavated Human footprint superimposed upon a Clovis site in the Southeast, and giant sloth print at the Lake Otero site. the oldest radiocarbon-dated MATTHEW BENNETT MATTHEW site in North America. Who can blame Al Goodyear for boasting A Pleistocene Trackway and Possible just a bit about the Topper site? Kill Site at White Sands, New Mexico 10 Remembering Dennis Stanford

side from pothunters, wind may be the most significant prehistoric site and water can be the archae­ to date at White Sands National Monument this evidence, especially for sloths, A ologist’s worst enemy, as natural (whsa) in New Mexico. is meager (MT 28-1, “Pre-Clovis forces blindly chew their way through While we suspect that the First butchered ground sloth in Ohio”). and destroy valuable evidence about Americans preyed on a wide variety of But at whsa, we have indirect but prehistoric lifeways. On the other hand, if big game, we have confirmed kill sites for compelling evidence that very early it weren’t for erosion, many of the world’s only seven general types: bison, camelids, may have hunted giant most important sites would never have horses, giant ground sloths, gomphotheres, ground sloths in New Mexico. This been found. That’s certainly true for what mammoths, and mastodons. Some of consists of a site where rare conditions 2 Volume 34 n Number 4

preserved over a hundred sloth tracks Tests continued into the 1950s. But the shoreline deposits of former Lake Otero, closely associated with a similar number fine, pale gypsum sands for which the located on the west side of Alkali Flats of human footprints. Numerous arc- White Sands National Monument was in the Tularosa Basin. Initially identified shaped indentations found among the named were hiding at least one much in 2007 after winds shifted the local tracks in multiple locations, caused by earlier suspected act of violence, likely sand dunes, it’s one of a number of the animal’s immense foreclaws pressing associated with a more primal human intriguing trackways discovered in into the sediments, suggest it violently need: day-to-day survival. whsa since 1932. whsa boasts the whirled around to face its tormentors The only known remaining evidence highest concentration of Ice Age human more than once. of this long-ago event is a multispecies and animal prints in the Americas—and animal trackway originally discovered it’s likely there are more to be found. Not an animal to be messed with by park naturalist David Bustos in the Some of the known trackways contain Though no sloth bones or stone tools have been found at the site, the team that reported on the trackway in the 5 May 2018 issue of Science Advances strongly suspect it represents a kill site. Why else would anyone get so close to a hulking monster with sharp, inches-long claws? It would be like taunting a combination of bison and tiger. The ground sloths of Pleistocene New Mexico weren’t the pokey little Zootopian grinners that The Mammoth Trumpet (ISSN 8755-6898) is published quarterly by the Center for the Study of the First Americans, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4352. Phone (979) 845-4046; fax (979) 845-4070; e-mail [email protected]. Periodical postage paid at College Station, TX 77843-4352 and at ad- ditional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to: Mammoth Trumpet Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University 4352 TAMU College Station, TX 77843-4352 Copyright © 2019 Center for the Study of the First Americans. Permission is hereby given to any non-profit or educational organization or institution toreproduce­ without cost any materials from the Mammoth Trumpet so long as they are then distributed at no more than actual cost. The Center further requests that notification of reproduction of materials under these conditions be sent to the Center. Address correspondence to the editor of Mammoth Trumpet, 2122 Scout Road, Lenoir, NC 28645. Michael R. Waters Director and General Editor e-mail: [email protected] Ted Goebel Associate Director and Editor, PaleoAmerica modern sloths have become. They e-mail: [email protected] measured 9–10 ft tall, and along with James M. Chandler Editor, Mammoth Trumpet the claws, one species had hides studded e-mail: [email protected] with bony formations called dermal Christel Cooper Office Manager e-mail: [email protected] ossicles. C & C Wordsmiths Layout and Design They clearly weren’t pushovers. Newman Printing Co.,Inc. Printing and mailing These huge, bulky herbivores were Web site: www.newmanprint.com possibly quite agile when angered and World Wide Web site http://centerfirstamericans.com well equipped to take care of themselves. The Center for the Study of the First Americans is a non-profit organization. Subscrip- Herbivory does not a meek mammal tion to the ­Mammoth Trumpet is by membership in the ­Center. make, as anyone who’s ever been chased by an angry bull can attest. Mammoth Trumpet, Statement of Our Policy Many years may pass between the time an important discovery is made and the acceptance of research results by the scientific community. To facilitate communication among all parties interested in staying An earthshaking discovery abreast of breaking news in First Americans studies, the Mammoth Trumpet, a science news magazine, whsa, home to Alamogordo, is best provides a forum for reporting and discussing new and potentially controversial information important to known as a site for earthshaking activity understanding the peopling of the Americas. We encourage submission of articles to the Managing Editor in the 1940s, when the U.S. government and letters to the Editor. Views published in the Mammoth Trumpet are the views of contributors, and do not reflect the views of the editor or Center personnel. tested nuclear weapons there in hopes –Michael R. Waters, Director of putting a final end to World War II. October n 2019 3

hundreds of fossilized made a discovery that could tracks. Unfortunately, have earthshaking effects in - these “ghost fossils” (as - First Americans studies. Upon whsa researchers call excavating the barely visible them) are fragile and sloth prints, Bennett realized the can erode quickly if not trackway also included unshod stabilized. human footprints, both inside and “The work at White outside the giant sloth tracks. Sands goes back a while,” They were clearly laid down at the says Matthew Bennett of same time. Repeatedly, when the Bournemouth University human and sloth tracks intersect, in the U.K., the research the sloth tracks abruptly turn in a leader of the team that different direction and the human excavated and studied the footprints follow. That the sloth Lake Otero trackway. “I suddenly whirled around and was first approached in stood its ground multiple times is the summer of 2016 and unmistakable. attended a workshop It’s hard to miss the impli­ in January 2017 with a cations that a band of human number of colleagues. hunters tried to run a now- The view of the tracks extinct megaherbivore to ground and their dating was sometime in the late Pleistocene. mixed at this meeting, Whether they killed it remains but I was impressed by unknown. their potential and the The trackway including the dedication of the park staff, especially David Map of the sloth/human trackway Bustos.” at the Lake Otero site, showing the The Lake Otero hundreds of excavated footprints, track­way lies adjacent the sloth’s tortuous path after the to an escarpment rising human tracks joined the trackway, 5 m above a playa basin. and seven flailing circles. TOSET AL., SOME RIGHTS RESERVED; EXCLUSIVE LICENSEE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. DISTRIBUTED UN Most of the tracks are REPRINTEDFROM SCIENCE ADVANCES PPUBLISHED 25 APRIL SCI. 2018, ADV.4, EAAR7621 DOI:(2018) 10.1126/SCIADV.AAR7621. DAVID© BUS HTTP://CREATIVECOMMONS.ORG/LICENSES/BY-NC/4.0/ BY-NC) (CC 4.0 LICENSE NONCOMMERCIAL ATTRIBUTION COMMONS CREATIVE A DER visible only under certain moisture conditions, which may sloth/human interactions was already noteworthy for being be why they weren’t discovered sooner. Using excavation one of the largest concentrations of vertebrate footprints and various advanced methods, including geophysical and on the continent, and Bennett’s find has considerably aerial surveys, the researchers identified a wide variety enhanced its fame. The whsa trackway represents the of intact and recognizable animal prints, including ground world’s only known evidence for potential human predation sloth, mammoth, bison, dire wolf, from fossil tracks. Any , and possibly big cat; the vertebrate trackways are American lion and Smilodon both rare, and those indicating frequented the area. The tracks predation are almost Alkali flat were impressed into thin beds (Paleo Lake Otero) unheard of. But this of muds and sands with high Gypsum dunes trackway is unique, for gypsum and silica content, which the predators were us. hardened like concrete and were If the massive animal soon infilled and covered by the Study site fell that day, it would shifting dunes, which preserved have provided a small them for the ages. San Andres White Sands band of humans enough Mountains National Bennett made a commitment to Monument food for weeks if properly go back to the site, mostly to study ‡ preserved. The sloth’s the sloth tracks. “In April 2017 I did 020 hide, claws, and bones km just that,” he reports. “ I have been would also have served back five times since, and continue to work there, with the next them well as tools. trip planned for January 2019. It is an amazing place, and the track assemblages are second to none in the world.” Stepping out for the ages It was during that first visit in April 2017 that Bennett Remains like the Lake Otero trackway are rare because 4 Volume 34 n Number 4

it takes very specific neatly bracketed, covers millennia. This conditions to preserve includes the age range of the Clovis even one animal track culture, which dates as early as 11,050 for thousands of years, rcybp, or 13,000 calybp. It’s possible let alone hundreds. the tracks are pre-Clovis, though this But geology has laid is by no means certain. We do know for down enough pages certain that there were people in North of Earth’s history that America at least as early as 15,000 such trackways aren’t rcybp, so we can’t just ascribe the kill unknown, and some trackway to Clovis. Lithic finds known have become famous. for the area date to the Folsom era and The dinosaur tracks later, but by that time, the giant sloths at Dinosaur Valley were long gone. State Park near Glen A dance of death with a Research team leader formidable partner Bennet at whsa. The species of sloth involved was either

ALLPHOTOS: DAVID BUSTOS UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED the Harlan’s ground sloth, which stood Rose, Texas, formed about 100 million years ago during the about 3 m tall upright and has been described as resembling a Cretaceous era, are possibly America’s best known example. giant hamster, or the slimmer Shasta ground sloth. The latter Other examples include the human trackway in Laetoli, Africa, more closely resembled modern sloths, but on a much larger which proved that early Australopithecines were fully bipedal, scale. An adult Harlan’s sloth could easily weigh more than a and another multi-species Pleistocene trackway at Wally’s ton. The Shasta, a still-impressive one-quarter of that weight, Beach in . was almost the same length. Both species bore long, sharp While some of the trackways at whsa have been dated to claws on their forepaws. Given the size of the tracks at Lake as early as 30,000 rcybp, the Otero Otero, the sloth was Lake find is about half that age. The probably a Harlan’s. sediments beneath the tracks have Superimposed on yielded radio­carbon ages of about the sloth tracks were 15,560 rcybp, though Bennett and more than 10 human his colleagues caution that the tracks tracks made by were certainly made at some yet- multiple individuals of unknown point after that. “We actually indeterminate age and just say that the tracks are terminal sex. Clear impressions Pleistocene,” Bennett notes. “We date in the mud of the sloth’s via a form of biostratigraphy. The track- claw or “manus” as it forming window must be in the overlap spun around suddenly, in what the researchers

General view of a concentration of s call a “flailing circle,” excavated “ghost fossil” tracks (both suggest someone ­human and sloth) at the Lake Otero site. was following it, and

MATTHEW BENNETT MATTHEW it wasn’t happy about

Composite cast of giant sloth s that. This occurred seven and human footprints from the times in the series of Lake Otero site. sloth prints, and all seven instances are associated between the extinction of with human footprints 15.2– sloth and mammoth and the 29 cm long, comparable in colonization by humans.” size to the feet of modern For those worried that the humans. The smaller prints nuclear testing might have suggest it was a tribal affair: affected the local radiocarbon Women and children may record, Bennett says that’s not really relevant. “The dating have been involved in the chase, and concentrations of other we have is good and consistent. More to the point, our dating fossil footprints farther away, on the margin of the trackway, does not rely on C-14.” The ghost fossils must be at least 11,700 suggest a crowd was watching the hunt. years old, since we know from the fossil record that giant sloths It’s clear the sloth was familiar enough with human predation were locally extinct by then, so their potential age range, while continued on page 15 October n 2019 5

story of the Ice Age than we ever imagined. The change in ideology along with finding scientific evidence for the coastal hypothesis caught the attention of these media outlets.” McLaren has pursued multidisciplinary research since graduate school, when he focused on aspects of , geogra­ phy, biology, and Earth sciences. Today he works with the Hakai Institute, which conducts long-term scientific research at remote locations on the coastal mar­ gin of British Columbia. He explains, “I’ve been looking at the environmental histories of places, how areas of the coast were deglaciated, where different sea levels were at different times. I’m trying to find archaeological sites along old shorelines.” In short, his work is driven by looking at long-term histories of local habitations.

A peculiar environmental history team of archaeologists digging off the coast of Around 13,000 years ago, sea level was about 120–130 m lower Calvert Island in British Columbia in 2014 discovered a worldwide. McLaren’s team was working on an area on Cal­ single footprint pressed into clay. Further excavations vert Island that behaved eccentrically. The weight of glacial revealed 28 additional foot­ ice pushed down on the Earth’s prints. And what footprints! mantle, a phenomenon known They are believed to be the as isostatic depression, with the oldest human tracks ever result that sea level wasn’t 120 m found in North America. lower there, but pretty close to “We archaeologists get what it is today. As the ice melted, really excited about things global sea levels rose about 120 like stone tools, but it m. And so did Calvert Island. It re­ doesn’t strike the public in bounded. As McLaren describes the same way,” says Dun­ can McLaren, University s View across the beach at site of Victoria archaeologist EjTa-4 on Calvert Island. In the back- working with the Hakai In­ ground is Hecate Island.

stitute. “These footprints STAFFORD JIM really caught people’s imagina­ s Aerial photograph showing tions in a different way.” the location of the excavation The media storm came in two Calvert Clam unit with footprints. Imagery Island bed waves. First, news leaked out courtesy of the Hakai Institute. after the team found the initial Shell The shell-midden boundary is midden footprint. Then major news out­ based on information provided lets like and by Farid Rahemtulla. MEANY Scientific American contacted Excavation 4-by-2 m CHANNEL the team after their findings it, “The land rose up with the were published in PLOS One. water levels here.” “There’s a sort of mythology Farther inland, the opposite

Hecate F amongst the population in North I was happening; the terrain HAKAI PASSAGE T Island Z

H America about how people ar­ EjTa-4 U was depressed even further G lgm H rived here after the [Last S by overlying ice, which meant Calvert O Mainland Island U BC Glacial Maximum],” McLaren N the sea level there was about D explains. “That’s slowly chang­ 200 m higher than it is today. ing. The more we look at the “You get this discrepancy,” 0 100 05 coast, the more variable the m km McLaren tells us. “Closer to 6 Volume 34 n Number 4

the shore, sea level is up to 200 meters higher, but The team members didn’t think much about it because they offshore it’s 130 meters lower. And we are looking at had other projects going on. something in the middle called a ‘sea-level hinge.’ ” McLaren eventually sent one of Fedje’s That “something in the middle” was a large, protected samples to John Southon at the W. M. beach, which likely attracted maritime-adapted people Keck Carbon Cycle Accelerator for several millennia. Mass Spectrometry Laboratory The hinge feature is a boon for archaeologists investigat­ at UC Irvine, but it got lost in the ing the intertidal environment. At most sites on the coastal mail. Six months later, McLaren margin, archaeologists have to contend with the tide (MT sent off a second sample, which 30-4, “Looking for sites at the water’s edge”). McLaren Prince the lab dated to about 13,200 Rupert explains the difficulty: “Twice a day the tide comes in, calybp. McLaren remembered so you’re battling the water. I shy away from underwater Prince that this date belonged to the George archaeology. It’s expensive, you have to go deep, and footprint Fedje had uncovered on Calvert often you return with minimal results. So we’re targeting Island Calvert Island, beneath beach places like Calvert Island, where there’s a sea-level hinge. deposits in front of the Meay Kamloops We can access the ancient shoreline without having to dive. Channel I archaeology site. As far as we know, Calvert Island would have been an island Soon afterward, the Vancouver 13,000 years ago as well.” sample that McLaren had Victoria originally sent arrived in Lo, footprints! California, and the lab dated that sample Calvert Island lies just a few miles south of Triquet Island, to the same time. Radiocarbon ages on home to one of the oldest known North American settlements, wood samples, identified as lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), a 14,000-year-old site where archaeologists recently uncov­ taken from the surface and bottom of the track impressions ered fishhooks, stone tools, a hearth, and relics. “Information consistently dated to 13,320–12,630 rcybp. The team re­ on the early occupation at Triquet Island has not yet been turned in 2015 and 2016 to excavate a larger area where the published,” McLaren frankly footprint had been discovered admits. “We are still working and eventually found another 28 on verifying our initial results footprints. “We had to excavate there.” very carefully and slowly, which McLaren’s team was exca­ was hard since we had to race vating small units into beach the tide,” McLaren says. A total sediments on Calvert Island of 29 human footprints were re­ one day in 2014 when his col­ vealed in a 4-by-2-m area. Many league stumbled upon some­ more footprints were present, thing unusual. “My friend and but couldn’t be accurately mea­ colleague Darryl Fedje hit a sured, having been distorted by grayish brown clay—quite a over-trampling. different kind of sediment,” McLaren recalls, “He cleared Becoming a footprint sleuth up all that gravel and said, ‘Hey, The footprints are varied in it looks like there’s a footprint preservation. Some are quite at the bottom of this test.’ He distinct, others have toe-drag cleaned up the footprint with marks, which make them more his trowel, which essentially obscure,” “I didn’t know much meant removing all the black about footprints before this,” sandy gravel, but unfortunately McLaren admits, “and had to that also seemed to remove the do a lot of research. When I was writing this publication, I was View of the 4-by-2-m excavation on a beach resort in Mexico unit. The 2-by-2-m square at in winter. I was spending a lot center was dug in 2015 to of time just studying people’s Stratum XII. The 2-by-1-m units footprints on the beach.” Foot­ on either side of this were dug prints, he found, reveal more to Stratum VII in 2016. than people’s travel across the

JOANNE MCSPORRAN JOANNE landscape. They also give clues print. So I didn’t get a photo of it the first time. Darryl had taken to their mobility and the way they congregate in a particular a couple of samples of organic matter, then closed up the hole.” area. Studying footprints, he says, “really conjures up people’s October n 2019 7

cm 0 This was a place where people were hanging out a bit more.” Some famous footprint sites 10 I II are trackways, linear paths of consecutive 20 III 677–667 footprints. The assemblage of footprints 30 IV from Calvert Island, on the other hand, is 40 V 2843–2779 nonlinear; they likely represent foot traffic 50 VI 2753–2742 at a congregation site, where people conduct 2757–2764 X rock 60 12,849–12,751 IX VIII XI 9471–9439 80 rock 12,576–12,640

BASEPHOTO BY JOANNE MCSPORRAN 12,715–12,633 View of the east wall of the 4-by-2-m excavation 90 13,133–13,083 13,254–13,169 unit shown on page 6, showing strata and I Brown sand and pebbles VII Black sand with charcoal 13,169–13,095 13,317–13,241 II Dark gray shell midden with charcoal VIII Gray clay, lens 13,316–13,255 associated calibrated radiocarbon ages (calybp). III Dark gray silt with pebbles IX Black sand with pebbles, no charcoal Only dates on identified plant remains and IV/V Orangish gray gravel and sand X Brown clay, track surface with wood VI Brownish gray gravel with charcoal XI Gray clay with pebbles charcoal have been included. imaginations. You imagine these people moving through the their activities in an area centered upon a central attraction or landscape.” feature. McLaren knows of only three other instances of human Although McLaren’s team believe there may be more foot­ footprints dating to the Pleistocene/Holocene transition prints in the area, they elected to stop excavating because discovered in the Americas: human they couldn’t prevent waves tracks found on sandstone platforms How intertidal site EjTa-4 was formed from destroying exposed in the inter­tidal zone at the Pehuen sediments. It was better, Co site in Buenos Aires Province, Ar­ Glacial marine clay (XI) they decided, to defer fur­ A before 13,400 gentina; three footprints found at the ther investigating to a future site in , which dates scientist with a method for to 14,600 calybp (MT 33-3, Tom Paleosol develops (X) controlling the tide. Dillehay, the Clovis-First iconoclast”); B 13,300 and two human prints left in tuff at Help from all quarters, the Cuatrociénegas site in Mexico, Footprints impressed into including First Nations dated to 10,700 and 7200 calybp. An­ C clayey paleosol (X) McLaren boasts that the cient footprints are usually exposed in 13,300–13,000 project, from its inception, coastal areas by erosion, thus making has been collaborative in the Calvert Island footprints excep­ Sand and pebble wash (IX), nature. He describes the tional for their discovery far below D clays cap sand (VIII) nurturing environment at 12,850–12,750 the surface and, moreover, in an area the Hakai Institute and where researchers hoped to find ar­ University of Victoria: “We chaeological remains associated with High-tide pool creates have a close cohort of sci­ Ice Age sediments. E bell-shaped pit entists, some of whom are before 11,350–11.150 students. So we often work Fitting for on each other’s projects. The 29 footprints uncovered on Cal­ Sand washes, soil development, We have feedback loops. vert Island were made by at least and bioturbation Many people who worked three persons. Right and left feet are F 11,350–2950 in the field with us also con­ apparently those of two adults and a tributed to analyzing and child, possibly a nuclear family. The writing the article in PLOS footprint measurements correspond One.” Before the paper was to modern-day U.S. sizes of ju­ Rill erosion of softer sediments written, a preliminary ver­ G 2950–2800 nior size 8, women’s size 3, and men’s sion was presented at the size 7–8. May 2017 Prehistoric Hu­ All three sets of footprints were man Tracks conference at facing the same direction, indicat­ Sand and beach washes the University of Cologne ing travel in a northwest direction. H with redeposited charcoal and Neanderthal Museum and stone tools (VII) McLaren isn’t sure what to deduce 2850–2750 of . Archaeolo­ from this. “It was a mucky area they gists, ethnographers, and All dates calybp would have been in,”’ he tells us, “so I trackers who attended con­ imagine they were getting out of a boat at high tide and walking tributed insights and feedback to the project. towards the shoreline, moving from the beach into a drier area. Perhaps the most noteworthy contributions came not from

A ➥

rock B ➥

B C

A A, heel slip: Track #26 with an BOTH: JOANNE MCSPORRAN JOANNE BOTH: Footprints showing unsteady footing. 0 Retouched rough-grained quartzite5 spall tool found in elongated heel as a result of foot slipping forward while walking in the cm toe drag: Track #4 with discernible toe-drag marks. Stratum X. A, clayey substrate. B, oblique view; This track was later pedestaled and removed to the lab. B, platform view, PHOTO AND ILLUSTRATIONS: JOANNE MCSPORRAN

C, ventral view. DUNCAN MCLAREN DUNCAN Track #17 and digitally enhanced image of same feature using the DStretch Twig of lodgepole pine ( plugin for ImageJ. Note the toe impressions and arch, which indicate this is from the base of StratumPinus IX sediment, contorta which a right footprint. overlies the track surface. This wood was) sampleddated to 12,640–12,576 clay is the track calybpsurface. The (Stratum underlying X); under light that brown is gray clay (Stratum XI). October n 2019 9

inhabitants, which became invaluable in answering an important question: Were the footprints those of humans? Of the large mammals that populate the area today, only the hind paws of black bears and grizzly bears leave prints similar to human foot­ prints. “We’re very attuned to bear footprints. They have a more triangular shape. The heel falls more G in line with the middle and front parts of the foot,” McLaren says. Workers certainly had intimate knowledge of bears. “One of the people who worked F with us at the site was from the Wuikinuxv First E Nation,” McLaren remembers. “Five years before, he’d been mauled by a bear and severely injured.” To ensure worker safety, other field crew members had been trained to recognize bear footprints. Based on the clear arch and toe and heel impres­ C sions of the tracks found by McLaren’s team, he is certain they were the footprints of human feet.

Adding to a growing body of evidence Paleoenvironmental studies reveal that glacial refugia capable of supporting large mammals and D plants existed along the outer Pacific coast of Can­ ada and southeastern Alaska 20,000 to 13,000 years ago. What has been lacking is archaeological evi­ A dence for human occupation from the same period B and geographic region. The footprints discovered on Calvert Island are a solid link to an important

High intertidal pool near EjTa-4 and present-day features of the upper intertidal zone analogous to those described in the site formation processes for Strata IX–VI. A, upper intertidal bell-shaped pool; B, rill erosion caused by run-off; C, steeply eroded interrill; D, 20-cm scale; E, dunegrass on top of high- tide beach berm; F, driftwood rootball; G, western redcedar (Thuja plicata) forest. DUNCAN MCLAREN DUNCAN seasoned professionals but from local communities, a happy subset of First Americans, those who valued the ocean as a circumstance that British Columbia archaeologists prize. bountiful provider and a means of transportation. For McLaren, The local communities include members from two First Na­ they confirm that “people were using watercraft, and thriving tions groups, the First Nation and Wuikinuxv First and exploring coastal environments very early on.” Nation. McLaren notes that when conversing with some –Katy Dycus First Nations members, certain topics are unpopular—the hypothesized coastal-entry route of the First Americans, for How to contact the principal of this article: example, because it denies their belief in their supernatural Duncan McLaren origins. Hakai Institute, University of Victoria Members of the tribes were nevertheless eager to assist and Department of Anthropology involve themselves in all aspects of the project, from research Office: COR B336 design to publication. In fact, the publication in PLOS One Victoria, BC V8P 5C2 Canada was vetted by both First Nations. McLaren feels strongly that e-mail: [email protected] Native people have much to contribute. “There are First Na­ The Hakai Institute website ht t p:// h a k a i .o r g / tions members in BC,” he emphasizes, “who aren’t necessarily formally trained in archaeology but who have way more experi­ Suggested Readings ence than many M.A. students.” McLaren, D., et al. 2018 Terminal Pleistocene epoch human Especially helpful to McLaren’s team was the First Nations footprints from the Pacific coast of Canada.PLoS ONE 13(3): members’ intimate knowledge of the landscape and its wildlife e0193522. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193522 10 Volume 34 n Number 4

ennis stanford, Curator of North American Archae- can Southwest. Dennis became curator at 29 years old and built ology and Director of the Paleoindian Program at a strong program in Paleoindian archaeology through excavation, the ’s National Museum of collaborations, and the acquisition of many private collections. Natural History, died 24 April 2019, in Georgetown As curator, one of Dennis’s first official Smithsonian projects Hospital in , DC. In his final days he received many was the excavation of the Jones Miller site in Colorado. This huge heart-felt visits from his colleagues, family, and friends. Over his undertaking, funded by the National Geographic Society, involved long career, Dennis worked throughout North America, where he the excavation of a 200-m2 area of a Hell Gap (ca. 11,000 calybp) was best known for his work in Alaska and the American Plains. bison-kill site, in which over 300 butchered bison were recovered. His dissertation research in Alaska put him in direct contact with While the size of the excavation was remarkable compared to Eskimo groups, and these experiences seem to have shaped his many Paleoindian sites, it remains one of the most meticulous appreciation of human adaptive responses to the environment excavations ever conducted. Not common for the time, Dennis’s and his interest in experimental archaeology. Dennis’s extensive excavations included three-dimensional mapping, detailed site- knowledge of hunter-gatherers, lithic technology, and experimen- level aerial photography of each unit (early photogrammetry), and fine-mesh water screening and floatation of the matrix. It also in- cluded careful mapping and collection Remembering of microfauna, gastropods, pollen, and phytoliths, which allowed for detailed environmental reconstruction. Many of Dennis’s other projects in DENNIS J. STANFORD the 1970s and early 1980s involved carefully planned experiments which not only informed him and colleagues 1943‒2019 about the lethality and function of stone tools, but the specific technolo- gies and survival strategies used by early people in North America. With tal archaeology earned him the respect of colleagues around the colleague Bruce Bradley, Dennis conducted a series of experi- world. During his time as curator, he traveled to Central and South ments on projectile-point fracture patterns. These involved both America, Siberia, and Europe to examine collections and visit col- atlatl-thrown points and thrusted projectiles at both animals and leagues on their excavations. inanimate objects. While many of these studies were not pub- Dennis was born in Iowa and lived in New Mexico, before spend- lished, Dennis’s activities were mostly designed for his own edu- ing his formative years in Wyoming. His work cation, through which in archaeology started early, finding some of he became one of the his first artifacts at the age of 9. His teenage foremost experts in years in Wyoming cemented his career path understanding Paleo­ as he volunteered at the Union Pacific Mam- indian technologies, moth Site and attended the University of recognizing refurbished Wyoming where he and his older classmate artifacts, and interpret- George Frison studied anthropology under ing specific patterns Dr. William Mulloy. These experiences led to of projectile-point use his eventual enrollment in the Ph.D. program and manufacture. Any- in Anthropology at the University of New one who worked closely Mexico. Dennis completed his Ph.D. in 1972, with Dennis witnessed based on his work at the Walakpa site in both his near photo- Alaska. graphic memory when Late in graduate school and before the it came to artifacts and start of his 47-year career at the Smithsonian, his attention to detail. Dennis was a ditch-rider in New Mexico. On He was gifted in under- horseback with dogs and rifle, Dennis rode standing and demon- ditches to ensure no one stole water from strating the differences ranchers. Dennis often mentioned that his Dennis excavating bison bone, San Luis Valley, 2000. between technological reputation as a ditch rider put him in line for ALLPHOTOGRAPHS COURTESY OF PEGI JODRY or stylistic choices and a position as County Sheriff—he turned it down to become Cura- unmeaningful variation. One of his strengths as a curator was his tor at the Smithsonian. While we are glad he did, those of us who ability and willingness to share his knowledge, as he frequently knew him well have no trouble imagining him on horseback in his did, with the many researchers that visited the Smithsonian’s black cowboy hat patrolling the mesas and arroyos of the Ameri- Paleoindian collection. October n 2019 11

In addition to his flintknapping and lithic experiments, Den- of how arctic people can navigate harsh northern seas. Dennis nis made continual contributions to the problem of when and once said, “I spent over thirty years looking for the origins of from where North America was Clovis in Alaska and Siberia. . . . I never found it—I Dennis in Colorado with colonized. Through the 1970s and had to look elsewhere.” Stanford and Bradley’s idea his grandson Anthony. 1980s Dennis commented on some has been met with much criticism and is not fully of the leading claims for a pre-Clo- accepted by many professionals. But as Dennis would vis occupation of North America. frequently admit, he never meant his controversial Various bone assemblages from idea (with Bradley) to be a description of New World contexts pre-dating Clovis had colonization, instead simply a hypothesis that should been found on the Great Plains and continue to be tested. If you look back on his career, in Canada. These assemblages con- with his frequent questions about bone breakage, the tained bones that were interpreted interpretation of controversial sites, or the analysis to have been broken or flaked by of certain technologies, without question Dennis humans. Two of the sites, Dutton repeatedly made us reconsider what we thought we and Selby, were studied by Den- knew. If we can agree on nothing else, we now know nis, and his analyses suggested that the initial colonization process of the New World that some of the bones could have was more dynamic than previously thought. Right or been modified by human activity. wrong, Dennis contributed greatly to understanding Dennis, along with Richard Morlan this process. and Robson Bonnichsen, further Although Dennis is credited with over 150 publica- evaluated these hypotheses by ex- tions, he leaves beyond a legacy that is much greater amining the practicality of flaking than his research. Upon his death the Smithsonian proboscidean bone and assessing reported that over Dennis’s career he brought in over whether animal bones would have one million objects to the museum, which largely been useful as tools. The Ginsberg represent the Smithsonian’s Paleoindian Collection. experiment, which examined both These artifacts and the collection that he built will elephant butchery with stone tools forever remain available for study. Dennis was a and the flaking and use of bone gifted scientific communicator, and without his flakes for cutting, remains one of the more detailed actualistic knack for storytelling, his spirit, love for life, and genial person- studies ever conducted on this topic. Stanford and colleagues’ ality, far fewer would know what they do about Paleoindians. It 1981 report of this experiment in Science raised additional ques- was largely this personality that helped him build such a large and tions about the presence diverse Paleoindian collec- of early bone technology tion. Without Dennis, many in North America and pro- of the artifacts that we have vided modern analogs for studied, or still yearn to ex- comparison in future stud- amine at the Smithsonian, ies. These studies and other would not be available. In analyses in which Dennis thinking of Dennis’s many participated are still rel- qualities, to me the one evant today given recent that stands out the most extraordinary claims such was his willingness to fa- as the Cerutti Mastodon in cilitate so many research- San Diego as well as others. ers’ work. Dennis was very Throughout his career generous with his time, and Dennis was on the fore- even if you disagreed with Dennis (left) and Pegi Jodry on front of Paleo­indian and him, he was willing to share landfast ice margin near Barrow, Alaska. pre-Clovis studies. Later in his personal knowledge and life, Dennis became well known for his controversial “Solutrean observations, which he had built up over a very full life. All you Hypothesis,” where he and colleague Bruce Bradley proposed that had to do was listen, a task he made very easy. Cheers to you, the first people to arrive in North America might have come from Dennis—ride easy and happy trails! Europe (Iberia) during the . While critics –Joe Gingerich of Stanford and Bradley’s argument often debate the proposed Department of Anthropology technological similarities between Solutrean and early Paleo­ Ohio University, Athens, Ohio indian technology as well as other aspects, Dennis merely saw his e-mail: [email protected] Atlantic Crossing idea as a proposal to be tested. Much of Dennis’s This remembrance of Dennis Stanford is reprinted with permission from impetus for his ideas about a trans-Atlantic crossing came from PaleoAmerica. Joseph A. M. Gingerich (2019) Dennis J. Stanford (1943–2019), his vast knowledge of lithic technologies and his appreciation PaleoAmerica, DOI: 10.1080/20555563.2019.1662692. 12 Volume 34 n Number 4

Digging below the Ash DiscoveriesDiscoveriesDiscoveries atatat FortFortFort RockRockRock CaveCaveCave tanding at the water’s edge, I wondered how a lake Cressman, a scientist who refused to run with the pack, this deep could have formed on the top of a mountain. argued for very early human presence in the Great Basin. His SSGeologists believe the story begins long ago when vision was rewarded in 1938, when his team found several MountS Mazama, a great volcano towering 4,000 masl, formed examples of beneath a layer of Mazama ash in Fort as part of a chain of volcanoes in the that includes Mount Shasta and Mount St. Helens. The peak was built of lava flows, ash, and debris from repeated eruptions. About 7,700 years ago, Mount Mazama erupted in an epochal explosion. This eruption was 40 times as powerful as the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. After the explosive eruption that removed most of the mountain’s peak, Native Amer­ ican legend recalls that what remained of the summit collapsed into the vacated magma chamber with a thunderous roar. A huge smoldering caldera resulted from the geologic event and, over time, filled with water to become , the deepest lake in the U.S. The explosion pulverized the mountain peak, which released an enormous ash plume, and this is where archaeology comes Where once stood Mount Mazama, a volcano 4,000 m high, now lies in. The ash cloud was so intense and sprawl­ Crater Lake, the deepest (954 m) in the U.S. The feature in the middle ing that it covered nearly the entire Pacific of the lake, Wizard Island, was formed by a later, less-severe eruption.

Northwest, as far north as Alberta, Canada, SERVICE PARK NATIONAL and as far east as Nebraska. This ash remains a visible layer of Rock Cave. The perfectly preserved sandals, made of shredded sediment throughout the region, providing archaeologists study­ sagebrush bark, were later radiocarbon dated to 10,500–9,300 ing the Northwest a chronological marker for relative dating. calybp, making them the oldest footwear ever discovered in the Mazama ash serves as an important stratigraphic marker Americas (MT 24-3. “Walking in their shoes”). Now on display in central Oregon; its thickness and character make it readily at the Museum of Natural and Cultural His­ identifiable in the field. When first excavated tory in Eugene, the sandals are known for their “Fort Rock style”: in the 1930s, he used the ash layer as a reference flat, with closed toes and twined sole. This style has been to distinguish between assemblages. identified at other sites as well, such as Cougar Mountain and Catlow Caves. The early days Although Cressman is best known for his discovery of the san­ Cressman, having been ordained an Episcopal priest, left the dals, Tom Connolly, director of archaeological research at the priesthood in 1929, the year he earned his Ph.D. in sociology University of Oregon Museum of Natural and Cultural History, from . His career change proved fortunate considers at least as important his work at , where for future archaeologists who have built upon his work in the he claimed to have found evidence for humans associated with ­Pacific Northwest. Even his “mistakes” in the field have spurred extinct Pleistocene megafauna. “Although people dismissed significant advances in the study of the First Americans. this claim,” says Connolly, “this possible discovery prompted October n 2019 13

the later work at Paisley Caves that American tribes, his 2015–2016 project aimed to “systemati­ essentially verified his interpretation. cally describe the remaining depos­ His claim of great antiquity for Fort its and determine whether intact Rock Cave was also dismissed by his deposits remained to evaluate the colleagues, but he was again shown likelihood of the pre-Clovis occupa­ to be correct with the development of tion.” His team, following Bedwell’s .” (1970) stratigraphic descriptions as As a result of Cressman’s work closely as possible, determined that in the region, Fort Rock Cave was deposits of only two strata defined recognized as the site of the earliest by Bedwell remained intact within evidence for human habitation in the interior of the cave, gravel layers Oregon. It retained this distinction associated with Pleistocene high for decades, until archaeologists stands of pluvial Fort Rock Lake. returned to test Cressman’s theo­ The site chronology prior to Con­ ries and excavated the Paisley Caves nolly’s work was based on 7 dates (MT 25-4, 26-1, “Paisley Caves”). from Cressman’s and Bedwell’s work, and 12 direct AMS ages on Prehistoric artifacts uncovered by Cressman’s team at Fort sandals and basketry. Based on a review of Bedwell’s and Cress­ Rock Cave included basketry and stone tools. Cressman and man’s field notes, it appeared that at least some of the reported his colleague Howel Williams, however, didn’t describe the ages were too old. Bedwell’s dates, for example, were obtained stratigraphy of Fort Rock Cave in detail, other than declaring from the Gakushuin Laboratory in , which became notori­ that “like the Paisley Caves, Fort Rock Cave failed to show ous for producing unreliable dates. Except for Cressman’s first convincing stratigraphy.” date reported in 1951, all extant fiber dates that figure in the Cressman distinguished only “above pumice” and “below current site chronology are the result of Connolly’s work. pumice” assemblages. His 1938 catalog lists 541 artifacts, of Connolly’s team determined several trends in site occupa­ which 38% appear to be from post-Mazama contexts and 62% tion and artifacts: from pre-Mazama contexts. “Cressman was dealing with geo­ ■ no evidence was found for occupation before 11,000 calybp; logic units, not depositional units,” says Connolly. “We’ve since relied on fibers to make sense of stratigraphy.” ■ radiocarbon-dated fiber artifacts confirm substantial occupa­ When Stephen Bedwell returned to Fort Rock Cave in 1966, tion 10,550–9200 calybp. he failed to identify Considering Cressman’s arti­ intact deposits in the facts from post- and pre-Mazama interior. He found that contexts and projectile-point Cressman’s occupa­ types from the site, Connolly’s tion layer was thin team concluded that Fort Rock and contained no pre­ Cave was intermittently occu­ served perishable ar­ pied during the terminal Pleisto­ tifacts. The next year cene and early Holocene. he focused on areas “We recovered a modest sam­ outside the mouth of ple of lithic artifacts (mostly ob­ the cave, and in 1973 sidian),” Connolly tells us, “and claimed to have found a huge volume of animal bones: evidence for an excep­ jackrabbit, marmot, and artio­ tionally early occupa­ dactyl elements, including some tion at Fort Rock Cave. Many researchers dis­ Connolly addressing reporters missed his purported in front of Fort Rock Cave.

discovery. HAVEL CHRIS Learning that the nearby Paisley Caves were first occupied elk-size bones.” Although well preserved, most bones are highly 14,500 calybp gave Connolly’s team the impetus to revisit Fort fragmented and extensively processed. Edge-modified obsid­ Rock Cave and discover whether it might yield evidence for ian flakes are the most common tool type recovered, together early visitors, perhaps even pre-Clovis. with some projectile points and point fragments. Most projectile points are foliate or Western Stemmed types. “We also recov­ Return to Fort Rock Cave in the 21st century ered a Northern Side-notched point base and several Rosegate “Our primary goal was to assess the integrity of the remain­ points,” he says. “They show that people used the cave at least in­ ing deposits and to evaluate the context of Bedwell’s earliest termittently throughout the Holocene.” The abundance of woven radiocarbon age,” Connolly says. With the support and involve­ fiber sandals suggests that Fort Rock Cave provided welcome ment of the Burns-Paiute, Warm Springs, and Klamath Native shelter at least during the cold winter season. 14 Volume 34 n Number 4

Fort Rock Cave yields to Paisley Caves in antiquity Caves on the map of archaeological antiquity, his triumph When Connolly found no evidence that Fort Rock Cave was was hard won. On returning to excavate, he found that Cress­ occupied before 11,000 calybp, it man hadn’t backfilled the became clear that Paisley Caves was site and it had consequently the older site. been heavily looted. The When Luther Cressman dug below floor was trashed with ba­ the ash at Paisley Caves, as he did at salt blocks that had fallen Fort Rock Cave, he claimed to have from the roof, silt, organic found sediments containing a hearth, matter, animal feces, food, bones of Pleistocene horse and camel, and nesting materials. This and artifacts. As in the case of Fort is the stuff of an archaeolo­ Rock Cave, however, he didn’t publish gist’s nightmare. detailed stratigraphic data. , research archae­ Challenges at Fort Rock ologist at the University of Oregon in Cave Eugene, decided in 2002 to test Cress­ Connolly encountered simi­ man’s claim that humans occupied lar challenges when he re­ Paisley Caves when Pleistocene mam­ turned to excavate at Fort Rock Cave in 2015 and 2016. Fort Rock Cave sandals, made of What surprised him most sagebrush bark with closed twined flat was the extent of destruc­ soles and open twined toe covers. 0 10 tion inside the site. “The cm

JACKLIU. COURTESY THE UNIVERSITY OF OREGON MUSEUM OF NATURAL CULTURAL& damageHISTORY to the deposits in­ mals roamed the region. His team unearthed strands of thread side the cave was extensive,” he remembers. Some intact made of grass fiber beneath the Mazama deposits of cave 5. deposits may lie outside the cave or buried deep beneath These fibers yielded an AMS date of 12,750 rcybp (about the massive debris pile in front of the cave, but he found no 15,200 calybp), making them the earliest example of cordage intact deposits inside the cave. Although Pleistocene gravels in the Americas. He also recovered coprolites. Tests for protein are preserved, the lake-level history of the pluvial lake at residue and reconstitution analysis of the four oldest samples Fort Rock is neither well understood nor well dated. Con­ confirmed that the coprolites were, in fact, human. nolly suspects that the upper lake-deposited gravels were Human from the coprolites radiocarbon dated to 14,300 exposed and only partly covered by eolian silt when people years ago. The date broke the “Clovis barrier” and made Pais­ first occupied the cave. “Revisiting previously excavated sites ley Caves the best-documented is usually a challenging en­ pre-Clovis site in North Amer­ deavor, especially when they ica. Four years later, adna were excavated before mod­ authority Eske Willerslev ern excavation and reporting analyzed the samples. Mass- standards were developed,” spectrometry analysis on mito­ Connolly explains. chondrial dna from coprolites Since 1989, a team that determined that people in hap­ draws members from Uni­ logroups A2 and B2 lived in versity of Oregon Museum south central Oregon 12,300 of Natural and Cultural His­ tory, Bureau of Land Manage­ Excavating exploratory units at ment, University of Nevada, Fort Rock Cave in 2015: (front– Reno, and the Nevada State rear) Dennis Jenkins, University Museum has been system­ of Oregon; Judson Finley, Utah atically dating fiber artifacts State University; Geoff Smith, from northern and western University of Nevada, Reno. Great Basin sites. The record

TOM CONNOLLY TOM currently numbers at least rcybp (about 14,200 calybp), 1,000 years earlier than the 475 radiocarbon dates, the majority being AMS dates with a accepted date for the (MT 29-4, “Tracking standard error of less than 100 years. The current chronology Paleoamerican migrations with mitogenomes”). This new date of Paisley Caves is based on 275 dates on cultural items—ar­ of earliest human settlement has become accepted by most tifacts, charcoal, hearths, butchered bone, hide and fur, and archaeologists. human coprolites and hair ranging from 14,600 calybp to Although Jenkins, or “Dr. Poop,” as he became known, modern times. obtained astonishing early dates and thereby put Paisley Granted, the stratigraphy and radiocarbon chronology October n 2019 15

of Fort Rock Cave don’t contribute to our understanding of stone, ceramic, bone, wood, plant fiber, and skin—the moment the peopling of the Americas. The site nonetheless figures these materials are uncovered, they are at risk of rapid and ir- prominently in the cultural history of reversible deterioration. this region. Connolly admits that “it was Connolly speaks for archaeologists frustrating for us not to add anything new when he says, “We hope that old to that.” He is, however, proud of revisit­ sites like Fort Rock Cave will remain ing the site, reevaluating early dates, and important not only because of what building a bigger, more comprehensive was found but also because of the history. “Fort Rock Cave is part of that hard lessons learned regarding site larger history. The bigger picture is what preservation and management.” His interests me, it’s what’s most engaging,” takeaway message for us: “Preserva­ he says. tion ethics must take over. Fort Rock Cave is a good lesson. We must leave Leaving something for later something for later.” Fort Rock Cave was declared a National –Katy Dycus Historic Landmark in 1961 and added to the National Register of Historic Places Connolly.

in 1966. This designation confers a sym­ HAVEL CHRIS bolic seal of protection over the site and its materials. Yet How to contact the principal of this article: over the last 80 years, Fort Rock Cave, once one of the most Tom Connolly important archaeological sites in the northern Great Basin, Director of Archaeological Research has decayed into a devastated shell. Connolly lays the blame University of Oregon at Eugene on landowner management and decades of intensive looting. Oregon State Museum of Anthropology, Bldg 116 “It’s also the product,” he says, “of careless archaeology done Eugene, OR 97403-1224 with little regard for either future work or the conservation e -mail: [email protected] ethic.” The materials gathered at Fort Rock Cave are primary re­ Suggested Readings sources for understanding and interpreting the past. All archaeo­ Connolly, T. R., et al. 2017 Return to Fort Rock Cave: Assessing the logical remains, from terrestrial or marine environments, from site’s potential to contribute to ongoing debates about how and when a variety of inorganic and organic materials including metal, humans colonized the Great Basin. American Antiquity 82.3:558–73.

The likelihood is that if the sloth was hit by a weapon of some Ghost Fossils sort, it would have fled and been tracked as it bled to death.” Some observers have suggested the human footprints inside continued from page 4 the sloth prints were made in a playful way well after the sloth to be wary of its attackers. “You can see this in the trackways,” had passed, like a child might try to walk in an adult’s tracks at notes Bennett. “The trackways become more tortuous when the beach. The child-sized prints recorded could support that. human tracks are present—[with] twists and sudden changes It’s also possible that younger people were testing their courage in direction.” There are no such patterns in the sloth tracks by harassing the beast. But Bennett is convinced otherwise. where human tracks are absent. The patterning of the profuse The tiptoe prints, the tortuous path of the sloth whenever human footprints, the multiple flailing circles, and the animal’s humans approached, the flailing circles all suggest a deadly multiple changes of directions indicate the humans were, in serious dance between human and megaherbivore. fact, harassing the sloth. Why do so unless they were hunting Further research to be conducted in 2019 may yet determine it? Indeed, some footprints indicate a person approached on the sloth’s ultimate fate. Stay tuned. tiptoe, as if sneaking up on the beast while its back was turned. –Floyd Largent

Questions seeking answers How to contact the principal of this article: There may be more tracks east of the sloth-human trackway Matthew Bennett area, which measures approximately 30 m EW by 90–100 m NS; Professor of Environmental and Geographical Sciences if so, they lay beneath the dunes at the time of the investigatory Institute for Studies in Landscapes and Human Evolution team’s work. If they exist, they may include more direct evidence Bournemouth University of the sloth’s demise—if, in fact, that was what occurred. “We Talbot House, T124 don’t actually say it’s a kill site, just the scene of an altercation Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow between a sloth and humans,” says Bennett. “We believe that the Poole, BH12 5BB UK balance lies with hunting, but are careful with our interpretation. e-mail: [email protected] 16 Volume 34 n Number 4

Getting to the Bottom of Topper Albert Goodyear

native of st. petersburg, Florida, ­Albert C. Goodyear, currently a semi-re­ A tired researcher with the University of South Carolina and Director of the Southeastern Paleoamerican Survey with the University, as a child loved to play cowboys and Indians in his father’s res­ taurant in St. Petersburg. When that phase passed, Goodyear in the pre-Clovis his interests focused more on Florida Indians such as excavation at Topper, 2004.

the Seminole. The gift of a box of arrowheads from his ALLPHOTOS: SEPAS grandmother when he was eight captured his imagi­ became a published writer. From the beginning, chert arti­ nation and sparked a serious study of where Florida Indians facts from earlier periods like Suwannee and Bolen points lived and the artifacts they created. fascinated him. Curious about artifacts that were being pumped onto shore Early mentors shape his career from the bottom of Tampa Bay, Goodyear learned that the finds “Starting in high school,” Goodyear says, “I began to find were associated with deposits of oyster shells used to construct mentors who could help me learn more about local archaeol­ roadbeds. Goodyear and Warren studied the deposits, which ogy. These included Ripley Bullen of the Florida State Mu­ were likely prehistoric shell middens submerged by rising sea seum, who was willing to work with members of the public levels at the end of the last Ice Age. who found sites and artifacts.” Goodyear’s enthusiasm led Goodyear received a bachelor’s degree in anthropology him to join the Florida Anthropological Society. He devoured from the University of South Florida near his home, together every quarterly journal from cover to cover. By searching with a letter of recommendation for graduate school—written, beaches and dredged-up fills around Tampa Bay and other fortunately for Goodyear, by a professor possessed of a forgiv­ local sites, he acquired a modest artifact collection. Bullen ing nature: His fine leather briefcase bore a puncture from a and Lyman O. Warren encouraged Goodyear to submit ar­ dart Goodyear once hurled from an atlatl. ticles about his findings to the state journal, where he first After basic training with the Army National Guard in Ft. October n 2019 17

Gordon, (where he found a Dalton point in a tank in 1984 Goodyear and South Carolina archaeologist Tommy track while on maneuvers), Goodyear left for graduate school Charles published An Archaeological Survey of Chert Quarries in Arkansas. In 1969 he was accepted as a in Western Allendale County South Carolina. research assistant with the Arkansas One day a local collector by the name of Topper in­ Archaeological Survey, and in 1971 he troduced Goodyear to an Allendale County earned his master’s degree. The sur­ chert quarry. The site would eventually vey station archaeologist at Jonesboro, monopolize his attention and establish Dan F. Morse, shared Goodyear’s interest his preeminence in Southeastern in Dalton points and their dating relative to Paleo­american archaeology. other early side-notched points. He proved “I met Al some 35 years ago when to be an invaluable mentor. he served as a consultant on a project Intrigued with the archaeology of the I was working on in Florida,” says col­ Southwest, Goodyear attended graduate league Randy Daniel of East Carolina Uni­ school at Arizona State University and com­ versity. “He subsequently served as a member pleted his doctorate studies in 1974. While there of my dissertation committee and eventual col­ he benefited enormously from a flintworking field laborator for the last couple of decades on Clovis in school, where legendary knapper Don Crabtree the Carolinas. It’s hard to overstate the importance of Al’s gave him invaluable insight into lithic technology by demon­ mentorship on my career. My archaeology and Southeastern strating how ancient toolmakers transformed stone into tools. archaeology in general have been made better because of him.” The sheer love of archaeology and curiosity have sus­ tained Al Goodyear from childhood, and he happily infects Bringing the public to science those around him. “Al has such enthusiasm for archaeology,” Digging chert quarries with their vast quantity of lithic says CSFA graduate Ash­ artifacts turned out to be a gi­ ley Smallwood, Assistant gantic labor-intensive task. What Professor at the Univer­ was needed, Goodyear realized, sity of Louisville and one was a program that involved the of many young archaeolo­ public. Beginning in 1996 at the gists Goodyear has men­ Big Pine Tree site (MT 11-1, tored. “It’s inspiring. I have “Site near Savannah River yields benefited greatly from our clues to Paleoindians”) and later conversations about lithic at the Charles and Topper sites, technology and Paleo­indian he recruited volunteers for the archaeology.” ­Allendale Paleoindian Expedi­ tion. Participants, after making a A new grad makes donation to the university, signed things happen up to work for at least a week at Newly minted Dr. Good­ the dig. In 2005 the program was year assumed his first po­ renamed the Southeastern Paleo­ sition at the University of Clovis american Survey to emphasize a South Carolina in 1974 as broader research scope. director of the highway White Pleistocene alluvial sands Participating in the program archaeology program. His wasn’t all grunting and sweating assistant was a young ar­ under the South Carolina sun. chaeology student named Volunteers received instruction in David G. Anderson (MT Pleistocene terrace an archaeologist’s basic practices 32-2, “An organized mind: from advisers close at hand. At ­David Anderson). The high the end of the work day they were density of lithic artifacts treated to Al Goodyear’s famous discovered in the area drew barbecue, with usual entrées of Goodyear’s attention to the pork roast and venison burgers chert sources in Allendale and side dishes galore. On many County of South Carolina and Brier Creek in south­ Big core Volunteers at the Topper site, east Georgia. A survey of 2005. “This photo more than any Allendale chert sources other,” says Goodyear, “illustrates therefore topped his list of 50,300 RCYBP 51,700 RCYBP the depths of the various artifact-­ priorities. Consequently, bearing layers at Topper.” 18 Volume 34 n Number 4

evenings Goodyear or a guest speaker treated the volunteers was available in the Savannah River as well as from upland to a presentation that illuminated a particular facet of the sci­ outcrops. Topper chert supplied generations of Pleistocene- ence they were participating in. The phenomenal success of the and Holocene-age inhabitants with high-quality cryptocrystal­

Southeastern Paleoamerican 0 5 line toolstone for manufacturing Survey can be measured by cm projectile points and other stone the many volunteers who re­ ➥ tools. “This chert,” Goodyear turned year after year. No one tells us, “was the primary re­ can deny that Al Goodyear is source that drew people to the unexcelled at selling archae­ ➥ ➥ site for several millennia.” By ology. If he weren’t already ➥ mapping the spread of fluted points, Goodyear gauged the Classic Clovis artifacts from ➥ spatial dimensions of a huge Clo­ the Topper site. The fractured vis settlement area that sprawls preform on the far left, which across South Carolina and into was well on its way to becoming southeast Georgia. This distri­ a spearpoint, is called “­Alaina’s bution, merged with the prove­ sword” in honor of unit nance of stone tools found in the

­supervisor Alaina Williams. D.ERD Clovis levels of Topper, defines the Allendale–Brier Creek recognized as a top-rank Southeast­ Clovis complex. ern Paleo­american archaeologist, The outcrop on the hillside he could certainly claim fame as a overlooking the terrace was supremely successful promoter of exposed during pre-Clovis his product. times and later, but around “Al helped shaped my career in 15,000 years ago the river cut many ways,” says University of Ten­ into its present channel, ex­ nessee colleague Anderson, “first 0 3 posing river-bottom chert that cm by steering me to graduate school was used by Clovis and later with his mentor, Dan Morse, and peoples. The geology team then by being a good research col­ found that the pre-Clovis zone league and sounding board in the in the terrace was in fact the Ice Age streambed of the Sa­ Typical flake tools from the pre-Clovis vannah River when it flowed white Pleistocene alluvial sands zone. at a higher elevation. In the Ice Age, the Savannah ex­ decades that followed. He has been a isted in two phases: the lifelong friend, was best man at my wed­ upper zone, compris­ ding to Jenalee, and is someone whose ing sands and small positive attitude and love of archaeol­ gravels characteristic ogy inspire me every day. His work on of a braided-stream Paleoindians in South Carolina shows regime; and a lower the significant contributions that can 0 5 phase, characterized come from long-term focused research cm by finer-grained sedi­ in a particular region.” ments, clay, and silt typical of the back Clovis at the Topper site swamps of the river Beginning in 1998, annual excavations today. In other words, at the Topper site yielded a wealth of the river underwent a meander phase. As Pre-Clovis flake tools found at the the river left its higher top of the Pleistocene terrace. elevation, rainfall eroded the surround­ Clovis artifacts. Goodyear justifiably refers to Topper as “the ing slopes, burying the pre-Clovis zones. jewel of Southern quarry-related Clovis sites.” It’s also the In 2000, Goodyear, with the help of CSFA founder Rob Bon­ southernmost excavated Clovis site in the Southeast. nichsen, assembled an impressive team to help date the stra­ The site lies on a terrace and an adjacent hillside that over­ tigraphy at Topper. Geochronologist Tom Stafford of Stafford looks a spur of the Savannah River. During Clovis times, chert Research Laboratories came to collect radiocarbon samples. October n 2019 19

CSFA Director Mike Waters volunteered his services, as did at the base of the hillside. At 30–50 cm below the expected Steve Forman, an OSL-dating specialist, and John Foss, project Clovis level they encountered a zone of white Pleistocene soil morphologist from the University of Tennessee. Together, alluvial sands which contained small flaked artifacts—side- they found clear evi­ and endscrapers, spokeshaves, utilized dence of river activity flakes, gravers, prismatic blades, and in the lower portions bend-break tools—and larger artifacts of the sands. OSL- including cores, choppers, and planes dating verified the (MT 16-4, “The Topper site: Beyond age of the Clovis oc­ Clovis at Allendale”). Goodyear and his cupation at 13,000 yr team were ecstatic. b.p. (MT 18-3, “Lu­ At 1.8-m depth they encountered sev­ minescence dating eral chert cobbles piled as though by of Quaternary sedi­ human hands. Around the feature they ments: New methods found several flake tools that didn’t re­ for dating archaeo­ semble typical Clovis artifacts. Many of logical components”). these were burin-like tools made from the Goodyear confidently contends that Topper Excavating in the pre-Clovis terrace (50k is the oldest radio­ rcybp zone) under the roofed structure, 2011. carbon-dated site in North America. weathered chert cobbles from the hillside by the bend-break For 35 years, Goodyear has studied sites in the central technique. Savan­nah River Valley of Allendale County. His research has Fortunately for Goodyear, the Topper site lies on property been funded by grants from the , the Na­ then owned by the Clariant Corporation, a chemical company tional Geographic Society, the Archaeological Research Trust, based in , which granted archaeologists unlimited the Elizabeth Stringfellow Endowment Fund, Sandoz Chemical access to the area. Using a backhoe and hand excavation, the Corporation, and the Clariant Corporation and Archroma, cur­ team dug about 4 m below ground surface, where they uncov­ rent owners of the Topper property. His explorations of chert ered artifacts simpler and smaller than Clovis specimens from quarry sites in the area have yielded countless artifacts from the higher level. A black stain in the sediments surrounding the Paleoamerican through the Archaic periods at Topper and the artifacts supplied charcoal needed for radiocarbon dating. the nearby Big Pine Tree site. Tom Stafford obtained two radiocarbon dates from humi­ fied plant remains of 50,300 and 51,700 years rcybp. These Beyond Clovis at Topper dates, which suggest a much earlier arrival for humans in the After about a meter’s Western Hemisphere than depth of excavation at the predicted by any currently Topper site, Goodyear accepted model, ignited a remembers, “everything Holocene colluvium firestorm of excitement and went away.” As a veteran controversy. of classical archaeological Clovis training, he assumed he Beware of geofacts had exhausted evidence Paleosol (Bw) The news spread faster than for the Clovis occupation. rumors of gold in the Klond­ His reasonable attitude ike, and reporters swarmed was that “you don’t look to interview Goodyear and for what you don’t expect his team. Goodyear was to find.” It didn’t occur to Pleistocene alluvial sands him to dig deeper until he Backhoe Trench 15 reveals the read of the site complete stratigraphy of the in Virginia, where stone Pleistocene terrace Topper site, 2002. tools and evidence of an­ other, earlier occupation appeared below the Clovis horizon. keenly aware that his discovery would be subjected to intense That news was reinforced by word of Tom Dillehay’s discov­ scrutiny by the scientific community. “In identifying early eries of a pre-Clovis occupation at Monte Verde in Chile (MT human artifacts, especially in assemblages without highly 33-3, “Tom Dillehay: The Clovis-First iconoclast”). A flood at formalized artifacts such as bifaces and prismatic blades,” the Big Pine Tree site was a convenient excuse for Goodyear he explains, “issues concerning the possible role of nature in to move his 1998 volunteer force to Topper, where he asked creating pseudo-artifacts must be considered.” A study of 225 the workers to dig deeper. They began with a test square cobble - and boulder-size nodules and artifacts from various 20 Volume 34 n Number 4

depths at Topper found that nearly 90 percent of them had In 2016, Goodyear and colleague Andrew White relocated to some flake removals. Graduate student Douglas Sain accord­ spacious new USC facilities at Barnwell College, where many ingly conducted freezing and thawing experiments and found of the Allendale collections now reside. that such mechanical weathering processes are unlikely to “Since 2014 I have been working to publish various ongoing produce detachments with lithic attributes characteristic of studies,” Goodyear tells us. “My goals were and continue to conchoidal or bend fractures. More information about the be developing SEPAS [The Southeastern Paleoamerican Sur­ artifacts, stratigraphy, and dating of vey] and hopefully getting Topper pre-Clovis can be found in an the program endowed.” article by Goodyear and Doug Sain He continues to coauthor in Early Human Life on the Southeast- various journal articles on ern Coastal Plain (see “Suggested the Younger Dryas impact Readings”). hypothesis, including a re­ Goodyear and his colleagues cent study of a widespread remain convinced that the simple platinum anomaly across stone tools found below the Clovis North America at the Clo­ level at Topper are evidence for vis horizon, along with much earlier peoples who camped current studies of the stra­ at Topper long before the Ice Age tigraphy of the Pleistocene- Holocene transition at the A volunteer excavates the Clovis floor famous White Pond site in on the hillside at Topper, 2008. South Carolina. As if this weren’t enough ended. For Al Goodyear, these early dates corroborate evi­ to keep a scientist busy, he is currently developing a fluted-point dence from early sites in and Chile that suggests hu­ database for the state of Florida, which may ultimately be inte­ mans were in the Western Hemisphere between 30,000 and grated with other data­bases for Georgia, South Carolina, and 50,000 years ago. North Carolina. “This region of North America should have “At present, approximately 130 contiguous square meters a high potential for Pleistocene archaeology,” Goodyear ex­ have been hand excavated in the pre-Clovis Pleistocene-age plains. “With the Topper and Page-Ladson sites, we see strong sediments,” Goodyear says. Since every incident of rainfall promise of discoveries yet to come.” interfered with work at the Topper site, in 2006 a permanent “Even after all these years, when Al’s doing his thing, he’s like covered structure that includes a viewing deck was installed to a kid in a candy store,” says SCIAA colleague Christopher Moore. protect the pre-Clovis excavations on the terrace (MT 21-4, “His enthusiasm and passion for archaeology is contagious!” “Clovis at Topper”). This pleasant addition encourages visits –Martha Deeringer year-round by scientists, the media, and graduate students working on dissertations and theses. How to contact the principal of this article: Albert C. Goodyear Retirement . . . sort of SCIAA-USC After 40 years, Goodyear in 2014 retired from the University of 1321 Pendleton St. South Carolina. He was immediately reappointed as an Affiliate Columbia, SC. 29208 of South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. e -mail: [email protected]

Suggested Readings the Study of First Americans, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University, College Station. Goodyear, A. C. 1974 The Brand site: A techno-functional study of a Dalton site in northeast Arkansas. Research Series No. 7. Arkan­ ——— 2018 The Allendale-Brier Creek Clovis Complex of the sas Archaeological Survey, Fayetteville. Central Savannah River Valley. The Eastern Fluted Point Tradition, vol. 2, J. A. M. Gingerich, ed., pp. 248–66. University of Utah Press, ——— 1989 A hypothesis for the use of cryptocrystalline raw Salt Lake City. materials among Paleoindian groups of North America. Eastern Paleoindian Lithic Resource Use, C. J. Ellis and J. C. Lothrop, eds., Goodyear, A. C., and C. R. Moore, eds. 2018 Early Human Life on the pp. 1–9. Westview Press, Boulder. Southeastern Coastal Plain. University of Florida Press, Gainesville. ——— 1999 The Early Holocene occupation of the southeastern Goodyear, A. C., and T. Charles 1984 An archaeological survey : A geoarchaeological summary. Ice Age People of of chert quarries in western Allendale County, South Carolina. North America: Environments, Origins, and Adaptations, R. Bon­ Research Manuscript Series 195. South Carolina Institute of Archae­ nichsen and K. L. Turnmire, eds., pp. 432–81. Oregon State Uni­ ology and Anthropology, University of South Carolina, Columbia. versity Press, Corvallis. Goodyear, A. C., and D. A. Sain 2018 The pre-Clovis occupation of ——— 2005 Evidence of pre-Clovis sites in the eastern United the Topper Site, Allendale County, South Carolina. Early Human States. Paleoamerican Origins: Beyond Clovis, R. Bonnichsen, B. T. Life on the Southeastern Coastal Plain, A. C. Goodyear and C. R. Lepper, D. Stanford, and M. R. Waters, eds., pp. 103–12. Center for Moore, eds., pp. 8–31. University of Florida Press, Gainesville. A Journal of Early Human ­Migration and Dispersal Electronic and print editions The Center for the Study of the First Americans, in partnership several long reports on new scientific discoveries; brief reports with Taylor & Francis publishers, present PaleoAmerica–a on new research; and one or two observations written from peer-reviewed, quarterly journal focused on the Pleistocene the perspective of leaders in their fields. In other words, each human colonization of the New World. issue is full of news, views, and reviews. PaleoAmerica is an interdisciplinary journal that covers all Special Pricing for CSFA Members only! aspects of the study of the peopling of the Americas, including Center members receive a significant discount on this archaeology, genetics, paleoanthropology, linguistics, and publication–up to 78% off the subscription prices offered paleoenvironmental sciences. PaleoAmerica’s geographic directly from Taylor & Francis publishers. focus includes North and South America, the Caribbean, ■ Print version is $35 (Exclusive to CSFA members.) northeast Asia (Siberia, Japan, , Korea, and ), and southwest Europe. Moreover, PaleoAmerica reports on ■ Electronic version is $22 (Subscribers to the electronic the study of the dispersal of modern humans in other parts of version have access to the current and all past issues.) the world such as and southeast Asia. All PaleoAmerica subscriptions are for one calendar year and Each issue of PaleoAmerica provides at least one robust include four issues. summary of current knowledge about major research into Order your subscription using the Order Form on the inside front a specific avenue of scientific inquiry or geographic region; cover of this issue or online at www.centerfirstamericans.com

Volume 5, Issue 2 ■ April, 2019 approx. 100 pp. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Special Issue An Examination of the Role of Miniature Projectile Variation in Fluted-point Technology: Points at the Lindenmeier , Colorado, Investigations across Time and Space, Edited by Michael Christopher Guarino and Frédéric Sellet Heather L. Smith and Jesse W. Tune Confluences: Fluted Points in the Ice-Free Corridor, John W. Ives, Gabriel Yanicki, Kisha Supemant, and Perspective Courtney Lakevold Variation in Fluted-point Technology: Investigations More on Clovis Learning: Individual-level Processes across Space and Time, Heather L. Smith and Jesse W. Aggregate to Form Population-level Patterns, Michael Tune J. O’Brien The Manufacture of Northern Fluted Points: A Research Reports Production-Sequence Hypothesis, Heather L. Smith What’s Not Clovis? An Examination of Fluted Points in the Far West, Charlotte Beck, George T. Jones, and A Typology of Florida Fluted Points Using Landmark- Amanda K. Taylor based Geometric Morphometrics, David K. Thulman Early Fluted-biface Variation in Glaciated Northeastern Review Article North America, Christopher J. Ellis and Jonathan C. On Fluted-Point Morphometrics, Cladistics, and the Lothrop Origins of the Clovis Culture, Juliet E. Morrow To submit a manuscript, contact editor Ted Goebel at [email protected]

Other CSFA Publications CSFA publications available in limited quantities include: ■ Past issues of Mammoth Trumpet ■ Past issues of Current Research in the Pleistocene ■ Southbound Visit www.centerfirstamericans.com for price and availability, or e-mail us at [email protected], or call us at 979-845-4046. Clovis Mammoth Butchery: Dry Creek: Archaeology and Paleo- The Lange/Ferguson Site and ecology of a Late Pleistocene Alaskan Associated Bone Tool Technology, Hunting Camp,W. Roger Powers, R. Dale L. Adrien Hannus. 2018. 288 pages. Guthrie, and John F. Hoffecker; edited by Hardback (ISBN 978-1-62349-592-3). Ted Goebel. 2017. 344 pages. Hardback Reg. price $60.00 (ISBN 978-1-62349-538-1). CSFA members $48.00 Reg. price $50.00 CSFA members $40.00

The Hogeye Clovis Cache, Michael From the Yenisei to the Yukon: These books can only be ordered through R. Waters and Thomas A. Jennings. Interpreting Lithic Assemblage TAMU Press. To order these publications, 2015. 159 pages. Hardback or e-book Variability in Late Pleistocene/ phone 800-826-8911, go online at (ISBN 978-1-62349-214-4). Early Holocene , Ted www.tamupress.com, or use the form below. Reg. price $30.00 Goebel and Ian Buvit, editors. 2011. CSFA members $24.00 408 pages. Hardback or e-book (ISBN Other titles are available on the TAMU 978-1-60344-321-0). Press website. Reg. price $80.00 CSFA members $64.00 Emergence and Diversity of Modern Clovis: On the Edge of a New Paleoamerican Origins: Beyond Human Behavior in Paleolithic ­Understanding, Ashley M. Smallwood Clovis, Robson Bonnichsen, Bradley T. Asia, Yousuke Kaifu, Masami Izuho, and Thomas A. Jennings, editors. 2014. Lepper, Dennis Stanford, and Michael Ted Goebel, Hiroyuki Sato, and Akira 376 pages. Hardback or e-book (ISBN R. Waters, editors. 2005. 384 pages. Ono. 2014. 230 pages/ Hardback (ISBN 978-1-62349-201-4). Paperback (ISBN 978-1-603448-12-3). 978-1-62349-276-2). Reg. price $50.00 Reg. price $45.00 Reg. price $65.00 CSFA members $40.00 CSFA members $36.00 CSFA members $52.00

Paleoamerican Odyssey, Kelly E. : The Scientific Late Pleistocene Archaeology Graf, Caroline V. Ketron, and Michael Investigation of an Ancient and Ecology in the Far Northeast, R. Waters, editors. 2014. 584 pages. American Skeleton, Douglas W. Owsley Claude Chapdelaine, editor. 2012. Paperback (ISBN 978-1-62349-192-5) and Richard L. Jantz, editors. 2014. 600 264 pages. Hardback or e-book (ISBN Reg. price $45.00 pages. Hard­back (ISBN 978-1-62349- 978-1-60344-790-4). CSFA members $36.00 200-7). Reg. price $75.00 Reg. price $68.00 CSFA members $60.00 CSFA members $54.40

Geoarcheology and Radiocarbon Clovis Lithic Technology: Arch Lake Woman: Chronology of Stone Age North Investigation of a Stratified Physical Anthropology and East Asia, Vladimir V. Pitul’ko and Workshop at the Gault Site, Texas, Geoarchaeology, Douglas W. Elena Yu. Pavlova; Richard L. Bland, Michael R. Waters, Charlotte D. Pevny, Owsley, Margaret A. Jodry, Thomas W. trans. 2016. 256 pages. Hardback (ISBN and David L. Carlson. 2011. 224 pages. Stafford, C. , and Dennis 978-1-62349-330-1). Hardback or e-book (ISBN 978-1-60344- J. Stanford. 2010. 93 pages. Hardback Reg. price $60.00 278-7). Reg. price $45.00 (ISBN 978-1-60344-208-4). CSFA members $48.00 CSFA members $36.00 Reg. price $30.00 CSFA members $24.00

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