587

Catastrophism? Yes!

by Ariel A. Roth arly on the morning of November sey only a few months sufficed for a 14, 1963, the crew members on the landscape to be created which was so Efishing vessel Isleifur II noticed a varied and mature that it was almost be­ strange sulphur-like smell in the air, but yond belief."1 dismissed it as unimportant. About an Normally, on our relatively placid hour later, the boat, navigating near the earth, changes don't happen very rapid­ coast of Iceland, started to roll in an un­ ly, but occasionally events like the for­ usual pattern. In the dim light of dawn, mation of Surtsey remind us that rapid the crew observed dark smoke rising in catastrophic changes do occur. the south. Thinking that a ship might A review of how science has be on fire, they checked for any S.O.S. Catastrophism and uniformitarian­ radio messages, but none had been Ism heard. Looking through his binoculars, Catastrophism and uniformitarian­ gone back and forth on the the captain noted black columns erupt­ ism have played a major role in the in­ ing out of the sea about a kilometer terpretation of the history of earth. The away. The crew immediately suspected a first assumes rapid, unusual, major geo­ role of catastrophism in the volcano; after all, they should know as logical events, while the second asserts they were from Iceland where volcanic with the contrary concept of small, activity is almost a way of life. The fish­ slow, and prolonged changes. The long study of earth~ history. erman were right over the volcanically ages required for slow uniformitarian active mid-Atlantic ridge. There the changes demand that the biblical ac­ floor of the ocean is about 100 meters count of a recent Creation be discarded below sea level, so the activity of a sub­ when explaining the formation of huge marine volcano could be easily noticed geological layers and the fossils that ap­ at the ocean surface. pear on the surface of the earth. Unifor­ The disturbance continued all day, mitarianism fits better with a prolonged with stones, flashes of light, and a col­ evolutionary history and long geologi­ umn of steam, ash, and smoke, rising 3 cal ages, while catastrophism fits better kilometers into the air. In five days, with the biblical concept of a recent where before there had been only open Creation and a subsequent worldwide ocean, an island 600 meters long had Flood. The biblical Flood, which could formed (Figure 1). The island, later deposit the geological layers rapidly, named Surtsey after the mythological represents a prime example of catastro­ giant Surtur, eventually reached a diam­ phism. eter of nearly 2 kilometers. Amazingly, Throughout most of human history, when scientists visited the island, it catastrophism was a well-accepted looked as though it had been there for a view, z occurring in ancient mythology long time. In about five months, a ma­ and in Greek and Roman antiquity. In­ ture-looking beach and cliff had formed terest waned during medieval times, al­ (Figure 2). One of the investigators com­ though the Arabs closely followed Aris­ mented: "What elsewhere may take totle, who believed in catastrophes. The thousands of years . . . may take a few Renaissance saw a renewed interest. The weeks or even a few days here. On Surt- abundant marine fossils found in the

Dialogue 10:2 7998 11 588

Alps were often explained as the result of the Flood. The I 7th and 18th centu­ ries witnessed attempts at harmonizing science with biblical Creatio n and Flood accounts. However, there were some n o­ table detractors, such as Rene Descartes (1 596-1 650), who suggested the Earth formed by a cooling process. Orthodox ideas began to be modified, such as sug­ gestions that the Deluge might have re­ sulted from natural causes an d that it might not have fo rmed all of the sedi­ mentary rock layers. Multiple catastro­ phes were proposed by Georges Cuvier (1769-1 832) in France, and during this period a few other scholars advocated uniformitarianism. At the same time, in England, there was strong support for the biblical Flood Figure 1. The developing island of Surtsey, south of Iceland. At this stage, it is only from such leading autho rities as Will­ four days old. iam Bucklan d, Adam Sedgwick, William Conybeare, and Roderick Murchison. In this milieu, a book appeared that would have more influence on geological thought than any other. Pri11ciples of Geology fi rst appeared in !830.3 Written by Charles Lyell, it strongly changed the prevailing climate of geological thought from catastroph­ ism to the strict slow changes of unifor­ mitarianism. By the middle of the 19th century, uniformitarianism h ad become a dominant concept and catastrophism a dwindling view. Various schemes tried to reconcile the biblical accou nt of a re­ cent Creation with the long geological ages proposed by uniformitarianism .

The Bretz event ln 1923 the independent-minded ge­ Figure 2. The new island of Surtsey. Note the beach, the cliff, and men for scale. The ologist Ha rlen Bretz described one of the sma ll white objects on the beach in the foregound are krill, planktonic crustaceans most unusual landscapes to be found on that constitute food for whales. The rock stacks in the distant horizon are not part of the surface of our planet. Covering the island. Fi ve months and two days earli er, this area was open ocean. Both photos from Sunuoy, by Stgu1dur Titourlnsl.On. Copyright 0 1964, 1966 by Alm~nna 8okaftlagld. U~ by permhlon some 40,000 square kilom eters in the of \ "IIJ ng Penguin. • dtvl\ton of Pe11guln Pumam Inc. southeastern region of the State of Washington (U.S.A.), it is characterized have a broad V shape in cross-section, h igh as I 00 meters, with large eroded by a vast network of huge dry channels, these channels often display steep sides plunge pools at their base, testify to sometimes many kilometers wide, form­ and nat fl oors. In addition, huge something very unusual. ing a maze of buttes and canyons cut mounds of stream gravel have been How did this odd landscape form? into stark, hard volcanic rock. Unlike found at various elevations. Evidence of Bretz had an idea, but it was outrageous ordinary river valleys, which generally hundreds of ancient waterfa lls, some as enough to spark a geological controver-

12 Dialogue 70:2 19 98 589

sy that lasted for 40 years. In his first swered: Where did all the water come received a telegram from the partici­ publication on this topic, Bretz did not from so suddenly? Apparently no minds pants sending him their greetings and express his suspicion about a major cat­ were changed at the meeting; the idea closing with the sentence: "We are now astrophic flood, but only indicated that of a catastrophic flood still seemed to all catastrophists. "15 In 1979 Bretz was prodigious amounts of water would be most scientists, preposterous. awarded the Penrose Medal, the United required.~ However, later in the same In the following years, the geological States' most prestigious geological year, he published a second paper ex­ community concentrated on develop­ award. Bretz had won; so had catastro­ pressing his view that this landscape ing alternatives to Bretz's model. In phism. This modern-day "Noah" and had been formed by a truly vast, but Bretz's words, the "heresy must be gen­ his likewise unwanted flood had been short-lived, catastrophic flood. This tly but firmly stamped out." 11 Neverthe­ vindicated. flood had scoured the area, eroded the less, field studies continued to produce channels, and deposited the immense data favorable to a catastrophic inter­ Turbidity currents gravel bars. 5 pretation, and the conflict began to By the middle of the 20th century, At that time, geologists opposed any moderate. Bretz and others found a some geologists had noticed that strict sort of explanation associated with catas­ source for the flood waters. Ancient uniformitarianism contradicted the trophes, and Bretz knew this. Uniformi­ lake Missoula to the east had once har­ data from the rocks themselves. Bretz tarianism was the accepted view; al­ bored 2,100 cubic kilometers of water. had found evidence of very rapid ac­ though recognized as having an impact, Some evidence indicated that ice had tion. Other scientists were finding sedi­ volcanoes and earthquakes were consid­ dammed the lake. A sudden break in the mentary layers with both shallow- and ered unimportant. Catastrophism was ice would release the water needed to deep-water components. 16 How could anathema; it was in the same category in produce the evidence for the rapid ero­ these ever get mixed together under qui­ which Creation finds itself in many sci­ sion seen to the west. The best support et conditions? The resolution: cata­ entific circles now-totally unacceptable. for this explanation came later when strophic underwater mud flows, starting The geologic community had to deal scientists found giant ripples in both from shallow water and flowing down with this young upstart Bretz, who was lake Missoula and the channel region to deep water. These fast mud flows, completely out of line. His heretical ideas to the west. You are probably familiar called turbidity currents, produce special were uncomfortably close to the rejected with the parallel ripple lines frequently deposits called turbidites. Turbidites idea of the biblical Flood. 6 To adopt his seen on sandy stream beds. These are have turned out to be surprisingly com­ theories, they thought would mean re­ usually just a few centimeters from crest mon all over the world. A few other dar­ treating into "the Dark Ages." 7 to crest. The ripples on the floor of lake ing thinkers have suggested other cata­ As Bretz, who was professor of geolo­ Missoula and to the west were gigan­ strophic activities such as mass extinc­ gy at the University of Chicago, contin­ tic-up to 15 meters high, with a span tions caused by influxes of high-energy ued his study and publication, some ge­ of 150 meters from crest to crest. 12 Only cosmic radiation 17 and the sudden ologists decided to try to persuade their vast quantities of rapidly moving water spread of fresh arctic water over the wayward colleague. In 1927, he was in­ could produce such an effect. More re­ world oceans. 18 All of these theories in­ Vited to present his views to the Geolog­ cent studies have concentrated on de­ dicate a growing departure from strict ical Society of Washington, D.C. There tails. Some suggest there may have been uniformitarianism. was a special purpose behind this invita­ as many as eight or more flood epi­ The coup de grace for the dominance tion: "a veritable phalanx of doubters sodes. 13 One of the studies proposed of uniformitarian explanations did not, had been assembled to debate the flood that water flowed at 108 kilometers per however, come from the study of the hypothesis. "8 After Bretz's presentation, hour, eroding the deep channels in the rocks themselves, but from the fossils five members of the prestigious U.S. hard volcanic rock in a few hours or they contained. Why did the dinosaurs Geological Survey presented their objec­ days. 14 disappear near the end of the Creta­ tions and alternative explanations such Eventually Bretz's masterful interpre­ ceous, and why were other mass extinc­ as glaciation and other slow changes.9 tations, based on careful study of the tions evident at other levels of the fossil Two of these geologists had not even rocks, were accepted by most of the geo­ record? Some reasonable cause must be visited the area! In answering them, a logical community. In 1965 the Interna­ found. Various explanations had been weary Bretz commented that "perhaps, tional Association for Quaternary Re­ proposed for the extinction of dino­ however, my attitude of dogmatic final­ search organized a field trip to the re­ saurs, ranging from starvation to poi­ ity is proving contagious."10 One major gion. At the conclusion of the confer­ sonous mushrooms or even hay fever. problem for Bretz's idea remained unan- ence, Bretz, who was unable to attend, Nevertheless, their disappearance had

Dialogue 10:2 1998 13 590

been generally considered a mystery. Then in 1980 Nobel Prize Laureate Luis Alvarez, from the University of Califor­ nia at Berkeley, and others19 suggested that the unusual abundance of the ele­ ment iridium found at a number of places throughout the world at the top of the Cretaceous layers might have come from an asteroid hitting the earth and killing off the dinosaurs. The idea engendered a mixed reaction. Some questioned it because the dinosaurs and other organisms did not seem to disap­ flood, which took only one year, an ily eroded. However, it has been pro­ pear that suddenly in the fossil layers. abundance of time is introduced be­ posed that Bretz's channels, mentioned Others proposed widespread volcanic tween many major catastrophes. The earlier, which are in hard basalt rock, activity and global fires, or an impact term neocatastrophism seems to be gain­ were cut to equivalent depth in a few from a comet instead of an asteroid. ing acceptance, as attempts are made to days. The carrying capacity of moving The debate about details continues, distinguish the newer concept from the water has been determined to increase but the door to catastrophic interpreta­ older catastrophism. The return to cata­ as the third to fourth power of the ve­ tions is wide open. The scientific litera­ strophic interpretations has been identi­ locity.27 This means that if the speed of ture now reports a wide range of sudden fied as 11 a great philosophical break­ flow is increased 10 times, the water can major changes. through,"25 and it is acknowledged that carry 1,000 to 10,000 times as much "the profound role of maJor storms sediment. Newer catastrophic Ideas throughout geologic history is becom­ Non-creationists sometimes point Some of the newer catastrophic ideas ing increasingly recognized."26 This lat­ out that the geologic column is far too propose that comets or asteroids could ter view fits well with the biblical model thick to have been deposited in the sin­ send ocean waves up to heights of eight of the Deluge as an extended series of gle year of the Deluge. 28 This may not be kilometers20 and plumes of volatiles storms during the year of the Flood. a significant argument. While most cre­ hundreds of kilometers above Earth's Neocatastrophism has stimulated re­ ationists would exclude the lowest (Pre­ surface. 21 Other proposed effects include interpretation of many geologic fea­ cambrian) and highest portions of the 5000 C blasts of air at 2,500 kilometers tures. For instance, many sedimentary geologic column from the Flood, some per hour that would kill half of the life deposits thought to have accumulated present rates of deposition are so rapid on earth, and global earthquakes ac­ slowly are now interpreted as the result that there would be little problem in de­ companied by ground waves reaching of rapid turbidity currents, and a num­ positing the whole column in a few heights of 10 meters. The opening of ber of fossil coral reefs, previously weeks. Turbidity currents can deposit cracks that span 10 to 100 kilometers thought to have formed slowly, are rein­ their sediment in a single locality in a and rapid mountain building have also terpreted as rapid debris flows. few minutes or less, and over thousands been proposed. 22 There is even a sugges­ of square kilometers in a few hours. tion that these impacts could have initi­ Examples of rapid action Large turbidites, called megaturbidites, ated the break up of Earth's ancient su­ Under normal, quiet conditions, found in Spain have thicknesses up to percontinent called Gondwanaland.23 changes in Earth's surface proceed very 200 meters, along with an immense vol­ Catastrophism has made a rapid re­ slowly. However, there are many exam­ ume of 200 cubic kilometers. 29 There are turn, but it is not exactly the classical ples of catastrophic activity that suggest also several methods other than turbidi­ catastrophism of two centuries ago that major changes in a short time. ty currents that cause the rapid deposi­ incorporated the biblical Flood as a ma­ Erosion can occur very rapidly. In tion of sediments. An intense Deluge jor geologic event. Interestingly, some 1976 the newly built Teton Dam in Ida­ lasting a year could deposit a lot of sedi­ geologists recently suggested that an ex­ ho (U.S.A.) sprang a leak that could not ment. traterrestrial impact could be related to be stopped, and the rushing water cut The accumulation of thick layers of the Genesis flood account. 24 At present, through sediment to a depth of 100 tiny microscopic organisms such as the major rapid catastrophes are readily ac­ meters in less than one hour. The dam White Cliffs of Dover in England is of­ cepted, but in contrast to the biblical was made of soft sediment, which is eas- ten presumed to require lengthy periods

14 Dialogue 10:2 1998 591

of time. But such accumulation can oc­ stitute - Lorna Linda University; Lorna Lin­ Basin, California, and the Action of Turbidity Currents," Society of Economic cur rapidly. Along the coast of Oregon da, California 92350; U.S.A. Fax: (909) Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special {U.S.A.), a three-day storm of high 824-92350. E-mail: gri.canail.llu.edu Publication 2 (1951): 76-107; F. B. Phleger, winds and rain deposited 10 to 15 centi­ "Displaced Foraminifera Faunas," Society of Economic Paleontologists and meters of microscopic diatoms for a dis­ Notes and references Mineralogists Special Publication 2 (1951): tance of 32 kilometers. I have seen a 1. S. Thorarinsson, Surtsey: The New Island in 66-75. the North Atlantic, S. Eysteinsson, tr. (New 17. o. H. Schindewolf, "Neocatastrophism?" well-preserved fossil bird and many fish York: The Viking Press, 1964), p. 39. in thick deposits of microscopic diatoms V.A. Firsoff, tr. Catastrophist Geology 2 2. For general reViews, see: D. Ager, The New (1977): 19-21. near Lompoc, California. A whale was Catastrophism: the Importance of the Rare 18. S. Gartner and j. P. McGuirk, .,Terminal Event in Geological History (Cambridge and Cretaceous Extinction Scenario for a also found in this deposit. Such preser­ New York: Cambridge University Press, vation would require rapid burial before Catastrophe," Science 206 (1979): 1272- 1993); A. Hallam, Great Geological 1276. disarticulation of the organism takes Controversies, 2d. ed. (Oxford and New 19. L. W. Alvarez, W. Alvarez, F. Asaro, H. V. place. 30 It has been found that disarticu­ York: Oxford University Press, 1989), Michel, "Extraterrestrial Cause for the pp.J0-64, 184-215; R. Huggett, Cataclysms lation in birds normally occurs in a few Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction," Science and Earth History: the Development of 208 (1980): 1095-1108. days. Evidently some layers of micro­ Diluvialism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 20. W. M. Napier, S. V. M. Clube, "A Theory 1989). scopic organisms have been deposited of Terrestrial Catastrophi~m," Nature 282 3. C. Lyell, Principles of Geology; or The rapidly. (1979): 455-459. Modern Changes of the Earth and Its 21. H. J. Melosh, "The Mechanics of Large Inhabitants Considered as lllustrative of Meteoroid Impacts in the Earth's Oceans," Geology, rev. ed. (New York: D. Appleton & Geological Society ofAmerica Special Paper Some Implications Co., 1857). We can learn from the history of the 190 (1982): 121-127. 4. j. H. Bretz, "Glacial Drainage on the 22. V. Clube, B. Napier, "Close Encounters catastrophic-uniformitarianism inter­ Columbia Plateau," Geological Society of with a Million Comets," New Scientist 95 pretations. For millennia, catastrophes America Bulletin 34 (1923): 573-608. (1982): 148-151. 5. Bretz, "The Channeled Scablands of the 23. V. R. Oberbeck, j. R. Marshall, and H. were accepted, then for well over a cen­ Columbia Plateau," Journal of Geology 31 Aggarwal, "Impacts, Tillites, and the tury they were virtually eradicated from (1923): 617-649. Breakup of Gondwanaland," Journal o{ 6. j. E. Allen, M. Burns, and S.C. Sargent, Geology 101 (1993): 1-19. all scientific thought; now they are well Cataclysms on the Columbia: Scenic Trips to accepted again. This illustrates how sci­ 24. E. Kristan-Tollmann, and A. Tollmann, the Northwest's Geologic Past, No. 2 "The Youngest Big Impact on Earth ence often changes its views, and some­ (Portland, Ore.: Timber Press, 1986), p. 44. Deduced From Geological and Historical times even accepts rejected concepts. 7. j. H. Bretz, "The Channeled Scabland: Evidence," Tma Nova 6 (1994):209-217. Introduction," in V. R. Baker, ed., The Bible, on the other hand, does not 25. E. Kauffman, quoted in R. Lewin, Catastrophic Flooding: the Origin of the "Extinctions and the History of Life," change. It is of interest that the reaccep­ Channeled Scabland: Benchmark Papers in Science 221 (1983): 935-937. tance of catastrophes came mainly from Geology 55 (Stroudsburg, Penna.: Dowden, 26. D. Nummedal, "Clastics," Geotimes 27 Hutchinson & Ross, 1981), pp. 18, 19. the study of the rocks themselves. We (1982)2: 22-23. 8. Baker, p. 60 (note 7). 27. A. Holmes, Principles of Physical Geology, should be cautious about accepting 9. For a report of the presentations and rev. ed. (New York: The Ronald Press Co., broad views, such as uniformitarianism, discussions, see j. H. Bretz, "Channeled 1965), p. 512. Scabland and the Spokane Flood" in that are based on opinion or a restricted 28. E.g., R. L. Ecker, Dictionary of Science and Baker, pp. 65-76. Creationism (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus amount of information. Furthermore, 10. Ibid., p. 74. Books, 1990), p. 102. the newer catastrophic interpretations, 11. J. H. Bretz, H. T. U. Smith, and G. E. Neff, 29. M. 5eguret, P. Labaume, and R. Madariaga, "Channeled Scabland of Washington: now reaccepted by science, show that "Eocene Seismicity in the Pyrenees From New Data and Interpretations," Geological Megaturbidltes of the South Pyrenean major events can occur rapidly. This Society of America Bulletin 67 (1956): 957- Basin (Spain)," Marine Geology 55 (1984): makes the biblical account of begin­ 1049. 117-131. 12. Ibid., j. T. Pardee, "Unusual Currents in nings, including Creation and the 30. P. G. Davis, D. E. G. Briggs, "The impact Glacial Lake Missoula, Montana," of decay and disarticulation on the Flood, all the more plausible. Geological Society ofAmerica Bulletin 53 preservation of fossil birds," Palaios 13 (1942): 1569-1600. (1998): 3-13. 13. J. H. Bretz, "The Lake Missoula Floods and Ariel A. Roth (Ph.D., University ofMich­ the Channeled Scabland," Journal of igan) is the editor ofOrigins and former di­ Geology 77 (1969): 505-543; M. Parfit, rector of the Geoscience Research Institute. "The Floods That Carved the West," Smithsoniat~ 26 (1995) 1:48-59. His book, Origins: Linking Science and 14. V. R. Baker, "Paleohydraulics and Scripture, (rom which this article is adapt­ Hydrodynamics of Scabland Floods" in: ed, has recently been published by the Re­ Baker, pp. 255-275 (note 7). 15. Bretz 1969 (note 13). view and Herald Publishing Association. 16. M. L Natland, P. H. Kuenen, Dr. Roth's address: Geoscience Research In- "Sedimentary History of the Ventura

Dialogue 10:2 1998 15