Europeanization and Change in Domestic Politics: Impact and Mediating Factors of the Copenhagen Political Criteria in Turkish Democracy: 1999-2005
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Europeanization and Change in Domestic Politics: Impact and Mediating Factors of the Copenhagen Political Criteria in Turkish Democracy: 1999-2005 Vom Fachbereich für Gesellschaftswissenschaften der Universität Duisburg-Essen zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Dr. phil. genehmigte Dissertation von Bardakci, Mehmet aus Söke Referent: Prof. Dr. Heinz-Jürgen Axt Korreferent: Prof. Dr. Othmar Nikola Haberl Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 9. März 2007 ABSTRACT EUROPEANIZATION AND CHANGE IN DOMESTIC POLITICS: IMPACT AND MEDIATING FACTORS OF THE COPENHAGEN POLITICAL CRITERIA IN TURKISH DEMOCRACY: 1999-2005 Mehmet Bardakci Dissertation, Department of Political Science Duisburg-Essen University Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Heinz-Jürgen Axt This study seeks to examine what domestic factors in Turkish politics refracted the democratisation requirements laid out by the Copenhagen political criteria and what impacts the Copenhagen political criteria have made on Turkish democracy in the 1999 post-the Helsinki era. It also explains how transformation of Turkish democracy was made possible after 1999 Helsinki decision. In doing this, based on Europeanization studies, the study employs a conceptual framework comprising three-steps, which are Europeanization, goodness of fit, and mediating factors. The thesis argues that the impact of Europeanization on Turkey’s democracy is institution dependent. Domestic institutions are significant in two respects. First, the institutions determine the degree of pressure for adaptation, which results from Europeanization. Second, domestic institutions have a large impact upon the strategies by which domestic actors respond to adaptational pressure facilitating or inhibiting institutional adaptation. One of the main findings of the thesis is that domestic institutions comprising parties, party system, the military, the president, civil society, the Turkish public and norms, values and traditions embedded in the Turkish polity have refracted the EU democratic reforms sometimes accelerating, sometimes retarding their translation into domestic politics and giving them a national coloring. Another conclusion is that as following 1999 Helsinki decision, “costs-benefits” equation has changed in favour of the latter from the angle of the Turkish state, it was possible for them to take courageous steps, and for the EU to play an effective anchor role in this transformation. Keywords Turkey-European Integration-Europeanization-Democratization-Copenhagen Political Criteria ii Acknowledgement I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Heinz-Jürgen Axt for the invaluable encouragements and comments he made on my doctoral work, without which the thesis would not have been successfully completed. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ...................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgement .................................................................................................iii Table of Contents ...................................................................................................iv List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................vii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................1 1.1. Contribution of the Thesis…………………………………………………...5 1.2. Organization of the Thesis...............................................................................8 Notes to Introduction.....................................................................................12 CHAPTER II. RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................13 2.1. Methodology: Three-Step Approach to Europeanization and Change in Domestic Politics………………………………………………..13 2.2. Questions Answered………………………………………………………..17 2.3. Hypotheses………………………………………………………………….19 2.4. Theories of Institutional Change……………………………………………21 2.4.1. Neo-functionalism …………………………………………………...21 2.4.2. Liberal Intergovernmentalism ……………………………………….24 2.4.3. Historical Institutionalism……………………………………………27 2.5. Literature Review on Europeanization…………………………………..….31 2.6. Methods and Data...........................................................................................44 Notes to Chapter II..........................................................................................46 CHAPTER III. CHARACTERISTICS OF TURKISH POLITICAL SYSTEM …………………………………………………….49 3.1. Strong State Tradition………………………………………………………50 3.2. The Military in Politics……………………………………………………..65 3.3. Characteristics of the Party System………………………………………...76 3.4. Conceptualization of Minorities……………………………………………90 3.5. Islamic Politics……………………………………………………………...98 Notes to Chapter III………………………………………………………..107 CHAPTER IV. EU’S HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEMOCRACY PROMOTION IN ENLARGEMENT PROCESS IN HISTORICAL AND COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE …………………110 4.1. Evolution of the EU`s Human Rights and Democracy Promotion………...110 4.2. EU’s Human Rights and Democracy Promotion in the Enlargement Process in Historical and Comparative Perspective………………………………...116 iv 4.2.1. EU’s Human Rights and Democracy Promotion in the Mediterranean Enlargement…………………………………..116 4.2.2. EU’s Human Rights and Democracy Promotion in the Eastern and Central European Enlargement………………….123 4.2.3. EU’s Human Rights and Democracy Promotion in Turkey………...131 Notes to Chapter IV………………………………………………………..159 CHAPTER V. TURKISH DEMOCRACY’S SHORTCOMINGS AND DEFICIENCES WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE COPENHAGEN POLITICAL CRITERIA ...........................162 5.1. Copenhagen Political Criteria………………………………………………162 5.2. Accession Partnership Document…………………………………………..166 5.3. National Programme for the Adoption of the acquis (NPAA)……………..169 5.4. Turkish Democracy from the Perspective of the Copenhagen Political Criteria……………………………………….171 5.4.1. Stable Institutions…………………………………………………....172 5.4.1.1. Government………………………………………………....173 5.4.1.2. Parliament, Parties and Party System……………………….174 5.4.1.3. Civil Society and Organized Interests……………………....174 5.4.1.4. The Role of the Army in Politics and the National Security Council……………………………...175 5.4.2. Rule of Law………………………………………………………….177 5.4.3. Human Rights……………………………………………………….181 5.4.3.1. Freedom of Expression…………………………………….183 5.4.3.2. Freedom of the Press………………………………………189 5.4.3.3. Freedom of Broadcasting………………………………….192 5.4.3.4. Freedom of Association and Peaceful Assembly………….193 5.4.3.5. Banning of Political Parties and Politicians……………….195 5.4.3.6. Death Penalty……………………………………………...199 5.4.3.7. Prisons and Enforcement of Sentences……………………202 5.4.3.8. Torture and Ill-treatment…………………………………..207 5.4.4. Minorities…………………………………………………………..211 5.4.4.1. Kurdish Issue……………………………………………....211 5.4.4.2. Non-Muslim Minorities........................................................214 Notes to Chapter V......................................................................................217 CHAPTER VI. IMPACT OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION ON TURKISH DEMOCRACY ...................................................220 6.1. National Security Council and the Role of the Military………………….220 6.2. Rule of Law……………………………………………………………….223 6.3. Human Rights……………………………………………………………..227 6.4. Enforcement of Human Rights…………………………………………....233 6.5. Capital Punishment……………………………………………………….236 6.6. Torture and Ill Treatment…………………………………………………238 6.7. Prison System……………………………………………………………..244 6.8. Freedom of Expression…………………………………………………...248 6.9. Freedom of the Press……………………………………………………...253 6.10. Freedom of Broadcasting…………………………………………………255 v 6.11. Freedom of Association and Peaceful Assembly…………………………257 6.12. Political Parties……………………………………………………………262 6.13. Minorities…………………………………………………………………264 6.13.1. Kurdish Issue……………………………………………………...264 6.13.2. Non-Muslim Minorities…………………………………………...266 Notes to Chapter VI.....................................................................................268 CHAPTER VII. MEDIATING FACTORS .....................................................270 7.1. Empowerment of Turkey’s European Bid…………………………………271 7.2. Elite Support for European Integration.........................................................287 7.2.1. Domestic Institutions..........................................................................294 7.2.1.1. Political Parties......................................................................294 7.2.1.1.1. AKP.......................................................................294 7.2.1.1.2. MHP.......................................................................305 7.2.1.1.3. ANAP.....................................................................324 7.2.1.1.4. CHP........................................................................331 7.2.1.1.5. DSP.........................................................................336 7.2.1.2. Military..................................................................................339 7.2.1.3..President.................................................................................348 7.3. Public Support for European Integration.......................................................350 7.3.1. Civil Society.........................................................................................353 7.3.1.1. TUSIAD.................................................................................360 7.3.2. Media...................................................................................................375