EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Regional Trends: East and South-East Asia
Summary, emerging trends and concerns
• ATS use, in particular methamphetamine use, continues to increase in most countries in East and South-East Asia. • The illicit manufacture of ATS continues at high levels in the egion.r • Methamphetamine seizures remained high in 2011. • Ecstasy has been in decline in recent years, but there are signs at the global level that the ‘ecstasy’ market is in recovery. • A range of new psychoactive substances has emerged in the region in recent years. • Cocaine traffickers are targeting the large and untapped cocaine market in East and South-East Asia. • Organized criminal groups from Africa and the Islamic Republic of Iran continue to traffic methamphet- amine and other illicit drugs into the region. • Drug treatment demand related to methamphetamine remains high in the region.
Regional trends: East and South-East Asia1 • ATS use, in particular methamphetamine use, continues to increase in most countries in East and The illicit manufacture, trafficking and use of South-East Asia. ATS have ranked in the top three amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) constitute one drugs of use in all countries in the region since 2009. of the most significant drug problems worldwide. The In 2011, reported use of methamphetamine showed East and South-East Asia region, which is home to an increase in eleven countries whereas methamphet- about one-third of the global population, has some amine use was reported as stable or declining in Aus- of the largest and most established ATS markets in tralia, Japan, Malaysia and the Republic of Korea. the world. Methamphetamine in pill, powder and crystalline forms are the most widely used forms of Use of methamphetamine pills takes place pre- ATS in the region. The demand for ecstasy remains dominantly in the Greater Mekong Subregion, high, although its use has declined. Demand for which includes Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, ATS and the massive profits generated by their trade Myanmar, Thailand and Viet Nam. All of these continue to provide ample incentive for manufacturers countries reported an increase in the use of metham- and traffickers to expand their illicit business. phetamine pills in 2011. Some methamphetamine pill use also takes place in Indonesia2 and Malaysia. Meth- The first part of this chapter highlights the key emerg- amphetamine in pill form is the primary drug of use ing trends and concerns related to ATS, their precur- in Lao PDR and Thailand and the secondary drug of sors and other illicit drugs in the region. The second use in Cambodia, China and Viet Nam. part of the chapter presents detailed data related to the use, manufacture, law enforcement and public health Crystalline methamphetamine is the primary drug of dimensions of ATS and other primary drugs of use in concern in Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indone- the East and South-East Asia region. sia, Japan, Philippines and the Republic of Korea. In 1 Although this chapter focuses in detail on the trends in the East and South-East region, a summary of trends in Australia and New 2 A large portion of the methamphetamine pills found in Indonesia Zealand is also included. Detailed information for all countries is avail- are pills sold on the streets as ‘ecstasy’ which may contain various able in the individual country chapters. psychoactive substances including methamphetamine.
7 Global SMART Programme 2012
2011, use of crystalline methamphetamine increased 16 were manufacturing ecstasy and 34 were ephed- in Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Philippines, rine and pseudoephedrine extraction operations. New Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. The use of meth- Zealand dismantled 109 clandestine methamphet- amphetamine, primarily in powder form, increased in amine manufacturing laboratories. New Zealand and remained stable in Australia. • Methamphetamine seizures remained high in • The illicit manufacture of ATS continues at high 2011. A total of 122.8 million methamphetamine levels in the region. In 2011, some 401 illicit syn- pills were seized in East and South-East Asia in 2011, thetic drug manufacturing facilities were seized in East a decrease (9%) compared to the 134.4 million pills and South-East Asia, most of which were manufactur- seized in 2010. Most pills were seized in China (62 ing methamphetamine. While this figure is lower than million) and Thailand (49 million), which accounted the number reported for 2010 (442), it is more than for 89% of the total in 2011. Significant seizures were three times the number of illicit manufacturing facili- also made in Myanmar (5.9 million) and Lao PDR ties seized in 2007 (125). (4.6 million).
China continued to report high, albeit declining, lev- While methamphetamine pill seizures decreased, the els of illicit synthetic drug manufacture with 357 il- total amount of crystalline methamphetamine seized licit synthetic drug manufacturing facilities seized in in the region rose by 23% in 2011, to 8.8 mt.4 Record 2011. It is unclear how many of these facilities were level seizures were reported in a number of countries specifically manufacturing methamphetamine. Illicit during the year. Half of the region’s total seizures were drug manufacture has expanded from the southern made in China, where 4.5 mt were seized in 2011. coastal areas of China to northern and central areas of Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand reported seizures the country; in 2011, illicit drug manufacturing facili- of more than 1 mt of crystalline methamphetamine. ties were seized in 29 of the 33 provinces, municipali- Crystalline methamphetamine seizures also increased ties and autonomous regions of China. significantly in Cambodia and Singapore.
Illicit laboratories were also seized in Indonesia (22), • Ecstasy has been in decline in recent years, Malaysia (17) and the Philippines (6), mostly small- although there are signs at the global level that er-scale laboratories, which can be more easily relo- the ‘ecstasy’ market is in recovery. Reported ecstasy cated. Most seized laboratories were manufacturing use has shown a stable or declining trend in most methamphetamine or ecstasy. Malaysia also reported countries in the region over the past few years. In the seizure of one ketamine laboratory, one illicit addition, seizure and arrest data related to ecstasy have nimetazepam3 (Erimin 5) manufacturing facility and also shown declines. However, in 2011 ecstasy seizures nine facilities related to the processing of low-purity showed an increase in Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, heroin. Cambodia reported the seizure of two large Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Republic of illicit laboratories for manufacturing ATS. Korea and Thailand. Ecstasy manufacture continues to be reported in the region, particularly in Indonesia Myanmar remains the primary source of methamphet- and Malaysia. In the past, manufacture in the region amine pills found in the region and reported its first has consisted primarily of pill pressing and re-pressing ever seizure of a crystalline methamphetamine labo- operations. However, some MDMA production ratory in 2012. Pill pressing operations were seized facilities have been dismantled in Indonesia during in Myanmar but also in Thailand, in the outskirts of the past few years. In addition, safrole-rich oils, which Bangkok and in surrounding provinces which may in- can be used to manufacture MDMA, continue to be dicate that drug criminals are trafficking intermediary smuggled from Cambodia and China. forms of methamphetamine to pill pressing facilities near user markets in the capital. Demand for synthetic stimulants in the region remains high. While the availability of MDMA has In Australia, a total of 556 illicit laboratories for man- shown a decline in recent years, a large portion of the ufacturing ATS were detected in 2010-2011, of which seized drugs marketed on the street as ‘ecstasy’ in the region contain psychoactive substances other than 3 Nimetazepam is a benzodiazepine derivative, controlled in Sched- ule IV of the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, often marketed under the brand name Erimin. 4 One metric ton is equal to 1,000 kg.
8 EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Amphetamine-Type Stimulants (ATS) and their varieties
While ATS drugs pose serious human security and public health threats across the globe, the types of amphetamine-groups substances used in different regions varies considerably. In Europe, amphetamine is the main substance used within this group. In the Near and Middle East, the use of amphetamine tablets sold as Captagon is more common. In the East Asia and Pacific region, the predominant substance used within this group is methamphetamine, in pill, powder and crystalline forms.
Methamphetamine is a white, odourless, bitter-tasting crystalline powder that dissolves easily in water or alcohol. It can be ingested, smoked, snorted, sniffed and injected. Ecstasy (MDMA) is ingested almost exclusively in pill form. In addition, a variety of other psychoactive substances such as ketamine are sold on ATS markets in the region, while in recent years a number of new psychoactive substances have emerged which include piperazines such as BZP as well as analogues of methcathinone including 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC, known as mephedrone).
MDMA, such as ketamine or methamphetamine. • Cocaine traffickers are targeting the large and There are indications that drug users still seek to untapped cocaine market in East and South-East use psychoactive stimulants, including BZP5 and Asia. Large quantities of cocaine have been seized other new psychoactive substances, which are most in several countries in recent years and Cambodia, prevalent in New Zealand and Australia but also Philippines, Viet Nam and Hong Kong, China, have emerging in some countries in East and South-East emerged as transit locations for cocaine trafficking. Asia, for example, Viet Nam. In Hong Kong, China, authorities seized a record 650 kg of cocaine in a shipping container sent from • A range of new psychoactive substances has Ecuador in 2012. Most of the cocaine was believed to emerged in the region in recent years. In the be destined for markets in China and South-East Asia. Philippines, use of pills sold as ‘ecstasy’ but which contain BZP instead of MDMA (or its analogues) has • Organized criminal groups from Africa and been identified as a concern. The Government of Viet the Islamic Republic of Iran continue to traffic Nam has reported the emergence of a number of new methamphetamine and other illicit drugs into the psychoactive substances such as MDA6 and ketamine region. West African drug trafficking organizations, as well as PMMA7 and mCPP.8 The new psychoactive which used to traffic primarily cocaine and heroin, are substance mephedrone,9 a synthetic cathinone, has increasingly involved in methamphetamine trafficking. been identified in China and Thailand as an emerging Trafficking of methamphetamine by African groups drug of concern. In 2010 and 2011, China also has been reported by Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, reported the emergence of various piperazines, such Indonesia, Japan, Lao PDR, Malaysia, New Zealand, as BZP,10 TFMPP11 and mCPP, which are often used Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam. Nigeria, by as a substitute for ‘ecstasy’. In addition, synthetic far the largest country in West Africa, both in terms cannabinoids, such as JWH-018 and its analogues, of population and surface area, is most frequently have been identified as an emerging problem in the cited as the origin for methamphetamine trafficking Republic of Korea. (UNODC 2012c).
Transnational organized criminal groups from the Islamic Republic of Iran continue to traffic quantities 5 BZP refers to benzylpiperazine, a stimulant that mimics the effects of of methamphetamine to various countries in the ecstasy. region, including Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, New 6 MDA refers to 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine. 7 PMMA refers to 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-N-methylpropan-2-amine, also Zealand and Thailand. known as paramethoxymethamphetamine. 8 mCPP refers to meta-Chlorophenylpiperazine. 12 Based on drug treatment data reported to DAINAP. Methamphet- 9 4-methylmethcathinone. amine-related drug treatment data are not uniformly reported in the 10 BZP refers to Benzylpiperazine. region. Some countries report data only from select drug treatment cen- 117)033UHIHUVWR7ULÁXRURPHWK\OSKHQ\OSLSHUD]LQH tres.
9 Global SMART Programme 2012
• Drug treatment demand related to methamphetamine was also the primary drug of methamphetamine remains high in the region. use among persons who received drug treatment in ATS were the primary drugs of use for 70% of all Brunei Darussalam (96%). Methamphetamine pills persons in drug treatment in 2011.12 During the year, continued to be the most common drug of use among about two-thirds of the persons in treatment in the persons in treatment in Lao PDR (98%) and Thailand Philippines were crystalline methamphetamine users, (86%). In addition, the number of crystalline roughly the same proportion as in each of the previous methamphetamine users in treatment in Thailand in ten years. In addition, the proportion of women in 2011 showed a near three-fold increase and accounted treatment for crystalline methamphetamine in the for about 4% of all persons in drug treatment. Philippines increased to 75% in 2011 (compared with Most drug treatment services in the region are aimed 62% in 2010). The number of methamphetamine at users of heroin, opium and cannabis. In addition, users in treatment in Singapore increased sharply to in several countries in the region, a large number of the highest level reported during the past five years. persons in drug treatment are arrested drug users who As a proportion of all persons in drug treatment, are sent to compulsory drug treatment facilities, most crystalline methamphetamine users accounted for of which do not provide ATS-specific drug treatment about 44% compared with 30% in 2010. Crystalline services.
Figure 2. Crystalline methamphetamine use trend, 2011
Increasing
Stable
Decreasing
No trend reported 2010/11
The boundaries and names shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations
Source(s): DAINAP
10 EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Methamphetamine come more prevalent throughout the region, expanding in countries that previously had Methamphetamine use – All countries in the region experienced only limited or no use, such as in report the use of methamphetamine, with 13 Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. In 2011, increasing countries reporting it as the primary or secondary use of crystalline methamphetamine was reported in drug of use: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Philippines, Indonesia, Japan, Lao PDR, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. Philippines, Republic of Korea, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. Seven countries reported the use of In Australia, Japan, New Zealand and the Republic methamphetamine pills – Cambodia, China, In- of Korea, methamphetamine use has shown overall donesia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand and Viet stable or declining trends over the past few years. Nam – while all but two countries (Lao PDR Methamphetamine in crystalline form is the most and Myanmar) reported the use of crystalline common form of the drug in Japan and the Republic methamphetamine. of Korea and the second most common form in Australia and New Zealand, after methamphetamine Crystalline methamphetamine use has rapidly be- powder.
Figure 3. Methamphetamine pill use trend, 2011
Increasing
Stable
Decreasing
No trend reported 2010/11
The boundaries and names shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations
Source(s): DAINAP
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Methamphetamine pills are almost exclusively a Figure 4. Methamphetamine-related arrests concern in Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, Myanmar, in East and South-East Asia, 2007-2011 Thailand and Viet Nam. Small quantities of lower purity methamphetamine pills are found elsewhere in 400,000 the region. Methamphetamine pills are the primary 350,000 drugs of use in Lao PDR and Thailand and the 300,000 secondary drugs of use in Cambodia, China and Viet 250,000
Nam, according to government expert perception. 200,000 In 2011, Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, Myanmar, 150,000 Thailand and Viet Nam reported increasing arrests of Number methamphetamine pill use. 100,000 50,000 Methamphetamine-related arrests – Methamphet- 0 amine-related arrests13 in East and South-East Asia 2007 2008 2009* 2010* 2011* *Includes arrest data from China, which prior to 2009 did not report have increased each year since 2004. In 2011, almost disaggregated drug-related arrest data to DAINAP. 367,000 methamphetamine-related arrests were re- Source(s): DAINAP corded in the region, a 29% increase compared with 2010 and the highest total ever reported. However, russalam (86%), Japan (86%), Philippines (77%), Re- this figure excludes detailed information from Cam- public of Korea (79%) and Thailand (77%). bodia, Philippines and Viet Nam, which did not pro- vide disaggregated arrest data in 2011. During the Australia reported a total of 12,897 arrests related to year, methamphetamine accounted for more than ATS in 2010-2011, representing about 15% of all three fourths of all drug-related arrests in Brunei Da- illicit drug-related arrests, second only to cannabis.
Table 1. Methamphetamine-related arrests in East and South-East Asia, 2007-2011 Number of methamphetamine arrests Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Brunei Darussalam 662 498 411 489 508 Cambodia 246 371 භභභ China භභ31,907 39,231 44,920 Hong Kong, China 747 874 788 726 732 Indonesia 8,651 8,685 10,185 12,463 15,766 Japan 12,211 11,231 11,873 12,200 12,083 Lao PDR 147 344 581 1,007 1,749 Malaysia14 1,235 1,443 1,131 42,701 66,736 Myanmar 745 943 1,317 1,008 1,269 Philippines භභභභභ Republic of Korea 8,521 7,457 7,965 6,771 7,226 Singapore 221 404 542 702 1,157 Thailand 90,809 127,195 153,929 168,146 214,779 Viet Nam භභභභභ Total 123,475 159,445 220,629 285,444 366,925 Ɣ = Not reported Source(s): DAINAP
130HWKDPSKHWDPLQHUHODWHG DUUHVW ÀJXUHV DUH QRW UHSRUWHG XQLIRUPO\ 14 Methamphetamine-related arrest data for Malaysia (from 2007- in the region. Some countries report the arrests of methamphet- 2009) refer only to the number of methamphetamine users arrested DPLQHXVHUVRQO\DQGGRQRWLQFOXGHPHWKDPSKHWDPLQHWUDIÀFNHUVDQG DQG GR QRW LQFOXGH PHWKDPSKHWDPLQH WUDIÀFNHUV DQG PDQXIDF- PDQXIDFWXUHUV$UUHVWÀJXUHVIRURWKHUFRXQWULHVLQFOXGHDOOVXFKJURXSV WXUHUV $UUHVW ÀJXUHV IRU DQG LQFOXGH DOO VXFK JURXSV
12 EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA
ATS-related arrests in Australia have increased by 62% compared with 2007 (22.4 million pills seized). during the past decade. In New Zealand, ATS-related The number of pills seized in China (61.9 million), offences accounted for nearly 13% of all drug-related Thailand (49.4 million), Myanmar (5.9 million) and arrests in 2011, unchanged from the previous year. Lao PDR (4.6 million) accounted for 98% of the total during the year (as these four countries did in 2010). Methamphetamine seizures – The number of The largest relative increases were reported from methamphetamine pills seized in the region continued Cambodia (189%) and Myanmar (169%). A large at a high, albeit slightly declining, level. In 2011, a increase (120%) was also reported from Singapore; total of 122.8 million methamphetamine pills were though the number of methamphetamine pills seized seized, representing a 9% decrease from the 134.4 in Singapore is low by regional standards, it is high million pills seized in 2010. However, the total by national standards. In addition, Viet Nam also represents a 33% increase compared with 2009 (92.1 reported a large increase (65%) in methamphetamine million seized) and a five-and-a-half fold increase pill seizures in 2011, with 366,000 synthetic drug
Figure 5. Methamphetamine pill seizures in Figure 6. Crystalline methamphetamine East and South-East Asia, 2007-2011 seizures in East and South-East Asia, 2007- 2011
160,000,000 10,000
140,000,000 9,000 8,000 120,000,000 7,000 100,000,000 6,000 80,000,000 5,000
60,000,000 Seizures (kg) 4,000
Number of seized pills 3,000 40,000,000 2,000 20,000,000 1,000 0 0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Source(s): DAINAP Source(s): DAINAP
Table 2. Methamphetamine pill seizures in East and South-East Asia, 2007-2011 Number of methamphetamine pills seized Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Brunei Darussalam භ භ භ භ භ Cambodia 420,287 116,772 137,249 82,746 238,994 China 7,620,322 6,255,658 40,460,038 58,443,666 61,942,559 Hong Kong, China භ භ භ භ භ Indonesia භ භ භ භ භ Japan භ භ භ භ භ Lao PDR 1,272,815 1,227,205 2,335,330 24,530,177 4,609,729 Malaysia 121,629 281,343 107,952 107,963 364,909 Myanmar 1,666,141 1,102,199 23,899,156 2,192,263 5,894,188 Philippines භ භ භ භ භ Republic of Korea 196 151 1 5 5 Singapore 498 1,135 1,237 352 772 Thailand 12,783,761 20,023,705 24,638,320 48,793,951 49,365,700 Viet Nam 29,679 850,000* 564,515** 221,685*** 366,000**** Total 22,415,328 29,858,168 92,143,798 134,372,808 122,782,856 Ɣ = Not reported. *Reported as 60kg plus 70,000 pills. **Reported as 500,000 pills and 5.87 kg. ***Reported as 221,685 pills plus 22 kg. Source(s): DAINAP
13 Global SMART Programme 2012
Table 3. Crystalline methamphetamine seizures in East and South-East Asia (kg), 2007- 2011 Amount of crystalline methamphetamine seized Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Brunei Darussalam 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.8 Cambodia 6.8 1.9 4.6 9.9 19.1 China 5,863.0 5,523.0 2,479.0 4,186.0 4,458.0 Hong Kong, China 40.8 23.9 40.1 101.8 38.4 Indonesia 492.9 709.9 239.5 649.1 1,161.3 Japan 359.0 402.6 369.5 310.7 350.9 Lao PDR භ භ භ භ භ Malaysia 69.2 357.0 1,160.0 887.3 1,235.6 Myanmar 3.4 15.9 124.3 226.1 33.4 Philippines 368.9 853.5 149.3 63.6 254.3 Republic of Korea 23.7 25.6 15.2 11.9 23.5 Singapore 1.5 1.8 3.7 5.6 14.1 Thailand 48.3 54.3 213.2 706.0 1,232.0 Viet Nam 0.7 භ 3.9 භභ Total 7,278.5 7,969.8 4,802.6 7,158.8 8,821.4 Ɣ = Not reported Source(s): DAINAP
pills seized, most of which were likely methamphet- many countries in the region reported a continued low amine pills. However, methamphetamine seizure data availability of MDMA in the ‘ecstasy’ market in 2011, are not uniformly reported from Viet Nam, making at the global level, there are signs that the ‘ecstasy’ year-by-year comparisons in that country difficult. market is beginning to recover, including the increasing availability of ‘ecstasy’ in North America and Europe. Seizures of crystalline methamphetamine in 2011 Many of the seized drugs marketed on the street as reached their highest level during the past five years. ‘ecstasy’ in the region contain psychoactive substances In 2011, a total of approximately 8.8 mt of crystalline other than MDMA,15 such as methamphetamine or methamphetamine were seized in the region, ketamine and other new psychoactive substances such representing a 23% increase over the approximately 7.2 as piperazines. Hence, caution should be exercised mt seized in 2010. Record level seizures were reported when assessing statistics related to ecstasy in countries from Malaysia (1.2 mt) and Thailand (1.2 mt). In which do not have ATS data and classification systems addition, the 1.2 mt of crystalline methamphetamine or the appropriate forensic and analytical facilities. seized in Indonesia in 2011 is the highest total reported In 2011, Cambodia, Singapore and Viet Nam all during the past five years. Record seizures were reported increases in ecstasy use. All other countries also reported from Cambodia (19.1 kg) and that reported ecstasy use trend data to DAINAP Singapore (14.1 kg), although the amounts seized are reported stable or decreasing use of the drug. Ecstasy comparatively low by regional standards. The largest is not reported as the most common drug of use in any portion of crystalline methamphetamine seizures country in the region but is the second most common continued to be made in China, where the 4.5 mt illicit drug of use in Australia and New Zealand and seized in 2011 accounted for half of the regional total. the third most common drug of use in China and the Republic of Korea.
Ecstasy Ecstasy-related arrests – Only 1.8% of the ATS- related arrests in the region involved ecstasy in 2011. Ecstasy use – Ecstasy use continues to decline in the
region, in line with the global trend. However, whereas 15 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, or one of its related analogues.
14 EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Figure 7. Ecstasy use trend, 2011
Increasing
Stable
Decreasing
No trend reported 2010/11
The boundaries and names shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations
Source(s): DAINAP During the year a total of 6,984 ecstasy-related New Zealand and Australia did not report arrests were reported compared with 10,512 arrests disaggregated arrest data for ecstasy. in 2010, a 34% decline. Nearly all countries able to report ecstasy arrests showed a decline in figures Figure 8. Ecstasy seizures in East and for 2011; only Brunei Darussalam and Singapore South-East Asia, 2007-2011 reported increases during the year. However, ecstasy use and the number of ecstasy pills seized in those 6,000,000 two countries remain comparatively insignificant. The 5,000,000 largest numbers of ecstasy-related arrests continue to 4,000,000 be reported from Malaysia, which accounted for 73% of all ecstasy-related arrests in the region in 2011 and 3,000,000
16 Number of pills 78% in 2010. 2,000,000
1,000,000
0 16 Ecstasy-related arrest data for Malaysia (from 2007-2009) refer only to 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 WKHQXPEHURI HFVWDV\XVHUVDUUHVWHGDQGGRQRWLQFOXGHHFVWDV\WUDIÀFN- Source(s): DAINAP HUVDQGPDQXIDFWXUHUV$UUHVWÀJXUHVIRUDQGLQFOXGHDOOVXFK groups.
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Table 4. Ecstasy-related arrests in East and South-East Asia, 2007-2011 Number of ecstasy-related arrests Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Brunei Darussalam 0 3 10 0 1 Cambodia 1 7 භභභ China භභ1,287 816 627 Hong Kong, China 224 315 157 34 25 Indonesia 3,415 2,947 1,919 1,087 965 Japan 312 311 140 93 86 Lao PDR භභභභභ Malaysia 182 119 83 8,248 5,071 Myanmar 86000 Philippines භභභභභ Republic of Korea භභභභභ Singapore 78 110 39 17 22 Thailand 453 592 496 217 187 Viet Nam භභභභභ Total 4,673 4,410 4,131 10,512 6,984 Ɣ = Not reported Source(s): DAINAP
Table 5. Ecstasy seizures in East and South-East Asia, 2007-2011 Number of ecstasy pills seized Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Brunei Darussalam භ 12 15 භ 349 Cambodia 300 33 3,352 1,056 7,855 China 2,219,353 1,077,552 1,062,173 1,272,904 317,886* Hong Kong, China 65,539 11,984 7,146 5,810 983 Indonesia 1,247,302 1,091,204 318,935 434,660 1,096,249 Japan 1,278,354 217,883 91,960 18,246 27,187 Lao PDR භ භ භ භ භ Malaysia 709,888 80,788 75,515 60,713 98,751 Myanmar 2,690 108 5 0 0 Philippines 122 513 2,090 336 993 Republic of Korea 18,323 714 894 486 562 Singapore 7,035 7,415 8,986 8,085 3,213 Thailand 92,336 49,833 61,089 16,647 21,115 Viet Nam භ 19,000 භභභ Total 5,641,242 2,557,039 1,632,160 1,818,943 1,575,143 Ɣ = Not reported͘ΎZĞƉŽƌƚĞĚĂƐϳϭ͕ϱϯϯĞĐƐƚĂƐLJƉŝůůƐƉůƵƐϳϯ͘ϵŬŐ͖ĐŽŶǀĞƌƚĞĚŝŶƚŽĞƐƟŵĂƚĞĚƉŝůůĞƋƵŝǀĂůĞŶƚƐĂƚϯϬϬŵŐƉĞƌƉŝůů͘ Source(s): DAINAP
Ecstasy seizures – Ecstasy seizures in the region have years. The vast majority of seizures continue to be fluctuated over the years. In 2011, seizures of ecstasy made in China, where the number of ecstasy pills pills decreased by 13%, with almost 1.6 million pills seized declined by 75% in 2011, and in Indonesia, seized, the lowest total reported during the past five which showed a two-and-a-half-fold increase to about
16 EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA
1.1 million pills seized during the year. In 2011, the 2007). Large increases in ecstasy pill seizures were also two countries accounted for about 90% of all ecstasy reported in Cambodia (644%), Philippines (196%), pill seizures in East and South-East Asia (and about Malaysia (63%), Japan (49%) and Thailand (27%) 94% in 2010, 85% in 2009, 85% in 2008 and 61% in in 2011. Brunei Darussalam reported a total of 349
Table 6. Illicit methamphetamine manufacturing facilities dismantled, 2007-2011 Methamphetamine Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Brunei Darussalam භභභභභ Cambodia 2 භ 511 2 China 75 භභභභ Hong Kong, China භභ21භ Indonesia 7 භභ11 17 Japan භභභ1 භ Lao PDR භභභභභ Malaysia භභභ63 Myanmar 5* 1* භභ2 Philippines 910976 Republic of Korea භභභ4 භ Singapore භභභභභ Thailand භභ2* 6* 4* Viet Nam භභභභභ Total 9811184734 Ɣ = Not reported͘ΎWŝůůƉƌĞƐƐŝŶŐŽƉĞƌĂƟŽŶ͘ Source(s): DAINAP
7DEOH,OOLFLWHFVWDV\RUXQGH¿QHG$76PDQXIDFWXULQJIDFLOLWLHVGLVPDQWOHG ĐƐƚĂƐLJŽƌƵŶĚĞĮŶĞĚd^ Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Brunei Darussalam භභභභභ Cambodia භභභභභ China* භ 244* 391* 378* 357* Hong Kong, China භභභභභ Indonesia 16213715 7 Japan භභභභභ Lao PDR භභභභභ Malaysia 9 12* 11 1 3 Myanmar භභ3** භභ Philippines භභභභභ Republic of Korea 2 භභභභ Singapore භභභභභ Thailand භභ11භ Viet Nam භභභභභ Total 27 277 443 395 367 Ɣ = Not reported͘ΎEŽƚƐƉĞĐŝĮĞĚďLJůĂďŽƌĂƚŽƌLJƚLJƉĞ͖ŝŶĐůƵĚĞƐŬĞƚĂŵŝŶĞĂŶĚŶŽŶͲƐLJŶƚŚĞƟĐĚƌƵŐƐ͘ΎΎWŝůůƉƌĞƐƐŝŶŐŽƉĞƌĂƟŽŶ͘ Source(s): DAINAP
17 Global SMART Programme 2012
ecstasy pills seized in 2011, low by regional standards scale illicit ATS manufacture or ATS pill pressing but the highest total ever reported in the country. operations have been reported in recent years from Japan, the Republic of Korea, Thailand and Viet Whereas the amount of ecstasy seized in New Zealand Nam. Ecstasy manufacture has been reported from nearly tripled in 2011, the amount seized at the borders Australia, Indonesia, New Zealand and possibly also in in 2011 showed a large decrease compared with the Myanmar. A large number of illicit drug manufacturing previous year. The overall increase in the number of laboratories dismantled during the past few years have ‘ecstasy’ pills seized in 2011 is likely due to the growth been smaller and relatively mobile facilities based of domestic supply. In Australia, the number and in private residences. In addition, the global trend weight of ecstasy (MDMA) border detections showed of extracting ephedrine and pseudoephedrine from substantial increases in 2010-2011. pharmaceutical preparations in the manufacture of methamphetamine also occurs in East and South-East Asia as well as in Australia and New Zealand. ATS manufacture In 2011, some 401 synthetic drug manufacturing Large-scale ATS manufacture takes place in Australia, facilities were dismantled in East and South-East Asia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, most of which were manufacturing methamphetamine. New Zealand and the Philippines. Limited and small- The number of illicit ATS manufacturing facilities
Figure 9. Ketamine use trend, 2011
Increasing
Stable
Decreasing
No trend reported 2010/11
The boundaries and names shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations
Source(s): DAINAP
18 EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA
dismantled in 2011 is lower (9%) than the number of Cambodia continued to dismantle facilities that were facilities seized in 2010 and about 13% lower than the manufacturing methamphetamine or producing pre- number of illicit ATS facilities seized in 2009, the year cursor chemicals for the manufacture of methamphet- in which clandestine laboratory seizures peaked (461). amine and MDMA. In the first half of 2012, six clan- Myanmar is the primary source of methamphetamine destine ATS laboratories were dismantled. pills and one of the sources of crystalline methamphet- amine. The seizure of only a small number (12) of pill In the maritime countries of South-East Asia, ATS man- pressing machines during the five-year reporting period ufacture has been dominated by the illicit manufacture (2007-2011) is inconsistent with the number of meth- of crystalline methamphetamine and, to a lesser but still amphetamine pills seized in neighbouring countries significant extent, ecstasy. Indonesia, Malaysia and the and with the amount of Myanmar-manufactured crys- Philippines have seized a number of smaller, more mobile talline methamphetamine seized in the northern part of home-based ATS laboratories. Thailand. In 2011, two methamphetamine pill pressing operations were dismantled in Myanmar; and in 2012, In addition, Malaysia also seized one ketamine labo- Myanmar officially reported its first ever seizure of a ratory, one illicit nimetazepam (Erimin 5) producing crystalline methamphetamine facility. facility and nine facilities related to the processing of low-purity heroin. China continued to report high, albeit slightly declining, levels of illicit synthetic drug manufacture in 2011. However, illicit synthetic drug manufacture Ketamine has spread throughout China, and in 2011 clandestine laboratories were detected in nearly all provinces, Ketamine use – Use of ketamine,17 a hallucinogenic municipalities and autonomous regions in the country. substance used mainly in veterinary medicine, remains In Hong Kong, China, no illicit ATS manufacturing widespread in some countries in East and South-East facilities were seized in 2011. Asia but appears to have stabilized in recent years. In
Table 8. Ketamine seizures in East and South-East Asia (kg), 2007-2011 Amount of ketamine seized (kg) Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Brunei Darussalam 0.005 * 0.001** 0.01 0.04 0.4 Cambodia භ 495*** 1.1 0.001 භ China 6,101.7 5,271.1 5,323.0 4,905.0 5,380.0 Hong Kong, China 96.4 423.3 472.3 189.1 276.3 Indonesia භ 19.8 6.1 116.9 49.3 Japan භ භ භ භ භ Lao PDR භ භ භ භ භ Malaysia 267.9 553.1 1,070.6 334.1 202.5 Myanmar භ භ 1,500.0 භ 1.4 Philippines 325.0 10.2 9.0 0 0 Republic of Korea භ භ භ භ භ Singapore 11.0 14.0 8.7 12.2 7.9 Thailand 2.8 18.5 20.6 166.7 78.0 Viet Nam භ 5.7 භ භ භ Total 6,804.8 6,315.7 8,411.4 5,724.0 5,995.8 Ɣ = Not reported͘ΎZĞƉŽƌƚĞĚĂƐϬ͘ϬϬϱŬŐĂŶĚϵƉŝůůƐ͘ΎΎZĞƉŽƌƚĞĚĂƐϬ͘ϬϬϭŬŐĂŶĚϮƉŝůůƐ͘ΎΎΎZĞƉŽƌƚĞĚĂƐϰϵϱƐŵĂůůďŽƩůĞƐŽĨƵŶĚĞĮŶĞĚǁĞŝŐŚƚ͘ Source(s): DAINAP
17 Ketamine comes in bottled liquid, whitish powder and pill forms. It is sometimes sold in East and South-East Asia as ‘amphetamine’ or ‘ec- stasy’ or is mixed with MDMA.
19 Global SMART Programme 2012
2011, ketamine use was reported in Brunei Darus- Figure 10. Ketamine seizures in East and salam, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. South-East Asia (kg), 2007-2011 In Hong Kong, China, ketamine users accounted for 9,000 roughly 36% of all drug users and an estimated 80%
of all drug users below the age of 21. Ketamine use 8,000 was reported to have increased in 2011 in China. 7,000 Ketamine seizures – Ketamine seizures showed a
slight (5%) increase in 2011, with 6.0 mt seized dur- Seizures (kg) 6,000 ing the year compared with 5.7 mt seized in 2010. However, total seizures may actually be higher as 5,000 several countries report ketamine seizures in the cat- 4,000 egories of ‘other drugs’, ‘synthetic drugs’, or not at all 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 since it is not an internationally controlled substance. Source(s): DAINAP Almost 90% of the ketamine seized in the region in 2011 was seized in China. China and India have the Philippines. Ketamine seizures increased by about been cited as sources of ketamine and illicit ketamine 11% in China (including Hong Kong, China) to 5.7 manufacture has been reported from Malaysia and mt in 2011 compared with 5.1 mt in 2010. Notable
Figure 11. Heroin use trend, 2011
Increasing
Stable
Decreasing
No trend reported 2010/11
The boundaries and names shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations Source(s): DAINAP
20 EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Figure 12. Opium use trend, 2011
Increasing
Stable
Decreasing
No trend reported 2010/11
The boundaries and names shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations
Source(s): DAINAP declines were recorded in Indonesia (58%), Thailand na, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar and Singapore. In (53%), Malaysia (39%) and Singapore (35%). 2011, reported heroin use increased in Lao PDR, Sin- gapore and Thailand. Reported opium use increased in Lao PDR. In New Zealand, the use of opiates in- Opiates cluding morphine and ‘homebake heroin’18 as well as synthetic opioids increased. Illicit opium poppy cultivation continues to take place primarily in Myanmar and Lao PDR. As Opium poppy cultivation in South-East Asia (mainly with opium poppy cultivation, heroin use in the in Myanmar and Lao PDR) is at far lower levels than in region had also stabilized in recent years. However, the mid-1990s but has increased in each of the past six since 2009, heroin trafficking and use has re-emerged years. The total area under opium poppy cultivation as a threat. in the region increased by 21% from about 48,000 ha in 2011 to 58,000 ha in 2012, 88% of which Heroin remains the primary drug of concern in Chi- was cultivated in Myanmar. Lao PDR reported the na, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore and Viet Nam. In addition, heroin accounted for a substantial number 18 ‘Homebake heroin’ is a street substance which is created from pharmaceutical opiates such as morphine or codeine through a simple of problem drug users in treatment in Australia, Chi- chemical process using acetic anhydride.
21 Global SMART Programme 2012
Table 9. Opiate-related arrests in East and South-East Asia, 2007-2011 Number of opiate-related arrests* Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Brunei Darussalam 00100 Cambodia 8 6 භභභ China භභභභ48,392 Hong Kong, China 1,601 1,378 1,145 888 771 Indonesia 3,561 1,813 925 759 698 Japan 6236444531 Lao PDR 36 45 94 භභ Malaysia 9,169 8,693 8,488 25,094 68,340 Myanmar 2,015 2,059 2,613 1,689 1,933 Philippines භභභභභ Republic of Korea 954 1,389 2,189 1,124 755 Singapore 690 1,216 1,425 1,787 1,924 Thailand 1,485 1,388 1,859 1,681 1,853 Viet Nam භභභභභ Total 19,581 18,023 18,783 33,067 124,697 Ɣ = Not reported. *Also includes heroin, opium, morphine and other opiates. Source(s): DAINAP
Table 10. Heroin seizures in East and South-East Asia (kg), 2007-2011 Amount of heroin seized (kg) Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Brunei Darussalam 0 0 1.1 0 0 Cambodia 11.0 5.3 26.7 2.4 2.1 China 4,594.0 4,332.3 5,838.0 5,353.0 7,080.0 Hong Kong, China 37.4 46.4 37.1 68.5 171.7 Indonesia 17.2 29.1 12.3 25.0 28.8 Japan 2.0 1.0 1.2 0.3 3.6 Lao PDR 23.8 17.5 29.2 84.3 43.4 Malaysia 243.3 297.1 283.4 299.3 755.5 Myanmar 68.4 88.2 1,076.1 88.5 42.4 Philippines භ භ භ භ භ Republic of Korea 0 0 1.9 0.1 0 Singapore 17.2 44.5 29.1 49.0 72.7 Thailand 294.6 199.9 143.1 137.6 547.5 Viet Nam 160.2 156.2 213.0 316.8 309.0 Total 5,469.1 5,217.5 7,692.2 6,424.8 9,056.7 Ɣ = Not reported Source(s): DAINAP
cultivation of 6,800 ha in 2012 compared with 4,100 Arrests involving opiates (heroin, opium, morphine ha in 2011, representing a 66% increase. Far smaller and codeine) in the region nearly quadrupled in amounts of opium poppy are cultivated in the 2011 compared with the previous year. The 124,697 Republic of Korea, Thailand and Viet Nam. opiate-related arrests reported in 2011 is the high-
22 EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Table 11. Opium seizures in East and South-East Asia (kg), 2007-2011 Amount of opium seized (kg) Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Brunei Darussalam 00000 Cambodia භ භ භ භ භ China 1,184.6 1,375.0 1,303.0 1,015.0 823.0 Hong Kong, China භ 182.7 භ භ භ Indonesia භ භ භ භ භ Japan 19.6 6.6 3.2 3.7 7.6 Lao PDR 14.2 11.8 50.0 86.5 63.4 Malaysia 7.4 13.9 10.1 4.4 0.9 Myanmar 1,173.8 1,463.4 752.0 922.0 828.3 Philippines 2.5 භ භ භ භ Republic of Korea 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0 Singapore භ 0.5 භ භ 0.2 Thailand 72.6 117.9 111.1 157.9 42.7 Viet Nam 63.4 18.8 69.8 28.2 76.0 Total 2,538.2 3,190.8 2,299.4 2,217.8 1,842.1 Ɣ = Not reported Source(s): DAINAP est total ever reported from the region. However, the Since 2010, Malaysia has also included arrested drug increase is due to the large number of arrests in China, manufacturers and traffickers in its drug-related arrest which reported opiate-related arrest data for the first data. Hence, making year-by-year comparisons for time in 2011, and in Malaysia, where prior to 2010 opiate-related arrest data is difficult. only the number of drug users arrested was reported.
Table 12. Cannabis-related arrests in East and South-East Asia, 2007-2011 Number of arrests Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Brunei Darussalam 27 28 5 44 31 Cambodia 8 6 භභභ China භභභභ634 Hong Kong, China 541 544 543 325 256 Indonesia 18,142 11,581 12,001 9,630 7,841 Japan 2,375 2,867 3,087 2,367 1,759 Lao PDR 2 26 40 භභ Malaysia 3,385 514 5,207 6,567 15,220 Myanmar 217 240 490 146 275 Philippines භභභභභ Republic of Korea 1,170 1,045 1,712 1,837 1,189 Singapore 102 88 126 131 127 Thailand 12,851 13,168 18,600 15,281 13,737 Viet Nam භභභභභ Total 38,820 30,107 41,811 36,328 41,069 Ɣ = Not reported Source(s): DAINAP
23 Global SMART Programme 2012
Figure 13. Cannabis use trend, 2011
Increasing
Stable
Decreasing
No trend reported 2010/11
The boundaries and names shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations
Source(s): DAINAP
Heroin seizures in the region increased by 41% in The amount of heroin detected at the Australian 2011, from 6.4 mt seized in 2010 to 9.1 mt seized border increased by 241%, from 117.5 kg in 2009- in 2011, the highest total reported during the past 2010 to 400.2 kg in 2010-2011, the highest total five years. The majority of seizures was made in recorded since 2001-2002. The quantity of national China (including Hong Kong, China), with nearly 7.3 heroin seizures showed a five-fold increase, from 74.7 mt seized during the year. Substantial increases were kg in 2009-2010 to 375.5 kg in 2010-2011, the reported from Thailand (298%), Malaysia (152%), highest amount recorded since 2002-2003. The illicit Hong Kong, China (151%), Singapore (48%) and trafficking and use of heroin or opium is not China (33%). widespread in New Zealand as most opiate users in the country use ‘homebake heroin’, or diverted Myanmar and China reported the majority of opium medicines such as oxycodone. Prescribing records and seized in the region (as in previous years), with 828 seizure data indicate that the use of the prescription kg of opium seized in Myanmar and 823 kg seized opiate oxycodone in New Zealand is increasing. in China, accounting for 90% of the total opium seizures in the region in 2011. A significant increase was reported in Viet Nam (170%). Thailand and Lao PDR reported substantial decreases.
24 EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Table 13. Cannabis seizures in East and South-East Asia (kg), 2007-2011 Amount of cannabis seized (herb and resin) (kg) Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Brunei Darussalam 0.1 0.6 1.6 6.3 0.6 Cambodia 10.0 5.0 3.8 1.2 210.2 China භ භ භ 3,186.0 3,580.0 Hong Kong (SAR) 257.4 261.0 107.0 14.3 43.1 Indonesia 35,464.6 140,496.3 110,722.7 12,661.2 20,259.7 Japan 560.5 415.7 224.8 195.6 169.5 Lao PDR 2,302.8 804.6 976.0 3,521.0 1,617.0 Malaysia 1,482.6 874.8 2,351.8 1,064.0 1,054.0 Myanmar 104.3 170.2 284.6 205.6 196.4 Philippines 1,200.0 3,724.0 1,660.0 1,129.4 596.5 Republic of Korea 23.0 94.7 123.0 44.5 83.7 Singapore 30.3 3.3 7.1 8.5 12.9 Thailand 17,227.8 21,135.8 26,081.0 22,470.6 14,374.5 Viet Nam 8,000.0 8,928.8 332.0 211.3 7,500.0 Total 66,663.4 176,914.8 142,875.4 44,719.5 49,698.1 Ɣ = Not reported Source(s): DAINAP
Cannabis Other substances
Cannabis continues to be widely used in East and Apart from ATS, cannabis, heroin, opium and South-East Asia. Increasing cannabis use was reported ketamine, a range of other illicit drugs are used in the in Australia, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Republic of Korea region, although to a far lesser extent. and Thailand. All other countries reported stable or declining trends. Cocaine use in Asia remains limited, though the substantial quantities of cocaine seized during the Cannabis-related arrests in the region in 2011 increased past two years may possibly indicate that organized by 13% compared with 2010. The 41,069 arrests is crime groups are trying to develop the potentially the second highest total reported in the past five years. large market in the region. The most common form of Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia accounted for the cocaine in the region is the powdered hydrochloride majority of the region’s cannabis-related arrests in 2011 salt form, which is typically snorted but can also be (90%). dissolved in water and then injected. A record amount of cocaine was seized in Hong Kong, China (776.5 Cannabis seizures increased by 11% in 2011 to 50 mt kg) in 2011. Significant increases were also reported compared with 36 mt seized in 2010. The majority of in Australia and Japan in 2011. cannabis seizures continued to be reported from Indo- nesia and Thailand, which accounted for 70% of the The non-medical use of benzodiazepines, in particular total amount of cannabis seized in the region. Viet Nam nimetazepam19, is a problem in some countries reported a dramatic increase, from 211 kg in 2010 to in the region. Use of nimetazepam, sometimes in 7.5 mt in 2011. Significant increases in cannabis seizures combination with methamphetamine, is particularly were also reported in Indonesia (60%) and Republic of prevalent in peninsular South-East Asia, including Korea (88%). Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, the Philippines and Singapore.
19 Nimetazepam is a benzodiazepine derivative, controlled in Schedule IV of the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, often marketed under the brand name Erimin.
25 SAT
An example of globalization at work – the impending impact of the ASEAN Economic Community
Leaders of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) at their 12th ASEAN Summit in 2007 reiterated their commitment to the establishment of an ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) by 2015. The AEC will create a single regional common market of more than 600 million persons and will facilitate the free flow of goods, services, investment, capital and labour.
However, regional integration under the AEC will doubtless also make possible the increased mobility of illicit goods, including drugs. The ASEAN region continues to be one of the most rapidly developing parts of the planet. And while the AEC will bring positive and welcome changes and provide the region with unrivaled access to knowledge and the power to communicate, it will simultaneously provide opportunities for transnational organized crime to expand.
Already, several ASEAN governments have given priority to upgrading cross-border infrastructure links, in particular the Singapore-Kunming Rail Link as well as a number of road networks that include the North-South corridor from southern China through Myanmar, Thailand and Lao PDR to Viet Nam; the East-West corridor linking Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam; and the South-South corridor linking proposed and existing deep seaports in Cambodia, Thailand and Myanmar. Under the AEC, trade and customs procedures along these routes will be harmonized, standardized and simplified.
Organized criminal groups may utilize the improved transportation connections and take advantage of the streamlined border controls to smuggle illicit goods throughout the region and beyond.
The use of kratom (mitragyna speciosa), a substance has reported increasing synthetic cannabinoid seizures derived from the leaves of the Rubiaceae tree, which during the past few years, albeit at low levels. In produces both stimulant and sedative effects, is most Thailand, the synthetic cannabinoid ‘spice’ is available prevalent in Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand. The in some of the larger urban areas. The substances are most frequent mode of administration is making tea not under international control and the control status out of the dried leaves. It is a controlled substance of these compounds differs significantly from country in several Asian and European countries. In 2011, to country. Thailand seized nearly 33 mt of kratom while Malaysia and Myanmar each seized roughly 1 mt of kratom. The use of inhalants and solvents remains an issue of During the past few years, a range of new psychoactive concern in several countries in the region, particularly substances has emerged on ATS markets in the region. among young drug users. These psychoactive substances include piperazines such as BZP or m-chlorophenylpiperazine (mCPP), as well as analogues of methcathinone such as 4-methyl- methcathinone (4-MMC, known as mephedrone) or MDPV (methylenedioxypyrovalerone). Whereas the use of these substances has been reported in Australia and New Zealand for some time, they have also more recently emerged in China, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam.
A similar development has been observed with regard to synthetic cannabinoids which have appeared in some countries. Sold on the Internet and in specialized shops, synthetic cannabinoids have been referred to as ‘legal alternatives’ to cannabis, as they are not under international control. The Republic of Korea
26