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Social and Environmental Injustices in Solid Waste Management in Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of Congo

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Social and Environmental Injustices in Solid Waste Management in Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of Congo URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS: SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL INJUSTICES IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN KINSHASA, THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO BY NZALALEMBA SERGE KUBANZA THESIS Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES at the UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND SUPERVISOR: PROF. DANNY SIMATELE Ethics Clearance Number: H14/10/30 September, 2016 DECLARATION 1-PLAGIARISM I, Nzalalemba Serge Kubanza, declare that this thesis (data, diagrams, graphs, tables and any other information) is my own original work, except to the extent that has been acknowledged. This thesis does not contain other persons’ writing, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other researchers. Where other written sources have been quoted, then their words have been re-written and the general information attributed to them has been referenced. Where their exact words have been used, then their writings have been placed inside quotation marks, and referenced. The thesis is being submitted for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) to the Faculty of Science at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. It has not previously been submitted for examination or award of degree to any other institution of learning. i | P a g e DECLARATION 2-PUBLICATIONS I, Nzalalemba Serge Kubanza, declare that I personally undertook all the data collection, analysis, development and writing of the manuscripts and articles mentioned below. I wish to commend my co-authors for providing useful advice and comments, as well as editing the manuscripts. Sections of this work have been published or submitted as manuscripts for publication to the following peer reviewed journals: 1. Kubanza, NS and Simatele, D. (2015). Social and environmental injustice in solid waste management in sub-saharan Africa: a study of Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of Congo. Local Environment: International Journal of Justice and Sustainability, Vol 21, No 7.866-882 (Published). 2. Kubanza, NS and Simatele, D. (2015). Sustainable Solid Waste Management in sub- Saharan African Cities: Application of System Thinking and System Dynamic as Methodological Imperatives in Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Habitat International Journal (The second revision has been done and the paper is currently under consideration). 3. Kubanza, NS; Simatele, D and Das, DK. (2015). When the poor don’t matter: solid waste management and environmental justice in Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Journal of Social Justice Research (The second revision based on the reviewers’ comments has been done and the paper is currently under consideration). 4. Kubanza, NS; Das, DK and Simatele, D. (2016). Some happy, others sad: exploring environmental justice in solid waste management in Kinshasa the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Local Environment: International Journal of Justice and Sustainability, DOI:10.1080/13549839.2016.1242120 (Published). ii | P a g e Signature: Nzalalemba Serge Kubanza Date: September, 2016 As the candidate’s supervisor, I certify the above statement and have approved this thesis for submission. I certify that the above statement is correct: Signature: Prof. Danny Simatele Date: September, 2016 iii | P a g e ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to express my sincere gratitude to the financial assistance of the National Institute for the Humanities and Social Sciences- Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (NIHSS-CODESRIA) and the University of the Witwatersrand for the financial and other support accorded to me while I was pursuing my PhD studies. I am also indebted to the financial support of the Open Society Foundations (OSF). I feel greatly indebted to Prof. Danny Simatele, for his invaluable supervision, support, encouragement and insight, which guided me during the entire study period. Special thanks are due to Dr Dillip Kumar Das in South Africa, Prof Michael Thompson in Austria, Prof M. Bruce Beck in the USA, Prof. Stewart Lockie in Australia and Prof. Jasper Knight in South Africa for their advice, guidance and criticisms in the analysis of the cultural theory and system thinking. Most heartfelt thanks to my family, especially Dr. Medard Kubanza and his wife, Clarice Kubanza; and my nephew and niece Gloria Kubanza and Christ-vie Kubanza for their love, indulgence, support and patience during my studies. Finally, my sincere gratitude goes to all my wonderful and supportive friends, colleagues and others who in one way or another offered some service or support towards the success of my study programme. May God bless you all! iv | P a g e EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The purpose of this research was to investigate the concepts of social and environmental justice in the context of solid waste management in Kinshasa and the critical factors accounting for injustice in this context. The investigation followed an examination of the relevant theoretical framework(s) and mechanisms that would facilitate the attainment of social and environmental justice in the city of Kinshasa, DRC. It was argued that social justice and environmental justice are a global challenge, and that efforts to address these challenges are usually biased towards employing eurocentric frameworks that are unfit to deal with the reality of environmental problems in a developing country scenario. The use of eurocentric urban development and planning approaches, which in most cases are outdated, have significantly propagated issues of spatial inequality in the distribution of solid waste burdens and have contributed to worsening justice concerns in many cities in developing countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. It has been illustrated in this study that social justice and environmental justice in the context of solid waste management must be seen as intrinsically connected, as both concepts emphasise the need for empirical understandings grounded in local contexts. Social and environmental justices play fundamental roles in the theoretical construction of principles that can contribute to a sustainable community, thereby ensuring that the rights and needs of individuals in a society are met. In the context of solid waste, the concepts of social justice and environmental justice are compelling because of their focus on ensuring equal service delivery in solid waste collection and disposal, while simultaneously redressing previous imbalances. Walker (2009) argues that the principles of environmental and social justice and sustainable development are more generally in their infancy in sub-Saharan Africa, and few implementing agencies and practitioners have a clear understanding of how to translate these v | P a g e global principles into practice. It is not surprising, therefore, that unresolved issues around sustainable development and environmental justice have emerged in a period during which implementation and the real implications of following a justice pathway have overwhelmed many urban managers in sub-Saharan African cities (Patel 2009). Using both qualitative and quantitative research methods together with system thinking and system dynamics modelling principles as integral frameworks in understanding the complexity in solid waste management, it has been demonstrated that solid waste management in Kinshasa, like in many Congolese cities, is a duty entrusted to publicly- funded municipal authorities. There is a clear divide and evidence in the manner by which solid waste is managed between the rich and poor neighborhoods of the city. The rich neighbourhoods seem to enjoy well-formulated systems of service delivery, in contrast with high-density areas, where almost 80% of the population in Kinshasa resides. This state of affairs is a result of inequalities that exist between the more powerful wealthy class and the disempowered poor people of the urban society in Kinshasa. Furthermore, cultural theory paradigms and conceptual System Dynamics (SD) modelling principles were employed to establish how the stakeholders in the form of four social solidarities (fatalist, hierarchist, individualist and egalitarian) influence solid waste management in the city and how they interact with each other dynamically. Based on this inter-linkage, interaction and causal feedback relations, a politico-cultural mechanism was evolved to enable changes to social and environmental injustices in solid waste management in Kinshasa, DRC. It was argued that a cultural theory inspired participative and collaborative mechanisms could result in the incorporation of a majority of the stakeholders in the decision making and implementation of solid waste management, adoption of technologies and innovative ways of managing solid vi | P a g e waste, which could prompt social and environmental justice in solid waste management in Kinshasa, DRC. The findings of the study have both theoretical and practical implications. They provide a thorough discourse on environmental justice in solid waste management and how cultural theory paradigm can offer a new dimension to the theories behind stakeholder’s participation in local development and management matters, particularly with respect to social and environmental injustice in solid waste management in sub-Saharan African cities. They also explicitly show how the various social solidarities could work dynamically in an integrated manner, and enable development of policy intervention mechanisms to resolve the solid waste management challenges and attain social and environmental
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