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Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965 1 CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 Chapter I. Chapter III. CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 Chapter 15. CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 13 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 15 CHAPTER 16 CHAPTER 17 Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965, by 2 CHAPTER 18 CHAPTER 19 CHAPTER 20 CHAPTER 21 CHAPTER 22 CHAPTER 23 CHAPTER 24 Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965, by Morris J. McGregor Jr. This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965 Author: Morris J. McGregor Jr. Release Date: February 15, 2007 [EBook #20587] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTEGRATION ARMED FORCES *** Produced by Suzanne Shell, Christine P. Travers and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net [Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, author's spelling has been retained. --Missing page numbers correspond to Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965, by 3 illustration or blank pages.] INTEGRATION OF THE ARMED FORCES 1940-1965 DEFENSE STUDIES SERIES INTEGRATION OF THE ARMED FORCES 1940-1965 by Morris J. MacGregor, Jr. Defense Historical Studies Committee (as of 6 April 1979) Alfred Goldberg Office of the Secretary of Defense Robert J. Watson Historical Division, Joint Chiefs of Staff Brig. Gen. James L. Collins, Jr. Chief of Military History Maj. Gen. John W. Huston Chief of Air Force History Maurice Matloff Center of Military History Stanley L. Falk Office of Air Force History Rear Adm. John D. H. Kane, Jr. Director of Naval History Brig. Gen. (Ret.) Edwin H. Simmons Director of Marine Corps History and Museums Dean C. Allard Naval Historical Center Henry J. Shaw, Jr. Marine Corps Historical Center Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965, by 4 MacGregor, Morris J Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965 (Defense studies series) Includes bibliographical references and index. Supt. of Docs. no.: D 114.2:In 8/940-65 1. Afro-American soldiers. 2. United States--Race Relations. I. Title. II. Series. UB418.A47M33 335.3'3 80-607077 Department of the Army Historical Advisory Committee (as of 6 April 1979) Otis A. Singletary University of Kentucky Maj. Gen. Robert C. Hixon U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command Brig. Gen. Robert Arter U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Sara D. Jackson National Historical Publications and Records Commission Harry L. Coles Ohio State University Maj. Gen. Enrique Mendez, Jr. Deputy Surgeon General, USA Robert H. Ferrell Indiana University James O'Neill Deputy Archivist of the United States Cyrus H. Fraker The Adjutant General Center Benjamin Quarles Morgan State College William H. Goetzmann University of Texas Brig. Gen. Alfred L. Sanderson Army War College Col. Thomas E. Griess U.S. Military Academy Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965, by 5 Russell F. Weigley Temple University Foreword The integration of the armed forces was a momentous event in our military and national history; it represented a milestone in the development of the armed forces and the fulfillment of the democratic ideal. The existence of integrated rather than segregated armed forces is an important factor in our military establishment today. The experiences in World War II and the postwar pressures generated by the civil rights movement compelled all the services--Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps--to reexamine their traditional practices of segregation. While there were differences in the ways that the services moved toward integration, all were subject to the same demands, fears, and prejudices and had the same need to use their resources in a more rational and economical way. All of them reached the same conclusion: traditional attitudes toward minorities must give way to democratic concepts of civil rights. If the integration of the armed services now seems to have been inevitable in a democratic society, it nevertheless faced opposition that had to be overcome and problems that had to be solved through the combined efforts of political and civil rights leaders and civil and military officials. In many ways the military services were at the cutting edge in the struggle for racial equality. This volume sets forth the successive measures they and the Office of the Secretary of Defense took to meet the challenges of a new era in a critically important area of human relationships, during a period of transition that saw the advance of blacks in the social and economic order as well as in the military. It is fitting that this story should be told in the first volume of a new Defense Studies Series. The Defense Historical Studies Program was authorized by the then Deputy Secretary of Defense, Cyrus Vance, in April 1965. It is conducted under the auspices of the Defense Historical Studies Group, an ad hoc body chaired by the Historian of the Office of the Secretary of Defense and consisting of the senior officials in the historical offices of the services and of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Volumes produced under its sponsorship will be Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965, by 6 interservice histories, covering matters of mutual interest to the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The preparation of each volume is entrusted to one of the service historical sections, in this case the Army's Center of Military History. Although the book was written by an Army historian, he was generously given access to the pertinent records of the other services and the Office of the Secretary of Defense, and this initial volume in the Defense Studies Series covers the experiences of all components of the Department of Defense in achieving integration. Washington, D.C. JAMES L. COLLINS, Jr. 14 March 1980 Brigadier General, USA Chief of Military History The Author Morris J. MacGregor, Jr., received the A.B. and M.A. degrees in history from the Catholic University of America. He continued his graduate studies at the Johns Hopkins University and the University of Paris on a Fulbright grant. Before joining the staff of the U.S. Army Center of Military History in 1968 he served for ten years in the Historical Division of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. He has written several studies for military publications including "Armed Forces Integration--Forced or Free?" in The Military and Society: Proceedings of the Fifth Military Symposium of the U.S. Air Force Academy. He is the coeditor with Bernard C. Nalty of the thirteen-volume Blacks in the United States Armed Forces: Basic Documents and with Ronald Spector of Voices of History: Interpretations in American Military History. He is currently working on a sequel to Integration of the Armed Forces which will also appear in the Defense Studies Series. Preface (p. ix) This book describes the fall of the legal, administrative, and social barriers to the black American's full participation in the military service of his country. It follows the changing status of the black serviceman from the eve of World War II, when he was excluded from many military activities and rigidly segregated in the rest, to that period a quarter of a century later Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965, by 7 when the Department of Defense extended its protection of his rights and privileges even to the civilian community. To round out the story of open housing for members of the military, I briefly overstep the closing date given in the title. The work is essentially an administrative history that attempts to measure the influence of several forces, most notably the civil rights movement, the tradition of segregated service, and the changing concept of military efficiency, on the development of racial policies in the armed forces. It is not a history of all minorities in the services. Nor is it an account of how the black American responded to discrimination. A study of racial attitudes, both black and white, in the military services would be a valuable addition to human knowledge, but practically impossible of accomplishment in the absence of sufficient autobiographical accounts, oral history interviews, and detailed sociological measurements. How did the serviceman view his condition, how did he convey his desire for redress, and what was his reaction to social change? Even now the answers to these questions are blurred by time and distorted by emotions engendered by the civil rights revolution. Few citizens, black or white, who witnessed it can claim immunity to the influence of that paramount social phenomenon of our times. At times I do generalize on the attitudes of both black and white servicemen and the black and white communities at large as well. But I have permitted myself to do so only when these attitudes were clearly pertinent to changes in the services' racial policies and only when the written record supported, or at least did not contradict, the memory of those participants who had been interviewed. In any case this study is largely history written from the top down and is based primarily on the written records left by the administrations of five presidents and by civil rights leaders, service officials, and the press. Many of the attitudes and expressions voiced by the participants in the story are now out of fashion. The reader must be constantly on guard against viewing the beliefs and statements of many civilian and military officials out of context of the times in which they were expressed.
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