Nelson Mandela

“Mandela” redirects here. For other uses, see Mandela Government of National Unity, which promulgated a new (disambiguation). constitution, Mandela also created the Truth and Rec- onciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses. While continuing with the former government’s Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (/mænˈdɛlə/;[1] Xhosa pro- economic liberalism, his administration introduced mea- nunciation: [xoˈliːɬaɬa manˈdeːla]; 18 July 1918 – 5 De- cember 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid rev- sures to encourage land reform, combat poverty, and ex- olutionary, politician, and philanthropist who served as pand healthcare services. Internationally, he acted as me- President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the diator between Libya and the United Kingdom in the Pan country’s first black chief executive, and the first elected Am Flight 103 bombing trial, and oversaw military in- in a fully representative democratic election. His gov- tervention in Lesotho. He declined to run for a second ernment focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid term, and was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki. through tackling institutionalised racism and fostering Mandela became an elder statesman, focusing on chari- racial reconciliation. Politically an African nationalist table work in combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through and democratic socialist, he served as President of the the Nelson Mandela Foundation. African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. 1997. Internationally, Mandela was Secretary General of Denounced as a communist terrorist by critics, he never- the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. theless gained international acclaim for his activism, hav- A Xhosa born to the Thembu royal family, Mandela at- ing received more than 250 honours, including the 1993 tended Fort Hare University and the University of Witwa- Nobel Peace Prize, the US Presidential Medal of Free- tersrand, where he studied law. Living in Johannesburg, dom, and the Soviet Lenin Peace Prize. He is held in deep he became involved in anti-colonial politics, joining the respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba, or as Tata (“Father”); ANC and becoming a founding member of its Youth League. After the Afrikaner minority government of he is often described as the "Father of the Nation". the National Party established apartheid – a system of racial segregation that privileged whites – in 1948, he rose to prominence in the ANC’s 1952 anti-apartheid 1 Early life Defiance Campaign, was appointed superintendent of the organisation’s Transvaal chapter and presided over the 1955 Congress of the People. Working as a lawyer, he 1.1 Childhood: 1918–34 was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and, with the ANC leadership, was unsuccessfully prosecuted in Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo [2] the Treason Trial from 1956 to 1961. Influenced by in Umtata, then a part of South Africa’s Cape Province. Marxism, he secretly joined the South African Com- Given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloqui- [3] munist Party (SACP). Although initially committed to ally meaning “troublemaker”, in later years he became [4] non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co- known by his clan name, Madiba. His patrilineal great- founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961, lead- grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was ruler of the Thembu peo- ing a sabotage campaign against the government. In ple in the Transkeian Territories of South Africa’s mod- [5] 1962, he was arrested, convicted of conspiracy to over- ern Eastern Cape province. One of this king’s sons, throw the state, and sentenced to life imprisonment in the named Mandela, became Nelson’s grandfather and the [6] Rivonia Trial. source of his surname. Because Mandela was only the king’s child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan, a so-called “Left- Mandela served 27 years in prison, initially on Robben Hand House”, the descendants of his cadet branch of Island, and later in Pollsmoor Prison and Victor Verster the royal family were morganatic, ineligible to inherit the Prison. An international campaign lobbied for his re- throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors.[6] lease, which was granted in 1990 amid escalating civil His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was a local chief strife. Mandela joined negotiations with President F. W. and councillor to the monarch; he had been appointed de Klerk to abolish apartheid and establish multiracial to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was ac- elections in 1994, in which he led the ANC to victory cused of corruption by a governing white magistrate.[7] and became South Africa’s first black president. He pub- In 1926 Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nel- lished his autobiography in 1995. Leading South Africa’s son was told that he had lost his job for standing up to

1 2 1 EARLY LIFE the magistrate’s unreasonable demands.[8] A devotee of the god Qamata,[9] Gadla was a polygamist, having four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in dif- ferent villages. Nelson’s mother was Gadla’s third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, who was daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of Xhosa.[10] “No one in my family had ever attended school [...] On the first day of school my teacher, Miss Mdingane, gave each of us an English name. This was the custom among Africans in those days and was undoubtedly due to the British bias of our education. That day, Miss Mdingane told me that my new name was Nelson. Why this partic- ular name I have no idea.” — Mandela, 1994[11]

Later stating that his early life was dominated by “cus- tom, ritual and taboo”,[12] Mandela grew up with two sis- ters in his mother’s kraal in the village of Qunu, where he tended herds as a cattle-boy, spending much time out- side with other boys.[13] Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his mother sent him to a Mandela c. 1937 local Methodist school when he was about seven. Bap- tised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English fore- name of “Nelson” by his teacher.[14] When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he ondary education at Clarkebury Methodist High School died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed Engcobo, a Western-style institution that was the largest to be lung disease.[15] Feeling “cut adrift”, he later said school for black Africans in Thembuland.[23] Made to so- that he inherited his father’s “proud rebelliousness” and cialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed “stubborn sense of fairness”.[16] that he lost his “stuck up” attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and Mandela’s mother took him to the “Great Place” developed his lifelong love of gardening.[24] Completing palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted under his Junior Certificate in two years,[25] in 1937 he moved the guardianship of Thembu regent, Chief Jongintaba to Healdtown, the Methodist college in Fort Beaufort Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again attended by most Thembu royalty, including Justice.[26] for many years, Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife The headmaster emphasised the superiority of English Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him culture and government, but Mandela became increas- alongside their son Justice and daughter Nomafu.[17] As ingly interested in native African culture, making his first Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his non-Xhosa friend, a Sotho language-speaker, and com- guardians, Christianity became a significant part of his ing under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a life.[18] He attended a Methodist mission school located Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho.[27] Spend- next to the palace, studying English, Xhosa, history and ing much of his spare time long-distance running and geography.[19] He developed a love of African history, lis- boxing, in his second year Mandela became a prefect.[28] tening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and became influenced by the anti-imperialist rhetoric of With Jongintaba’s backing, Mandela began work on a Chief Joyi.[20] At the time he nevertheless considered the Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree at the University of Fort European colonialists as benefactors, not oppressors.[21] Hare, an elite black institution in Alice, Eastern Cape, Aged 16, he, Justice and several other boys travelled to with around 150 students. There he studied English, Tyhalarha to undergo the circumcision ritual that symbol- anthropology, politics, native administration, and Roman ically marked their transition from boys to men; the rite Dutch law in his first year, desiring to become an in- over, he was given the name Dalibunga.[22] terpreter or clerk in the Native Affairs Department.[29] Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, be- friending his own kinsman, K.D. Matanzima, as well as 1.2 Clarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Oliver Tambo, who became a close friend and comrade Hare: 1934–40 for decades to come.[30] Continuing his interest in sport, Mandela took up ballroom dancing,[31] performed in a Intending to gain skills needed to become a privy council- drama society play about Abraham Lincoln,[32] and gave lor for the Thembu royal house, Mandela began his sec- Bible classes in the local community as part of the Stu- 3

dents Christian Association.[33] Although having friends funeral.[48] After passing his BA exams in early 1943, connected to the African National Congress (ANC) and Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political the anti-imperialist movement who wanted an indepen- path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in dent South Africa, Mandela avoided any involvement,[34] Thembuland.[49] He later stated that he experienced no and became a vocal supporter of the British war effort epiphany, but that he “simply found myself doing so, and when the Second World War broke out.[35] Helping found could not do otherwise.”[50] a first-year students’ house committee which challenged the dominance of the second-years,[36] at the end of his first year he became involved in a Students’ Representa- tive Council (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for 2 Revolutionary activity which he was temporarily suspended from the university; [37] he left without receiving a degree. 2.1 Law studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943–49 1.3 Arriving in Johannesburg: 1941–43 Beginning law studies at the University of Witwatersrand, Returning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Man- Mandela was the only native African student, and though dela found that Jongintaba had arranged marriages for facing racism, he befriended liberal and communist Euro- pean, Jewish, and Indian students, among them Joe Slovo him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to Johannesburg via [51] Queenstown, arriving in April 1941.[38] Mandela found and Ruth First. Joining the ANC, Mandela was in- work as a night watchman at Crown Mines, his “first creasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending much time with other activists at Sisulu’s Orlando house, including old sight of South African capitalism in action”, but was fired [52] when the induna (headman) discovered that he was a friend Oliver Tambo. In 1943, Mandela met Anton runaway.[39] Staying with a cousin in George Goch Town- Lembede, an African nationalist virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperial- ship, Mandela was introduced to the realtor and ANC ac- [53] tivist Walter Sisulu, who secured him a job as an articled ism or to an alliance with the communists. Despite his clerk at law firm Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman. The friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela company was run by a liberal Jew, Lazar Sidelsky, who supported Lembede’s views, believing that black Africans [40] should be entirely independent in their struggle for po- was sympathetic to the ANC’s cause. At the firm, [54] Mandela befriended Gaur Radebe, a Xhosa member of litical self-determination. Deciding on the need for the ANC and Communist Party, as well as Nat Bregman, a youth wing to mass mobilise Africans in opposition a Jewish communist who became his first white friend.[41] to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation Attending communist talks and parties, Mandela was im- that approached ANC President Alfred Bitini Xuma on pressed that Europeans, Africans, Indians and Coloureds the subject at his home in Sophiatown; the African Na- were mixing as equals. He stated later that he did not join tional Congress Youth League (ANCYL) was founded on the Party because its atheism conflicted with his Chris- Easter Sunday 1944 in the Bantu Men’s Social Centre in tian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle Eloff Street, with Lembede as President and Mandela as a member of the executive committee.[55] as being racially based rather than class warfare.[42] Be- coming increasingly politicised, in August 1943 Mandela At Sisulu’s house, Mandela met Evelyn Mase, an ANC marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse activist from Engcobo, Transkei, who was training at the fare rises.[43] Continuing his higher education, Mandela time to become a nurse. Married on 5 October 1944, af- signed up to a University of South Africa correspondence ter initially living with her relatives, they rented House course, working on his bachelor’s degree at night.[44] no. 8115 in Orlando from early 1946.[57] Their first Earning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the child, Madiba “Thembi” Thembekile, was born in Febru- ary 1945, and a daughter named Makaziwe was born in house of the Xhoma family in the Alexandra town- [58] ship; despite being rife with poverty, crime and pollu- 1947, dying nine months later of meningitis. Man- dela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother and sister tion, Alexandra always remained “a treasured place” for [59] him.[45] Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly Leabie to stay with him. In early 1947, his three years courted a Swazi woman before unsuccessfully courting of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and [46] he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on his landlord’s daughter. In order to save money and be [60] closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust. the compound of the Witwatersrand Native Labour As- In July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to sociation, living among miners of various tribes; as the hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL compound was a “way station for visiting chiefs”, he once president by the more moderate Peter Mda, who agreed met the Queen Regent of Basutoland.[47] In late 1941, to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appoint- Jongintaba visited, forgiving Mandela for running away. ing Mandela ANCYL secretary.[61] Mandela disagreed On returning to Thembuland, the regent died in win- with Mda’s approach, in December 1947 supporting an ter 1942; Mandela and Justice arrived a day late for the unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the AN- 4 2 REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITY

The ANC’s tricolour flag

an anti-apartheid general strike. Mandela opposed the strike because it was not ANC-led, but a majority of black workers took part, resulting in increased police re- Mandela and Evelyn in July 1944, at Walter and Albertina pression and the introduction of the Suppression of Com- Sisulu’s wedding party in the Bantu Men’s Social Centre.[56] munism Act, 1950, affecting the actions of all protest groups.[68] In 1950, Mandela was elected national pres- ident of the ANCYL; at the ANC national conference of CYL, considering their ideology un-African.[62] In 1947, December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the united front, but was outvoted.[69] Thenceforth, he altered Transvaal ANC, serving under regional president C.S. his entire perspective, embracing such an approach; in- Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes fluenced by friends like Moses Kotane and by the Soviet of the Transvaal Executive Committee by co-operating Union's support for wars of independence, Mandela’s with Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those mistrust of communism also broke down. He became who forced his resignation.[63] influenced by the texts of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, In the South African general election, 1948, in which only Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong, and em- [70] whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated braced dialectical materialism. In April 1952, Man- [71] Herenigde Nasionale Party under Daniel François Malan dela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, though took power, soon uniting with the Afrikaner Party to form his increasing commitment to work and activism meant [72] the National Party. Openly racialist, the party codified he spent less time with his family. and expanded racial segregation with the new apartheid In 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint Defiance legislation.[64] Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Campaign against apartheid with Indian and commu- Mandela and his cadres began advocating direct action nist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to re- against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced cruit volunteers. Deciding on a path of nonviolent re- by the tactics of South Africa’s Indian community. Xuma sistance influenced by Mahatma Gandhi, some consid- did not support these measures and was removed from the ered it the ethical option, but Mandela instead consid- presidency in a vote of no confidence, replaced by James ered it pragmatic.[73] At a Durban rally on 22 June, Man- Moroka and a more militant executive containing Sisulu, dela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000, initiat- Mda, Tambo and Godfrey Pitje; Mandela later related ing the campaign protests, for which he was arrested and that “We had now guided the ANC to a more radical and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison.[74] With fur- revolutionary path.”[65] Having devoted his time to poli- ther protests, the ANC’s membership grew from 20,000 tics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three to 100,000; the government responded with mass arrests, times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December introducing the Public Safety Act, 1953 to permit martial 1949.[66] law.[75] In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC Pres- ident J. B. Marks from making public appearances; un- able to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela 2.2 Defiance Campaign and Transvaal as his successor. Although the ultra-Africanist Bafabe- ANC Presidency: 1950–54 giya group opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected regional president in October.[76] Mandela took Xuma’s place on the ANC National Ex- On 30 July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the Sup- ecutive in March 1950.[67] That month, the Defend Free pression of Communism Act and stood trial as a part Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing of the 21 accused – among them Moroka, Sisulu and together African, Indian and communist activists to call Dadoo – in Johannesburg. Found guilty of “statutory 2.3 Congress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955–61 5

2.3 Congress of the People and the Trea- son Trial: 1955–61

Main article: Treason Trial

“We, the people of South Africa, declare for all our coun- try and the world to know: That South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white, and that no government can justly claim authority unless it is based on the will of the people.” — Opening words of the Freedom Charter[84]

Mandela came to the opinion that the ANC “had no alter- native to armed and violent resistance” after taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the demolition of the The apartheid system pervaded all areas of life all-black Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in Febru- ary 1955.[85] He advised Sisulu to request weaponry from the People’s Republic of China, but though supporting the anti-apartheid struggle, China’s government believed the movement insufficiently prepared for guerilla war- [86] communism”, their sentence of nine months’ hard labour fare. With the involvement of the South African Indian was suspended for two years.[77] In December, Mandela Congress, the Coloured People’s Congress, the South was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or African Congress of Trade Unions and the Congress of talking to more than one individual at a time, making Democrats, the ANC planned a Congress of the Peo- his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during ple, calling on all South Africans to send in proposals this period the Defiance Campaign petered out.[78] In for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a Free- September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela’s dom Charter was drafted by Rusty Bernstein, calling for “No Easy Walk to Freedom” speech at a Transvaal ANC the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian inde- nationalisation of major industry. When the charter was pendence leader Jawaharlal Nehru, a seminal influence adopted at a June 1955 conference in Kliptown attended by 3000 delegates, police cracked down on the event, but on Mandela’s thought. The speech laid out a contin- [87] gency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. it remained a key part of Mandela’s ideology. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the or- Following the end of a second ban in September 1955, ganisation into a cell structure with a more centralised Mandela went on a working holiday to Transkei to dis- leadership.[79] cuss the implications of the Bantu Authorities Act, 1951 with local tribal leaders, also visiting his mother and No- Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm [88] Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run england before proceeding to Cape Town. In March Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to be- 1956 he received his third ban on public appearances, re- [80] stricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he of- come a full-fledged attorney. In August 1953, Mandela [89] and Oliver Tambo opened their own law firm, Mandela ten defied it. His marriage broke down as Evelyn left and Tambo, operating in downtown Johannesburg. The Mandela, taking their children to live with her brother. only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the with aggrieved blacks, often dealing with cases of police [90] brutality. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced allegations, and fought for custody of their children. to relocate to a remote location after their office permit She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but was removed under the Group Areas Act; as a result, Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce [81] was finalised in March, with the children placed in Eve- their custom dwindled. Though a second daughter, [91] Makaziwe Phumia, was born in May 1954, Mandela’s re- lyn’s care. During the divorce proceedings, he began lationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused courting and politicising a social worker, Winnie Madik- him of adultery. Claims have emerged that he was having izela, who he married in Bizana on 14 June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending sev- affairs with ANC member Lillian Ngoyi and secretary [92] Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in eral weeks in prison. this period have stated that the latter bore him a child.[82] On 5 December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside Disgusted by her son’s behaviour, Nosekeni returned to most of the ANC Executive for “high treason” against the Transkei, and Evelyn embraced the Jehovah’s Witnesses state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, and rejected Mandela’s obsession with politics.[83] they underwent a preparatory examination in Drill Hall 6 2 REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITY

other activists were arrested on 30 March, imprisoned without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Preto- ria Local prison, and the ANC and PAC were banned in April.[98] This made it difficult for their lawyers to reach them, and it was agreed that the defence team for the Treason Trial should withdraw in protest. Representing themselves in court, the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August.[99] Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In African Conference near Pietermaritzburg, Natal, in March, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at-home protest to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic.[100] On 29 March 1961, after a six-year trial, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, embarrassing the government.[101]

2.4 MK, the SACP, and African tour: 1961–62

Mandela publicly burning his pass in 1960

on 19 December, before being granted bail.[93] The de- fence’s refutation began on 9 January 1957, overseen by defence lawyer Vernon Berrangé, and continued until ad- journing in September. In January 1958, Oswald Pirow was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was “sufficient reason” for the de- [94] fendants to go on trial in the Transvaal Supreme Court. Thatched room at Liliesleaf Farm, where Mandela hid The formal Treason Trial began in Pretoria in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have Disguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled the country the three judges – all linked to the governing National incognito, organising the ANC’s new cell structure and a Party – replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, mass stay-at-home strike for 29 May. Referred to as the and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, “Black Pimpernel” in the press – a reference to Emma submitting a reformulated version in November which ar- Orczy's 1905 novel The Scarlet Pimpernel – the police gued that the ANC leadership committed high treason put out a warrant for his arrest.[102] Mandela held secret by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants [95] meetings with reporters, and after the government failed denied. to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti- In April 1959, militant Africanists dissatisfied with the apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through ANC’s united front approach founded the Pan-Africanist groups like the PAC’s Poqo.[103] He believed that the Congress (PAC); Mandela’s friend Robert Sobukwe was ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this elected president, though Mandela thought the group violence, convincing both ANC leader Albert Luthuli – “immature”.[96] Both parties campaigned for an anti-pass who was morally opposed to violence – and allied activist campaign in May 1960, in which Africans burned the groups of its necessity.[104] passes that they were legally obliged to carry. One of the Inspired by Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement in PAC-organised demonstrations was fired upon by police, the Cuban Revolution, in 1961 Mandela co-founded resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the Sharpeville Umkhonto we Sizwe (“Spear of the Nation”, abbreviated massacre. In solidarity, Mandela publicly burned his pass MK) with Walter Sisulu and the long-time leader of the as rioting broke out across South Africa, leading the gov- [97] South African Communist Party (SACP), Joe Slovo. Be- ernment to proclaim martial law. coming chairman of the militant group, he gained ideas Under the State of Emergency measures, Mandela and from illegal literature on guerilla warfare by Mao Zedong 7 and Che Guevara. Officially separate from the ANC, receiving funds from Liberian President William Tubman in later years MK became the group’s armed wing.[105] and Guinean President Ahmed Sékou Touré.[113] Leav- Most early MK members were white communists; after ing Africa for London, England, he met anti-apartheid hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh’s flat in Berea, Man- activists, reporters and prominent leftist politicians.[114] dela moved to the communist-owned Liliesleaf Farm in Returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in Rivonia, there joined by Raymond Mhlaba, Slovo and guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution.[106] Al- being recalled to South Africa.[115] though Mandela himself denied ever being a member of the SACP, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he might have been for a short period, start- 3 Imprisonment ing from the late 1950s or early 1960s.[107] This was con- firmed by the SACP and the ANC after Mandela’s death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the 3.1 Arrest and Rivonia trial: 1962–64 party, but also served on its Central Committee, but later denied it for political reasons.[108] Main article: Rivonia Trial

On 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with Cecil Williams near Howick.[116] A large number of groups have been accused of having tipped off the police about Mandela’s whereabouts, including Mandela’s host in Durban G. R. Naidoo, white members of the South African Communist Party, and the CIA,[117][118] but Mandela considered none of these connections to be cred- ible and instead attributes his arrest to his own careless- ness in concealing his movements.[119] Of the CIA link in particular, Mandela’s official biographer Anthony Samp- son believes that “the claim cannot be substantiated.”[120] Jailed in Johannesburg’s Marshall Square prison, he was charged with inciting workers’ strikes and leaving the Mandela’s former home in the Johannesburg township of Soweto country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intended to use the trial to Operating through a cell structure, MK agreed to acts showcase “the ANC’s moral opposition to racism” while [121] of sabotage to exert maximum pressure on the govern- supporters demonstrated outside the court. Moved to ment with minimum casualties, bombing military instal- Pretoria, where Winnie could visit him, in his cell he be- lations, power plants, telephone lines and transport links gan correspondence studies for a Bachelor of Laws (LLB) [122] at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated degree from the University of London. His hearing that they chose sabotage not only because it was the least began on 15 October, but he disrupted proceedings by harmful action, but also “because it did not involve loss wearing a traditional kaross, refusing to call any wit- of life [and] it offered the best hope for reconciliation nesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a politi- among the races afterward.” He noted that “strict in- cal speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years’ structions were given to members of MK that we would imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang [123] countenance no loss of life”, but should these tactics fail, Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika. MK would resort to “guerilla warfare and terrorism”.[109] “I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free soci- Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the Nobel ety in which all persons will live together in harmony and Peace Prize, MK publicly announced its existence with with equal opportunities. It is an ideal for which I hope 57 bombings on Dingane’s Day (16 December) 1961, to live for and to see realised. But, My Lord, if it needs followed by further attacks on New Year’s Eve.[110] The be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.” ANC agreed to send Mandela as a delegate to the Febru- [124] ary 1962 Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Cen- — Rivonia Trial Speech, 1964 tral and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) meeting in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.[111] Traveling there in secret, Mandela On 11 July 1963, police raided Liliesleaf Farm, arresting met with Emperor Haile Selassie I, and gave his speech those they found there and uncovering paperwork docu- after Selassie’s at the conference.[112] After the confer- menting MK’s activities, some of which mentioned Man- ence, he travelled to Cairo, Egypt, admiring the politi- dela. The Rivonia Trial began at Pretoria Supreme Court cal reforms of President Gamal Abdel Nasser, and then on 9 October, with Mandela and his comrades charged went to Tunis, Tunisia, where President Habib Bourguiba with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently gave him £5000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Mo- overthrow the government. Their chief prosecutor was rocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Senegal, Percy Yutar, who called for them to receive the death 8 3 IMPRISONMENT

penalty.[125] Judge Quartus de Wet soon threw out the sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently dam- prosecution’s case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar re- aged his eyesight.[132] At night, he worked on his LLB de- formulated the charges, presenting his new case from De- gree, but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked cember until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and in solitary confinement on several occasions for possess- bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the ing smuggled news clippings.[133] Initially classified as the trial.[126] lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was With the exception of James Kantor, who was innocent [134] of all charges, Mandela and the accused admitted sab- heavily censored. otage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate The political prisoners took part in work and hunger guerilla war against the government. They used the trial strikes – the latter considered largely ineffective by Man- to highlight their political cause. At the opening of the de- dela – to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a fence’s proceedings, Mandela gave a three-hour speech. microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle.[135] ANC pris- That speech – which was inspired by Castro’s "History oners elected him to their four-man “High Organ” along Will Absolve Me" speech – was widely reported in the with Sisulu, Govan Mbeki and Raymond Mhlaba, and he press despite official censorship, and has been hailed as involved himself in a group representing all political pris- one of his greatest speeches.[127] The trial gained inter- oners on the island, Ulundi, through which he forged links national attention, with global calls for the release of the with PAC and Yu Chi Chan Club members.[136] Initiat- accused from such institutions as the United Nations and ing the “University of Robben Island”, whereby prisoners World Peace Council. The University of London Union lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated top- voted Mandela to its presidency, and nightly vigils for him ics such as homosexuality and politics with his comrades, were held in St. Paul’s Cathedral, London.[128] The South getting into fierce arguments on the latter with Marx- African government generally deemed Mandela and his ists like Mbeki and Harry Gwala.[137] Though attending co-defendants violent communist saboteurs, and on 12 Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam.[138] June 1964, justice Quartus de Wet found Mandela and He also studied Afrikaans, hoping to build a mutual re- two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges, sentenc- spect with the warders and convert them to his cause.[139] ing them to life imprisonment rather than death.[129] Various official visitors met with Mandela; most signif- icant was the liberal parliamentary representative Helen Suzman of the Progressive Party, who championed Man- 3.2 Robben Island: 1964–82 dela’s cause outside prison.[140] In September 1970 he met British Labour Party MP Dennis Healey.[141] South African Minister of Justice Jimmy Kruger visited in De- cember 1974, but he and Mandela did not get on.[142] His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the follow- ing year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral.[143] His wife was rarely able to visit, being reg- ularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975; Winnie got out of prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in Brandfort, still unable to visit him.[144] From 1967, prison conditions improved; black prison- ers were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised.[146] Mandela later commented on how football “made us feel alive and triumphant despite the situation we found our- Lime quarry on Robben Island where Mandela and other pris- selves in”.[147] In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was oners were subjected to hard labour developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned af- ter being infiltrated by an agent of the South African Bu- Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pre- reau of State Security (BOSS), who hoped to see Man- toria to the prison on Robben Island, remaining there for dela shot during the escape.[148] In 1970, Commander [130] the next 18 years. Isolated from non-political prison- Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, ers in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp con- seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of crete cell measuring 8 feet (2.4 m) by 7 feet (2.1 m), with prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Baden- [131] a straw mat on which to sleep. Verbally and physi- horst reassigned.[149] He was replaced by Commander cally harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivo- Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative rela- nia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into tionship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work standards.[150] in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear 3.3 Pollsmoor Prison: 1982–88 9

By 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner,[151] allowing greater numbers of visits and letters; he cor- responded with anti-apartheid activists like Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Desmond Tutu.[152] That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but re- mained unpublished at the time; prison authorities dis- covered several pages, and his study privileges were stopped for four years.[153] Instead he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until he resumed his LLB degree studies in 1980.[154] By the late 1960s, Mandela’s fame had been eclipsed by Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but following the Soweto upris- ing of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island.[155] Mandela tried to build a relation- ship with these young radicals, although he was crit- ical of their racialism and contempt for white anti- apartheid activists.[156] Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday.[157] He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Lesotho, the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in India in 1979, and the Freedom of the City of Glasgow, Scotland in 1981.[158] In March 1980 the slogan “Free Mandela!" was developed by journalist Percy Qoboza, sparking an international campaign that led the UN Security Council to call for his release.[159] Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government re- fused, relying on powerful foreign Cold War allies in US President Ronald Reagan and UK Prime Minister Bust of Mandela erected on London’s South Bank by the Greater Margaret Thatcher; both considered Mandela’s ANC a London Council administration of Ken Livingstone in 1985 terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism and supported its suppression.[160]

civil war. Under pressure from an international lobby, 3.3 Pollsmoor Prison: 1982–88 multinational banks stopped investing in South Africa, resulting in economic stagnation. Numerous banks and In April 1982 Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela – then at the Prison in Tokai, Cape Town along with senior ANC lead- height of his international fame – to defuse the volatile ers Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed Kathrada situation.[166] Although considering Mandela a danger- and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were ous “arch-Marxist”,[167] in February 1985 Botha offered being isolated to remove their influence on younger him a release from prison on condition that he '"uncon- activists.[161] Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than ditionally rejected violence as a political weapon”. Man- at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the cama- dela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his raderie and scenery of the island.[162] Getting on well with daughter Zindzi stating “What freedom am I being of- Pollsmoor’s commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Man- fered while the organisation of the people [ANC] remains dela was permitted to create a roof garden,[163] also read- banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner can- ing voraciously and corresponding widely, now permit- not enter into contracts.”[168] After visiting Mandela in ted 52 letters a year.[164] He was appointed patron of the prison in 1985, US politician Samuel Dash stated: “In- multi-racial United Democratic Front (UDF), founded to deed, throughout our meeting, I felt that I was in the pres- combat reforms implemented by South African President ence not of a guerrilla fighter or racial ideologue, but of P. W. Botha. Botha’s National Party government had per- a head of state.'"[169] mitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own In 1985 Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged parliaments which had control over education, health, and prostate gland, before being given new solitary quarters housing, but black Africans were excluded from the sys- on the ground floor.[170] He was met by “seven emi- tem; like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to [165] nent persons”, an international delegation sent to nego- divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines. tiate a settlement, but Botha’s government refused to co- Violence across the country escalated, with many fearing operate, in June calling a state of emergency and initi- 10 4 END OF APARTHEID

ating a police crackdown on unrest. The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987. The violence escalated as the government used the army and police to combat the resistance, and provided covert support for vigilante groups and for the Zulu nationalist movement Inkatha, which was involved in an increasingly violent struggle with the ANC.[171] Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice Kobie Coetsee in 1987, having a further 11 meetings over 3 years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party and not insist on majority rule. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would only end the armed struggle when the gov- ernment renounced violence.[172] Mandela’s 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted interna- tional attention, notably with the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute concert at London’s Wembley Sta- dium.[173] Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a criminal gang, the “Mandela United Football Club”, who had been “Nelson Mandela – Freedom fighter in South Africa" as stated in responsible for torturing and killing opponents – includ- Russian by this 1988 Soviet commemorative stamp dating from ing children – in Soweto. Though some encouraged him the Gorbachev era to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial.[174] release.[182] Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be pub- 3.4 Victor Verster Prison and release: lished in South Africa.[183] 1988–90 Leaving Victor Verster Prison on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie’s hand in front of amassed crowds and press; Recovering from tuberculosis exacerbated by the dank the event was broadcast live across the world.[184] Driven conditions in his cell,[175] in December 1988 Mandela to Cape Town’s City Hall through crowds, he gave a was moved to Victor Verster Prison near Paarl. Here, speech declaring his commitment to peace and recon- he was housed in the relative comfort of a warder’s house ciliation with the white minority, but made it clear that with a personal cook, using the time to complete his LLB the ANC’s armed struggle was not over, and would con- degree.[176] There he was permitted many visitors[177] and tinue as “a purely defensive action against the violence of organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader apartheid.” He expressed hope that the government would Oliver Tambo.[178] In 1989, Botha suffered a stroke, re- agree to negotiations, so that “there may no longer be the taining the state presidency but stepping down as leader of need for the armed struggle”, and insisted that his main the National Party, to be replaced by F. W. de Klerk.[179] focus was to bring peace to the black majority and give In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meet- them the right to vote in national and local elections.[185] ing over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela con- Staying at the home of Desmond Tutu, in the following sidered genial.[180] Botha was replaced as state president days Mandela met with friends, activists, and press, giv- by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed ing a speech to an estimated 100,000 people at Johannes- that apartheid was unsustainable and released a number burg’s Soccer City.[186] of ANC prisoners.[181] Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet to- gether to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Man- dela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, 4 End of apartheid de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, be- Main article: Negotiations to end apartheid in South fore legalising all formerly banned political parties on 2 Africa February 1990 and announcing Mandela’s unconditional 4.2 CODESA talks: 1991–92 11

4.1 Early negotiations: 1990–91 led to the Groot Schuur Minute, in which the government lifted the state of emergency. In August Mandela – recog- nising the ANC’s severe military disadvantage – offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists.[191] He spent much time try- ing to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johan- nesburg conference in December attended by 1600 del- egates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected.[192] At the ANC’s July 1991 national confer- ence in Durban, Mandela admitted the party’s faults and announced his aim to build a “strong and well-oiled task force” for securing majority rule. At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mixed gendered national ex- ecutive was elected.[193] Mandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at Shell House, central Johannesburg, and moved with Winnie to her large Soweto home.[194] Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mpofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, but in June 1991 she was found guilty and sen- tenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his sep- aration from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannes- burg suburb of Houghton.[195] Mandela’s reputation was Luthuli House in Johannesburg, which became the ANC head- further damaged by the increase in “black-on-black” vi- quarters in 1991 olence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha support- ers in KwaZulu-Natal, in which thousands died. Man- Mandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting support- dela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC pre- ers and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya vented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela recog- and Algeria, continuing to Sweden where he was reunited nised that there was a "third force" within the state in- with Tambo, and then London, where he appeared at telligence services fuelling the “slaughter of the people” the Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free and openly blamed de Klerk – whom he increasingly dis- [187] South Africa concert in Wembley Stadium. Encour- trusted – for the Sebokeng massacre.[196] In September aging foreign countries to support sanctions against the 1991 a national peace conference was held in Johannes- apartheid government, in France he was welcomed by burg in which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a President François Mitterrand, in Vatican City by Pope peace accord, though the violence continued.[197] John Paul II, and in the United Kingdom he met Margaret Thatcher. In the United States, he met President George H.W. Bush, addressed both Houses of Congress and 4.2 CODESA talks: 1991–92 visited eight cities, being particularly popular among [188] the African-American community. In Cuba he met The Convention for a Democratic South Africa President Fidel Castro, whom he had long admired, [189] (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannes- with the two becoming friends. He met President burg World Trade Center, attended by 228 delegates R. Venkataraman in India, President Suharto in Indone- from 19 political parties. Although Cyril Ramaphosa led sia, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia, the ANC’s delegation, Mandela remained a key figure, Prime Minister Bob Hawke in Australia, and visited and after de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn Japan; he did not visit the Soviet Union, a longtime ANC [190] the ANC’s violence, he took to the stage to denounce de supporter. Klerk as “head of an illegitimate, discredited minority In May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation regime”. Dominated by the National Party and ANC, lit- into preliminary negotiations with a government delega- tle negotiation was achieved.[198] CODESA 2 was held in tion of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with May 1992, in which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations South Africa must use a federal system with a rotating 12 4 END OF APARTHEID presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; groups like Inkatha; in June 1993, the white supremacist Mandela opposed this, demanding a unitary system Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) attacked the governed by majority rule.[199] Following the Boipatong Kempton Park World Trade Centre.[204] Following the massacre of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha murder of ANC leader Chris Hani, Mandela made a pub- militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before licised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a attending a meeting of the Organisation of African mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died from a Unity in Senegal, at which he called for a special session stroke.[205] In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk vis- of the UN Security Council and proposed that a UN ited the US, independently meeting President Bill Clin- peacekeeping force be stationed in South Africa to ton and each receiving the Liberty Medal.[206] Soon af- prevent "state terrorism". The UN sent special envoy ter, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Cyrus Vance to the country to aid negotiations.[200] Nobel Peace Prize in Norway.[207] Influenced by Thabo Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC Mbeki, Mandela began meeting with big business fig- organised the largest-ever strike in South African history, ures, and played down his support for nationalisation, and supporters marched on Pretoria.[201] fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC mem- bers, he was encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 World Economic Forum in Switzerland.[208] Mandela also made a cameo appearance as a schoolteacher reciting one of Malcolm X's speeches in the final scene of the 1992 film Malcolm X.[209]

4.3 General election: 1994

De Klerk and Mandela shake hands at the World Economic Fo- rum, 1992

Following the Bisho massacre, in which 28 ANC support- ers and one soldier were shot dead by the Ciskei Defence Force during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed nego- tiations in September. He agreed to do so on the condi- tions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu tra- ditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off, the latter two measures to prevent further Inkatha attacks; under increasing pressure, de Klerk re- luctantly agreed. The negotiations agreed that a multira- cial general election would be held, resulting in a five- year coalition government of national unity and a consti- tutional assembly that gave the National Party continu- ing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism.[202] The duo agreed on an interim constitution, guaranteeing separation of powers, creat- ing a constitutional court, and including a US-style bill of rights; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own premier and civil service, a concession Mandela casting his vote in the 1994 election between de Klerk’s desire for federalism and Mandela’s for unitary government.[203] Main article: South African general election, 1994 The democratic process was threatened by the Con- cerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of With the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC be- far-right Afrikaner parties and black ethnic-secessionist gan campaigning, opening 100 election offices and or- 13 chestrating People’s Forums across the country, at which Government of National Unity dominated by the ANC Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great – which alone had no experience of governance – but status among black South Africans.[210] The ANC cam- containing representatives from the National Party and paigned on a Reconstruction and Development Pro- Inkatha. Under the Interim Constitution, Inkatha and the gramme (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, NP were entitled to seats in the government by virtue introduce universal free education and extend access to of winning at least 20 seats. In keeping with earlier water and electricity. The party’s slogan was “a bet- agreements, de Klerk became first Deputy President, ter life for all”, although it was not explained how this and Thabo Mbeki was selected as second.[220] Although development would be funded.[211] With the exception Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job, Mandela of the Weekly Mail and the New Nation, South Africa’s grew to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency, al- press opposed Mandela’s election, fearing continued eth- lowing him to organise policy details.[221] Moving into the nic strife, instead supporting the National or Democratic presidential office at Tuynhuys in Cape Town, Mandela Party.[212] Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for allowed de Klerk to retain the presidential residence in the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to the Groote Schuur estate, instead settling into the nearby meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the Westbrooke manor, which he renamed "Genadendal", apartheid regime.[213] He also urged a reduction in the meaning “Valley of Mercy” in Afrikaans.[222] Retaining voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this pol- his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his icy became the subject of ridicule.[214] home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, walking around the area, meeting with locals, and judging tribal Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, [223] particularly in the wake of the conflict in Bophuthatswana disputes. and the Shell House Massacre – incidents of violence in- volving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively – Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, Pik Botha and Constand Viljoen, persuading many to work within the democratic system, and with de Klerk convinced Inkatha’s Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession.[215] As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; although de Klerk was widely con- sidered the better speaker at the event, Mandela’s offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commen- tators to consider it a victory for Mandela.[216] The elec- tion went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 62 percent of the Mandela moved into the presidential office at Tuynhuys, Cape vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to uni- Town. laterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the Na- Aged 76, he faced various ailments, and although ex- tional Party each taking another.[217] Mandela voted at the hibiting continued energy, he felt isolated and lonely.[224] Ohlange High School in Durban, and though the ANC’s He often entertained celebrities, such as Michael Jack- victory assured his election as President, he publicly ac- son, Whoopi Goldberg, and the Spice Girls, and be- cepted that the election had been marred by instances of friended ultra-rich businessmen, like Harry Oppenheimer fraud and sabotage.[218] of Anglo-American, as well as Queen Elizabeth II on her March 1995 state visit to South Africa, resulting in strong criticism from ANC anti-capitalists.[225] Despite his opu- lent surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third 5 Presidency of South Africa: of his 552,000 rand annual income to the Nelson Man- 1994–99 dela Children’s Fund, which he had founded in 1995.[226] Although dismantling press censorship, speaking out in favour of freedom of the press, and befriending many Main article: Presidency of Nelson Mandela journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the coun- try’s media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned The newly elected National Assembly’s first act was to and run by middle-class whites and believing that it fo- formally elect Mandela as South Africa’s first black chief cused too much on scaremongering around crime.[227] executive. His inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 Changing clothes several times a day, after assuming the May 1994, televised to a billion viewers globally. The presidency, one of Mandela’s trademarks was his use of event was attended by 4000 guests, including world lead- Batik shirts, known as "Madiba shirts", even on formal ers from disparate backgrounds.[219] Mandela headed a occasions.[228] 14 5 PRESIDENCY OF SOUTH AFRICA: 1994–99

In December 1994, Mandela published Long Walk to boks won a celebrated final over New Zealand, Man- Freedom, an autobiography based around a manuscript dela presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, an he had written in prison, augmented by interviews con- Afrikaner, wearing a Springbok shirt with Pienaar’s own ducted with American journalist Richard Stengel.[229] In number 6 on the back. This was widely seen as a ma- late 1994 he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in jor step in the reconciliation of white and black South Bloemfontein, at which a more militant National Execu- Africans; as de Klerk later put it, “Mandela won the hearts tive was elected, among them Winnie Mandela; although of millions of white rugby fans.”[240] Mandela’s efforts at she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initi- reconciliation assuaged the fears of whites, but also drew ated divorce proceedings in August 1995.[230] By 1995 criticism from more militant blacks.[241] Among the later he had entered into a relationship with Graça Machel, a was his estranged wife, Winnie, who accused the ANC of Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was being more interested in appeasing the white community the widow of former president Samora Machel. They had than in helping the black majority.[242] first met in July 1990, when she was still in mourning, but Mandela oversaw the formation of a Truth and Reconcili- their friendship grew into a partnership, with Machel ac- ation Commission to investigate crimes committed under companying him on many of his foreign visits. She turned apartheid by both the government and the ANC, appoint- down Mandela’s first marriage proposal, wanting to re- ing Desmond Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation of tain some independence and dividing her time between [231] martyrs, the Commission granted individual amnesties in Mozambique and Johannesburg. exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it held two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings, and 5.1 National reconciliation assassinations, before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of Presiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule the report suppressed, though only de Klerk’s appeal was to a multicultural democracy, Mandela saw national rec- successful.[243] Mandela praised the Commission’s work, [232] onciliation as the primary task of his presidency. Hav- stating that it “had helped us move away from the past to ing seen other post-colonial African economies damaged concentrate on the present and the future”.[244] by the departure of white elites, Mandela worked to reas- sure South Africa’s white population that they were pro- tected and represented in "the Rainbow Nation".[233] Al- 5.2 Domestic programmes though his Government of National Unity would be dom- inated by the ANC,[234] he attempted to create a broad Mandela’s administration inherited a country with a huge coalition by appointing de Klerk as first Deputy President disparity in wealth and services between white and black and appointing other National Party officials as minis- communities. Of a population of 40 million, around 23 ters for Agriculture, Energy, Environment, and Minerals million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, 12 mil- and Energy, as well as naming Buthelezi as Minister for lion lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children Home Affairs.[235] The other cabinet positions were taken not in school and a third of the population illiterate. There by ANC members, many of whom – like Joe Modise, was 33% unemployment, and just under half of the pop- Alfred Nzo, Joe Slovo, Mac Maharaj and Dullah Omar ulation lived below the poverty line.[245] Government fi- – had long been comrades, although others, such as Tito nancial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth of the Mboweni and Jeff Radebe, were much younger.[236] Man- national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning dela’s relationship with de Klerk was strained; Mandela that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and De- thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative, and velopment Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated of the proposed nationalisation or job creation.[246] In- by the president.[237] In January 1995, Mandela heavily stead, the government adopted liberal economic policies chastised him for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police just designed to promote foreign investment, adhering to the before the election, and later criticised him for defend- "Washington consensus" advocated by the World Bank ing former Minister of Defence Magnus Malan when the and International Monetary Fund.[247] [237] latter was charged with murder. Under Mandela’s presidency, welfare spending increased Mandela personally met with senior figures of the by 13% in 1996/97, 13% in 1997/98, and 7% in apartheid regime, including Hendrik Verwoerd's widow 1998/99.[248] The government introduced parity in grants Betsie Schoombie and the lawyer Percy Yutar, also lay- for communities, including disability grants, child main- ing a wreath by the statue of Afrikaner hero Daniel tenance grants, and old-age pensions, which had previ- Theron.[238] Emphasising personal forgiveness and rec- ously been set at different levels for South Africa’s dif- onciliation, he announced that “courageous people do not ferent racial groups.[248] In 1994, free healthcare was in- fear forgiving, for the sake of peace.”[239] He encouraged troduced for children under six and pregnant women, a black South Africans to get behind the previously hated provision extended to all those using primary level public national rugby team, the Springboks, as South Africa sector health care services in 1996.[249][250] By the 1999 hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup. After the Spring- election, the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 5.3 Foreign affairs 15

in the country; by 1999, 10% of South Africa’s popu- lation were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue, in part due to public reticence in discussing issues surrounding sex in South Africa, and that he had instead left the issue for Mbeki to deal with.[256][257] Mandela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime, with South Africa having one of the world’s highest crime rates; this was a key reason cited for the emigration of skilled whites in the late 1990s.[258] Mandela’s administration was also perceived as having failed to deal with the problem of corruption.[259]

5.3 Foreign affairs

Mandela on a visit to Brazil in 1998

Mandela with US President Bill Clinton. Despite publicly criti- cising him on several occasions, Mandela liked Clinton, and per- 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5 sonally supported him during his impeachment proceedings.[260] million children were brought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million peo- Mandela expressed the view that “South Africa’s fu- ple were connected to the electricity grid, water access ture foreign relations [should] be based on our belief was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses [251] that human rights should be the core of international were constructed, housing nearly 3 million people. relations”.[261] Following the South African example, The Land Restitution Act of 1994 enabled people who Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts had lost their property as a result of the Natives Land Act, through diplomacy and reconciliation.[262] In September 1913 to claim back their land, leading to the settlement of 1998, Mandela was appointed Secretary-General of the tens of thousands of land claims.[252] The Land Reform Non-Aligned Movement, who held their annual confer- Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants ence in Durban. He used the event to criticise the “nar- who live and grow crops or graze livestock on farms. This row, chauvinistic interests” of the Israeli government in legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted stalling negotiations to end the Israeli-Palestinian con- without a court order or if they were over the age of flict and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end 65.[253] The Skills Development Act of 1998 provided for the Kashmir conflict, for which he was criticised by both the establishment of mechanisms to finance and promote Israel and India.[263] Inspired by the region’s economic skills development at the workplace.[254] The Labour Re- boom, Mandela sought greater economic relations with lations Act of 1995 promoted workplace democracy, or- East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although this was derly collective bargaining, and the effective resolution scuppered by the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[264] He at- of labour disputes.[255] The Basic Conditions of Employ- tracted controversy for his close relationship with Indone- ment Act of 1997 improved enforcement mechanisms sian President Suharto, whose regime was responsible for while extending a “floor” of rights to all workers;[255] the mass human rights abuses, although privately urged him Employment Equity Act of 1998 was passed to put an end to withdraw from the occupation of East Timor.[265] to unfair discrimination and ensure the implementation of [255] Mandela faced similar criticism from the West for his affirmative action in the workplace. government’s trade links to Syria, Cuba, and Libya,[261] Critics like Edwin Cameron accused Mandela’s govern- and for his personal friendships with Fidel Castro ment of doing little to stem the HIV/AIDS pandemic and Muammar Gaddafi. Castro visited in 1998, to 16 5 PRESIDENCY OF SOUTH AFRICA: 1994–99

widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the Order of Good Hope.[266] When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambasted such criticism as having racist undertones,[267] and stated that “the enemies of countries in the West are not our enemies.”[261] Mandela hoped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya and the US and Britain over bringing to trial the two Libyans, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotag- ing Pan Am Flight 103. Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third country, which was agreed to by all par- ties; governed by Scots law, the trial was held at Camp Zeist in the Netherlands in April 1999, and found one of the two men guilty.[268] [269] Mandela echoed Mbeki’s calls for an "African Renais- sance", and was greatly concerned with issues on the continent.[270] He took a soft diplomatic approach to re- moving Sani Abacha's military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha’s regime increased human rights violations.[271] In 1996 he was appointed Chairman of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the First Congo War in Zaire.[272] He also played a key role as a mediator in the ethnic conflict between Tutsi and Hutu political groups in Burundian Civil War, helping to initiate a settlement In the latter part of his presidency, Mandela relied increasingly which brought increased stability to the country but which on Vice President Mbeki (pictured) did not end the ethnic violence.[273] In South Africa’s first post-apartheid military operation, Mandela ordered troops into Lesotho in September 1998 to protect the gov- ernment of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili after a dis- puted election prompted opposition uprisings.[274] would succeed him, believing Mbeki to be too inflex- ible and intolerant of criticism, but the ANC elected Mbeki regardless.[280] Replacing Mbeki as Deputy Pres- 5.4 Withdrawing from politics ident, Mandela and the Executive supported the candi- dacy of Jacob Zuma, a Zulu who had been imprisoned on The new Constitution of South Africa was agreed upon Robben Island, but he was challenged by Winnie, whose by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of in- populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within stitutions to check political and administrative author- the party; Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote ity within a constitutional democracy.[275] De Klerk op- at the election.[281] posed the implementation of this constitution, and that Mandela’s relationship with Machel had intensified; in month he and the National Party withdrew from the coali- [276] February 1998 he publicly stated that “I'm in love with tion government in protest. The ANC took over the a remarkable lady”, and under pressure from his friend cabinet positions formerly held by the Nationalists, with [277] Desmond Tutu, who urged him to set an example for Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President. When both young people, he organised a wedding for his 80th birth- Mandela and Mbeki were out of the country in one occa- day, in July.[282] The following day he held a grand party sion, Buthelezi was appointed “Acting President”, mark- [283] [278] with many foreign dignitaries. The 1996 constitution ing an improvement in his relationship with Mandela. limited the president to two consecutive five-year terms. Although Mandela had often govern decisively in his [279] Mandela did not attempt to amend the document to re- first two years as President, Mandela had increas- move the two-term limit; indeed, he had never planned on ingly delegated duties to Mbeki after that, only retaining standing for a second term in office. He gave his farewell a close personal supervision of intelligence and security [284] [279] speech on 29 March 1999, after which he retired. measures. On a 1997 visit to London, he said that “the Although opinion polls in South Africa showed waver- ruler of South Africa, the de facto ruler, is Thabo Mbeki. [279] ing support for both the ANC and the government, Man- I am shifting everything to him.” dela himself remained highly popular, with 80% of South Mandela stepped down as ANC President at the party’s Africans polled in 1999 expressing satisfaction with his December 1997 conference. He hoped that Ramaphosa performance as president.[285] 6.2 “Retiring from retirement": 2004–13 17

6 Retirement and lambasting US President George W. Bush and UK Prime Minister Tony Blair for undermining the UN, say- [295] 6.1 Continued activism and philanthropy: ing “All that (Mr. Bush) wants is Iraqi oil". He at- tacked the US more generally, asserting that it had com- 1999–2004 mitted more “unspeakable atrocities” across the world than any other nation, citing the atomic bombing of Japan; this attracted international controversy, although he later reconciled his relationship with Blair.[296] Re- taining an interest in Libyan-UK relations, he visited Megrahi in Barlinnie prison and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as “psycho- logical persecution”.[297]

6.2 “Retiring from retirement": 2004– 13

Mandela visiting the London School of Economics in 2000

Retiring in June 1999, Mandela sought a quiet fam- ily life, to be divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. He set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiogra- phy, to be titled The Presidential Years, but it was aban- doned before publication.[286] Finding such seclusion dif- ficult, he reverted to a busy public life with a daily pro- gramme of tasks, meeting with world leaders and celebri- ties, and when in Johannesburg worked with the Nel- son Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to focus on rural development, school construction, and combating HIV/AIDS.[287] Although he had been heavily criticised Nelson Mandela and President George W. Bush in the Oval Of- for failing to do enough to fight the pandemic during his fice, May 2005 presidency, he devoted much of his time to the issue fol- lowing his retirement, describing it as “a war” that had In June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela killed more than “all previous wars"; affiliating himself announced that he was “retiring from retirement” and re- with the Treatment Action Campaign, he urged Mbeki’s treating from public life, remarking “Don't call me, I will government to ensure that HIV+ South Africans had ac- [298] [288] call you.” Although continuing to meet with close cess to anti-retrovirals. In 2000, the Nelson Mandela friends and family, the Foundation discouraged invita- Invitational charity golf tournament was founded, hosted [289] tions for him to appear at public events and denied most by Gary Player. Mandela was successfully treated for interview requests.[299] prostate cancer in July 2001.[290] He retained some involvement in international affairs. In In 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela An- 2005, he founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust,[300] nual Lecture, and in 2003 the Mandela Rhodes Foun- travelling to the U.S., to speak before the Brookings In- dation was created at Rhodes House, University of Ox- stitution and the NAACP on the need for economic as- ford, to provide postgraduate scholarships to African stu- sistance to Africa.[300][301] He spoke with U.S. Senator dents. These projects were followed by the Nelson Man- Hillary Clinton and President George W. Bush and first dela Centre of Memory and the 46664 campaign against met then-U.S. Senator Barack Obama.[301] Mandela also HIV/AIDS.[291] He gave the closing address at the XIII [292] encouraged Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe to International AIDS Conference in Durban in 2000, resign over growing human rights abuses in the coun- and in 2004, spoke at the XV International AIDS Con- [293] try. When this proved ineffective, he spoke out pub- ference in Bangkok, Thailand. licly against Mugabe in 2007, asking him to step down Publicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising West- “with residual respect and a modicum of dignity.”[302] ern powers. He strongly opposed the 1999 NATO in- That year, Mandela, Machel, and Desmond Tutu con- tervention in Kosovo and called it an attempt by the vened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to con- world’s powerful nations to police the entire world.[294] tribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some In 2003, he spoke out against the plans for the US and of the world’s toughest problems. Mandela announced UK to launch the War in Iraq, describing it as “a tragedy” the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech 18 7 POLITICAL IDEOLOGY delivered on his 89th birthday.[303] Cyril Ramaphosa, met Mandela’s wife Graça Machel at [323] Mandela’s 90th birthday was marked across the coun- the hospital in Pretoria and discussed his condition. try on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at On 25 June Cape Town Archbishop Thabo Makgoba Qunu,[304] and a concert in his honour in Hyde Park, visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Graça [305] Machel Mandela “at this hard time of watching and London. In a speech marking the event, Mandela [324] called for the rich to help the poor across the world.[304] waiting”. The next day, Zuma visited Mandela in the hospital and cancelled a visit scheduled for the next Throughout Mbeki’s presidency, Mandela continued to [325] support the ANC, although usually overshadowed Mbeki day to Mozambique. In September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital,[326] although his condition at any public events that the two attended. Mandela was [327] more at ease with Mbeki’s successor Jacob Zuma,[306] al- remained unstable. though the Nelson Mandela Foundation were upset when his grandson, Mandla Mandela, flew him out to the East- 6.3 Death and funeral: 2013 ern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.[306]

Mandela meeting with Australian Governor-General Quentin Bryce on 24 March 2009. Members of the public paying their respects outside Mandela’s Houghton home In 2004, Mandela successfully campaigned for South Main article: Death of Nelson Mandela Africa to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup, declaring that there would be “few better gifts for us” in the year mark- ing a decade since the fall of apartheid.[307] Mandela emo- After suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, tionally raised the FIFA World Cup Trophy after South Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at the age of 95. He Africa was awarded host status.[308] Despite maintain- died at around 20:50 local time (UTC+2) at his home in ing a low profile during the event due to ill-health, Man- Houghton, Johannesburg, surrounded by his family.[328] dela made his final public appearance during the World Zuma publicly announced his death on television.[328][329] Cup closing ceremony, where he received a “rapturous Zuma proclaimed a national mourning period of ten days, reception”.[309][310] Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, with 8 December a national day or prayer and reflection, and later his family, were embroiled in a series of le- and a main event held at Johannesburg’s FNB Stadium on gal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the 10 December 2013. Mandela’s body lay in state from 11 benefit of his descendants.[311] In mid-2013, as Mandela to 13 December at the Union Buildings in Pretoria and a was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his de- state funeral was held on 15 December in Qunu.[330][331] scendants were involved in intra-family legal dispute re- Approximately 90 representatives of foreign states trav- lating to the burial place of Mandela’s children, and ulti- elled to South Africa to attend memorial events.[332][333] mately Mandela himself.[312][313][314] Mandela’s $4.1 million estate was left to his widow, other family members, staff, and educational institutions.[334] In February 2011, he was briefly hospitalised with a respiratory infection, attracting international attention,[315] before being re-hospitalised for a lung infection and gallstone removal in December 7 Political ideology 2012.[316] After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013,[317] his lung infection recurred, Mandela identified as an African nationalist, an ideo- and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria.[318] On 8 logical position he held since joining the ANC.[335] He June 2013, his lung infection worsened, and he was also identified as a democratic socialist,[336] thereby being rehospitalised in Pretoria in a serious condition.[319] “openly opposed to capitalism, private land-ownership On 23 June 2013, Zuma announced that Mandela’s and the power of big money”,[337] and advocating the ul- condition had become "critical".[320][321][322] Zuma, timate establishment of a classless society.[338] Mandela accompanied by the Deputy President of the ANC, was influenced by Marxism, and during the revolution 19

8 Personal life

Mandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in very few people.[354] Privately, he lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcohol or smoke, and even as President made his own bed.[355] Renowned for his mischievous sense of humour,[356] he was known for being both stubborn and loyal,[357] and at times exhibited a quick temper.[355] He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in conver- sation with everyone, including his opponents.[358] Con- stantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to all, irre- spective of their age or status, and often talked to chil- “Free Mandela” protest in East Berlin, 1986 dren or servants.[359] In later life he always looked for the best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others.[360] He was highly image conscious, and through- out his life always sought out fine quality clothes, with he advocated scientific socialism.[339] During the Trea- many commentators believing that he carried himself in son Trial, he denied being a communist,[340] maintain- a regal manner.[361] His aristocratic heritage was repeat- ing this stance when later talking to journalists.[341] Con- edly emphasised by supporters, thus contributing to his versely, biographer David Jones Smith stated that Man- “charismatic power”.[362] His official biographer Anthony dela “embraced communism and communists” in the late Sampson commented that he was a “master of imagery 1950s and early 1960s,[342] while historian Stephen Ellis and performance”, excelling at presenting himself well in found evidence that Mandela had been an active mem- press photographs and producing soundbites.[363] ber of the South African Communist Party (SACP).[107] This was confirmed after his death by the SACP and the In describing his life, Mandela stated that “I was not ANC. According to the SACP, he was not only a mem- a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a ber of the party, but also served on the party’s Central leader because of extraordinary circumstances.”[364] He Committee.[108] was raised into the Methodist denomination of Christian- ity, with the Methodist Church of Southern Africa claim- In the 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped ing that he retained his allegiance to them throughout his create, it called for the nationalisation of banks, gold life.[365] An analysis of his writings have led to him be- mines, and land, believing this necessary to ensure equal ing described as an African Christian humanist, who re- distribution of wealth.[343] Despite these beliefs, Man- lied more upon African humanism than Christian theol- dela initiated a programme of privatisation during his ogy.[366] presidency, in line with trends in other countries of the time.[344] This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the socialist states in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc during the early 1990s.[345] In contrast, China was devel- oping rapidly within a "socialist market economy", and Mandela began to quote Deng Xiaoping's aphorism: “It doesn't matter whether a cat is black or white, so long as it catches mice.”[346][347] Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout believer in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them.[348] His political thought nevertheless exhibited tensions between his support for liberal democracy and pre-colonial African forms of con- sensus decision making.[349] He held a conviction that “in- clusivity, accountability and freedom of speech” were the Mandela House museum, Soweto fundamentals of democracy,[350] and was driven by a be- lief in natural and human rights,[351] pursuing not only Mandela was married three times, fathered six chil- racial equality but also promoting gay rights as part of dren, had 17 grandchildren,[367][368] and many great- the post-apartheid reforms.[352] His political development grandchildren.[369] He could be stern and demanding of was strongly influenced by his legal training and practice, his children, although he was more affectionate with his in particular his hope to achieve change not through vio- grandchildren.[370] His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko lence but through “legal revolution”.[353] Mase in October 1944;[57] they divorced after 13 years in 20 9 INFLUENCE AND LEGACY

1957 under the multiple strains of his adultery and con- end of his Presidency, Mandela’s era was being widely stant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and thought of as “a golden age of hope and harmony”.[364] the fact that she was a member of the Jehovah’s Wit- Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim nesses, a religion requiring political neutrality.[91] The for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering couple had two sons whom Mandela survived, Madiba racial reconciliation,[355] coming to be viewed as “a moral “Thembi” Thembekile (1945–1969) and Makgatho Man- authority” with a great “concern for truth”.[381] dela (1950–2005); his first son died in a car crash, and Throughout his life, Mandela had also faced criti- his second son died of AIDS. The couple had two daugh- cism, being often denounced as a communist and ters, both named Makaziwe Mandela (born 1947 and terrorist.[382][383] Margaret Thatcher attracted interna- 1954); the first died at the age of nine months, the tional attention for describing the ANC as “a typical ter- second, known as "Maki", survived Mandela.[371] Mak- rorist organisation” in 1987;[384] although she later called gatho’s son, Mandla Mandela, became chief of the Mvezo on Botha to release Mandela.[385] Mandela has also been tribal council in 2007.[372] criticised for his friendship with political leaders such as Mandela’s second wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, Fidel Castro, Muammar Gaddafi, and Suharto – deemed also came from the Transkei area, although they, too, dictators by critics – as well as his refusal to condemn met in Johannesburg, where she was the city’s first their human rights violations.[386][387] black social worker.[373] They had two daughters, Zenani (Zeni), born 4 February 1959, and Zindziswa (Zindzi) Mandela-Hlongwane, born 1960.[373] Zindzi was only 9.1 Orders, decorations, and monuments 18 months old when her father was sent to Robben Is- land. Later, Winnie was deeply torn by family discord Main article: List of awards and honours bestowed upon which mirrored the country’s political strife; separation Nelson Mandela (April 1992) and divorce (March 1996), fuelled by po- On 16 December 2013, Day of Reconciliation, a 9- litical estrangement.[374] Mandela’s third wife was Graça Machel (née Simbine), whom he married on his 80th birthday in 1998.[375]

9 Influence and legacy

Nelson Mandela Bridge in Johannesburg

By the time of his death, Mandela had come to be widely considered both “the father of the nation”,[376] and “the founding father of democracy” within South Africa,[377] being seen as “the national liberator, the saviour, its Washington and Lincoln rolled into one”.[378] One biog- rapher considered him “a modern democratic hero with acknowledged flaws and failings”.[379] Mandela’s biog- rapher Anthony Sampson commented that even during his life, a myth had developed around him that turned him into “a secular saint” and which was “so powerful Nelson Mandela graffiti by Thierry Ehrmann in the Abode of that it blurs the realities.”[380] Within a decade after the Chaos museum, France 21

metre-high, bronze statue of Mandela was unveiled at Goodbye Bafana (2007).[416] In the 2009 BBC telefilm the Union Buildings by President Jacob Zuma.[388] In Mrs Mandela, Mandela was portrayed by David Hare- 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the freedom of the wood,[417] and Morgan Freeman portrayed him in Invictus city,[389] and the Sandton Square shopping centre was re- (2009).[418] Terrence Howard portrayed him in the 2011 named Nelson Mandela Square, after a Mandela statue film Winnie Mandela.[419] He is portrayed by Idris Elba was installed there.[390] In 2008, another Mandela statue in the 2013 film Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom.[420] was unveiled at Drakenstein Correctional Centre, for- merly Victor Verster Prison, near Cape Town, stand- ing on the spot where Mandela was released from the 10 References prison.[391] In 1993, he received the joint Nobel Peace Prize with de 10.1 Footnotes Klerk.[392] In November 2009, the United Nations Gen- eral Assembly proclaimed Mandela’s birthday, 18 July, [1] “Mandela”. Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved 17 De- as "Mandela Day", marking his contribution to the anti- cember 2013. apartheid struggle. It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others, commemorat- [2] Mandela 1994, p. 3; Sampson 2011, p. 3; Smith 2010, p. ing the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the 17. [393] movement. [3] Benson 1986, p. 16; Mandela 1994, p. 3; Smith 2010, p. Awarded the US Presidential Medal of Freedom[394] and 17; Sampson 2011, p. 3. [395] appointment to the Order of Canada, he was also the [4] Mandela 1994, p. 4; Lodge 2006, p. 2; Smith 2010, p. first living person to be made an honorary Canadian cit- 16. izen.[396] Mandela was the last recipient of the Soviet Union’s Lenin Peace Prize[397] and the first recipient of [5] Guiloineau & Rowe 2002, p. 23; Mafela 2008. the Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights.[398] [6] Guiloineau & Rowe 2002, p. 26; Mafela 2008. In 1990, he received the Bharat Ratna Award from the government of India[399] and, in 1992, received Pakistan’s [7] Smith 2010, p. 19. Nishan-e-Pakistan.[400] The same year, he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey; he at first refused [8] Mandela 1994, pp. 8–9; Sampson 2011, p. 4; Smith the award, citing human rights violations committed by 2010, pp. 21–22. [401] Turkey at the time, but later accepted the award in [9] Mandela 1994, p. 17. 1999.[397] Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order of St. John (upon the recom- [10] Mandela 1994, pp. 7–8; Sampson 2011, p. 4; Smith mendation of the order’s Honours and Awards Commit- 2010, pp. 16, 23–24. tee) and granted him membership in the Order of Merit [11] Mandela 1994, p. 19. (a personal gift of the monarch).[402] [12] Mandela 1994, p. 15.

[13] Benson 1986, p. 16; Mandela 1994, p. 12; Smith 2010, 9.2 In popular media pp. 23–24.

Many artists have dedicated songs to Mandela. One [14] Mandela 1994, pp. 18–19; Lodge 2006, p. 3; Smith 2010, of the most popular was from The Special AKA p. 24; Sampson 2011, pp. 5,7; Forster 2014, pp. 91–92. who recorded the song "Free Nelson Mandela" in [15] Mandela 1994, pp. 20; Sampson 2011, p. 7; Smith 2010, 1983, which Elvis Costello also recorded and had a p. 25. hit with. Stevie Wonder dedicated his 1985 Oscar for the song "I Just Called to Say I Love You" [16] Mandela 1994, pp. 8, 20. to Mandela, resulting in his music being banned by the South African Broadcasting Corporation.[403] [17] Mandela 1994, pp. 22–25; Lodge 2006, p. 3; Smith 2010, pp. 26–27; Sampson 2011, pp. 7–9. Other artists who released songs or videos honouring Mandela include Simple Minds,[404] Johnny Clegg,[405] [18] Mandela 1994, pp. 27–29. Hugh Masekela,[406] Brenda Fassie,[407] Khadja Nin,[408] Beyond,[409] Nickelback,[410] Raffi,[411] Youssou N'Dour, [19] Mandela 1994, p. 25; Smith 2010, p. 27. [412] [413] Zahara and Ampie du Preez and AB de Villiers. [20] Mandela 1994, pp. 31–34; Lodge 2006, p. 3; Smith 2010, Mandela has been depicted in cinema and television p. 18. on multiple occasions. He was portrayed by Danny [21] Mandela 1994, p. 43. Glover in the 1987 HBO telefilm Mandela.[414] The 1997 film Mandela and de Klerk starred Sidney Poitier [22] Mandela 1994, pp. 36–42; Sampson 2011, p. 14; Smith as Mandela,[415] and Dennis Haysbert played him in 2010, pp. 29–31. 22 10 REFERENCES

[23] Mandela 1994, pp. 45–47; Sampson 2011, p. 15; Smith [50] Mandela 1994, p. 135. 2010, p. 31. [51] Mandela 1994, pp. 127–131; Sampson 2011, pp. 34–35; [24] Mandela 1994, pp. 48–50. Smith 2010, pp. 64–65.

[25] Sampson 2011, p. 17. [52] Mandela 1994, p. 136; Smith 2010, p. 53.

[26] Mandela 1994, p. 52; Sampson 2011, pp. 17–18; Smith [53] Mandela 1994, pp. 137–139; Sampson 2011, pp. 38–39; 2010, pp. 31–32. Smith 2010, p. 53.

[27] Mandela 1994, pp. 53–54; Sampson 2011, pp. 18–21; [54] Mandela 1994, pp. 142–143; Smith 2010, p. 54. Smith 2010, p. 32. [55] Mandela 1994, pp. 139–143; Sampson 2011, pp. 39–41; [28] Mandela 1994, p. 56; Smith 2010, p. 32. Smith 2010, pp. 52–56.

[29] Mandela 1994, pp. 62–65; Sampson 2011, pp. 21, 25; [56] Smith 2010, p. inset photographs Smith 2010, pp. 33–34; Meredith 2010, p. 18. [57] Mandela 1994, pp. 144, 148–149; Sampson 2011, p. 36; [30] Mandela 1994, pp. 62–63; Sampson 2011, pp. 24–25; Smith 2010, pp. 59–62. Smith 2010, pp. 33–34; Meredith 2010, pp. 17–18. [58] Mandela 1994, pp. 149, 152; Sampson 2011, p. 36; [31] Mandela 1994, pp. 67–69; Sampson 2011, p. 25; Smith Smith 2010, pp. 60–64; see also “Honouring Thembek- 2010, p. 34. ile Mandela”. Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory. Nelson [32] Mandela 1994, p. 68; Sampson 2011, p. 25; Smith 2010, Mandela Foundation. Retrieved 8 December 2013.. p. 35. [59] Mandela 1994, pp. 150, 210; Sampson 2011, p. 36; [33] Mandela 1994, p. 68; Meredith 2010, p. 18; Forster Smith 2010, p. 67. 2014, p. 93 [60] Mandela 1994, p. 151; Smith 2010, p. 64. [34] Sampson 2011, p. 25. [61] Mandela 1994, pp. 153–154; Sampson 2011, p. 48; [35] Mandela 1994, pp. 70–71; Sampson 2011, p. 26. Smith 2010, p. 66.

[36] Mandela 1994, p. 66; Smith 2010, p. 34. [62] Mandela 1994, p. 154; Sampson 2011, p. 42.

[37] Mandela 1994, pp. 78–86; Sampson 2011, pp. 26–27; [63] Mandela 1994, pp. 154–157; Sampson 2011, p. 49; Smith 2010, pp. 34–35; Meredith 2010, pp. 19–20. Smith 2010, p. 66.

[38] Mandela 1994, pp. 73–76; Sampson 2011, pp. 27–28; [64] Mandela 1994, pp. 159–162; Sampson 2011, pp. 51–52; Smith 2010, pp. 36–39. Smith 2010, pp. 70–72.

[39] Mandela 1994, pp. 89–94; Sampson 2011, pp. 29–30; [65] Mandela 1994, pp. 162–165; Sampson 2011, pp. 53–55; Smith 2010, p. 40. Smith 2010, pp. 72–73.

[40] Mandela 1994, pp. 96–101; Sampson 2011, pp. 30–31; [66] Sampson 2011, p. 35; Smith 2010, pp. 68–70. Smith 2010, p. 41. [67] Mandela 1994, p. 168; Sampson 2011, pp. 55–56. [41] Mandela 1994, pp. 104–105; Sampson 2011, pp. 32–33; Smith 2010, pp. 43, 48. [68] Mandela 1994, pp. 165–167; Sampson 2011, pp. 61–62; Smith 2010, pp. 74–75. [42] Mandela 1994, p. 106; Smith 2010, pp. 48–49. [69] Mandela 1994, p. 176; Sampson 2011, pp. 63–64; Smith [43] Mandela 1994, pp. 122–123; Sampson 2011, p. 37; 2010, p. 78. Smith 2010, p. 48. [70] Mandela 1994, pp. 177–172; Sampson 2011, pp. 64–65; [44] Mandela 1994, p. 100; Sampson 2011, p. 34; Smith Smith 2010, pp. 75–76. 2010, p. 44. [71] Mandela 1994, p. 165; Smith 2010, p. 77. [45] Mandela 1994, pp. 99, 108–110; Sampson 2011, p. 33; Smith 2010, pp. 44–45. [72] Mandela 1994, p. 170; Smith 2010, p. 94.

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12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text

• Nelson Mandela Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Mandela?oldid=694044345 Contributors: David Parker, Eloquence, Mav, Koyaanis Qatsi, Clasqm, Gareth Owen, Andre Engels, LA2, Turmeric, Danny, Christopher Mahan, Fcueto, MarekF~enwiki, Deb, William Avery, Anthere, Zoe, Zadcat, GrahamN, Rsabbatini, Montrealais, Moravice, Mikebdoss, Edward, Kchishol1970, Paul Barlow, Pit~enwiki, EvanProdromou, Lezek, Liftarn, Sam Francis, Ixfd64, Bcrowell, IZAK, Axlrosen, Paul Benjamin Austin, Delirium, Nine Tail Fox, Sky- smith, Tiles, Greenman, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Snoyes, Angela, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Jdforrester, Kingturtle, Bueller 007, Vzbs34, Llull, Andres, Jiang, Kaihsu, Jeandré du Toit, Evercat, Cherkash, John K, Kaysov, Chelman, Hashar, The Tom, Mpt, Adam Bishop, Timwi, Zenzee, Fuzheado, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, DJ Clayworth, Aldo~enwiki, Tpbradbury, Kaare, Dragons flight, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Buridan, Floydian, Thue, Fvw, Raul654, Bcorr, Proteus, Johnleemk, Adam Carr, 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12.2 Images • File:1988_CPA_5971.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/1988_CPA_5971.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Personal collection Original artist: Scanned and processed by Mariluna • File:African_National_Congress_Flag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/African_National_ Congress_Flag.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based upon deleted Image:ANCflag.png, created using Inkscape 0.45 and cleaned up using Notepad2 2. Original artist: This vector image was created with Inkscape by UberHalogen, and then manually replaced by Halogen. • File:ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/ ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Derived from Aprt.jpg on en.wiki, corrected perspec- tive and lighting somewhat. Permission from photographer here. Original artist: Dewet • File:Bharat_Ratna.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Bharat_Ratna.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Hekerui using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Kumar Rajen- dran • File:Bill-Clinton-with-Nelson-Mandela.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/ Bill-Clinton-with-Nelson-Mandela.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: From the “Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States” http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/pubpaps/1993portv1.html. Original artist: White House Photograph Office, Clinton Administration • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Detuynhuys.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Detuynhuys.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contrib- utors: Own work Original artist: Borisgorelik • File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Per specifications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National flag Original artist: Flag de- sign by Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users • File:Flag_of_South_Africa_(1928-1994).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Flag_of_South_Africa_ %281928-1994%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SVG based on this image Original artist: Parliament of South Africa

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• File:Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_ Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Frederik de Klerk & Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 1992 Original artist: Copyright World Economic Forum (www.weforum.org) • File:Free_Nelson_Mandela_Protest,_Germany_(crop).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/ Free_Nelson_Mandela_Protest%2C_Germany_%28crop%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This file was derived from Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1986-0920-016, Berlin, Weltgewerkschaftskongress, Probe des Festprogramms.jpg: Original artist: Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0920-016,_Berlin,_Weltgewerkschaftskongress,_Probe_des_Festprogramms.jpg: Senft, Gabriele • File:George_W._Bush_and_Nelson_Mandela_-_walking_-_Oval_Office_-_May_17_2005.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/George_W._Bush_and_Nelson_Mandela_-_walking_-_Oval_Office_-_May_17_2005.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Source page (direct link to image) Original artist: Eric Draper, White House Photographer • File:Liliesleaf_hut1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Liliesleaf_hut1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Colinvlr • File:Luthuli_House.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Luthuli_House.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Garyvdm • File:Madiba’{}s_house_3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Madiba%27s_house_3.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Robert Dennison • File:Mandela_Bust_at_Southbank.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Mandela_Bust_at_Southbank. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by HelenOnline. Original artist: Midnightblueowl at English Wikipedia • File:Mandela_burn_pass_1960.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Mandela_burn_pass_1960.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Unknown • File:Mandela_e_Evelyn_1944.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Mandela_e_Evelyn_1944.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from pt.wikipedia to Commons by Truu. Original artist: The original uploader was André Koehne at Portuguese Wikipedia • File:Mandela_museum_soweto.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Mandela_museum_soweto.jpg Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Moongateclimber assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Mandela_voting_in_1994.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Mandela_voting_in_1994.jpg Li- cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: direct donation from Author 14 October 2009, 19:07:42 (original upload date) Original artist: Paul Weinberg • File:Nelson_Mandela,_2000_(4).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Nelson_Mandela%2C_2000_ %284%29.jpg License: No restrictions Contributors: Nelson Mandela, 2000 Original artist: Library of the London School of Economics and Political Science • File:Nelson_Mandela,_2000_(5).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Nelson_Mandela%2C_2000_ %285%29.jpg License: No restrictions Contributors: Nelson Mandela, 2000 Original artist: Library of the London School of Economics and Political Science • File:Nelson_Mandela_1998.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Nelson_Mandela_1998.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 br Contributors: Agência Brasil [1] Original artist: Arquivo/ABr • File:Nelson_Mandela_Signature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Nelson_Mandela_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader, traced in Adobe Illustrator from http://www.indianautographs.com/ prodimages/m_231255a.jpg Original artist: Connormah, Nelson Mandela • File:Nelson_Mandela_painted_portrait_P1040890.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Nelson_ Mandela_painted_portrait_P1040890.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: Nelson Mandela painted portrait P1040890 Original artist: thierry ehrmann • File:Nobel_Prize.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png License: ? Contributors: Derivative of File:NobelPrize.JPG Original artist: Photograph: JonathunderMedal: Erik Lindberg (1873-1966) • File:Physiological_needs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Physiological_needs.jpg License: CC BY- SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Witstinkhout 36 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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