Chapter 2: Prehistoric Agenda Chapter 2

The Prehistoric Period Research Agenda

by John Hodgson and Mark Brennand

With contributions from David Barrowclough, Tom Clare, Ron Cowell, Mark Edmonds, Helen Evans, Dan Garner, Andrew Hoaen, Helen Loney, David Mullin, Michael Nevell and Sue Stallibrass

‘All Britain is divided into two parts – a South and a North. The South has pottery, storage pits, good preservation of animal bones, lots of archaeologists, and so lots of archaeology. The North is typified by a lack of pottery, a poverty of metalwork, stone structures with poor stratigraphy, acid soils in which bone is poorly preserved, and a poorly developed archaeology . . . Of course there are exceptions.’

Collis 1996 quoted by Frodsham, 2000, 15.

Introduction affected to a considerable extent by factors of visibil- ity, and past archaeological work. In both the uplands Prehistory in the North West Region runs from the and parts of the lowlands the formation of peat has Upper Palaeolithic to the Late Iron Age, a time span obscured the remains of prehistoric activity, while of some 12,000 years. Despite a seeming wealth of the same effect has been achieved in large parts of evidence, this period remains poorly understood, the lowlands by ploughing for arable agriculture and with syntheses and overviews often restricted to spe- the widespread occurrence of permanent pasture. cific periods and areas privileged by more intensive Urban development on river plateaus and valley bot- research projects (eg Bonsall 1989; Cowell 1991; toms has presumably also obscured and truncated 1996; 2000; Bradley & Edmonds 1993; Bewley 1994; prehistoric remains. On the coast early sites may Mullin 2003). Often dealt with as an adjunct to have been lost as a result of rises in sea level. broader national syntheses, the region appears to A major factor in the generally low level of data for have seen less systematic attention than others to the prehistory in the North West is the relative lack of south and east. Although the area was the subject of modern archaeological fieldwork, preceded by a some antiquarian and independent study, many ele- lower level of antiquarian and 20th century research, ments of the prehistoric record slip through the clas- than some other areas of the country. It is perhaps sification and dating schema traditionally imposed on surprising that even the numerous well-preserved them. This situation is slowly changing, in part be- and visible monuments in the uplands have not gen- cause of a renewed academic interest in western Brit- erally been subject to programmes of modern ar- ain as a whole. However, there remains a clear need chaeological excavation and radiocarbon dating, in to critically evaluate the resource that we have inher- stark contrast to areas such as Dartmoor, Northum- ited in order that this knowledge can be utilised and berland or parts of Scotland. Some of the most drawn on in the future. prominent and best known prehistoric monuments The distributions of sites of the earlier periods of the region have received no modern work and are (Palaeolithic and Mesolithic) are restricted and deter- dated by analogy only. mined partly by circumstances of survival and partly The Research Framework prehistoric period covers by the specialised subsistence economies of those several period divisions which contain period-specific early societies. Sites of the later prehistoric periods research themes. However, there are a series of gen- are more widespread, but all site distributions are eral themes that transgress the (artificial) period

Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) 31 Research and Archaeology in North West England

Fig 2.1 Cropmarks of enclosures at Gutterby, Cumbria (OA North). boundaries and are relevant for the study of all pre- rently having the lowest density of known sites and historic periods. monuments. Areas with low densities of known finds, sites and visible monuments must be evaluated Settlement and Land-use with scrutiny, whenever the opportunities arise. This also includes development within urban contexts, as The main issues relating to prehistoric settlement excavations at Carlisle have revealed well-preserved studies in the region are site visibility and chronol- evidence for prehistoric agriculture extending over a ogy. The current distributions of prehistoric sites wide area beneath the later urban deposits. may indeed reflect to some degree settlement and The remains of later prehistoric settlement in the monument densities in the past, but equally they may uplands of the region are often stone-built, and have relate to factors of site visibility and past archaeologi- an apparent better state of preservation. However, cal interest. despite extensive programmes of archaeological field The visibility of settlement for all prehistoric peri- survey (particularly in the Lake District), few settle- ods in the lowlands and coastal plain is poor. To ment remains have been subject to modern excava- some extent this is certainly due to the reduction of tion. archaeological earthworks through ploughing in ear- There is a general lack of data for domestic archi- lier times and the current high incidence of pasture, tecture, settlement hierarchies, and most importantly, reducing the opportunities for locating sites through chronology. The available radiocarbon chronology programmes of survey. There is also a growing body for all prehistoric periods is poor, and there are prob- of evidence from sites such as Lathom (M), Man- lems with dates from some samples analysed in the chester Airport (Ch), Brook House Farm, Bruen Sta- past. In the Lake District, the majority of upland field pleford (Ch) and Chester Business Park (Ch) to sug- survey has taken place on unenclosed fell, partly be- gest that unenclosed settlement sites, without enclos- cause of ease of access, and partly because sites tend ing ditches, banks or walls, were common through- to be better preserved in these areas than elsewhere. out prehistory. The potential for the survival of prehistoric sites To this must be added the bias represented by pro- within the immediately adjacent enclosed land on the grammes of past fieldwork, with particular areas be- fell margins is also very high, however, and within ing repeatedly favoured over others. Certain areas the Lake District SMR/HER almost the same num- have better representation of prehistoric remains ber of earthwork sites are recorded in marginal im- than others, with the central area of Lancashire cur- proved land as on the open fell. Sites in these areas

32 Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) Chapter 2: Prehistoric Agenda are often more degraded and more difficult to iden- Initiatives tify, but can be informative. This situation may be paralleled in other unenclosed upland areas, such as 2.1 There is a pressing need to publish or make the Pennines. This concentration of survey in the accessible those surveys and excavations that uplands is not matched within the lower lying areas, have not yet been placed in the public domain, and extensive areas of ploughed land such as within including large projects such as the Lake Dis- the Eden Valley have seen no systematic field survey, trict National Park Survey. Development- although a Local Heritage Initiative-funded project related work that exists only in client reports or has just begun in the Eden Valley in 2006. in Historic Environment Record (HER) re- Although pasture does not often provide ideal con- quires regular synthesis and summarising. ditions for the recognition of archaeological sites from the air, it is certainly the case that more ar- 2.2 The successful application of archaeological chaeological aerial photography in the region would field survey programmes in limited areas of the be a good starting point for identifying and charac- uplands of the region should be extended more terising prehistoric settlement sites. widely to other areas that have not yet been Recent air photographic survey has demonstrated examined. This also needs to be directed to- that new sites are still waiting to be discovered, such wards areas of high potential, such as the fell- as a potential pit circle and two hengiform enclosures edge intakes and areas of high-grade agricultural in Cheshire and west Lancashire (J Collens and R land that are currently being ploughed. Philpott pers comm), and within the uplands a possi- ble causewayed enclosure in north Cumbria (Horne 2.3 There is a pressing need for greater scrutiny of et al 2001) and a stone-banked enclosure at Hallin methods and techniques in archaeological sur- Fell (C). Areas of arable agriculture (such as the Sol- vey. Some areas still require the most basic of way Plain) have demonstrated high potential for the systematic surveys to assess the survival of ar- location of prehistoric sites, and the lack of large- chaeological remains. In other areas there is a scale excavation means that a substantial resource need to move towards more intensive surveys, remains untapped. beyond simply acknowledging the existence of a A further contributor to the lack of knowledge of site, that will enable the building of integrated the complete pattern of prehistoric settlement in the interpretations of these archaeological land- region is the rise in sea level since the early post- scapes. glacial period. Many settlement sites, particularly of the Palaeolithic and earlier Mesolithic, may now lie 2.4 The wetlands of the North West appear to have beneath the sea. Work elsewhere in the UK suggests seen continual activity from the Mesolithic that timber structures and flint artefacts should be through to the Iron Age but there is still a need visible for recording if certain areas are surveyed at to characterise the nature of the practices car- the right times and under optimum conditions. ried out in such areas, and to establish whether Work in the Solent has also demonstrated the high their use and/or meaning changed through standard of results that can be obtained by ground time. The North West Wetlands Survey has survey and techniques such as side scan sonar for produced an asses`sment of the wetland re- mapping underwater topography that can then be source. This work needs to be followed with used in palaeo-landscape reconstructions. The costs targeted sampling and investigation of the most and practicalities of such work are sometimes pro- important waterlogged sites (English Heritage hibitive, but in some circumstances sites can survive 2003d, 2.3). in good condition beneath marine deposits with ex- cellent organic preservation. 2.5 Survey needs to be accompanied by targeted The economic basis and land-use of many prehis- excavation. This should include both limited toric periods is not well understood, with many unre- sampling exercises, designed to obtain material solved questions including those of seasonality and for absolute dating (in order to develop an ab- the introduction of cereals and domestic animals. solute chronological framework for different The general sequence of vegetation in the prehistoric types of monuments), and more extensive pro- period is known for some parts of the region (often jects to examine individual sites in exhaustive as a result of the North West Wetlands Survey), but detail. Buried soils sealed beneath barrows, there are some significant geographical gaps and de- cairns, banks and walls offer the possibility for tails remains unclear throughout. The topographic the recovery of palaeoenvironmental material diversity of the region would suggest significantly and analyses directed towards understanding different patterns of settlement and economy at dif- clearances and changes in the patterns of vege- ferent locations. tational covering.

Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) 33 Research and Archaeology in North West England

facts would help to determine the real extent of settlement for some periods.

Fieldwork Techniques and Targeting

The majority of investigative archaeological fieldwork that currently takes place results from development related activity. The archaeological evaluation has become a standard tool within the planning process, and an unprecedented variety of topographic loca- tions and different types of sites are being investi- gated. This has inevitably led to an increase in our knowledge of prehistory in the region. However cur- rent practice within field evaluation together with financial and other factors such as time and expertise of fieldworkers may lead to a loss of opportunities within this process. The location of future development will also have an impact on research. Areas within the urban hinter- lands, most especially in the lowlands, are likely to see the greater number of developer-funded archaeo- logical projects in the future. The uplands are unlikely to experience similar threats, beyond visitor pressure, erosion and bioturbation from bracken rhi- zomes. If the span of future work is to be balanced, specific targeted research projects will be required to address the questions in areas beyond those currently under threat from development. It is likely that both the theory and the practice of Fig 2.2 Possible Neolithic longbarrow at Great Salkeld, re- current archaeological evaluation need to be devel- cently identified from aerial reconnasaince (Tim Gates). oped with particular regard to the identification and sampling of prehistoric settlements. At the planning stage the following need to be considered: 2.6 Continued air survey must be exploited for fur- ther identification of prehistoric sites. The sys- 2.8 Routine radiocarbon dating should be accepted tematic analysis of existing aerial photos is also as the norm on all potentially prehistoric sites. required. Many sites may already have been This needs to target a wide variety of features photographed, but as yet remain unknown and deposits, both with and without artefacts. within archaeological terms. Characterisation of the air photo record may also lead to significant 2.9 Testing of the percentage target of evaluative alteration of the distribution of known sites and excavation, with larger area excavations in ap- provide targets for geophysics and trial excava- propriate circumstances and the use of non- tion of both settlement and monumental com- invasive techniques such as geophysical survey. plexes. Sampling strategies with regard to the percent- age of each feature excavated need to be flexible 2.7 It is clear that more archaeological survey of and relevant to the material under investigation, both underwater and in inter-tidal zones is nec- increasing (up to 100%) where necessary. essary in order to extend knowledge of the set- tlement pattern of much of the prehistoric pe- 2.10 Development and implementation of tech- riod (English Heritage 2003d, 2.1 and 2.2). An niques for site-specific palaeoecological and assessment of the intertidal resource and identi- other environmental sampling, targeting areas fication of the areas most at risk from erosion of high potential such as coastal, alluvial and would be an appropriate start to such a study. colluvial deposits. In appropriate circumstances, and particularly where prehistoric settlement remains are well 2.11 Improvement of methods for dealing with ex- preserved, this should be accompanied by tar- tensive linear developments such as pipelines geted excavation. Even basic distributions of and roads, with targeted evaluation based on preserved timbers, faunal remains and flint arte- wider landscape assessment.

34 Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) Chapter 2: Prehistoric Agenda

2.12 Where feasible, allowing more time during of animal bones. There is good potential for all pre- evaluation exercises for stripped surfaces to historic sites to contain charred plant remains, with weather so that archaeological features can be the probability increasing for Neolithic and later identified. sites. Pottery vessels and sherds may contain fats and residues of material once stored or prepared within 2.13 The development of landscape studies for the them. investigation of prehistoric settlement potential, Work in the 1960s and 1970s tended to be concen- possibly building on Historic Landscape Char- trated in areas of the greatest potential such as the acterisation data. Lake District, but this has been followed by the North West Wetlands Survey covering the region’s 2.14 Development of methods for evaluating areas lowland peat deposits. This data is extensive, but of peat – building on the results of the current chronologically imprecise in some cases, and more English Heritage-funded Upland Peat Project. material requires radiocarbon dating. The research agenda by Middleton (1996) which highlighted the Environment need for further palaeoecological work in the Lanca- shire uplands is coming to fruition within the English The work on pollen carried out in the region, to- Heritage Upland Peat Project being undertaken by gether with research on sea level variation, has pro- Oxford Archaeology North. Middleton (1996) also vided many pointers to the character of landscape pointed out the potential of the marine and alluvial change. However, much of this analysis was carried deposits of the county for preserving faunal and eco- out some time ago, and for many sites there is a lack logical material. The details of coastal change of absolute dating and no direct link with archaeo- throughout the prehistoric period are not clearly un- logical contexts. Few fully radiocarbon-dated pa- derstood. laeoenvironmental sequences exist. However, the modern pollen analyses that have Fig 2.3 Professor Mike Tooley taking cores at Downholland taken place in the region have demonstrated that Moss, south-west Lancashire, during the Quarternary Re- received wisdom concerning the onset of Prehistoric search Association field trip to the North West (Sue Stalli- woodland management, clearance and cultivation brass). have been both methodologically and interpretively biased, and that the onset of agriculture took place at different times, and in a variety of ways, in different areas of the region. Pollen analytical studies concern- ing upland occupation are equally problematic, as previous interpretations based on pollen zonation schema could not identify changes after the zone VIIa/b transition (traditionally ascribed to the Meso- lithic/Neolithic transition). Methods of pollen analy- sis employed before the wide availability of radiocar- bon dating mean that many upland clearances dated provisionally to the Iron Age/Roman exploitation of such landscapes may actually relate to earlier periods of occupation. Other sources of environmental information are extremely limited, and there have been few analyses of stratified material derived from excavations. As for other periods there is a general lack of faunal as- semblages and few waterlogged archaeological con- texts have been examined using modern scientific techniques. We have remarkably little information on subsistence economies for the entire prehistoric pe- riod, and current models are largely derived from palaeoenvironmental data and the physical remains of land clearance and division. All prehistoric sites have the potential to contain environmental information. Damp and waterlogged environments are likely to have better preservation of organic remains including artefacts, whereas soils with neutral to alkaline pH may have better survival

Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) 35 Research and Archaeology in North West England

Initiatives any remaining undisturbed deposits on sites that have already been examined. Likewise the largely un- 2.15 Further detailed environmental work is impera- published work undertaken at Williamson’s Moss, tive in order that the results of past pollen ana- Eskmeals and Monk Moors is potentially of regional lytical studies are revised in line with modern importance. Human skeletal and lithic material from dating and interpretative methodologies. This a number of cave contexts is also believed to be of should involve the reinterpretation of previous later date. Radiocarbon dating of human bone in work as part of a broader programme of radio- such contexts is essential to further ascertain the na- carbon dating of existing material, as well as the ture of depositional and burial traditions over the sampling and close analysis of sedimentary con- course of the Mesolithic (and the Neolithic and texts close to known prehistoric sites. Selected Bronze Age). material from cores taken during the North The potential for the surviving remains of Palaeo- West Wetlands Survey could be subject to abso- lithic and Mesolithic settlement in areas that have not lute dating in line with specific research pro- seen intensive fieldwork is not clear, although the jects. distribution of isolated Palaeolithic finds in Cheshire and Merseyside suggests that this is an avenue of re- 2.16 The potential for the recovery of environmental search worth pursuing. Later Mesolithic activity is material from excavations must be recognised at suggested over a variety of topographic zones an early stage of project planning, and suitable throughout the region, although the distribution of sampling strategies must be employed from the sites is heavily influenced by the concentration of outset. The shortage of information for the en- fieldwork in particular areas and the exposure of di- tire prehistoric period means that every avenue agnostic material. Further systematic survey in less of analysis must be investigated. Bulk samples well surveyed areas would certainly improve the va- should be taken as routine. On sites with alka- lidity of current distributions, and may well increase line soils sediments should be given a high pri- the known extent of Mesolithic activity. The recogni- ority for the retrieval of faunal material and tion of Mesolithic material in other, seemingly less mollusca, including large scale coarse sieving of likely topographic locations such as the central val- soils. Well preserved and unabraded pottery leys of the Lake District, indicates that fieldwork sherds need to be routinely analysed for resi- should also be directed at these areas. dues and lipids. There remain difficulties in dating many sites by lithic typology and technology alone, and the nature PALAEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC of activity or occupation represented by artefact scat- ters is not clear. There is a need for further excava- The presence of likely Late Upper Palaeolithic and tion of different types of sites, and previously exca- Early Mesolithic material has been demonstrated vated lithic assemblages are in need of full characteri- through work on the limestone caves around More- sation, dating, and publication. The extensive excava- cambe Bay. However, the potential of this material tions of Mesolithic sites undertaken on the west has perhaps not been fully realised, with only partial Cumbrian coast require detailed publication as a mat- publication and many different interpretations of ter of urgency. There is a lack of radiocarbon dates both stratigraphy and the typological dating of mate- derived from non-bulk samples from all Mesolithic rial. These sites are potentially of national impor- sites. This is especially relevant to the chronology of tance, but remain poorly understood. The lack of flint types and closer dating of surface scatters. The detailed publication of the excavations in the cave potential for extending the known distribution of and rock shelter sites around Morecambe Bay repre- Mesolithic sites is known to be high in areas such as sents a major gap in the study of this period and the the Pennines, where peat cover has obscured remains material requires an absolute chronological frame- of this period, and in the eastern Cumbrian lime- work and publication as a matter of urgency. This stone, where Mesolithic sites have been located de- information then needs to be placed within its wider spite the high incidence of pasture. setting regarding the nature of the environment and climate around Morecambe Bay in the early post- Initiatives glacial period. If accessible, older archives would certainly be wor- 2.17 Targeted examination of possible Palaeolithic thy of complete analysis and publication. If the ar- deposits in other areas of the North West – chives and artefacts from excavations of caves and particularly Cheshire, Merseyside and the Fylde. rock shelters around Morecambe Bay can be located they may provide information that could be used to 2.18 There is an urgent need to retrieve, process and extend our knowledge of these sites. This could be publish the archives for the Morecambe Bay combined with new investigation, initially targeted at cave and rock shelter excavations. This is espe-

36 Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) Chapter 2: Prehistoric Agenda

Fig 2.4 Excavations at Greasby, Merseyside (Ron Cowell/National Museums Liverpool).

cially relevant to the material accumulated by region. This needs to be linked to a programme the late Chris Salisbury. of excavation targeting a range of site types.

2.19 In the event of excavated material being un- 2.21 There is a need to identify well-preserved Meso- available or incomprehensible, targeted excava- lithic contexts for production of secure radio- tions of cave and rock shelter sites around carbon dates. This would assist with a more Morecambe Bay may verify or extend the data precise chronology for the whole Mesolithic from earlier excavations. period.

2.20 Further field survey is required to provide a 2.22 More information than has been published may representative sample of material from all to- be available in archives of past excavations, in pographic and geological zones throughout the particular material from sites on the west Cum-

Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) 37 Research and Archaeology in North West England

brian coast, which needs to be brought into the public domain.

Technology, Production and Exchange

With some notable exceptions, relatively little work has been carried out on the characterisation of Meso- lithic flint and chert, and the typological and chrono- logical sequences of Mesolithic flint types are unclear. The sourcing of material is ambiguous and little sci- entific study has been undertaken. Evidence for the movement of raw materials may also reflect the movement of people, and throw light on long dis- tance trade and exchange networks. In the lowlands in the south of the region a pattern is beginning to emerge of the movement of distinctive types of north Welsh chert into non-chert producing areas, such as the Wirral, in the early Mesolithic, and of different patterns of raw material use in areas flank- ing the Pennines and the coastal lowlands in the later Fig 2.5 Probable Neolithic macehead found near Keswick, Mesolithic. Elsewhere patterns relating to the exploi- Cumbria (PAS). tation of local sources seem evident, but there are also artefacts made from non-local material. Ques- whole. There is a need to examine the depth and tions remain over the identification of the sources for timescale of the transition, and to clarify what the raw materials, and whether materials were exploited archaeological record really represents in terms of at source or as glacial erratics. changes in settlement, subsistence and social organi- sation. Initiatives There is no single project that will answer all of the issues relating to the Mesolithic to Neolithic transi- 2.23 Inter- and intra-regional comparisons of the tion and characterise the changes that human socie- sources of Mesolithic flint and chert assem- ties underwent in the region during the centuries blages. around 4000 BC. The most important single factor in future research will be to view the period as one of 2.24 Development of a programme of scientific gradual change and to map the appearance of charac- analysis for characterising the sources of Meso- teristic ‘Neolithic’ aspects alongside the evidence for lithic flint and chert implements. continuity from earlier periods. There are already hints that the environmental, artefactual and monu- 2.25 Targeted excavation of a range of Mesolithic mental record for this period in the North West may sites to secure lithic assemblages from secure provide data of national significance in terms of the contexts. Typological analysis of lithic types so-called ‘transition’ and the changes in ideas and coupled with radiocarbon dating. lifestyles that are represented in the archaeological record. Survival of organic material has proved to be 2.26 Radiocarbon dating of non bulk sampled mate- excellent in wetland contexts and the potential for rial from Mesolithic sites. the recovery of significant information is high. The extensive coastline of the Region and its rela- Legacy tive proximity to Ireland suggests that the North West may have seen an early exposure to the ideas The transition between the Mesolithic and Neolithic and domesticates which were necessary to begin any has been seen as one of the most important land- transition to a farming economy. This underlines the marks in Prehistoric Britain, as societies increasingly potential of the North West for examining the spe- came to rely more on agriculture and domesticated cific issue of the transition from the Mesolithic to animal species, and less on gathered and hunted food Neolithic, and providing evidence of extremely early sources. The Neolithic has traditionally been associ- ‘Neolithic’ traits, in a British context. ated with a more settled lifestyle, the use of pottery and distinctive lithic forms, population increase, and Initiatives the first recorded monumental building. It is appar- ent however that the transition was not instant or 2.27 The application of scientific dating techniques is total, and appears to have varied across Britain as a essential for providing a secure chronology and

38 Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) Chapter 2: Prehistoric Agenda

the basis for further work. This will entail the emphasis on the study and survey of the larger analysis and publication of numerous archives monuments remarkably little modern work has been that are currently ‘static’, without funding for undertaken and crucial details such as dates of con- further work. Targeted excavation of sites with struction remain unknown. The environmental re- indications of Late Mesolithic and Early Neo- cord demonstrates episodes of clearance and some lithic material may also prove fruitful, when cereal pollen is present, but otherwise few indicators combined with palaeoenvironmental work and of subsistence economy are evident, and virtually no radiocarbon dating. faunal remains have received modern analysis. Re- cent research has begun to demonstrate extensive 2.28 Current work in the environs of the Neolithic contacts and exchange of ideas throughout the Irish axe production sites in the Langdale Fells has Sea Basin during the Neolithic and Bronze Age. Evi- raised the possibility of Mesolithic activity in the dence includes the movement of polished stone axes, area (J Quartermaine pers comm). Further sur- similarities in rock art and ritual monuments, and vey, keyhole excavation, sampling and radiocar- bronze implements. The nature and extent of these bon dating may elucidate information on the contact, is not clearly understood. earliest exploitation of the Langdale volcanic The record for the period is variable within differ- series stone sources within these areas, and pro- ent parts of the region, and even allowing for biases vide previously unknown information on as- in past work and recording there may be some genu- pects of Mesolithic material procurement. ine patterns of settlement and monumental building within the current dataset, but this is far from certain. NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGE Middleton (1996) is the most recent summary of the Neolithic and Bronze Age material from the county The archaeological record for the Neolithic is domi- of Lancashire, which otherwise seems to have es- nated by ceremonial and funerary monuments, flint caped recent academic attention. scatters and the individual findspots of typologically The state of current archaeological knowledge for distinctive artefacts such as stone axes. Despite a past the region increases for the Bronze Age, although specific and close chronological control of sites and artefacts is still rare. The archaeological record for Fig 2.6 Early Neolithic pottery from Holbeck Park, Barrow- this period is dominated by funerary sites, largely in-Furness, Cumbria (OA North). dated through typology and morphology, and finds of ceramics and metalwork. Middle and Late Bronze Age structures have been excavated at several sites across the region, but these remain the exception, and many potentially Bronze Age sites remain un- dated.

Settlement and Land-use

There are very few Neolithic settlement sites known, and some of the most important discoveries of this date were made in antiquity (eg Darbishire 1874), and have not been subjected to systematic excavation. This in turn means that with only a few sites known and excavated under modern conditions, the nature and economy of Neolithic settlement is poorly un- derstood. A degree of continued seasonal mobility has been postulated for some areas, but whether this model can be projected across the whole region is not known. Possible Neolithic structures have been excavated at Oversley Farm (Ch) with later structures known from Arthill Heath Farm, (Ch) and Tatton Park (Ch) (Higham & Cane 1999), while a possible Neolithic structure at Cocklakes, near Carlisle, is dated by stratigraphic association only (Johnson et al in prep). Exemplary work at Oversley Farm demon- strates the potential for the recovery of evidence re- lating to Neolithic (and later) structures, associated with rich artefactual and ecofactual assemblages. The

Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) 39 Research and Archaeology in North West England

Fig 2.7 Laser scanning at Swinside Stone Circle (John Hodgson/LDNPA). discoveries from Ehenside Tarn also suggest that the well understood and the palaeoenvironmental data ephemeral nature of some early settlement sites may needs greater chronological control. have been overemphasised. The situation is only slightly improved for the It remains true, however, that the largest part of Bronze Age, with several Middle and Later Bronze the record is currently represented by flint scatters Age sites and structures having recently been exca- and finds of lithic material, with little evidence for vated, mostly in the southern part of the region. The wider settlement patterns, economy, or even religious characterisation of settlement types of this period is practices for a substantial part for the region. Within poorly developed for the lowlands due to the low Lancashire and the southern areas of the region flint incidence of known sites. The majority of Neolithic recovered from both erosion scars in the uplands and and Bronze Age settlement in the southern part of ploughsoil contexts in the lowlands demonstrates a the region and in the lowland areas of Lancashire and degree of continuation in activity from the Meso- Cumbria are known from surface lithic scatters, or lithic, although the typological characteristics of lithic with a few exceptions located through aerial photog- assemblages used in the early Neolithic in the region raphy or excavation. are not well understood. The distribution and density One settlement site has previously been excavated of the few diagnostic items does, however, indicate within the wetlands of Lancashire, at Storrs Moss Neolithic activity. The distribution of stone axes (Powell et al 1971), and there remains potential for (predominantly from the sources in the central Cum- discovery of further examples via fieldwalking. The brian fells) demonstrates trade or exchange contacts known resource for this area is derived from field- across the region. Little is understood about the na- work undertaken by local amateur societies and the ture of agriculture and the use of domesticated spe- NWWS, museum collections of perforated stone cies in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age in the implements and metalwork. The organic preservation region, or in what ways wider national themes were prevalent in lowland areas indicates potential for fu- expressed across the topographically diverse areas of ture discoveries. There is also potential for increasing the North West. The date, nature and extent of early the understanding of the context and nature of the clearance in the Pennines and Lake District is not deposition of metal and other artefacts within wet-

40 Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) Chapter 2: Prehistoric Agenda land contexts. tral area of the region must be viewed as a pri- Current interpretations of the upland archaeological ority to be addressed. record and Bronze Age occupation are strongly pre- sumptive, being based solely on information derived 2.30 Sites that have been identified through survey from the non-invasive survey of extant features. The require further targeted work and characterisa- preservation of sites within the uplands is excellent, tion, accompanied by programmes of dating. and survey has demonstrated the rich density of Both lowland and upland areas with no pro- monuments and sites. There are sites such as Town grammes of modern survey need to be priori- Bank (C) or High Park (L), where survey has identi- tised for assessment, to bring them in line with fied hut platforms and field systems which hint at other areas. emerging social complexity associated with control over land. Particular ‘types’ of field monument have, 2.31 Approximately 20% of the Lake District Na- however, been assigned typological and chronologi- tional Park has been covered by archaeological cal significance solely on the basis of their external survey, and around 90% of known cairnfields morphology, while in reality settlement from this have been recorded. Many other areas of upland period is poorly understood, as is the relationship with few known or previously recorded field between settlement and religious and ceremonial ac- monuments, have seen little or no attention, tivity. The construction of many upland monuments and need to be assessed. Outside those areas is likely to incorporate a significant amount of time which have seen detailed survey, information depth, and specific architectural forms are locally and remains confined to the few published sources regionally variable. Little modern excavation has available, largely the result of antiquarian de- taken place in such contexts, although the rich poten- scriptions. There are therefore significant prob- tial has been demonstrated by recent work (Hoaen & lems with the coverage and compatibility of the Loney 2004). Further characterisation and dating of different datasets generated by varied ap- surviving features within the uplands is imperative in proaches to the upland record. Further surveys order to understand the chronology and organisation should be undertaken in order that fieldwork of occupation in the region from the Neolithic on- bias is not taken to represent the actual distribu- wards. There are now considerable bodies of survey tion of monuments at a topographic or regional data available to be assessed which could provide scale. target areas for more detailed work. There is an increasing body of data relating to pits 2.32 Beyond the uplands, the arable areas in the sur- and ‘tree-throws’, found singly and in groups, which rounding lowland have seen remarkably little sometimes contain rich assemblages of Neolithic systematic field survey, although suitable condi- material. The interpretation of these features is by no tions for fieldwalking are widespread. The Eden means straightforward, but the potential for struc- Valley in particular remains an area of high po- tured deposition of material culture in isolated fea- tential, and is currently the subject of a field- tures and natural places must be acknowledged. It is walking project. accepted that the division of ritual, religion and cere- mony from other aspects of life and landscape that 2.33 The investigation of surveyed features is also has been employed in the Research Framework may required. Close characterisation and dating of be entirely artificial, and many aspects of the archaeo- enclosed and unenclosed settlements, enclo- logical record, although not monumental, may reflect sures, clearance cairns, funerary cairns and ring- religious practices. In this context it is important to cairns needs to be undertaken in order to assess recognise that even seemingly discrete or isolated the time depth implicit in the extant record of features may provide significant information on Neo- these areas. Large scale collaborative projects lithic and Bronze Age activities, and must be given between National Parks, government bodies, due regard when assessing for analysis. universities and local archaeology groups have taken place in other regions, and have yielded Initiatives successful and significant results. There is a need for a forum for such interested parties to 2.29 Many of these initiatives are shared with the meet and work together on future projects. general themes on settlement at the start of the chapter (pp 32-4) although it is worth re- Ritual, Religion and Ceremony emphasising that the uneven distribution of known sites of Neolithic and Bronze Age date Although parts of the region have a number of im- is almost certainly the result of site visibility and pressive and even nationally important Neolithic and past archaeological work. In particular the lack Bronze Age ritual monuments, there is little knowl- of known Neolithic settlement sites in the cen- edge of the wider context of these sites and their re-

Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) 41 Research and Archaeology in North West England lationship with contemporary settlement. In part, this relates to issues of site visibility raised in the section on prehistoric settlement, but it remains the case that almost no research has been carried out in this area. Lancashire in particular contains little evidence for monumental construction during this period, al- though there are exceptions. The apparent lack of monuments in this area may fit in with a wider ‘non- monumental’ tradition apparent in the southern part of the region but this needs further work to deter- mine how and why this differs from the traditions evident further north and east. It may be that there is a ‘local’ dialect in the way that Neolithic and Bronze Age religion was articulated in the North West, which may not be directly comparable to areas such as Wessex or East Anglia. The most widely endorsed research priority for all ceremonial and funerary sites is the development of regional research programmes to examine chrono- logical frameworks, the relationship between individ- ual monuments, monument complexes and ‘settlement sites’, and to link those into wider envi- ronmental and land-use contexts.

Henges, stone circles and stone rows

The stone circles of the northern part of the region are well-known and have been the subject of detailed studies in the past. Burl’s (1976) interpretation of chronology and development of stone circles has for a long time been generally accepted, but in fact there is little reliable data for the chronology of these sites or their typological development. The complete lack of modern excavation on the larger stone circle sites leaves open questions of chronology, constructional techniques, function and re-use. Although many of the major megalithic monuments in the region have been partly excavated by antiquarian or later re- searchers, new information could still be derived us- ing modern excavation techniques. Many religious monuments occur within wider Fig 2.8 Representations of feet carved into the Calderstones, complexes, although little is known of the spatial and Merseyside (George Nash). chronological relationships between these features and other monuments in their environs. The air vicinity of major monumental complexes. photo record has proved invaluable in reanalysing the While the region boasts some of the most impres- monumental and landscape setting of sites such as sive stone circle sites in the country, large-scale re- Long Meg (C) (Soffe & Clare 1988) and identifying search excavation on these sites is unlikely in the near previously unknown banked and hengiform enclo- future, and indeed recent excavations at stone circles sures. Discoveries within the south of the region sug- and other high-profile prehistoric monuments have gest that hengiform monuments are more widespread courted controversy and protest. Bewley’s (1993) than previously believed, although little is currently excavation at Plasketlands (C) remains the only pub- known of these sites, and their identification as pre- lished account of a recent excavation of a palisaded historic in date is presumptive. The environmental Neolithic enclosure or monumental structure within contexts of major classes of monument (eg stone the region, although the full publication of work at circles) are largely unknown, although preliminary Carlisle Airport (Flynn 1998) could add considerably work in the environs of monuments (eg Clare 1999; to this record. Added to this is the fact that past ex- Clare et al 2001) has demonstrated the potential for cavation at the larger ‘open’ stone circle sites has not further detailed environmental analysis within the always proved productive. Targeted small-scale exca-

42 Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) Chapter 2: Prehistoric Agenda vation may elucidate chronological aspects of activity tive and potentially contentious action at better but, short of excavating beneath the circle stones, known sites. absolute construction dates are unlikely to be forth- coming. This said, the sequence of activity within 2.38 Conservation and management strategies need stone circle sites may span a considerable length of to recognise the importance of monument time, and excavation of internal features may identify groupings or complexes, no matter how ‘poor’ activity from the Middle Neolithic into the Bronze individual sites might be, as much as targeting Age, and shed considerable light on prehistoric individual structures as ‘good examples of their monument use and reuse (eg Bradley 2000). Indeed, kind’. Equally, recognition that activity may it has been presumed that activity within the circle have taken place beyond the immediate envi- interiors post-dates the construction of the circle rons of a site requires the area of management itself, whereas this may not always be the case. The to be drawn widely, and in the case of monu- smaller stone circle sites may vary considerably in ment complexes, to encompass the areas be- construction and use from the larger open circles, tween sites. and offer greater potential for investigation. Enclosures Initiatives Little is known of some of the larger enclosures in 2.34 The distribution of megalithic monuments is the North West, and indeed, it may be erroneous to currently concentrated in the north of the re- place some of them within the Ritual and Religion gion. If this distribution really were genuine, section or even the Neolithic or Bronze Age section then there is a need to identify what alternative of the Research Framework text. The location (eg funerary and ceremonial practices were under- Long Meg) and the morphology (eg Summer Hill) of taken elsewhere. If this distribution is due to some sites strongly suggest a Neolithic date, while differential survival and site visibility, then fur- others are harder to date on appearance alone, and ther survey and utilisation of various techniques may be considerably later. There is an apparent lack are required (English Heritage 2003d, 2.5). of causewayed enclosures in the North West, but there may in fact be alternative Early Neolithic 2.35 The closer characterisation and clarification of monuments similar to the interrupted stone-banked sequences of individual sites and wider monu- enclosure at Gardoms Edge in Derbyshire. The up- mental complexes is imperative in order to land enclosure at Green How (C) is a possible excep- bring understanding of such features in line tion, with the appearance of both a discontinuous with other areas of the British Isles. Such pro- bank and ditch, and recent finds of Neolithic flint- grammes should be undertaken using detailed work, the accolade of causewayed enclosure may be archival research and air photo transcription best suited to this site. The enclosure on Carrock alongside targeted field survey, geophysical Fell, with its discontinuous bank, may also belong to survey and small scale excavation (English Heri- this tradition. tage 2003d, 9.3). This could be undertaken in A number of likely and probably Neolithic enclo- conjunction with targeted environmental work sures have been identified in recent years, but none within the close environs of stone circle sites. have been sampled through excavation, and there is therefore no detail on date or function of these sites. 2.36 The excavations at Carlisle Airport represent The Long Meg enclosure in particular appears to pre- the most recent excavation of a potentially Neo- date the stone circle, and is potentially an extremely lithic ceremonial site, with apparent multiple important Early Neolithic site. phasing of some complexity. The full analysis and publication of this archive must be viewed Initiatives as a priority. The ongoing assessment of the Carlisle archives needs to place equal emphasis 2.39 Desktop studies, air photo transcription, walk- on prehistoric material from the city environs, over surveys, fieldwalking and geophysical sur- as on material from large-scale excavations un- vey could all provide further information on the dertaken within the city. larger enclosures of the North West. Ultimately some form of intrusive fieldwork and sampling 2.37 There are also numerous potential ‘sites’ of cir- is required to characterise and date these enclo- cles documented in antiquity but no longer ex- sure sites throughout the region. Dating of even tant. These sites, if identified, may offer an op- a few sites has the potential to transform our portunity for non-invasive techniques such as understanding of Early Neolithic activity in the geophysics and excavation of structural features region, and provide details of specific regional such as stone holes, without the risk of destruc- site characteristics.

Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) 43 Research and Archaeology in North West England

Fig 2.9 Probable Bronze Age barrow or cairn at Ludworth Intakes, Greater Manchester (GMAU).

Rock Art laeoenvironmental evidence and material for radiometric dating. Although portable rock art has been known for some time in the North West, and particularly in Cumbria, Burial recent discoveries have revealed the existence of in situ decorated panels in the Lake District (Frodsham, Neolithic long cairns and other traditions 1989; Beckensall, 2002). The different styles of these recent discoveries suggest various long-distance con- Human remains dating from the period remain rare nections with Ireland, Scotland and the Pennines, on a regional level, and those known are largely rep- that echo the connections evident in the movement resented by cremated material. Few prehistoric funer- of polished stone axes from Lake District sources. ary sites have been excavated under modern condi- New discoveries are still being made, and it is likely tions, and we currently have little understanding for that systematic survey would reveal more sites. Neolithic burial practices. It is clear that Neolithic Little is yet known of the chronology and associa- funerary monuments and deposits are underrepre- tions of rock art in the North West, or of its purpose. sented for a large part of the region, although the Research is to a large extent dependent on new dis- alternative to deposition of human remains within coveries, particularly of rock art in secure archaeo- cairns and tombs is not certain. Dated material be- logical contexts or where there are clear associations neath Early Bronze Age cairns might suggest some with sites or artefacts. form of curation of human bone, but the recorded instances are not yet numerous. Initiatives Numerous cave deposits may contain burials from this period, but so far remain undated. The recovery 2.40 Targeted survey of likely locations for rock art, of such material is less likely during development particularly in the Lake District and Pennines work, but cannot be ruled out, especially during the may reveal new sites. This could also include re- construction of linear schemes such as pipelines. In examination of megalithic monuments. this respect particular attention should be given to the presence of disarticulated human remains in 2.41 Small scale excavation should be considered at ‘non-mortuary’ contexts. some rock art sites, which may reveal the full Allowing for the inconsistencies of identification, extent of motifs, and allow collection of pa- the distribution of Neolithic funerary monuments

44 Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) Chapter 2: Prehistoric Agenda would again appear to favour the north of the region. uplands. The vast majority of such features, tradition- If this distribution is indeed genuine then there is a ally ascribed to the Bronze Age, have been identified need to characterise what alternative funerary tradi- solely on the basis of their external morphology, as tions are evident elsewhere. The Pikestones and an well as the common (and often indirect) association associated tomb on Anglezarke Moor (L) are anoma- with cairnfields. The few excavations which have lous purportedly ‘Cotswold Severn’ tombs but, like taken place have been undertaken by antiquarians or the Bridestones (Ch), lie well outside the distribution under conditions far from acceptable by today’s stan- of such tombs. There are current problems of mor- dards. Formal publications of these investigations are phological identification and terminology with re- a rarity. gards to Neolithic cairns. Over twenty potential long The excavations at Oddendale (C) (Turnbull & cairns have been identified in Cumbria, although only Walsh 1997), Hardendale Nab (C) (Williams & How- a small number have seen poorly recorded excava- ard-Davis 2004) and Borwick (L) (Olivier 1988) dem- tion in the 19th century. None have seen modern onstrate both the complexity and duration of deposi- characterisation or excavation. Such features have tion and construction at northern funerary monu- been identified solely by their external morphology ments. and at present it is impossible to distinguish between They also reveal the amount of information which classic long cairns, linear stone clearance cairns, local- can be retrieved through modern excavation and dat- ised funerary cairn variants and natural features. ing techniques. Very little investigation of upland examples has Initiatives taken place, and much of the excavated evidence cur- rently available is derived from antiquarian sources. 2.42 Both upstanding earthworks and potential These are suggestive of constructional complexity, anomalies on aerial photographs require critical but are of little use in establishing chronologies. Like- appraisal and characterisation. Targeted survey wise, investigation of round barrows in the southern and evaluation of such features is imperative to part of the region was largely undertaken by anti- establish the presence and chronology of Neo- quarians, and more recent excavations have only lithic long and round cairns in the region, and rarely been published (Mullin 2003, 13). their relationship with recorded Neolithic tradi- For the larger part of the region there is little evi- tions of the western seaboard and other areas of dence of Bronze Age funerary traditions. Recent northern England. work has demonstrated traditions of deposition of funerary urns in natural features (Wild 2003), and so- 2.43 Disarticulated human bone (even in potentially called ‘flat’ cemeteries with little or no above-ground residual contexts) and unaccompanied burials evidence may be widespread. require routine radiocarbon dating. The material from cave excavations also requires dating as a Initiatives priority. 2.46 Further understanding of the Bronze Age fu- 2.44 The excavation or re-excavation of a long bar- nerary record would be considerably enhanced row, cairn or tomb must be viewed as a priority. by the formation of regional typology and For sites such as the Bridestones (Ch) or Raiset chronology of ceramic sequences. An assess- Pike (C) many questions relating to construc- ment and catalogue of existing material must tional sequence and chronology remain and therefore be viewed as a priority. even minor investigations may recover datable material and aid further interpretation. 2.47 The close characterisation of both round funer- ary monuments and ringcairns in the variety of 2.45 Material from antiquarian and earlier archaeo- contexts in which these occur is imperative if logical excavations may be present within mu- we are to understand the chronology and seum collections and could be worthy of mod- changing character of burial and depositional ern analysis. Although this requires an audit of traditions in the region. This could be under- material currently held within such collections, taken through programmes of detailed archival the potential may be high if intact assemblages research where recorded excavations have taken can be recovered. place, alongside targeted survey, geophysical survey and small scale excavation to obtain ma- Round barrows, ringcairns and Bronze Age funerary tradi- terial for closer dating of such features. tions 2.48 Natural features and fissures within bedrock Many round funerary monuments and ringcairns sur- must be investigated thoroughly when encoun- vive extant within the region, most especially in the tered.

Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) 45 Research and Archaeology in North West England

Burnt Mounds

The majority of the burnt mound sites known from the region are in Cumbria. There are numerous burnt mounds from both Shropshire and Staffordshire but only one so far recorded from Cheshire, one from Lancashire, and one possible site in Merseyside. This is a low number compared to other parts of the country, and the current regional distribution is unlikely to reflect that of the past. There is also a lack of excavation, dating and pa- laeoenvironmental studies on burnt mound sites within the region, and consequently little detailed knowledge of the activities or practices being under- taken at burnt mounds or their relationship to other contemporary sites. Work undertaken elsewhere would suggest that they are a long-lived class of monument, which has at times proved difficult to interpret. This said, recent work in Cumbria indicates that the potential in the north of the region at least is as high as other areas such as the Yorkshire Dales (Hodgson in press), and well preserved sites may Fig 2.10 Rough-out and polished stone axe of Borrowdale tuff contain considerable information regarding research (John Hodgson/LDNPA). questions. Polished Stone Implements Initiatives While significant work has been undertaken during 2.49 Further work is required on the identification the last fifty years many problems remain regarding and survey of burnt mound sites. As they are the production and distribution of polished stone distinctive and easily identifiable to the trained tools. There are, as yet, outcrops of material ex- eye, they are potentially identifiable through ploited in prehistory which have not been identified, non-intrusive survey. particularly in the Cumbrian Fells. The approximate geological location of these sources is known, and 2.50 There is a need for analysis of the context of targeted survey has the potential to locate additional burnt mounds in relation to contemporary set- quarrying sites, whose material possesses the proper- tlement and other sites. ties of conchoidal fracture that result in distinctive waste material. Further insights may also be gained 2.51 There is a need for targeted survey, excavation, by an extension of the more detailed trace element radiocarbon dating and palaeoenvironmental characterisation of outcrops (see Cummins in Claris analysis. & Quartermaine 1989). The date range for the Group VI source is a good Technology, Production, Trade and Exchange starting point but it is not absolute, and it may easily extend in either direction. Continual erosion on The study of both production and exchange has been many sites in the fells may offer further opportunities the focus of significant research for some artefacts, for keyhole excavation and the retrieval of datable such as stone axes (Bradley & Edmonds 1993), but material. There is also a need to prioritise the dating the range and the material covered by these studies is of other archaeological contexts in which axes and uneven. While acknowledging that many transactions related forms, or even pieces of worked tuff, have and exchanges may have been only one part of a been recovered. This would establish a check on the complex system of social and political relationships, date range for the use of raw materials, and provide which also involved many items or commodities not an opportunity to identify whether there is any tem- visible to the archaeological eye, the visible elements poral variability in the spread of implements across of exchange are numerous and widespread. There is a the region. A strong case can also be made for closer need to assess the evidence for the production and investigation of the chronology of those monuments exchange of goods and ideas within and beyond the with which axes have known associations, most nota- regional boundaries, and to investigate how these bly henges and stone circles, but also other putatively networks operated, and how they may have changed early enclosures beginning to be identified in the re- over time. gion.

46 Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) Chapter 2: Prehistoric Agenda

The legacy of Clare Fell’s work is invaluable. How- Initiatives ever, the variability she did so much to identify raises some fascinating and potentially important questions. 2.52 Further extensive and intensive survey across a Is there any significant change in the morphology of wide range of outcrops is required to locate axes over time? Are there spatial patterns of variabil- additional stone sources, through identification ity that reflect different or changing traditions across of the distinctive waste material. This could be the region? Are the details of stone axe morphologies combined with detailed trace element charac- picked up in other materials like flint? When so many terisation of outcrops (Claris & Quartermaine examples have clearly been extensively reworked, this 1989), development of other techniques of will not be easy to address, but it does deserve atten- characterisation and more detailed technological tion. The distinctiveness of Cumbrian Clubs certainly characterisation (what was being made and requires explanation. Are we looking at a widely rec- how). ognised and persistent acknowledgement of form, or the product of a spatially and historically more re- 2.53 At the known sources, further monitoring of stricted way of working? An answer here would open erosion and identification of working areas is up some fascinating insights into the organisation required. In relation to this work, further op- and significance of working, and of the axe itself. portunities for dating material associated with The move from stone axe production to metal pro- quarried sources should be taken as a priority as duction is likely to have had profound long-term and when they arise. Source studies would also consequences on patterns of both production and benefit from taking seriously the problem of consumption. This may even have led to a shift in erratics, though this issue is probably best ad- orientation of power within the region. We currently dressed through the more careful examination have little information on how the decline in pol- of waste and worked implements found away ished stone tool manufacture affected everyday life. from the source. Socketed and shafthole axes of likely Later Neolithic and Early Bronze Age date occur in comparable 2.54 There is also a need to prioritise the dating of numbers to Group VI axes in Cumbria, and have a other archaeological contexts from which axes similar distribution. Such finds however have seen and related forms, including pieces of worked little attention and their significance is poorly under- tuff, have been recovered. This would establish stood. Finally, work needs to develop at a more basic a check on the date range for the use of raw level. At present, almost all discussions emphasise materials, and provide an opportunity to iden- the axe above all other things, so much so that the tify whether there is any temporal variability in use of the raw materials is usually seen as synony- the spread of implements across the region. mous with these forms. It is however clear that tuffs, for example, were used in other ways, and that even 2.55 The assemblage of roughout forms from across axes themselves were re-worked to create useable known worked outcrops requires closer analy- flakes and blanks. The forms of re-use and how far sis, making use of existing provenanced collec- attitudes to the stone changed through time would be tions. There are also extensive numbers of valuable to know. roughouts and blades within museums and pri- vate collections. While many do not have con- textual information, detailed morphological and Fig 2.11 Flint arrowhead from Brereton, Cheshire (Cheshire technological analysis could still be undertaken. County Council). Socketed and shafthole axes in museum collec- tions are in need of raw material and morpho- logical characterisation, as well as closer dating.

Lithics

While assemblages of worked stone tools and waste flakes have been found across the region, interpreta- tions of the evidence rely heavily on their assessment in relation to assemblages and technology from other regions of Britain, where the character, use and avail- ability of raw materials are very different. The limited availability and small size of lithic raw materials in the region means that the use of chronological and tech- nological distinctions based on assemblages from southern and eastern England should be questioned.

Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) 47 Research and Archaeology in North West England

Fig 2.12 Bronze Age dagger from the Gisburn Area of the Ribble Valley, Lancashire (PAS).

Furthermore the typological forms on which these distance exchange of raw materials, possibly related have often been based are in reality very poorly un- to the circulation of other goods and products. derstood. Work needs to be done to identify local sequences Initiatives and materials and establish how these changed over time. Narrow blade technology is not necessarily a 2.56 At the most basic level there is a need for char- chronological indicator for early material when local acterisation of raw material sources, and close lithic resources are of poor quality. There is a need dating of typologies. for an assessment of all well provenanced, dated ma- terial. Little is known of the chronology of Later 2.57 As the majority of lithic scatters are derived Mesolithic to Bronze Age lithic assemblages in the from coastal assemblages and erosion scars, and region, and Neolithic assemblages cannot as yet be often contain material of mixed date, the identi- identified with certainty. There may be single period fication and excavation of stratigraphically se- scatters within previously collected surface lithic as- cure and scientifically datable material in asso- semblages. Little of this material however has seen ciation with lithic assemblages is imperative. metric characterisation, or assessment of reduction technology. Hundreds of lithic scatters have been 2.58 Methodologically secure transect based pro- identified on the western and southern coastal re- grammes of surface survey of ploughzone scat- gions of Cumbria, and on the eastern limestone up- ters are important to establish the presence, lands. However the majority of such scatters have absence and chronology of lithic assemblages in been derived from unstratified and insecure contexts. a variety of topographical zones. This has resulted in false distributions and densities of material at site, landscape and regional scales. In 2.59 A number of unpublished excavations and addition, identification and sourcing of the raw mate- fieldwalking programmes have taken place. The rials for assemblages of worked stone from the re- characterisation and publication of this material gion may begin to illustrate aspects of the long- is important for the understanding of technol-

48 Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) Chapter 2: Prehistoric Agenda

ogy, chronology and landscape use in the re- 2.62 Fabric analysis, thin section analysis and sourc- gion. ing of all prehistoric ceramics is required. This could incorporate the re-analysis of existing 2.60 The close analysis of museum collections has material in museum collections. Analysis for the potential to clarify technological distinctions lipids needs to be more widely applied for evi- between Later Mesolithic/Early Neolithic tech- dence of vessel use and consumption. nologies and those of the Later Neolithic/Early Bronze Age. 2.63 Overall a regional prehistoric pottery review and type series is required (English Heritage Ceramics 2003d, 3.1).

The study of prehistoric ceramics is not simply a Metalwork study of methods of technology and production, but can offer insights into religion, trade, diet and agricultural Despite the fact that the Bronze Age (and Iron Age) practices. Ceramics have traditionally been relied were named after developments in metallurgy, we upon as chronological indicators to date sites and know almost nothing about how or where these met- features, although there is little in the way of a re- als were mined and processed, or how the raw mate- gional chronology at present. Pottery vessels may rial and finished metal artefacts themselves were dis- also reflect religious practices and affiliations, indicat- tributed. Although the evidence is slim there are ing the movement and adoption of ideas and belief hints at distinct traditions of metal working in parts systems, as well as regional variation and innovation. of the region, such as the presence of a distinctive There is no prehistoric pottery typology or fabric sword type in Cumbria (Needham 1982). The com- sequence for the region, or even a bare summary of plete absence of certain types of metalwork, such as the existing resource. While there is an extensive ar- swords from south Lancashire, Merseyside, Greater chive of prehistoric ceramics existing in the region, Manchester and Cheshire is also noteworthy, and and more will be recovered in the future, the data- axes are the dominant artefact recovered from these base of the Later Prehistoric Pottery Survey project areas. shows relatively little Late Bronze Age (to Late Iron The region contains numerous sources of copper Age) pottery recorded within the region. Even the but as yet the only evidence for Bronze Age copper distinction between Late Bronze Age and Early Iron mining comes from Alderley Edge (Ch), and the date Age pottery is poorly understood. This may be more of this mining does not fit with the items known to a matter of recording and publication than a reflec- be made with metal from that source. tion of the true situation, but demonstrates the im- Excavation at Alderley Edge has revealed some of poverished state of prehistoric pottery studies in the the earliest evidence for Bronze Age copper mining North West. There are few published Neolithic and in Britain. This demonstrates the relatively high po- Bronze Age (and Iron Age) stratified pottery assem- tential for survival of earlier workings, even in areas blages. Additionally, little scientific work on prehis- where later extraction was extensive. toric ceramics has been undertaken and source, use The presence of stone hammers in Cumbria, al- and potential routes of movement are not known. though not numerous, also strongly suggests Bronze Only a few examples of thin section analysis have Age copper extraction in this area, but the evidence currently been undertaken within the region (eg on the ground is as yet unknown. Cherry & Cherry 1992; Ellis 1993), although the re- The single find of an Early Bronze Age ceramic sults have proved promising. Lipid analysis of mate- tube within a grave at Ewanrigg (C) and a stone rial from Oversley Farm (Ch) also proved successful spearhead mould from Croglin (C) also offer poten- and has suggested not only the use and contents of tial evidence of metalworking taking place within the some vessels, but also potentially differential use be- region during that period (Bewley 1992). The only tween different styles of vessel (Garner undated). comprehensive evidence for metalworking is the Late Bronze Age material from Beeston Castle (Ellis Initiatives 1993). A great deal more work needs to be undertaken on 2.61 Prehistoric pottery typologies are still poorly the circulation of the metal ore from Alderley Edge, understood, and are reliant on chronologies and and the composition of bronze objects in the North parallels from outside the region. The priority West generally. Analysis of trace element and lead must be for more absolute dates, both from isotope compositions are still in their infancy, but existing archives and by further scientific dating these have the potential to provide information on of contexts where prehistoric pottery types are the approximate date and provenance of artefacts securely stratified (particularly on developer- (Ponting forthcoming). The region plays host to a funded projects). number of ‘exotic’ artefacts from as far afield as

Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) 49 Research and Archaeology in North West England

Northern France and the Netherlands. The mecha- Legacy nism behind the movement of these goods, and also those from Ireland, Scotland and southern Britain The early centuries of the 1st millennium BC that into the North West is not known, but presumably mark the transition between the Bronze and Iron resulted from a complex system of exchange net- Ages remain particularly understudied and poorly works. Analysis of these artefacts is the first step understood. towards an understanding of trade, exchange and The Iron Age has often traditionally been studied interaction in the Bronze Age, but the range of these as a precursor to the Roman period, rather than as a exchange networks might also suggest the possibility successor to the Bronze Age, but detailed study of of copper extraction in the region. the period is fraught with difficulties. The artefacts (metalwork and pottery) and funerary practices repre- Initiatives sented within the Late Bronze Age archaeological record seemingly all but disappear by the Early Iron 2.64 There is a need for analysis of the Bronze Age Age, and recognition of the period in the archaeo- metalwork at a regional level. Particular patterns logical record has thus been challenging. are evident that do not fit with national trends The flat radiocarbon calibration curve for parts of or follow modern political boundaries. the 1st millennium BC also provides date spans that are often relatively broad. This problem might be 2.65 Trace element and lead isotope analysis needs offset through acquiring multiple determinations for to be far more widely applied to artefacts to a range of contexts wherever possible, although with address patterns of extraction, production and the overall lack of dated contexts for this period, distribution at a regional scale. even broad associations of activity would be useful. Middleton (1996, 54) noted an apparent decline in 2.66 While extensive surveys within the uplands have settlement in Lancashire during the Late Bronze Age, been already been undertaken, the potential for but this may in fact be related to site visibility and a the identification of prehistoric mine workings reduction in the use of flint. Sites excavated at Bee- should not be ruled out, and indeed could be ston Castle (Ch) and Brook House Farm, Bruen Sta- actively sought. The identification of smelting pleford (Ch) demonstrate continuity of occupation, sites may not be resolved by predictive model- although only identified through radiocarbon dating. ling, but the national importance of the discov- At Irby (M) and Oversley Farm (Ch) there is evi- ery of such a site needs to be realised from the dence of activity during this transitional period, but outset. Assessment and mapping of all finds of less evidence for permanent occupation. Even allow- stone hammers combined with trace element ing for the artificial nature of archaeological period analysis of artefacts may well identify specific boundaries there is a visible change in the archaeo- locations worthy of intensive survey and investi- logical record at this time, and there is a need to ex- gation. amine this transitional phase between the Bronze and Iron Ages. 2.67 The reduction in peat cutting and extraction has The British Iron Age research agenda states that limited the opportunities for the regular discov- the discovery of Later Bronze Age and Early Iron ery of prehistoric material generally. In future, Age sites should be viewed as more important from a the majority of copper alloy Bronze Age arte- research perspective than Later Iron Age sites facts are likely to be found using metal detec- (Haselgrove et al 2001, 26). More specifically there is tors. The collation of this information will re- a need to question what may be the causes of the quire the continued liaison between the metal discontinuities (if any) between the Bronze Age and detecting fraternity and the Portable Antiquities the Iron Age. Scheme Finds Liaison Officers. In particular the potential for keyhole excavation should be IRON AGE borne in mind for hoards or where there is the possibility of determining the context of deposi- The traditional view of Late Iron Age societies in the tion. North West is one of material poverty and little so- cial hierarchy. Supposedly little work has been under- 2.68 The potential deposition of bronze artefacts in taken on Iron Age sites and consequently there is watercourses and lakes should be investigated, little understanding of the period. However, such a and the occurrence of artefactual evidence in perspective is derived largely from models and recon- these contexts needs to be considered during structions of Iron Age society from southern Britain. development control mitigation for water man- Recent work has begun to challenge this view, and agement and drainage works so that appropriate place new discoveries within a regional, northern, monitoring can take place. context.

50 Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) Chapter 2: Prehistoric Agenda

Settlement and Land-use the excavation of sites using a suite of scientific and artefactual analyses that are appropriate to the data Both developer-funded and research excavations and research questions. Although structures survive have begun to reveal Iron Age settlement sites in the in the uplands that are apparently in relative isolation, southern areas of the region, and significant work has there are in general few recorded smaller enclosed been undertaken over recent years. There is still, and unenclosed Iron Age settlements for most of the however, a shortage of evidence for Iron Age settle- region. There are few ‘hillforts’ in the region and only ment of all classes or types within the North West, a limited number of these have been examined and a shortage of data relating to subsistence eco- through excavation or dated using radiocarbon tech- nomics. While the number of new discoveries re- niques. Radiocarbon dates from Beeston Castle in mains small this does demonstrates the potential for Cheshire indicate that this was Late Bronze Age in further discoveries, and that the density of settlement origin and other ‘Iron Age’ sites elsewhere in the re- for the period may have been previously underesti- gion might also prove to be of Late Bronze Age ori- mated (see Nevell 1999b; 2001). Further develop- gin including the hillforts of the Ribble Valley and ment is likely to expand on this picture, provided that Cumbria. Whilst the chronology of such sites is un- suitable sampling strategies are utilised and archae- clear, the small number of radiocarbon dates from ologists exploit the full range of scientific techniques the southern half of the region might suggest that (most especially absolute dating) at their disposal. many if not all hillforts were abandoned before the In contrast, the upstanding evidence in the uplands end of the 1st millennium BC. The issue of ‘hillforts’ has received little recent attention. Enclosed is not confined to the Iron Age. Many of the poten- ‘Romano-British’ round house settlements are nu- tial hillfort/large enclosure sites may be multi-period, merous in the north of the region, and some are in with or without Iron Age phases of occupation fact likely to date from the Iron Age. Few, however, (LUAU 1999). The potential for Iron Age occupation have been excavated or subject to scientific dating however remains high, and ephemeral and possibly techniques. The current project in Matterdale (Hoaen aceramic phases within enclosed hilltop sites may & Loney 2003; 2004) is clearly demonstrating the actually hold important details on differential settle- potential of modern excavation techniques, com- ment use and hierarchy. bined with scientific dating, to identify the not only The emphasis has been on locating settlement sites the complexity of occupation on upland sites, but rather than placing them in a wider context of land- also that Iron Age phases are well represented. This scape use and division. With increased amounts of project remains the exception. data, analysis of landscape context should be possible Issues of the lack of material culture and ceramics in several areas of the region. Additionally, there are are often blamed for this situation, but equally the only limited dating controls for many pollen dia- longevity of site types and house styles has meant grams in the south of the region, making it impossi- many features cannot be assigned an Iron Age date ble to distinguish between episodes of clearance and on morphological grounds alone. What is needed is farming from the Iron Age and Romano-British peri- ods. There is a lack of broader evidence for prehis- Fig 2.13 Iron Age silver coin from Brindley, Crewe and toric land division, or few dates for features where Nantwich, Cheshire (Cheshire County Council). they do exist. There appear to be potential pre- Roman field systems to the south of Chester (Matthews 2002b), but we are currently lacking dat- ing evidence. Likewise in Cumbria field systems asso- ciated with cairnfields and round houses have poten- tial Iron Age phases but remain largely undated. It might be expected that different areas of the region demonstrate different systems of land division and enclosure according to agricultural preferences.

Initiatives

2.69 Many of the issues regarding Iron Age settle- ment are presented within the Agricultural Communities theme above (p 39-40).

2.70 A reassessment of old archives of Romano- British but also potentially Iron Age sites is re- quired. In particular finds of metalwork need to be located and revisited for modern analysis.

Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) 51 Research and Archaeology in North West England

Fig 2.14 Late prehistoric enclosed settlement and field system at Castle Hill, Leck, Lancashire (Lancashire County Council).

2.71 Additionally there is a need for a re-assessment within the region to be scientifically dated to the Iron of hillfort excavation archives in the light of Age (OA North 2004). These crouched inhumations, modern research in order to locate artefactual buried without grave goods, may easily have been material and establish the chronological depth mistaken for Bronze Age internments without the of these sites. evidence of absolute dating. It is acknowledged that the poor preservation of Ritual, Religion and Ceremony bone in the region’s acid soils may prevent regular recovery of both human and animal remains, but this There is a general lack of visibility of Iron Age reli- makes it all the more imperative that such material is gious practices or burial, bar hints at deliberate depo- treated as a priority, when the opportunity arises. sition of artefacts and human bodies in wetland con- Material within pits may represent special deposi- texts. With only one cemetery excavation dated to tional practices rather than simply rubbish. the Iron Age, it is currently unknown if burial prac- tices predominantly involved cremation, excarnation, Initiatives inhumation, or a combination of all of these. Continuity in some practices from the Late Bronze 2.72 The lack of recorded Iron Age burials within Age is often presumed, but there is as yet little evi- the region is in some ways self perpetuating, dence. It is also noteworthy how few burials from with remains often presumed to be of other cave contexts are postulated to date from the Iron dates because there are ‘no known Iron Age Age, despite the presence of Bronze Age and burials’. There may be a significant amount of Romano-British material, and the critical shortage of undated material already excavated and stored radiocarbon dates for most of this material. in archives that requires reassessment and dat- Burials recently excavated in Cumbria are the first ing.

52 Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) Chapter 2: Prehistoric Agenda

2.73 A wider literature search may reveal a more largely unknown, but recent work has recovered evi- common reuse of earlier monuments during the dence beneath Romano-British sites, and it is likely Iron Age than previously acknowledged. This that other evidence will be brought to light in a simi- would fall in line with Barrett (1999a; 1999b) lar manner. The evidence for the production and and others understanding of the reorganisation distribution of salt is currently confined to the south of the prehistoric landscape during the 1st mil- of the region. If the products from the inland indus- lennium BC. try are not travelling to the north, then there is the potential for localised coastal manufacture in the Technology, Production, Trade Exchange and northern part of the region. Interaction The greater element of production was almost cer- tainly agricultural, but there is little evidence for arte- There is a comparative lack of artefactual evidence fact production (pottery and metalwork), and little from which traditionally the discussion on technol- evidence for metal ore exploitation on a national ogy, production, trade and exchange has stemmed. scale (Ponting forthcoming). The iron ore deposits Despite the traditional nomenclature, there is little and the extensive woodland within the region would evidence for the production or use of iron artefacts have offered excellent facilities for iron production. for most of the period. The one exception is the It is possible that many working sites have been de- inland salt industry of Cheshire, where there is evi- stroyed by later extractive activity, but the location of dence for two production sites, and widespread dis- smelting sites, probably located away from the ex- tribution of the ceramics associated with salt storage. tractive workings themselves, may well survive and Consequently, it is unclear how any of the natural await discovery. Likewise studies of copper and lead resources of the region were controlled, or whether ores have often considered exploitation during the they were open for communal exploitation, or by Bronze Age and the Romano-British and later peri- whom they were exploited. The distribution of ods, largely leaving aside the Iron Age. The issues Cheshire Very Coarse Pottery (VCP) may elaborate remain the same as those for the earlier periods on ways in which exchange and interaction may be (above) but Iron Age exploitation of copper, lead visible. The early Iron Age distribution pattern shows and iron ores must also be taken into account when a local network in Cheshire and north-east Wales but studying early industry. the later distribution pattern (Middle and Late Iron The existing finds base is being added to by the Age) shows that Cheshire salt was exchanged Portable Antiquities Scheme and at least in the throughout north Wales, the north Midlands, and the southern part of the region in the last ten years a Marches. The Iron Age salt production sites are number of objects have come to light (including bull’s head escutcheons and celtic coins) which hint at wider patterns of social exchange and interaction. Fig 2.15 The Iron Age Mellor pot, Greater Manchester, In regard to this the enigmatic coastal site at Meols which came from the outer enclosure ditch (Trench 15). could be viewed as one of the series of late prehis- Petrological analysis suggests that this pot was manufactured in toric and Romano-British emporia, or trading sites, the Castleton area of the Peak District, some 15-20kms known from the English Channel and the Irish Sea, south-east of Mellor (UMAU). with strong trading links with the Iron Age tribes of Brittany and later the western Mediterranean (Matthews 2002a). Meols potentially had a unique role in the region as a facilitator of international trade throughout the period.

Initiatives

Many points relevant to this section are covered within the Early Industries initiatives above (p 180).

2.74 Iron Age metalwork remains rare at a regional scale, and iron objects are believed to be un- common, but there is no up-to-date corpus of Iron Age artefacts for the region. Existing ar- chives require revisiting with a view to evaluat- ing the known extent of Iron Age material cul- ture. The forthcoming publication of Meols and the finds on the PAS database would also help considerably towards this study.

Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007) 53 Research and Archaeology in North West England

2.75 The scarcity of ceramic and metal containers marginal during the 1st millennium BC this does not has led to the suggestion of the widespread use mean that the societies within that area were them- of organic containers. Despite their presumed selves marginal (Nevell 2004a). Thus, a low level of abundance, no such artefacts have yet been re- archaeologically visible material culture as occurs in covered from the region. Waterlogged contexts the Iron Age in the North West does not necessarily must be viewed as potentially preserving such equate with an impoverished society, and need not items and investigated accordingly with extreme imply the same trends in the following period. De- scrutiny. spite this caveat, almost certainly the settlement pat- terns, landscape use, and social structures developed Legacy in this period continued into the Romano-British period, and issues around artefact use and mineral It has been pointed out that whilst much of the exploitation recur in the region after the end of the North West was environmentally and agriculturally Roman administration.

54 Archaeology North West Vol 9 (issue 19 for 2007)