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Urban Transport Energy Use in the APEC Region: Trends and Options

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Urban Transport Energy Use in the APEC Region: Trends and Options URBAN TRANSPORT ENERGY USE IN THE APEC REGION TRENDS AND OPTIONS 2007 i Published by Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre Institute of Energy Economics, Japan Inui Building Kachidoki 16F, 1-13-1 Kachidoki Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0054 Japan Tel: (813) 5144-8551 Fax: (813) 5144-8555 Email: [email protected] (administration) © 2007 Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre APEC #207-RE-01.1 ISBN978-4-931482-33-3 Printed in Japan FOREWORD We are pleased to present the report, “Urban Transport Energy Use in the APEC Region – Trends and Options”. This is the first part a two-year study undertaken by the Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre. The objective of the study is to analyse the driving factors for urban transport energy demand in both developing and developed economies of APEC. From this analysis, it also seeks to offer options to control transport energy demand in the urban areas of APEC. The report is published by APERC as an independent study and does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the APEC Energy Working Group or individual member economies. But, we do hope that it will serve as a useful basis for analytical discussion both within and among APEC member economies for the enhancement of energy security in APEC. Kotaro Kimura President Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank all of those who contributed to this study, which could not have been successfully completed without the hard work and inspiration of many individuals. In particular, valuable advice and insights were received from a number of experts worldwide, including Juan Ramón Mota Aguilar (PEMEX), S.K. Jason Chang (National Taiwan University), Gary Eng (Energy Analytics Ltd., New Zealand), Roger Fairclough (Ministry of Economic Development, New Zealand), Kenneth Green (BCS, USA), Peter Hills (the University of Hong Kong), Iván Jaques (Transantiago, Chile), Susumu Kuramoto (GISPRI, Japan), Ki-Joong Kim (KEEI, Korea), Kyung-Hwan Kim (Sogang University, Korea), Hoesung Lee (Keimyung University, Korea), Thierry Lefevre (CEERD-FIHRD, Thailand), Xiaoli Liu (Energy Research Institute, NDRC, China), Chow Kuang Loh (Land Transport Authority, Singapore), Wei-Shiuen Ng (World Resource Institute, USA), Lee Schipper (World Resource Institute, USA), Gusti Sidemen (Ministry of Energy & Mineral Resources, Indonesia) and Keiichi Yokobori (Yabuki Law Offices Japan). We also would like to thank members of the APEC Energy Working Group (EWG), APEC Expert Group on Energy Data and Analysis (EGEDA), and APERC Advisory Board, along with numerous government officials, for their helpful information and comments. Yonghun Jung, Vice President of APERC, provided overall guidance and valuable insights on the study’s direction. PROJECT LEADER Naoko Doi PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS Alicia Altagracia Aponte David Fedor Ji Li Shu-Chuan Lin Tomoko Matsumoto Van Vy Nguyen OTHER CONTRIBUTORS James L. Eastcott Naturmon Intharak Jupri Haji Julay Endang Jati Mat Sahid Satoshi Nakanishi Gotardo Ormeño Aquino Sergey Petrovich Popov Sau Yi Wan EDITOR David Fedor ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT Sutemi Arikawa, Shohei Okano, Sachi Goto, Mizuho Fueta and Yumiko Nishino CONTENTS Foreword.......................................................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements......................................................................................................................................iv List of Abbreviations...................................................................................................................................vi Glossary.......................................................................................................................................................viii Executive Summary......................................................................................................................................1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................................5 Urbanisation, Motorisation, and Transport Energy Use .......................................................................7 An Overview of Urban Transport Energy Use in APEC ...................................................................13 Evaluation of Urban Transport Energy Use in Asia.............................................................................27 Energy Intensity of Urban Mass Transit in the USA ...........................................................................37 Methods in Place to Reduce Urban Transport Energy Use in APEC ..............................................51 Case Studies Bangkok.........................................................................................................................................68 Mexico City...................................................................................................................................76 San Francisco Bay Area...............................................................................................................88 Shanghai ........................................................................................................................................96 Tokyo...........................................................................................................................................103 References ..................................................................................................................................................113 Appendix ....................................................................................................................................................123 v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ABARE Australian Bureau of Agriculture and Resource Economics APEC Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation APERC Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations AUS Australia BCM billion cubic metres BRT bus rapid transit BD Brunei Darussalam CDA Canada CHL Chile CNG compressed natural gas CO2 carbon dioxide CO carbon monoxide CT Chinese Taipei DOE Department of Energy (USA) DSM demand-side management EDMC Energy Data and Modelling Center (Japan) EIA Energy Information Administration (USA) EWG Energy Working Group (APEC) FEC final energy consumption FED final energy demand GDP gross domestic product GHG greenhouse gases g/kWh grams per kilowatt-hour (used to measure the emissions caused by the generation of one unit of electricity) GMS Greater Mekong Sub Region GNP gross national product GRP gross regional product GTL gas to liquids GW gigawatt GWh gigawatt-hour GWP gross world product HC (un-combusted) hydrocarbons HKC Hong Kong, China HOV high occupancy vehicle IEA International Energy Agency IEEJ Institute of Energy Economics, Japan INA Indonesia IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change JPN Japan kgoe kilogram of oil equivalent ktoe thousand tonnes of oil equivalent LNG liquefied natural gas LPG liquefied petroleum gas MAS Malaysia mbd million barrels per day MCM million cubic metres MEX Mexico MMBTU Million British Thermal Units MOU Memorandum of Understanding MSW Municipal Solid Waste Mtoe million tonnes of oil equivalent NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement NGV natural gas vehicle NRE new and renewable energy NOx unspecified nitrogen oxides NO2 nitrogen dioxide NZ New Zealand O3 (surface) ozone PE Peru PM particulate matter of unspecified diameter (generally <10 microns) PNG Papua New Guinea PPM parts per million PPP purchasing power parity PRC People’s Republic of China R&D research and development ROK Republic of Korea RMB Chinese Renminbi (Yuan) RP the Republic of the Philippines RUS the Russian Federation SIN Singapore SO2 sulphur dioxide SUVs sports utility vehicles toe tonnes of oil equivalent TPED total primary energy demand TPES total primary energy supply TWh terawatt hours US or USA United States of America USD United States dollar WHO World Health Organisation WTO World Trade Organisation VN Viet Nam VOC volatile organic compounds vii GLOSSARY On transport mode Passenger Vehicle A light, motor-driven, 2-axle vehicle used primarily for passenger transport on paved roadways (typically privately owned and operated on demand). Passenger vehicles include both “cars” and light trucks operated for passenger transportation. Light Truck A van, minivan, sport utility vehicle, or pickup truck used for both passenger and freight transport purposes (typically privately owned and operated on demand) Heavy Truck A vehicle with a larger chassis and more strengthened engine than a light truck, with 2 or more axles, used for freight transport Heavy Rail Standard intra-city rail, including most metro/subway systems (operated above or below ground), carrying its own motor but typically relying on external electricity for propulsion Light Rail Intra-city rail, typically with a smaller car weight, less passenger capacity, and narrower rail gauge, shorter operating distance, and slower speed than heavy rail-- including some “metro” systems (typically operated above ground at-grade), carrying its own motor but relying on external electricity for propulsion Commuter Rail A passenger train which may or may not share tracks with freight trains, typically operated between an urban centre and the surrounding suburban areas over longer distances and at higher speeds than heavy rail, with limited service within the urban core. Motor Bus A high-passenger-capacity road vehicle
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