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University Microfilms Copyright 1979 by Johnson, Sterling All Rights Reserved 8009294 Jo h n so n, Sterling NATION-STATE AND NON-STATE NATIONS: THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND FOREIGN POLICIES OF BLACK AMERICA The Ohio Slate University PH.D. 1979 University Microfilms International300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106 18 Bedford Row, London WC1R 4EJ, England Copyright 1979 by Johnson, Sterling All Rights Reserved NATION-STATE AND NON-STATE NATIONS: THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND FOREIGN POLICIES OF BLACK AMERICA DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Sterling Johnson, B.A., M.A. * * * * * * The Ohio State University 1979 Reading Committee: Approved By Dr. Chadwick F. Alger Dr. Charles F. Hermann Dr. William E. Nelson Adviser Department of Political Science VITA July 10, 1950............ Born - Chicago, Illinois 1971...................... B. A. Benedict College Columbia, S. C. 1972-1973................ Teaching Assistant, Bowling Green State University 1973...................... M.A. Bowling Green State University 1974-1976................ Research Associate Mershon Center Ohio State University 197 5-197 9................ Instructor Behavioral Sciences, Columbus Technical Institute 1979...................... Junior Officer U. S. Foreign Service TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION......................................... 1 Footnotes......................................... 11 Chapter I. THE URBAN CONTEXT........................... 12 Cities....................................... 14 Black Urban Poverty......................... 20 Urban Disorder and Nation-State Response... 22 Footnotes.................................... 25 II. THE ETHNIC CONTEXT.......................... 27 International Ethnicity..................... 27 Ethnicity and U. S. Foreign Policy......... 30 Footnotes.................................... 41 III. THE HISTORIC PRECEDENT...................... 43 Early Repatriation.......................... 44 Early U. S. Interest in Africa............. 46 Early Black Foreign Policy................. 47 Paul Cuffe................................... 48 Edward Wilmot Blyden........................ 50 Marcus Aurelius Garvey...................... 58 William Edward Burkhardt Dubois............ 66 Malcolm X .................................... 89 Contemporary Activity....................... 94 Contemporary Black Foreign Policy.......... 101 Blacks in the Foreign Service.............. 102 Congressional influence..................... 104 Other organizations......................... 107 A Chronology of Black Foreign Policy...... 110 Activity Footnotes........ 113 iii PAGE IV. THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO ................ 118 NON-STATE ACTORS Linkage Politics......................... 118 Non-State Nations........................ 123 NSN's: The Diffusion of Audibility 126 The Nonstate Actors View................ 129 Footnotes................................. 135 V. FIELD RESEARCH ON FOREIGN POLICY......... 136 ACTIVITY OF FIFTEEN ORGANIZATIONS IN FOUR CITIES Race, Cities, and Research Design....... 140 Collection of Data....................... 144 Hypotheses................................ 147 Data Analysis.......... 157 Footnotes................................. 17 0 Conclusion........................... 171 APPENDIXES A. Questionnaire......... 182 BIBLIOGRAPHY..................... ■........ 192 iv LIST OF TABLES Table PAGE 1. Percentage of Blacks in Policy Making Positions in the Private Sector, Milwaukee, Wisconsin............. 20 2. Major Purpose of Organizations in Field Research......................... 146 3. Influence on Black Issues: Urban Efficacy............................. 151 4. Association Between Level of Urban Efficacy and Amount of Transnational Activity................ 152 5. Domestic Actor Efficacy................... 153 6. Relationship Between Proposition Position and Attempt to Influence U. S. Foreign Policy...................... 154 7. Level of Organizational Agreement or Disagreement with Policy Propositions............................... 155 8. Association Between Transnational Activity and Competence Attached to Various Actors and Newtworks In The International System...................... 156 9. Perception of Intensity In The Racial Environments................... 158 10. Association Between Transnational Activity and Competence Attached To Various Actors and Networks In The International System...................... 159 v PAGE 11. Intensity in Southern African Racial Environment and Organizational Trans­ national Activity............................ 164 12. African Foreign Policy Concern............... 165 13. Global Actor Other Than U. S. Most • Effective Problem Solver..................... 165 14. Transnational and International Activity.... 166 15. The Association Between Electoral Activity and Non-Involvement in Transnational Activity...................................... 167 16. Relative Importance Attached to National and International Issues..................... 168 17. Salience of Selected Domestic and Inter­ national Issues............................... 170 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure PAGE 1. Model of Transnational Activity................................... 150 vii INTRODUCTION One of the most challenging developments in both intranational and international political systems is the increased participation of nongovernmental actors. Nat­ ionalism and independence are sentiments that present chal­ lenges to colonial relationships, ethnic relationships, linguistic and cultural relationships and to racial relationships. National governments, international organizations, political parties and international gov- ermental organizations such as the United Nations organ­ ization in particular are becoming increasingly sensi­ tive to this challenge to both the structure and the function of the present systems. Scholars of international relations and foreign policy have sought to account for these new inter­ national actors by expanding the perception of the world to encompass the activity and behavior and to offer ex­ planations for it. By attempting to break the function­ al rigidity of the present paradigm of world politics, a great deal has been revealed. First, we find that over all national governments activity is a small percentage of international activity. Second, that these nongovern- mental activities are not new, but the perception of them is new. And finally, that if we treat these actors with the same rigor and resources attended to the nation-state, a more accurate picture of international relations and foreign policy becomes visible. One problem faced by participants and observers of world politics is that there are inadequate analytic tools for evaluating the formation, the effectiveness, or impact of their foreign policies on other actors in the inter­ national system. One of the most important issue areas and problem areas in world politics is ethnic and racial conflict in both national and international social systems. Ethnic conflicts in China, Zanzibar, Cyprus, Canada, Northern Ireland and Switzerland, and racial conflict in South Africa, the United States, Zimbabwe (Rhodesia), Britian, and Sweden are but a small sample of this problem. Ethnic violence is defined as violence over any issue that affects the situation of one ethnic community relative to another. One estimate suggests that worldwide 20 to 3 0 percent of all domestic violence in 1961-65 was between ethnic groups, and another source calculates that the sum of the fatalities in ethnic hostilities during the 1945-70 period exceeded 10 million.^ One manifestation of this ethnic conflict is the internationalization of the con­ flict through international activities such as propaganda techniques, cooperation with external actors, ie. national governments, international organizations, ethnic affiliates 3 abroad or any other foreign policy activity. This study is an inquiry into the foreign policy of Black America. Black Americans, as well as others concerned about international issues and particularly U. S. African policy have encountered serious limitations when seeking to become involved in addressing these issues. For example, several Black Americans attending the Sixth Pan-African Congress in June 1974 were perplexed when asked, "whom do you represent?" by the officials of the young African states. These Black representatives constituted a mixture of labor, ideological, cultural, and academic interests in the Black American community, but none represented a government. Many returned to the United States disenchanted with the meeting, feeling that if they were not government officials, they had no basis for participating in world affairs. However, there are nongovernmental alternatives to inter­ national participation. /uid although the involvement of Blacks in these processes has been limited, as has research on such activity, the subject should be more closely ex­ amined. That is the objective of this inquiry. The goals here are to describe both the governmental and nongovern­ mental foreign policy of Blacks manifested in the activities of Black urban organizations: 1) To identify the targets of Black international concern via the activities of these organizations i.e., are they directed at the local level of government, the national level of government, international organizations or foreign governments?;. 2) To describe these foreign policies with respect to their objectives and scope 4 3) To provide a history of the foreign policy activities of Black Americans; and, 4) To explain
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