DOCUMENT RESUME

310 175 612 RC 011 603

TITLE Beyond Bows and Arrows. Resource Manual. INSTITUTION Civil Service Commission, Washington, D. C. Bureau of Intergovernaental Personaal Programs. PUB DATE Nay 79 NOTE 148p.; Prepared for the Dallas "Symposium on the American Indian"

EMS P- E OF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIL 1S American History: *American Indian Culture: American Indian Education: *American Indians: Civil Rights: Education: Employment: Federal Government: *Federal Indian Relationship: *Government Role: Health: Housing: Population Trends: Reservations (Indian): *: Tribes IDENTIFIMIS *American Irlian History: : Cultural Contributions

ABSTRACT In spite of their visible prominence and influence on almost emery aspect of our society, Aserican Indians remain theleast understood group of people. To acquaint symposium participantswith the American Indian and to produce greater understanding,this resource manual docuaents the historical treatmentand present status of Indians. Presented are: the constitutional status ofAmerican Indians, including soarces of federal power, tribalsovereignty, , powers of tribal self-government, hunting andfishing rights, domestic relations, taxation, legal statas of Indian individuals, constitutional immunity, the 1968 Indian Bill of Rights, rights and privileges of state citizenship, and wardship:American Indian tribes, Eskimo and Aleut groups for which the Bureau of Indian Affairs has responsibility: federal Indian policiesfrom the colonial period through the early 19701s: administrators of U.S. Federal Indian Policy: Cosmissioners of Indian Affairs from 1832 tothe present: important dates in federal Indian relationships:labor statistics: employment: education: health: relevance of Indianlife %* civilisation: housing: Indian population byregions: location of Adian lands and communities: and Indian tribes andorganization, including names and addresses of each leader. MCI

*********************************************************************** * ,* Reproductions supplied by BURS are the best that can be.made * from the original locument. * *********************************************************************** - o . - a + . *. --monimmonwei.ok, IIININNIRMIIN11Www =.11

ilti.11.:

t rbr.

,

U I DEPARTMENT OP NINON. EDUCATION A WELPARIE NATIONAL. INSTITUTE Of EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO- DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM 02 .THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN- ATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS CO STATED DO NOT NECtSSARILY REPRE- SENT OF F ICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE Of 40 EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY - 1111.11 Cover: Will Sampson, Jr./ProfessionalActor Cover Design: Jack Crittenden/Artist Agency: Typography Plus Layout: DoranneMcLeMore/Designer 3 The, Intergovernmental Personnel Programs Division

and the

Personnel Management Training Institute

Present

"BEYOND BOWS AND ARROWS" Introduction

Dear Participant, every month? What is it likeextended to Mr. Tony Gutierre- being an Indian ?. or can you Director, Personnel Management The Dallas Region say something in Indian? Institute, and his staff for "Symposium,on the American The purpose of the the encouragement and Indian" has been in the Symposium is to provide more cooperation given in the planning stages for at least information to further planning stages and in the last seven months. The acquaint its participants on providing the technical Symposium-was first the American Indian.. As an expertise for getting the mentioned to me over a year example and to answr a work completed. Ms. Jeanne ago during ty initial employ- couple of the above mentioned Bowie, Mr. Jack Crittenden ment orientation by questions, we plan to explain and my wife, Doranne, each Mr. Tony Gutierrez. In all further that nothing can be deserve special acknowledge- probabilitil, the idea has said in Indian and that there ment for their contribution been around within our region is no such thing as feeling to the production of the much longer. Tony and I "Indian". The reason being printed materials. have pursued our initial that "Indian" is a legal term It is my hope that our exchange of information used to refer to several collective efforts will enabling us to sponsor this hundred tribes who, in many benefit each and every Symposium with the ultimate instances, have their own participanf. I hope it will goal of it being an educa- individual language. We produce a greater understand- tional experience for all propose to accomplish our ing between our communities participants. purpose in two ways. First, and will provide us with In almost every aspect of this Resource Manual will something that will be ours today's society, some provide reading materials "as long as waters flow and influence of the American with other sources for more the grass shall grow." Indian remains intact. One study. Secondly, our would not need to look far Symposium speakers are all Sincerely, in any major to locate from the American Indian a street named after some nQt-Lt_ Communit . They will be tOt 771_ Indian . The automobile sharing iliformation based on Frank McLemore and aircraft industries have their individual experiences. Coordinator chosen names of Indian Tribes For any event of this to label their products. Themagnitude, a host of people, Intergovernmental Personnel movie industry has been are needed to plan, coordi- Programs Division capitalizing on the American nate and perform other Indian for a long time. If numerous duties. A special one were to initiate a list acknowledgement is given to denotirg the influence of theMr. Edward Vela, Jr., American Indian, it would Regional Director, almost be endless. Yet, in Mr. Orman R. Wright, Chief, spite of the visible promin- Intergovernmental Personnel enqe of the American Indian, Programs Division and we remain the least underv- Mr. Bill Etheridge, Jr., stood group of people. This Director, Regional Training conclusion is based on my Center for the opportunity personal experience of and support given in answering questions like: Do 'sponsoring this Symposium. your folks still livein A special thank you is teepees? Do you receive a pay check from the government Table of Contents

UnIted States 114Health Commission on Civil Excerpt From American Rights Indian Policy Review Staff Memorandum Commission Report American Indians and 116Relevance of Indian 11Their Federal Life to Civilization Relationship Plus a partial listing 121 Housing of other U.S. Indian Excerpt From American Groups Indian Policy Review Commission Report 32Federal Indian Policies 126Indian Population by from the Colonial Period through the early 1970's (1970 Census Statistics) Administrators of 130Indian Lands and 56U.S. Federal Indian Communities Policy 131 Indian Tribes/ Commissioners of Organizations 57Indian Affairs Dallas Region VI 1832 to Present 1:35Footnotes 59 Important Dates in Federal Indian 144Memos Relationships Federal Indian Policy 61and Labor Statistics: a review essay

Employment 73 Excerpt From American Indian Policy Review Commission Report

Education Excerpt From American ,Indian Policy Review Commission Report

Health of the American 85 Indian Region VIII Task Force Report Commission on Civil Rights Staff Memorandum

March 1973 Washington, D.C. 20425 Constitutional Status of American Indians

has alternatively viewed Because termination Introduction tribes as sovereign is morally and political entities or as legally unacceptable, anachronisms which because it prqduces A thorough treatment bad practical of the constitutional must eventually be extinguished. The results and because status of American the mere threat of Indians wou2d involve result has been two conflicting Federal termination tends to a complete analysis of discourage greater the unique and compjex policies--separation and assimilation, one self-sufficiency field of Federal among Indian groups, Indian law which designed to protect Indians from the rest I am asking the cannot be adequately Congress to pass a described merely by of society and to leave them with a new concurrent reference to the resolution. which numerous treaties, degree of self- government within would expressly statutory enactments renounce, repudiate of Congress, and court their own institutions, and the other and repeal the decisions or Federal termination policy administrative calculated to bring as expressed by the decisions.1 The legal Indians withill the nainstream of American House Concurrent and political status Resolution 108 of of Indian tribes, the life by terminating relationship of Indians special Federal trust the 83rd Congress. to their tribes and to relationships and This resolution . their States, and the Federal programs and would explicitly relat:.7.1nship of tribes services. Termination affirm the integrity to the States and to reached its aegis and rights to the United States during the Eisenhower continued existence Government haVe long Administration .of the of all Indian tribes been issues of 1950's. The curren and Alaskan Native controversy. Tribes Administration has taken governments, have traditionally a strong stand against recognizing that been viewed by Federal termination; in his cultural pluralism courts as dependent or message on Indian is a source of "tributary" nations affairs, July 13, 1970, national strength. posseised of limited President Nixon said: It would assure elements of these groups that sovereignty and the United States requiring Federal Government would protection.2 Congress continue to carry out its and trusteeship .Sources of Fedral Power guardianship and obligations to them wardship to the as long as the The historic Federal Government's groups themselves relationship to which jurisdiction over believed that such a the Pres:Went refers Indian affairs.5 policy was necessary has a somewhat And, finally, Federal or desirable. (It confusing background. authority is inherent would) affirm for - The Federal Government in the Federal the Executive has exercised plenary Government's ownership Branch...that the power over Indians for of the land which historic relation- almost 200 years. Indian tribes occupy.6 ship between the This power emanates In Worcester v. Georgia, Federal Government from three sources. Chief Justice John and the Indian First, the Constitu- Marshall recognized that communities cannot tion grants to the the afforementioned be abridged without President3 and to powers plus the power of the consent of the Congress4 what have war and peace "compre- Indians. been construed as hend all that is broad powers of required for the authority over Indian. regulation of our affairs. Second, the intercourse with the Federal courts have Indians."7 applied a theory of The treaty power was the traditional means for dealing with Indian tribes from the colonial times until 1871, when recognition of Indian tribes as sovereign nations for tIlis purpose was withdrawn by the Indian Appropriation Act, which provided that 11....hereafter, no Indian nation or tribe within the of the United States shall be acknowledged or recognized as an Tribal Sovereignty Tribal sovereignty independent nation, was originally formally tribe or power with In considering the recognized by Chief whom the United States constitutional status Justice Marshall in may contract by of Ame.:ican Indians a Worcester v. Georgia: treaty...."8 Treaties distinction must be "The Constitution, by made before 1671 were made between tribal declaril treaties not nulified by that entities and indvidual already :r.,de, as well Act, but remain in citizens. As stated as those to be made, to force until.superceded before, the legal status be the supreme law of by Cbngropss. It is a of Indian tribes has the land, has adopted well established vacillated throughout and sanctioned the principle of this Nation's history inprevious treaties with constitutional law the eyes of the Federal the Indian nations, and that treaties have no Government. The conseguentlY, admits greater legal force or numerous treaties made their rank among those effect than legisla- with Indian tribes powers who are capab.le tive acts of Congress, recognized them.as of making treaties."' and may be unilaterally governments capable of That position, which abrogated, or supercededmaintaining diplomatic determined the Federal by subseglent Congres- relations of peace and Judiciary's basic sional legislation, war and of being policy toward Indian Until so abrogated, responsible, in a. tribes throughout -the however, treaties with political sense, for 19th century may be Indian tribes are part their violation. When contrasted with the of the law of the land engaged in war against attitude of later court and are binding on the whites, Indians were -decisions such as Federal Government. In never treated as rebels, Montoya v. United carrying out its treaty subject to the law of States:" wherein the obligations the Federal treason,.but, "on the court concluded that ,Government occupies a contrary, were always "the word 'nation' as trust relationship regarded and treated as applied to the which, according to the separate and independentuncivilized Indians was Court in Nationnations, entitled to thelittle more than a v. United States, rights of ordinary compliment." "should be judged by thebelligerents and subject Today, the concept of most exacting fiduciary to no otherpenalties.12tribal sovereignty is standards."" As part Hostile Indians widely misunderstood of the law of Che land surrendering to armed and can only be meaning- treaties cannot be forces were subject to fully discussed with annulled in their effectthe disabilities and regard to specific or operation by the actsentitled to the rights attributes or powers. of State governments.11 of prisoners ofwar.13 Clearly, tribal The whole course of Powers of Tribal governments are not on judicial decision on the same legal footing the nature of Indian Self-Government as independent nations; .tribal powers is on the other hand, they marked by adherence Indian tribes are are widely recognized to three fundamental recognized in Federal 4as political units with principles: law as distinct governmental powers political communities (1) The Indian tribe which exist, in some with basic domestic and possesses, in the municipal functions. sense, on a higher level first instance, all than that of the States. This includes the power the powers of any to adopt and pperate The contemporary . meaning of tribal under a form of govern- sovereignty is defined (2) Conquest renders ment of the tribe's in Iron Crow v. Oglala the tribe subject to choosing, to define Tribe'of Fine the legislative power conditions of t.ribal Ridge Reservation" as of the United States, membership, to regulate follows: and, in.substance, domestic relations of It would seem clear terminates the members, to prescribe that the Constitution, external powers of rules of inheritence, as construed by the sovereignty of the to levy taxes, to Supreme Court, tribe, e.g., its power regulate property within acknowledges the to enter into treaties the jurisdiction of the paramount authority with foreign nations, tribe, to control the of the United States but does not, by conduct of members by with regard to Indian itself, affect the tribal.legislation, to tribes but recognizes internal sovereignty administer justice and the existence of of the tribe, i.e., provide for the punish- Indian tribes as- its power of local ment of offenses quasi-sovereign self-government. committed on the reser- vation.18Although entities possessing (3) These powers are all the inherent Indian tribes began subject to qualifica- their relationship with rights of sovereignty tion by treaties and except where the Federal Government by express legislation as sovereign governments restrictions have by Congress, but, save been placed thereon recognized as such by as.thus expressly treaties and in legis- by the United States, qualified, full powers itself. lation, the powers of of internal sovereign- tribal sovereignty In his 1940 edition ty are vested in the of Federal Indian law, Indian tribes nnd in Felix Cohen summarized their duly constituteq the meaning of tribal organs ofgoverLment.17 sovereignty in the following manner: have been limited from exercise of all. Generally, the t,ime to time by the functions of tribal jurisdiction of Indian Federal Government. It sovereignty, is subject courts is exclusive as should be noted, how- to Conyressional change to matters involNing ever, that the powers For example, Federal tribal affairs," civil which tribes currently' law has removed from suits brought by exercise are not some tribes the power Indians or non-Indians delegated powers granted to choose their own against tribal members by Congress but rather, officials and has arising out of matters are "inherent powers placed the power of occurring onthe of a limited dependent appointment in the reservation,24and the sovereignty which had President and the prosecution of not been extinguished Secretary, the violations of the by Federal action. Interior.4' tribal criminal code.25 What is not expressly Indian tribes, having Tribal jurisdiction limited often remains the power to mike laws operates to the within the domain of and regulations exclusion of Federal tribal sovereignty essential to the and State authority. simply because State administration of Federal courts are jurisdiction is justice and the protNC without jurisdiction Federally excluded and tion of persons and over matters involving governmental authori property also have the violations of tribal must be found somewhere. power to maintain law ordinances,26 as are That is a principal to enforcement departments State courts.27 With be applied generally in and cstirts to enforce regard to cases within order that there shall them: Some smaller their jurisdiction, be no general failure tribes have no courts tribal courts are of governmental at all or maintain very courts of last resort. control."19 traditional customary Their decisions are The powers of self- courts which lack formalappealable to neither government are normally structure. Larger State or Federal courts. exercised pursuant to tribes, such as the Several important tribal ,constitutions Navajo, maintain quite limitations have been and law and order codes. advanced law and order Normally, these powers systems with well- include the right of a equipped police tribe to define the departments, modern authority and the duties tribal codes and a of its officials, the hi.erarchv of trial and manner of their appoint- appellate courts over- ment or election, the seen by a tribal manner of their removal, supreme court. and the rules they are toobserve." This right, as with the

111111111V Ill placed by Congress on issue of State control Tribes also have com- tribal jurisdiction. over on7reservation plete and exclusive *Under the 1968 Indian hunting and fishing authority to define and Civil Rights Act--)13 should be distinguished punish offenses against tribes may not exercise from the question of thethe marriage relation- jurisdiction oer extent to which treaty ship, although, as with criminal offenses rights pro_hibit States other civil matters, .punishable by more than from interfering with Congress may make State a $500 fine or 6 months hunting and fishing by law applicable. in jail. Federal_court Indians off reservations Lave jurisdiction to trY In a confusing decision Taxation and punish certain majo the United States offenses such as murder Supreme Court recently An important power manslaughter, rape, held that etc., pursuant to khe essential to the to "fish at a,11 usual maintenance of govern7 Major Crimes Act.2' In and accustomed places" mental functions is the certain instances, . may not bequalified by Congress has provided a State but that the power of taxation. In that the criminal laws exercise of such rights Buster v. Wright,35 it and/or civil laws of a is subject to reasonable was held that tly, Creek State shall extend to State consenNtion Nation had the power to impose a license fee Indian reservations 1 egis1 ation.i4 located in the State.30 upon all persons, Indian States which have and non-Indian, who assumed responsibility Domestic Relations traded within the for ''he administration borders of that Nation. of justice on Indian Indian cribes exerciseTribal authority to land are commonly a wide latitude of power levy a property tax on referred to as "Public over the domestic all property within the Law E3() States." relations of tribal reservation was upheld members. Tribes in Morris v. Hitch- normally conduct cock.36 Indian tribes Hunting & Fishing Rights marriages and grant are currently recognized divorces33 to the by the United States A current major issue exclusion of State law as "units of local arising from the even though the Indians government" for the limitations on State concerned are also purpose of receiving authority due to quasi- citizens of the State. Federal revenue funds tribal sovereignty is Indian customary pursuant to the Revenue the hunting and fishing marriage and divorce Snaring Act ot 1972. rights controversy in has generally been the Northwest. It is recognized by State and well settled that a Federal courts.34 State cannot enforce its game and fish laws within the boundaries -.of an Indian reserva- tion.31 However, the

6 12 As a general matter, of the 14th Amendmr'..t contained in the tribal then, Indian tribes are of'the United States -constitution and the recognized by Federal Constitution conferring tribal law and order law as governmental citizenship on "all code. By their own units exercising a wide persons born or natural- weight the Bill of variety of governmental ized in the United Rights and the 14th functions, limited only States, and subject to Amendment to the United by the assertion of the jurisdiction States Constitution do

. Congressional plenary thereof" did not confer not impose limitations power over Indian citizenship on Indians.38 on tribal action and affairs. Outside of State and Federal thus, do not confer the scope of this citizenship and tribal protections on tribal memorandum is a. membership are not members. In the case discussion of the wide. incompatable;39 Indians of Talton v. Mayes40 spectrum of Federal are citizens of Ulree for example, the Supreme administrative powers separate political Court refused to apply currently exercised overentities. As citizens the Fifth Amendment to Indian affairs. of the Federal Govern- invalidate a tribal' ment they are subject to law that established a Legal Status of the laws of the Federal five-man grand jury. Government no matter In Giover v. United Indian Individuals where they may be States,41 the court located. .Ao citizens stated that "the right _ By virtue of the of the tribal government to be represented by they are subject to the counsel is protected by of June 2,1924, all civil and criminal laws the Sixth and 14th Indians born in the of the tribe when they Amendments. These United States are are on the reservation Amendments, however citizens of the United and :ithin its juris- protect...this right dictLon (except, as States. As such, they only as against action - are also citizens of stated above, in Public by the United States in the State in which they Law 280 States). They the case of the...Si;:th live,- even though they are subject to the laws Amendment...and as may reside on a of the States while off against action by the reservation.37 the reservation. States in the case of Although many Indians the 14th Amendment." acguiTed citizenship Protection in the Tribal prior to 1924, pursuant to various Federal Setting-Constitutional statutes, it was early Immunity held that the provision In their relationship with the tribe, Indians are normally protected by a wide variety of criminal due process, civil rights and civil liberties protections Again, in the case of Federal Constitution or not apply. In 1961 that Native American Church under Federal civil Subcommittee instituted v. Nava'o Tribal rights acts. In State a lengthy investigation Couricil2 it was held v. Big SHbep, 44 the of the legal status of by implication that a Tenth Circuit refused American Indians and tribal Indian cannot to concede the the problems they claim protection application of First encounter when asserting against illegal search Amendment protections their Constitutional and seizure by tribal through the Fourteenth rights in their officials. In 1954, an Amendment to Indian relations with the attempt to redress tribes,: State, Federal and tribal invasions of No provision in the tribal governments. This effort, largely religious freedom arose Constitution makes in a suit against the engineered by Senator the First Amendment Sam Ervin, Chairman of Jemez Tribal applicable to Indian the Subcommittee, Council and governor nations nor is there by Pueblo members, culminated in the any law of Congress passage of the.Civil charging that they had doing so. It follows been subjected to Rights Act of 1968,46 that neither, under Title II of,which indignities, threats the Constitution or and reprisals solely constitutes a bill of the laws of Congress, rights for American because of their do the Federal courts Protestant faith and Indians. It provides have jurisdiction of that Indian tribes that the tribal laws or had refused to permit exercising powers of regulations, even self-government shall them to bury their dead though they may have in the community be subject to many of an impact to some the same limitations cemetary and to build a extent on fdrms of and restraints which church on tribal land.43 religious workship.45 The court acknowledged are imposed on Federal, that the alleged acts State and local represented a serious 1968 hdian Bill of Rights -governments by the invasion of religious United States Constitution. Two freedom but concluded These cases illustrate that the acts were not major exceptions are what the Constitutional that the Indian Bill of taken "under color of Rights Subcommittee of Rights provides the any statute, ordinance, the Senate Committee on right to counsel before regulation, custom or the Judiciary saw as a tribal courts only at usage of any State or "continued denial of the defendant's "own s. Territory" and thus no Constitutional guaran- cause of action arose expense" and, although, tees" to American religious freedom is either under the Indians, on the ground protected, the Act does that tribes are quasi- not contain a prohibi- sovereign entities to tion against the which general provisionsestablishment of of the Constitution do religion by a tribal government. Rights & Privileges of State services has,been conditions applicable that Indians do not pay to the admission and State Citizenship taxes. The restricted care of non-Indians, status of Indiz.n land "such refusal (by the While off their renders it immune from State) to treat Indians rc?servations, Indians State and local taxation in the same manner as are subject to the same and, with certain non-Indians would appear laws, both Federal and statutory exceptions, to deprive the Indians State, as are other income derived from the of equal protection of citizens. When brought land is likewise non- the laws guaranteed by before State or Federal taxable. Other local, the Fourteenth courts they are entitledState ahd Federal taxes Amendment to the Federal to the same Constitu- commonly paid by Constitution." tional protections as citizens, including other defendants. As a sales taxes, are paid general matter,.Indians by Indians. Indians Wardship are also entitled to pay State taxes on all the same Federal and nontrust property and There has been some State benefits, programsare obligated for all confusion regarding the and services as other fees and taxes for the status of American State and Federal enjoyment of State Indians because of the citizens. .From time to privileges, such as common notion that time, however, States driving on State high- Indians are "wards" of have attempted to deny ways, and all other the Federal Government. Indians participation taxes which reach t.he The Federal Government in State programs on entire population." is a trustee of Indian the grounds that their All attempts to treat property, not the entitlement to special Indian citizens guardian of individual Federal programs made differently or to Indians. In this them ineligible. A law exclude them from State sense, the term "ward" of the State of , and local programs for,example, raise clear Constitu- declared that a local tional questions. As public school board the Chief Counsel of could exclude Indian the Bureau of Indian children from attending Affairs stated in a if ttle United States memorandum dated Government maintained a July 8, 1953, concerning 4 school for Indians with-the refusal of the State in the school . of North Dakota to admit The California Supreme and care for feeble- Court held that the law minded Indian children violated the State and in State schools under Federal cons.titutions.47 the same rules and One justification commonly used by States for excluding Indians from participation in State programs and is inaccurate. Indians "Payments may be made hold Federal, State and are subject.to a wide to Indian tribes or local office, are variety of Federal individuals for loses subject to the draft, limitations on the which resulted from may sue and be sued in 'distributioh of trety violations... State courts,51 may property and assets and individuals may also enter into contracts, idcome derived from receive government may own property and property in Federal checks for income from dispose of property trust. Land held in their land and resources, (other than that held trust for an Indian but only because the in trust) and, as tribe or for an Indian assets are held in stated before, pay individual may not be trust by the Secretary taxes. The large sold.without prior of the Interior and number of Federal and approval of the payment for the use of State laws and.pro- Secretary of the the Lndian resources visions which in the Interior or his has been collected by past denied Indians representative (the the Federal Govern- political rights and Bureau of Indian ment."50 Like Jther public benefits have Affairsl. Related citizens, Ineians may either been legisla- restrictions limit the tively repealed, ruled capacity of an Indian invalid by the to contract with a Judicial branch or private attorney and remain unenforced. limit the heirship distribution of trust property. Many erroneously believe that as wards of the Federal Govern- ment Indians must stay onreservations49 and that they receive gratutious payments from the Federal Gdvernment. Indians do not in fact receive payments merely because they are Indians. AMERICAN INDIANS AND THEIR FEDERAL RELATIONSHIP Plus a partial listing of other U.S. Indian Groups

This booklet lists all -In the case of 4.Ptiblic Domain allot- American Indian tribes, Agencies and other ments. Indian individuals Eskimo, and Aleut groups,Bureau offices of some- who reside on these lands for which the Bureau of what.similar rank, the receive Bureau of Indian Indian Affairs has Area Office to which Affairs services on the basis definite,responsibility. they report is indicated,of the Secretary of the It also incfudes those to the right, in Interior's responsibility tribes, bands, and parentheses. -The over the land. % groups that have been addresses of all of the 5. Indian groups that terminated from Bureau Area Offices in the receive assistance from the of Indian Affairs Bureau are listed at theBureau only in matters services in.recent years,back of the booklet. relating to the settlement and those recognized Throughout.the booklet'of claims against the U.S. only for purposes of a code numbe.r follows Government, such as those settling'claims against the name of each Indian involving inadequate compen- the U.S. Government, group. It indicates sation for land taken in the such as those involving the status of each as of past. inadequate compensation June 1972. However, 6. Indian groups no longer for* land taken in the changes may occur at anyentitled to Bureau of Indian past. In addition, time. Here is what eachAffairs services because of Indian groups in certain number means: specific statutes. other categories are (Terminated groups.) also listed. 1. Indian or Alaska Native 7. Others. Groups that The basic listing is organizations whose consti- have never received Bureau by State. Following the tutions are approved by the of Indian,Affairs services. name of the State, which Secretary of the Interior 8. Indian groups'that do is given in Alphabetical under Federal statutory not fit into any co. the order, is the Bureau of authoi-ity of the Indian above classifications. Indian Affairs office Reorganization Act; Map code numbers preceding that has immediate Indian Welfare Act; or the names of some of the jurisdiction over Indian,Alaska Native Act. groups listed in this booklet Eskimo, or AlelSt groups 2. Indian or Alaska Native may be used in conjunction with its address. The organizations whose consti- with a map which shows the tribes under it follow. tutions are approved by the location of the Indian Next.are tribes that Secretar of the Interior groups. Such map entitled do not,receive Bureau of or his designated represen- "Indian Lands and Related Indian Affairs services. tative under authority other Facilities, 1971, General," The Bureau of Indian than the Indian Reorganiza- is available from the Affairs Area Office is tion Act; Oklahoma Indian Superintendent of Documents, the highest ranking Welfare Act; or Alaska Washington, D.C. 20242, field office in the Native Act. price 35 cents. Bureau structure. Next 3. Indian organizations in Order,is generally without written governing the Bureau of Indian doc/uments that are served Affairs Agency that by the Bureau of Indian reports to it. It is 4dfairs. usually located on the reservation it serves.'

11 17 . Map code numbers are Kake (1)* Chignik Lagoon (3) assigned to State reserva- Kasaan (1) Chignik Lake (3) tions (NuMber 1-26). Indian Ketchikan (1) Chistochina (3) groups without trust land Klawock (1)* Clark's Point (3) (Number 30-67) and terminatedCluckwan (Chilkat) (1) Copper Center (3) tribes and groups (Number Metlakatla (1) Cordova (3)* 80-90). Petersbuig (1)* Dillingham (3)* No c9de location numbers Saxman (1)* Egegik (3) have been assigned to groups Sitka (1)*. Eklutna (3) on Federal trust lands since Wrangell (1)* Ekuk (3) these are generally recog- Pelican City (3)* Ekwok (3) nizable by inspection of the Skagway (3)* English Bay (3) map itself. Tenakee Springs (3) False Pass (3) Yakutat :3)* Gulkana (3) Iliamna (3) Alabama Superintendent Ivanof Bay (3) Anchorage Agency King Cove (3)* (30) Creek Indian Community--,Bureau of Indian Affairs Koliganek (3) near Atmore (7) no 16th and C Sts., Box 120 Kokhanok (3) corporate land base Anchorage, Alaska 99501 Larsen Bay (3) (Juneau Area Office) Levelock (3) Creeks East of the Matanuska (3).* Mississippi (5) Atka (1) Manokotak (3)* Chanega (1)(destroyed by Mentasta Lake (3) earthquake) Naknek (3)* Alaska Kantak (1) Nelson Lagoon (3) Karluk (1)* Newhalen (3) Asterisk indicates that Kenaitze (1) New Stuyahok (3) the Indian group is also Nikolski (I) Ninilchik (3)

-incorporated under State Perryville (1) . Nondalton (3)

law. . St. Paul (1)* Old Harbor (3)* Area Director Tatitlek (1). Ouzinkie (3)

Juneau Aroa Office Tyonek (1) . Palmer (3) Bureau of Indian Affaire Paulof Harbor (3) Akhiok (Alitak) (3) Box 3-8000 Pedro Bay (3) Akutan (3) Juneau, Alaska 99801 Pilot Point (3) Aleknagik (3)' Portage Creek (3) 'The following groups, Belkofsky (3) Port Graham (3) forimerly served by the Bristol Bay (3)* Port Heiden (3) Southeast Agency, are Chignik (3) now directly under Area Port Lions (3)*. Office jurisdiction). St. George Island (3) Sand Point (3)* Angoon (1)* South Naknek (3)* Craig (1)* Sterling (3) Douglas (1)! Togiak (3)* Haines (Port Chilkoot) (1)* Twin Hills (3) Hoonah (1)* Ugashik (3) Hydaburg (.1)* Unalaska (3)* 'Valdez (3)*

12 Superintendent Kalskag (3) Fort (1)& Bethel Agency Kasigluk (3) Inupiat (1) Bureau of Indian Affairs Kipnuk (3) Minto (1) P.O. Box 347 Kongigonak (3) Point Lay (1) Bethel, Alaska 99559 Kotlik (3)* Stevens' (1) (Juneau Area Officp) Kwinhagak--See Quinhagak Tanacross (1) Lelida (3) Tanana (1)& Akiachak (1). Lime Village (3) Tetlin (1) Akiak (1) Llower Kalskag (3) Venetic (1) Grayling (Holikachuk) (1) Marshall (3) Allakaket (3) Kwethluk (1) Medfra (3) ARaktuvuk Pass (3)* Kwigillingok (1) McGrath (3) Arctic Village (3) Mekoryuk (1) Mountain Village (3) Barrow (3)* Napakiak (1)* Nepaimute (Napamute) (3) Barter Island (3) Nunapitchuk (1) Napaskiak (3) Beaver (3) Quinhagak (Kwinhagak) (1) Newtok (3) Bettles (3) ShaOluk (1) Nightmute (3) Birch.CreCk (3) Tuluksak (1)* Nikolai (3) Cantwell (3) Tununak (1) Oscarville (3) Canyon Village (3) Pilot Station (3) Alakanuk (3) Chalkyitsik (3) Pitkas Point (3). AnAak (3) Circle (3) Platinum (3) Anvik (3) Delta Junction (3)* Quinhagak (3)(also spelled Atmautluak (3) Dot Lake (3) Kwinhagak) Bethel (3) Eagle (3)* Red Devil (3) Chaloonawick (3) Galena (3) Russian Mission(Kuskokwim) Chaneliak (3) Hughes (3) (Native name is Chefornak (3) (3) Huslia (3) Churarbalik) Chevak (3)* Kaltag (3) Russian Mission (Yukon) (3) Churarbalik--see Russian Koyukuk (3) St. Mary's (3)* Mission (Kuskokwim) Manley Hot Springs (3) Scammon Bay (3)* Crooked Creek (3) Nenana (3)* Sheldon's Point (3) Eek (3) Northway (3) Sleetmute (3) Emmonak (Kwiguk) (3)* Nulato (3)* Stony River (3) Farewell (3) Rampart (3) Takotna (3) Flat (3) Ruby (3) Toksook Bay (3) Georgetown (3) Tok (3) Tuntutuliak (3) Goodnews Bay (Mumtrak) (3) Wainwright (3)* Hamilton (3) Holy Cross (3) Superintendent . Hooper Bay (3)* Fairbanks Agency Bureau of Indian Affairs P.O. Box 350 Fairbanks, Alaska 99701 (Juneau Area Office) Superintendent Tlingit and Haida (2) Under Chemehuevi Indian Tribe (1) Nome Agency a contract with the Bureau (in California) P.O. Box 190 of Indian Affairs, the .Colorado River Indian Tribes Bureau of Indian Affairs functions of the Southeast (1)(in Arizona and Nome, Alaska 99762 Agency as they relate to California) (Juneau Area Office) Tlingit and Haida are now Fort Mojave Tribe (1) (in performed by the Tlingit Arizona, California, and Buckland (1)* and Haida Central Council. Nevada) Deering (1)* Zlim (1)* Gambell (1)* Arizona Subagency Superintendent King Island (1)* Fort Yuma Subagency Kivalina (1)* Superintendent Bureau of Indian Affairs Kotzebue (1)* Chinle Agency Yuma, Arizona 85364 Koyuk (1)* Bureau of Indian Affairs (Colorado River Agency, Little Diomede (1)* Chinle, Arizona 86503 Phoenix Area Office) Noatak (1)* (Navajo Area Office) Cocopah Tribe (1) Nome (1)* Quechan Indian Tribe of the Noorvik (1)* Navajo Nation.(2) (in Arizona, New and Fort Yuma Reservation (1) Point Hope (1)* (in California and Arizona) St. Michael (1)* Utah) Savoonga (1)* ( and Chapters) Selawik (1)* Superintendent Shaktoolik (1)* DIst. 4 FortApache Agency Shishmaref (1)* Blue Gap Bureau of Indian Affairs Shungnak (1)* Forest Lake Whiteriver, Arizona Stebbins (1)* Hard Rock 85941 Unalakleet (1)* Pinon (Phoenix Area Office) Wales (1)* Dist. 10 Whi:te Mountain Apacne Tribe White Mountain (1)* Chinle (1) Ambler (3)* Many Farms Brevig Mission (3)* Nazlini Superintendent Rough Rock Candle' (3) Fort Defiance Agency Golovin (3)* Tselani Bureau of Indian Affairs Kiana (3)* Dist. 11 Fort Defiance, Arizona Kobuk (3)* Lukachukai 86504 Northeast Cape (3)* Round Rock (Navajo Area Office) Teller (3)* Tsailee-Wheatfields Navajo Nation (2)(in (Arizona and ) Arizona, New Mexico, and Director Utah) Southeast Agency Superintendent Bureau of Indian AffairsColorado River Agency P.O. Box 1587 Bureau of Indian Affairs Juneau, Alaska 99801 Parker, Arizona 85344 (Phoenix Area Office).

=1111111111 1420 (Districts and Chapters) Superintendent Superintendent Papago Agency Shiprock Agency Bureau of Indian Affairs Dilkon Bureau of.Indian Affairs Sells, Arizona 85634 Indian Wells Shiprock, New Mexico (Phoenix Area Office) Jeddito 87420 (Navajo Area Office) Low Mountain Papago Tribe (Sells, Gila Teesto Bend, and San Xavier Navajo Nation (2)(in White Cone Reservations) (1) Arizona, New Hexico, and Utah) P!ot. 14 Coyote Canyon Superintendent (DistTicts and Chapters) Mexican Springs Pima Agency Dist, 9 Naschitti Bureau of Indian Affairs Tohatchi Sacaton, Ariz.ona 85247 Mexican Water (in Utah and Arizona) Twin Lakes (Phoenix Area,Office) Red Mesa (in Utah and Not.. I" Ak-Chin Indian Community (1) Arizona) Cornfields Gila River Indian Teecnospos (in Arizona, Ganado Community (1) New Mexico, and Utah) Greasewood Piet. IP Kinlichee Coordinator .Klagetoh Beclabito (in Arizona and Salt River Agency New Mexico) Steamboat Bureau of Indian Affairs Wide Ruins Red Rock (in Arizona and Route 1, Box 907 New Mexico) PF.of. Scottsdale, Arizona .Sanostee (in Arizona and Crystal (Arizona and New 85251' New Mexico) Mexico) (Phoenix Area Office) Fort Defiance (Ari.zona and Fort McDowell Mohave- New Mexico) Superintendent Community (1) Houck Truxton Canyon Agency galt River Pima-Maricopa Bureau of Indian Affairs Lupton Indian Community (1) Oak Springs Valentine, Arizona 86437 (Phoenix Area Office) Red Lake (Arizona and New Mexico) Superintendent Havasupai Tribe (1) St. Michaels San Carlos Agency Hualapai Tribe (1) Sawmill Bureau of Indian Affairs Yavapai-Apache Indian San Carlos, Arizona Community (Camp Verde) #(1) Superintendent 85550 Yavapai-Prescott Community Hopi Agency (Phoeni4 Area Office) Association (2) Bureau of Indian Affairs San Carlos Apache Tribe (1) Keams Canyon, Arizona 86034 (Ithoenix Area Office) Hopi Tribe (1) Kaibab Bank of Paiute Indians (1)

15 Superintendent Other Groups in Arizona Tule. River Indian Tribe (1) Tuba City Agency Tuolumne Band of Me-Wuk Bureau of Indian Affairs (31) Yaqui Indians of Arizona Indians (1) Tubatity, Arizona 86045 (8) Alturas Rancheria (2) (Navajo Area Office) P.L. 88-350 (Act of Cahto Indian Tribe of Laytonville Rancheria (2) Navajo Nation (2) .(in Oct. 8, 1964) Fort Independence Indian Arizona, New Mexico and Pascua Village (yucson) Community (2) Utah) Special Federal involvement in terms Pit River Home and Agricul- (Districts and Chapters) of establishing a new tural Cooperative Assn. (X-L Ranch) (2) D143t. village 1 Berry Creke Rancheria (3) Copper Mine Barrio Libre (South Big Pine Band of Owens Valley Kaibeto Tucson) Paiute-Shoshone Indians .Lechee (32) Guadalupe (Phoenix) (7) (Owens Valley ) (3) Red Lake (32A) Tonto Apache, Payson (7) Cedarville Rancheria (3) Dist2 Cortina Ranftheria (3) Inscription House California Dry Creek Rancheria (3) Navajo Mountain (in Utah El-Em Indian (Sulphur and Arizona) Bank) (3) Shonto (in Utah and Arizona)Superintendent Central California AgencyEnterprise Rancheria (3) Dist. 3 Bureau of Indian Affairs Paiute-Shoqhone Indians of Broadway Federal Building the Bishop Community (Owens Cameron 2800 Cottage Way Valley) (3) Coalmine Sacramento, California Paiute-Shoshone Indians of Tuba City 95 825 the Lone Pine Community (Sacramento Area (Owens Valley) (3) Dist. 6 Lookout Rancheria (3) Bird Springs Office) Cachil Dehe Bank of Wintun sheep Ranch Ranche.ria (3) Leupp Shingle Springs Rancheria Tolani Lake Indians of the Colusa, Indian Community (1) (Verona Tract) (3) Dist. 8 Covelo Indian Community (unoccupied) Chilchinbeto (in Utah and (Round Valley Reservation) Yokayo (9) near Ukiah Arizona) (1) icprilNatL7n PcvLiiri; Dennehotso (in Utah and Fort Bidwell Indian Upper Lake Band of Pomo Arizona) Community (1) Kayenta (in Utah and Grindstone Indian Rancheria Indians (3) Arizona) (1) Big Sandy Association (3) Olijatoh (in Utah and Kashia Band of Pomo Indians Arizona) of the Stewarts Point Rancheria (1) Manchester Band of Pomo Indians (1) Santa Rosa ;ndian Community (Kings ) (1) Susanville Indian Rancheria (1) 2

Hopland Nokomis Association Nevada City. Termination Termination Pending (3) effective 9-22-64 Cher-ae Heights Indian Jackson Rancheria (3) North Fork. Termination .Community of the Trinidad Ligely Rancheria (no member- effective 2-18-66 Rancheria (2)(Constitution ship)(1.32 acres of Paskenta. Termination revoked) cemetery remaining) effective 4-11-61 Big Lagoon Rancheria (3) Middletown Rancheria (3) Picayune. Termination Resighini Rancheria (3) (no

(Naded in original effective 2-18-66. . residents) Rancheria Act PL 85-671 Pinoleville. Termination Terminatec' Since, 1968 but.has made no progress effective 2-18-66 (Category'6) (72 Stat. 619 toward termination.) Potter Valley. Termination, and 78 Stat. 390) Rumsey Rancheria (3) effective 8-1-61 Blue Lake. Termination Sherwood Ithlley Rancheria (3) Quartz Valley. Termination effective 9-15-66 Sycamore Valley Association effective 1-20-67 Cresceni; City.(Elk Valley). (Cold Spring;) (3) Redwood Valley. Termination Termination effective Table Mountain Rancheria (3) effective 8-1-61 7-16-66 Robinson. Termination Terminatcd 19h8 Redding. Termination effective effective 9-3-65 (Category 6)(72 Stat. 619 6-20-62 Ru-fey's. Termination and 78 Stat. 390) Rohnerville. Termination effective 4-11-61 Alexander Valley. Termination effective 7-16-66 Scotts Valley. Terminatiion effective 8-1-61 Smith River. Termination effective.9-3-65 Auburn. Termination effective effective 7-29-67 Shingle Springs.(El Dorado 8-18-67 Table Bluff. Termination tract) Termination Big Valley. Termination effective 4-11-61 effective 7-16-66 effective 11-11-65 Strathmore. Land Sold, deed Buena Vista. Termination 'approved 9-29-67 Director effective 4-11-61 Strawberry Valley. Termina- Palm Springs Offic .Cache Creek. Termination tion effective 4-11-61 Bure'au of Inaian Affairs effective 4-11-61 Taylorsville. Land Sold, deed587 South Palm Canyon Chicken Ranch. Termination approved 11-4-66 Drive effective 8-1-61 Wilton. Termination effectivePalm Springs, California Chico. Termination effective 9-22-64 92262 6-2-67 (Sacramento Area Cloverdale. Termination Office)' effective 12-30-65 Superintendent Graton. Termination Hoopa Agency Agua Caliente Band of Mission effective 2-18-66 Bureau of Indian Affairs. Indians (Palm Springs) (2) Greenville. Termination Hoopa, California 95546 effective 12-8-66 (SacramentO Area Guidiville. Termination Offioe) effective 9-3-65 Hoopa Valley Tribe (2) Indian Ranch. Termination Big Bend Rancheria (3) effective 9-22-64 Hoopa Extension (3) Lytton. Termination effective Montgomery Creek Rancheria (3) 8-1-61 Roaring Creek Rancheria (3) Mark West. Termination effective 4-11-61 Mooretown. Termination effective 8-1-61

et- 17 Superintendent Capitan Grande Band of (Chemehuevi Indian Tribe (1) Southern California Mission Indians (3) Colorado River Indian Tribes Agency Cauyapaipe Band of Mission (1) (in Arizona and Bureau of Indian Affairs Indians (3)(no resident California) 6848 Magnolia Avervue, members) Fort Mojave Tribe (1)(in Suite 8 Inaja-Cosmit Reservation (3) Arizona, California, and Riverside, California LaPosta Band of Mission Nevada) 92506 Indians (3) (Sacramento Area Los Coyotes Band of Mission Superintendent Office) Indians (3) Fort Yuma Subagency Manzanita Band of Mission Santa Ynez Band of Mission Bureau of Indian Affairs Indians (3) Indians (1) Yuma, Arizona 85364 Mission Band of Indians of San Pasqual Band of Mission (Colorado River Agency, Campo Community (3) Indians (1) Phoenix Area Office) Morongo Band of Mission Cabazon Band of Mission Indians (3) Quechan Indian Tribe of the Indians (2) Pechanga Band-of Mission Fort Yuma Reservation (1) La Jolla Band of Mission Indians (3) (in California and Indians (2) Ramona Reservation (3)(no Arizona) Mesa Grande Band of Mission members) Indians (2) Santa Rosa Band of Mission Pala Band of Mission Indians Superintendent Indians (3) Nevada Agency (2) anta Ysabel Band of Mission Pavma Band of Mission Bureau of Indian Affairs Indians (3) Indians (2) Stewart, Nevada 89437 Soboba Band of Mission Rincon, San Luiseno Band of (Phoenix Area Office) Indians (3) Mission Indians (2) Sycuan Band of Mission Washoe Tribe of Nevada and San Manuel Band of Mission Indians (3) California (1)(Woodfords Indians (2) Torres-Martinez Band of Community) wentynine Palms Band of Mission Indians (3) Mission Indians (2) Viejas (Baron Long) Group of Augustine Band of Mission Other Groups in Capitan Grande Band of Indians (3)(no resident Mission Indians (3) California members) Barona Group of Capitan Terminated Since 1958 (33) Pit River Indians, Grande Band of Mission (72 Stat. 619and 78 Stat. Alturas (7)(no trustland) Indians (3) 390) (34) Jamul Diegueno (7)(near Cahuilla Band of Mission Mission Creek Band of Mission San Diego)(no trustland) Indians (3) Indians (6)Termination effective 7-14-70 Colorado Superintendent Colorado RiVer Agency Superintendent Bureau of Indian AffairsSouthern Ute Agency Parker, Arizona 85344 Bureau of Indian Affairs (Phoenix Area Office) P.O. Box 315 Ignacio, Colorado 81137 (Albuquerque Area Office) Southern Ute Tribe (1) 18 Connecticut Superintendent Officer in Charge Seminole Agency Western Shoshone (5) Paugusett (Goldtn Hill Bureau of Indian Affairs Subagency Reservation) (7) 6075 Stirling Road Bureau of Indian Affairs

(6) Pequot (Eastern Pequot Hollywood, 33024 OwSrhee, Nevada 89832 , Reservation) (7) (Washington Office, (Nevada Agency, (7) Pequot (Western Pequot Director of South- Phoenix Area Office) Reservation (Lantern HMI eastern Agencies) Shoshone-Paiute Tribes of (7) (24) Seminole Tribe of the Duck Valley Reserva- (8) Scaticook (Schagticoke Florida (1) tion (1)(in Idaho and Reservation) (Kent) (7) (37-A) Nonertrolled Nevada) (35) Mohegan Community (7). in Tamiami Trail Area (7). New London County (no land (eligible for membership base) with either-of the Florida Indiana tribeshavo no corporate Dlaware land base). (38) Miami (7) at Peru, forming a community (rig, (36) Moor Community (7) Kent Idaho .corporate land base) (not County (no land base) to be confused with the (37) Nanticoke Community several hundred persons in Superintendent the area who are merely (7) Sussex County (no land Fort Hall Agency base) "descendants" for claims. Bur'eau of Indian Affairs purposes.) Fort Hall, Idaho 83203 Indians of Indiana Florida (Portland Area Office) and Michigan, Inc. (7) Shoshone-Rannock Tribes of Chairman the Fort Hall Reservation lowa Miccosukee Business (1) Committee Northwestern sank of Shoshone Officer in Charge P.O. Box 440-21 Indians (Washakie) (in Sac and Fox Area Field Tamiami 5tation Utah) (4) Miami, Florida 33100 Office Superintendent Bureau of Indian Affairs (Washington Office, Northern Idaho Agency Director of South- Tama, Iow 52339 Bureat. of Indian Affairs (Minneapolis Area eastern Agencies) Lapwai, Idaho 83540 Office) (23) Miccosukee Tribe of (Portland Area Office). Sac and Fox Tribe of 'the Indians of Florida (1) Kalispel Indian Community Mississippi in Iowa (1) (Tribe is performing (in Washington state) (1) service formerly provided Coeur d'Alene Tribe (2) py Miccosukee Agency, Kootenai Tribe of Idaho (2) Superintendent pursuant tc a contract Nez Perce Tribe of Idaho (2) Winnebago Agency - effective May 14, 1971.) Bureau of Indian Affairs Winnebago, Nebraska 68071 (Aberdeen Area Office) 0m4ha Tribe of Nebraska (1) Other Groups in Massachusetts (in Nebraska and Iowa) Louisiana Winnebago Tribe ofNebraska (4) Nipmuc Tribe (Hassani- (1)(in Nebraskaand Iowa) misco Band (7) (40) Choctaw Community, La (off-reservationlands in Grafton Reservation Salle Parish (7) Iowa) (colonially derived) (41) Choctaw Community, Freetown Forest (no Rapides Parish (7) residents) (42) Choctaw Community, St. (47) Nipmuc Community, near Tammany Parish (7) .WOrcester (7) Superintendent (43) Community, (48) Wampanoag Community, Horton Agency Allen'and Jefferson Davis Mashpee (7) Bureau of Indian Affairs Parishes (5), (49) Wampanoag Tribal Group Horton, Kansas 6.6439 (44) Houma Communities, (Gay Head Village) (7) (Anadarko Area Office) Terrebonne and Lafourche (not taxed by State) Iowa Tribe (1)(in Kansas Parishes (7)(no corporate and Nebraska) land base) Kickapoo Tribe in Kansas (1) (45) Tunica Community, Michigan Sac and Fox Tribe of the Aroyelles 1.'arish(7) (land (I) (in Kansas evidently not taxed by Superintendent and Nebraska) State) Great Lakes Agency Prairie Band of Potowatomi Bureau of Indian Affairs Indians (2) Maine Ashland, Wisconsin 54806 (Minneapolis Area Office) Other Groups in Association of Aroostook Kansas Indians (7) Bay Mills Indian Community (46) Malecite () (1) scattered families and Hannahville Indian Community (39) Chippewa and Munsee groups (1) Delaware Community (7) (46-A) Micmac. Scattered Keweenaw Bay Indian Community Franklin County families and groups. (L'Anse Reservation) (1) (39-A) Wyandot Community (7) (1 and 2) Passamaquoddy Saginaw Chippewa Indian Tribe Wyandot County Tribe (8) (Isabella Reservation) (1) (1) Indian Louisiana Reservation (2) Pleasant Point Superintendent Reservation (3) Penobscot Tribe (8) Choctaw Agency . Bureau of Indian Affairs (Served by State) Phi1adelphia, Mississippi 39350 (Washington Office, Director of South- eastern Agencies) Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana (1)

20 9 Other Croups in Superintendent Mississippi Minnesota Agency . Michigan Bureau of Indian AffairsSuperintendent P..0. Box 489 Choctaw Agency (50) Ottawa and Chippewa Bemidji, Minnesota 56601Bureau of Indian Affairs Indians of Michigan (8) (Minneapolis Area Philadelphia, Northern Michigan Ottawa Office) Mississippi 39350 Assn. (7) (Washington Office, Original Sault Ste. MarieMinnesota Chippewa Tribe (1). Director of South- Band of Chippewa (six component reserva- eastern Agencies) Indians, Inc.(7) Sugar tions) Island group of Boise Forte Band (Nett Mississippi Band of Choctaw Chippewas and their Lake) Indians (1) descendants who are Fond du Lac Band Chitimacha.Tribe of using a portion of the Grand Portage Band Louisiana (in Louisiana) tribal lands.held in Leech Lake Band (I) trust for the1Bay Mills Mille Lac Band Indian Community. White Earth Band Montana (51) Pogagon Potawatomi (7) Lower Sioux Indian Community (no corporate land base) (Morton) (I) Prairie Island Indian Superintendent (8A) Potawatomi of the Huron Blackfeet Agency (7) (Ce.lhoun County) Community (1) Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Bureau of Indian Affairs Po.tawatomi Indians of Browning, Montana 59417 Indiana and Mictiigan, Inc. Community (Prior Lake) (1) .(Billing,s Area Office) (7) Upper Sioux Indian Community (Granite Falls) Blackfeet Tribe (1) (3) Minnascits Superintendent Superintendent Crow Agency Superintendent Red Lake Agency. Great Lakes Agency Bureau of Indian Affairs Bureau of Indian AffairsCrow Agency, Montana Bureau of Indian Affairs Red Lake, Minnesota Ashland, Wisconsin 54806 59022 56671' (Billings Area Office) (Minneapolis Area (Minneapolis Area Office) Office) Crow Tribe of Indians (2) Wisconsin Winnebago Tribe Fed Lake Band of Chippewa (1) (in the State of Indians (2) Wisconsin and Houston Cotolty, Minnesaa)

21 2. Superintendent Other Groups In Superintendent Flathead Agency Horton Agency Bureau of Indian Affairs Montane Bureau of Indian Affairs Ronan, Montana 59864 Horton, Kansas 66439 (Billings Area Office) (52-A) Landless and non- (Anadarko Area Otfice) enrolled Chippowas, Confederated Salish and Iowa Tribe (1)(in Kansas and Metis (7) Kootenai Tribes of the and Nebraska) Great Falls (Hill 57) - Flathead Reservation (1) Hays Sac and Fox Tribe of Missouri Wolf Point ;and other (1) (in Kansas and Nebraska) Superintendent and in Montana) Fort Belknap Agency Bureau of Indian Affairs 'Other Groups In Harlem, Montana 59526 Nebraska (Billings Area Office) Nebraska Superintendent Fort Belknap Indian Alinnebago Agency (80) Tribe of Nebraska Community (1) Bureau of Indian Affairs Turtle.Mountain Public (6) (76 Stat. 937) Winnebago, Nebraska Termination effective Domain Allotments (4) 68071 10-27-66 (Aberdeen Area Office) Superintendent Omaha Tribe of Nebraska (1) Fort Peck Agency Nevada Bureau of Indian Affairs in Nebraska and Iowa) Santee Sioux Tribe of P.O. Box 637 Sup6rintendent .Poplar, Montana 59255 Nebraska (1) Nevada Agency Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska (Billings Area Office) Bureau of Indian Affairs (1) (in Nebraska and Iowa) Stewart/ Nevada 89437 . Assinboine and Sioux Tribes (Off-reservation lands in (Phoenix Area Office) of the Fort Peck Reserva- Iowa) tion (4 Confederated Tribes of the Goshute Reservation (1) Turtle Mountain.Public Superintendent Domain Allotments 14) (in Nevada and Utah) Pine Ridge Agency Duckwater Shoshone Tribe (1) tureau of Indian Affairs Ely (1) Superintendent Pine Ridge, Fort McDermitt Paiute and Northern Agency 57770 Shoshone Tribe (1) (in, -.Bureau of Indian Affairs (Aberdeen Area Office) Nevada and Oregon) Lame Deer, Montana 59043 Oglala Sioux Tribe of the Las Vegas Tribe of Paiute (Billings Area Office) Pine Ridge Reservation (1) Indian:3 (1) 'Northern Cheyenne Tribe (1) (only a minor part of Lovelock Paiute Tribe (1) reservationsin Nebraska) Moapa Band of Paiute Indians () ) Superintendent Pyramid Lake, Paiute Tribe of Rocky Boy's Agency Nevada (1) Bureau of Indian Affairs Reno-Sparks Indian Colony of Box.Elder, Montar;a 59521 N-v0a (1) (Billings Area Office) Summit Lake Paiute Tribe, Chippewa Tribe of the Nevada (1) Rocky Boy's Reservation (1) 22 , Te-Moak Bands of Western Nw Mxico ,et.

Shoshone tndians (1) . Baca (Battle Mountain, Elko and Superintendent Bread Springs South Fork) Chinle Agency Casamero Lake Walker River Paiute Tribe of Bureau of.Indian Affairs Cheechilgeetho Nevada (1) Chinle, Arizona 86503 Church Rock Washoe Tribe of Nevada and (Navajo Aiea.Office) Iyanbit California (1)(Carson Manuelito Colony, Dresslerville Navajo Nation (2) (in Mariano Lake Colony and Woodfords Arizona, New Mexico, and Pinedale Community) Utan) Red Rock Yerington Paiute Tribe (Districts and Chapters) Rock Springs (Campbell Ranch) (1) Smith Lake Yomba Shoshone Tribe (1) :le!.Li Thoreau Tsailee-Wheatfields (in Tsayatoh Paiute-Shoshone Tribe of the Arizona and New Mexico) Fallon Reservation and Colony (2) Huerfano Superintendent Nageozi Ruby Valley (3) Eastern Navajo Agency 010 Encino Winnemucca Colony (1) Bureau of Indian Affairs Ciownpoint, New Mexico 87313 Superintendent Officer in Charge Fort Defiance Agency Western Shoshone Agency (Wdvajo Area Office) Bureau of Indian Affairs Bureau.of Indian Affairs Nzkrajo Nation (2) (in Fort Defiance, Arizona Ow?hee, Nevada 89832 Arizona, New Mexico, and 86504 (Nevada Agency, Utah) Phoenix Area Office) Navajo Nation (2) (in (nintricts awl Chapters) Alizona, New Mexico, and ShostIone-Paiute Tribes of Utah) the Duck Valley Reserva- Alamo tion (1)(in Nevada and Canoncitn (Distli:ets and Chapters) Idaho) (Raman--nder Albuquerque Area Office) Crystal (Arizona and New Superintendent Mexico) Colorado Riv.n- Agency Becenti Fort Detlance (Arizona Bureau of Indian Affairs Ccownpoint and New Mexio) Parker, Arizona 85344 Dalton PaSs Red Lake (Arizona and New (Phoenix Area Office) Lake Valley Mexico) Little Water Fort Mojave Tribe (1) (in Pueblo Paintado Arizona, California, and Standing Rock Superintendent Nevada) Torreon and Star Lake Jicarilla Agency Wh'itehorse Lake' Bureau of Indian Affairs White Rork Dulce, New'Mexico 87528 (Albuquerque Area 1Dffice) Jicarilla Apache Tribe (1)

% 23 29 Superintendent Superintendent Isleta PUeblo (1) Mescalero Agency Shiprock Agency Laguna Pueblo (1) Bureau of Indian AffairsBureau ot Indian Affairs Acoma Pueblo (3) Mescalero, New Mexico Shiprock, New,Mexico Cochiti Pueblo (3) 88340 87420 Jemez Pueblo (3) (Albuquerque Area (Navajo Area Office) San Felipe Pueblo (3) Office) Sandia Pueblo.(3) Navajo Nation (2)(in Santa Ana Pueblo (3) Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Arizona, New Mexico, and Santo Domingo Pueblo (3) Reservation (1). Utah) Zia Pueblo (3) (Districts and Chapters) Governor, Zuni Tribal Superintendent Council Northern Agency Diet. 9 Mexican Water (in Utah and Zuni Agency Bureau of Indian Affairs Bureau of Indian Affairs P.O. Box 580 Arizona) Red Mesa (in Utah and Zuni, New Mexico 87327 Santa Fe, New Mexico (Albuquerque Area Arizona) 87501 Office) (Albuquerque.Area Rock Point Office) Sweetwater Zuni Tribe (1) Teecnospos (in New Mexico, Santa Clara Pueblo (1) Arizona and Utah) Superintendent Nambe Pueblo (3) Pist./2 Picuris Pueblo (3) Ute Mountain Agency Aneth Bureau of Indian Affairs Pojoague Pueblo (3) Beclabito.(in Arizona San Ildefonso Pueblo (3) Towaoc, Colorado 81334 and New Mexico) (Albuquerque Area San Juan_Pueblo (3) Red Rock (in Arizona and Otfice) Taso Pueblo (3) New Mexico) Tesuque Pueblo (3) Sanostee (in Arizona and Ute Mountain Ute Tribe (1) New Mexico) (in Colorado, New Mexico, Superintendent Sheep Springs and Utah) ,Ramah-Navajo Agency Shiprock Bureau of Indian Affairs Two Grey Hills Now York Ramah, New Mexico 87321 Dist. 13 (Albuquerque Area Burnham Special LiaisOn Office) Nenahnezad Representative Navajo Nation (2)(in Upper Fruitland For "Tribes" of the Ariona, New Mexico, and. Confederacy Utah) Superintendent Bureau of Indian Affairs %small Chapter Southern Pueblos Agency P.O. Box 262-A Bureau of Indian AffairsIrving, 14081 P.O. Box-1667 (Washington Office, Albuquerque, New Mexico New York Coordinator) 87103 (Albuquerque Area Office)

2 4 (13) Cayuga Nation (3)(No North Ciro line Superintendent reservation of its own-- Fort Totten Agency .members live on CattaraugusSuperintendent Bureau of Indian Affairs Reservation owned by the. Agency Fort Totten, North Seneca Nation). Bureau of Indian Affairs Dakota 58335 (9) Oneida Nation of New Cherokee, North Carolina (Aberdeen Area Office) York (3) 28719 Devils Lake Sioux Tribe (2) (10) Onondaga Nation (3) (Washington Office, (11) St. Regis Band of Direc'-or of South- Mohawks (Akwesasne) (3) easter. Agencies) Superintendent. (15). Tonawanda Band of Seneca Sisseton Agency Indians (3) Eastern Band of Cherokee Bureau of Indian Affairs (16) Tuscarora Nation (3) Indians (3) Sisseton, South Dakota 57252 (Aberdeen Area Office) Spec.ial Liaison Other Groups In Representative North Carolina Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux Tribe ,FOTthe Seneca Nation (2)(in North and South Bureau of Indian Affairs Dakota) (only a minor (55) Coharie Indians (7) P.O. Box 500 portion in North Dakota) Sampson and adjoining

. Salamanca, New York 14779 (56) Indians,of Person CountySuperintendent (Washington Office, Standing Rock Agency brew York Ctrordinator) (7) (57) Haliwa Indians (7) Bureau of Indian Affairs Seneca Nation (3) (Halifax and Warren Fort Yates, North Dakota (12) Allegany Reservation Counties) 58538 (13) Cattaraugus (50) Lumbee Indians of North (Aberdeen Area Office) Reservation Carolina (7)(Robeson and Standing Rock Sirmx Tribe (14) Oil Springs adjoining counties)(70 (2) (in North and South Reservation Stat. 154) Dakota) (59) Waccamaw Communities Other Groups In (7) Columbus and Brunswick Counties Superintepdent New York Turtle Hountain Agency Bureau of Indian Affairs North Dakota Belcourt, North Dakota (54) Montauk Community (7) 59316 (Long Island)(no corporate (Aberdeen Area Office), land base) Superintendent (17) Poosepatuck (7)(State Fort Berthold Agency 'Turtle Mountain Band of reservation) (Long Island) Bureau of Indian Affairs Chippewa Indians (2)(some (18) Shinnecock (7)(State New , North Dakota allotments in Montana) reservation) (Long Island) 58763 (Aberdeen Area Office) Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation (1) Oklahoma Superintendent Superintendent Osage Agency Agency Superintendent Bureau of Indian AffairsBureau of Indian Affairs Anadarko Agency Pawhuska, Oklahoma 74056Shawnee, Oklahoma 74801 Bureau of Indian Affairs (Muskogee Area Office) (Anadarko Area Office) Anadarko, Oklahoma 73005 Osage Tribe of Indians (2) Absentee- of (Anadarko Area Office) Indians of Oklahoma (1) Apache (-Apache) (2) SUperintendent Citizen Band of Potawatomi Indian Tribe of Pawnee Agency Indians of Oklahoma (1) Oklahoma (1) Bureau of Indian Affairs (1) Indian Tribe (2) Pawnee, Oklahuma 74058 Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma Delaware Tribe of Indians (Andarko 7:rea Office) (1) of Western Oklahoma (2) Sac and Fox Tribe of Indians (3) Kaw Indian Tribe of Oklahoma of Oklahoma (1) Kiowa (2) (2) Wichita Indian Tribe of Pawnee Indian Tribe of Superintendent Oklahoma (2) Oklahoma (1) Tahlequah Agency Ponca Tribe of Indians of Bureau of Indian Affairs Oklahoma (1) P.O. Box 459 Superintendent Tribe of Indians of Ardmore Agency Tahlequah, Oklahoma Oklahoma (1) 74464 Bureau of Indian Affairs - Tribe (3) P.O. Box 997 (Muskogee Area Office) Ardmore, Oklahoma 73401 United Keetoowah.Band of (Muskogee Area Office) Superintendent Miami Agency Cherokee In(41,.ns in Nation of Bureau of Indian Affairs Oklahoma (1) Oklahoma (3) P.O. Box 391 of Oklahoma Miami, Okrahoma 74354 (3) Superintendent (Muskogee Area Office) Superintendent Concho Agency - Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Talihina Agency Bureau of Indian Affairs Oklahoma (1) Concho, Oklahoma 73.022 Bureau of Indian Affairs (1) P.O. Box 187 (Anadarko Area Office) Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Cheyenne- Tribes of Talihina, Oklahoma 74571 Oklahoma (1) (Muskogee Area Office) Oklahoma (1) Peoria Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma (1)(Termination Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma Superintendent Pending)(70 Stat. 937) (3) Okmulgee Agency Wyandotte. Tribe of Oklahoma Bure#u of Indian Affairs (1) (Termination Pending) Superintendent (70 Stat. 893) P.O. Box 671 Wewoka Agency Ckmulgee, Oklahoma 74447 Tribe of Indians (2) Bureau of Indian Affairs (Muskogee Area Office) P.O. Box 1060 (6) (70 Stat. 963) A1abama-Quassarte Tribal Termination effective 1959 Wewoka, Oklahoma 74834 Toim (1) (Muskogee Area Office) Xialegee Trlbal Town (1) Seminole Nation of Oklahoma (1) (2) Cripek Nation of. Oklahoma (3)

,111MIMMIONMIENIIIIIIP" 26 Orgon (85) Western Oregon Indians Santiam (6) (68 Stat. 724) Scoton Superintendent Termination effective Shashta Nevada Agency 8-18-56 Shasta Costa Bureau of Indian Affairs Confederated Tribes of Siletz Stewart, Nevada 89437 the Grand Rhonde Siuslaw (Phoenix Area Office) Community Skiloot Confederated Tribes of Southern Molalla Fort McDermit Paiute and Siletz Indians Takelma Shoshone Tribe (in Nevada Alsea Tillamook and Oregon) (1) Applegate Creek Tolowa Calapooya Tualatin Superintendent Chafton Tumwater Umatilla Agency chempho Tututui Bureau of Indian Affairs Chetco Upper Coquille Pendleton, Oregon 97801 Chetlessington Upper Umpqua (Portland Area Office) Chinook Willamette Clackamas Yamhill Confederated Tribes of the Clatskanie Yaquina Umatilla - Clatsop Yoncalla tion (2) Clawwewalla Coos Pennsylvania Superintendent Cow Creek 'Warm Springs Agency Euchees Bureau of Indian Affairs Galie Creek '(19) Senecas of Cornplanter WarM Springs, Oregon Grave Reservation (8)(no 97761 Joshua population)(state (Portland Area Office) Karok established) (Some acreaye

Kathlamet exists which hos not been . Confederated Tribes of the Kusotony condemned by the Kinzua Warm Springs Reservation Kwatami or Sixes Dam. The Cornplanter of Oregon (1) Lakmiut Senecas now live with the Burne Paiute Indian Colony Long Tom Creek Seneca Nation of New York, (2) Lower Coquille or elsewhere. Voted not Lower Umpqua to reject the Indian Maddy Reorganization.Act of Other Groups In Mackanotin 1934.) Oregon Mary's River Multnomah Munsel Creek Rhod Island (84) Klamath and Modoc Naltunnetunne Tribes and Yahooskin Band Nehalem (61) Narraganset Community of Snake Indians (6)(68 Nestucca (7) Narraganset Church-- Stat. 718) Termination Northern Molalla Washington County. effective 8-13-61 Port Orford (Colonially derived; Pudding River formerly state supervised. Rogue River Some acreage left (non- Salmon River taxable) around chucch.)

27 33 South Carolina Superintendent Superintendent Pine Ridge Agency Standing Rock Agency (22) Catawba Tribe (6) Bureau of Indian AffairsBureau of Indian Affairs (State reservation remains) Pine Ridge, South Fort Yates, North Dakota

= (73 Stat. 592) Termination Dakota 57770 58538 effective 7-1-62 (Aberdeen Area Office) (Aberdeen Area Office) (6I-A) Summerville Indians Qglala Sioux Tribe of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe (7), Dorchester and Pine Ridge Reservation (2) (in South Dakota and Colleton Counties (1) (in South Dakota and North Dakota) Nebraska) South Dakota Superintendent Superintendent Yankton AgendY Superintendent Rosebud Agency Bureau of Indian Affairs Cheyenne River Agency Bureau of rndiar Wagner, South Dakota Bureau of Indian Affairs.Rosebud, South Dakota 57380 Eagle Butte, South 57570 (Aberdeen Area Of.fice) Dakota 57625 (Aberdeen Area Office) Yankton Sioux Tribe of (Aberdeen Area Office) Rosebud Sioux Tribe (1) Indians (2) Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe (1) Superintendent Superintendent Sisseton Agency Flandreau School Superintendent Bureau of Indian AffairsBureau of Indian Affairs Crow Creek Agency Sisseton, South Dakota Flandreau, South Dakota Bureau of Indian Affairs 57262 57028 P.O. Box 616 (Aberdeen Area Office) (Aberdeen Area Office) Fort Thompson, South Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux Flandreau Santee Sioux Tribe Dakota 57339 Tribe (2)(in North and (1) (Aberdeen Area Office) South Dakota)(only a Crow Creek Sioux Tribe of minor portion in North Fort 713lompson(2) Dakota)

(25) Alabama and Coushatta Superintendent Tribes of Texas (6) (68 Lower Brule Agency Stat. 762) Termination Bureau of Indian Affairs effective .7-1-55 Lower Brule, South State reservation in. Dakota 57548 Polk County (Most (Aberdeen Area Office) live near Lower Brule Tribe of the but off the reservation) Lower Brule Reservation (26) Tiwa Indians of Ysleta, (I) Texas (7)(82 Stat. 93) (El Paso County)

t 28 Utah Superintendent Other Groups in Utah Tuba City Agency Superintendent Bureau of Indian Affairs (82) Southern Paiutes at Fort Hall Agency Tuba City, Arizona 86045 Cedar City, Utah (7) (A Bureau of Indian Affairs (Navajo Area Office) group of informally Fort Hall, Idaho 83203 Navajo Nation (2) (in organized Southern Paiute (Portland Area Office) Arizona, New Mexico, and Indians with no trust land base. They reside on Northwestern Band of Utah) property owned by the Shoshone Indians (Districts and Chapters) Mormon Church.) (Washakie) (4) Paiute Indians of Utah (6) Navajo Mountain (in Utah (68 Stat. 1099) Termina- Superintendent and Arizona) tion effective 3-1-57 Nevada Agency Shonto (in Utah and (88) Indian Peaks Bureau of Indian, Affairs Arizona) (89) Kanosh Stewart, Nevada 89437 (90) Koosharem (Phoenix Area Office) (91) Shivwitz Chilchinbeto (in Utah and (92) Affiliated Ute Citizens Confederated Tribes of the Arizona) of Uintah and Ouray (6) Goshute Reservation (1) .Dennehotso (in Utah and (68 Stat. 868) Termination (in Nevada and Utah) Arizona) effective 8-27-61. Kayenta (in Utah and Superintendet Arizona) 'Shiprock Agency n)jatoh (in Utah and .Virginia Bureau of Indian Affairs Arizona) Shiprock, New Mexico (63) Chickahominy Communities 87420 Superintendent , (7) (Providence Forge and (Navajo Area Office) Uintah and OUray Agency Charles City) (20) Mattaponi (7) State Navajo Nation (2)(in Bureau of Indian Affairs' Arizona, New Mexico, and Fort Duchesne, Utah reservation (21) Pamunkey (7) State Utah) 84026 . reservation - (Phoenix Area Office) (Districts and Chapters) (64) Potomac Community (7) Ute Indian Tribe of Uintah (Fredericksburg) Dist. and ouray (1) (65) Rappahanock Community Mexican Water (in Utah Skull Valley (3) (Caroline, King and and Arizona) (7) Red Mesa (in Utah and Queen Counties) (66) Upper Mattaponi (7) Arizona) Superintendent Teecnospos (in New Mexico Ute Mountain Agency (The town of Central Arizona, and Utah) Bureau of Indian Affairs Garage in King William Towaoc, Colorado 81334 County) (Albuquerque Area Office) Ute Mountain Ute Tribe (1) (in Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah--(Utab portion-- scattered tracts occupied by the Allen Canyon Utes near Blanding, Utah.) 29 Washington PuyalluP Tribe (1) Wisconsin Quileute Tribe of Indians Superintemient (1) Superintendent Colville Agency Skokomisti Indian Tribe (1) Great Lakes Agency Bureau of Indian Affairs Squaxin Island Tribe (1) Bureau of Indian Affairs Coulee Dam, Washington Suquamish Indian Tribe (1) Ashland, Wisc.onsin 54806 99116 Swinomish Indian Tribal (Minneapolis Area (Portland Area Office) Community (l) Office) Tulalip Tribes (1) Confederated Tribes of the Bad River Band of the Lake Colville Reservation (2) Confederated Tribes of the Superior Tribe of Chippewa Chehalis Reservation (2) Indians of Wisconsin (1) Lummi Tribe of Indians (2) Bay-Mills Indian Community Superintendent Quinault Tribe of Indians (2) (1) (in Michigan) Northern Idaho Agency Shoalwater Bay Indian Tribal Forest County Potawatomi Bureau of Indian Affairs Organization (2) Community (1) Lapwai, Idaho 83540 Nooksack Indian Tribe (3) Hannahville Indian Community (Portland Area Office) Sauk-Suiattle Indian Commu- (1) (in Michigan) Kalispel Indian Community nity (3) Keweenaw Bay Indian Conpunity (1) (in Washington) Upper Skagit Indians (3) (L'Anse Reservation) (1) (in Michigan) Chinook Indians.(5) Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Cowlitz Indians (5) Superintendent Lake Superior Chippewa .Spokane Agency Duwamish Indians (5) - Indians (1) JameAown Band of Clallam Bureau of Indian Affairs Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Indians (5) Wellpinit, Washington Superior Chippewa Indians Kikiallus Indians (5) 99040 (1) Lower Skagit (5) (Portland Area Office) Oneida Tribe of Indians of Samish Tribe of Indians (5) Wisconsin (1) Spokane Tribe (2) San Juan Tribe (5) .Red Cliff Band of Lake Snohomish Indian Tribe (5) Superior Chippewa Indians Superintendent Snoqualmie Indian Tribe (5) Steilacoom Indian Tribe (5) (1) Western Washington Saginaw Chippewa Indian Stillaguamish Indian Tribe Agency Tribe (Isabella Reserva- Bureau of Indian Affairs (5) 'tion) (1) (in Michigan) 3006 Colby Avenue Sokaogdn Chippewa Community Everett, Washington .Superintendent (Mole Lake) (1) 98201 Yakima Agency St. Croix Chippewa Indians (Portland Area Office) Bureau of Indian Affairs of Wisconsin (1) Hoh Indian Tribe (1) Toppenish, Washington Stockbridge Munsee Community Lower Eiwha Tribal Commu- 98948 (1) nity (1) (Portland Area Office) Wisconsin Winnebago Tribe (1) (in Minnesota and makah Indian Tribe (1) Yakima Indian Nation (2) Muckleshoot Indian Tribe (1) Wisconsin) Nisqually Indian Community (1) Port Gamble Indian Community (I)

30 Othr Groups in Anadarko Area Office Phoenix Area Office Bureau of Indian Affairs Bureau of Indian Affairs Wisconsin Federal Bldg. 124 West Thomas Rd. P.O. Box 368 P.O. Box 7007 (67) Brotherton Community Anadarko, Okla 73005 phoenix, Ariz. 85011 (7) Winnebago and Caaamut (Kans. and Western Okla.) Counties Portland Area Office (93) Tribe (6) Billings Area Office Bureau of Indian Affairs (68 Stat. 250) Termination Bureau of Indian Affairs 1425 Irving St. NE. effective 4-30-61 316 North '26th St. P.O. Box 3735 Billings, Mont. 59101 Portland, Oreg. 97208 (Mont7 and Wyo.) (Oreg., Wash., and Idaho) Wyoming Juneau Area Office Sacramento Area Office Bureau of Indian Affairs Bureau of Indian Affairs Superintendent P.O. Box 3-8000 Federal Office Bldg. Wind River Agency Juneau,' Alaska 99801 2800 Cottage Way Bureau of Indian Affairs (Alaska) Sacramento, Calif. 95825 Fort Washakie, Wyoming 82514 Minneapolis Area Office Director, Southeastern (Billings Arga Office) Bureau of Indian Affairs Agencies 831 Second Ave. South Bureau of Tndian Affairs Northern Arapaho (3) Minneapolis, Minn. 55402 1951 Constitution Ave., NW Shoshone (3) (Minn., Iowa, Mich., and Washington, D.C. 20242 Wisc.) New York Coordinator Area Offices Muskogee Area Office Bureau of Indian Affairs Bureau of Indian Affairs 1951 Constitution Ave., NW Federal Bldg. Washington, D.C. 20242 Aberdeen Area Office Muskogee, Okla. 74401 Bureau of Indian Affairs (Eastern Okla.)

820 South Main St. * Aberdeen, S. Dak. 57401 Navajo Area Office (Nebr., N..Dak, and S. Dak. Bureau of Indian Affairs P.O. Box 1060 Albuquerque Area Office Window Rock, Ariz'. 86515 Bureau of Indian Affairs (Ariz., Utah, and New 5301 Central Ave. NE. Mex.) P.O. Box 8327 Albuquerque, N. Mex. 87108 (Colo., N. Mex.) Federal Indian Policies ...from the Colonial period through the early 1970's

Our 's first Until 1755, the indi- The leadership of administrator of vidual English Benjamin Franklin is of Federal Indian policies, had no coordinated historical importance to Henry Knox, said at the policies on Indian the development of this time of his appointment affairs. During that and subsequent periods of as a Cabinet officer in year the British devel- Indian affAirs. He George Washington's oped an Indian policy proposed, at the Albany Administration: designed to:(1) protect Congress of 1754, that- the Indians from oppor- all colonial Indian "That the civiliza- tunistic traders and affairs be centrally tion of the Indians speculators;(2) negoti- administered. The Frank- would be an operation ate boundary lines by lin plan was a forerunner of complicated treaties;(3) enlist the of later centrally difficulty; that it administered British would require the Indians on the side of the British in the FrenchIndian policy under the highest knowledge of two superintendents and the human character and Indian War; and (4) exercise as much of centralized Indian and a steady perse- control as possible overpolicy under the new verance in a wise fur trade. American Government. system for a series King George III in 1763 The outbreak.of hos- of years, cannot be tilities between the doubted. But to deny proclaimed: "The.several nations or tribes of Americans and the, that, under a course nations, with whom we British in April, 1775, of favorable circum- are connected, should notpitted tribe against stances, it could be be molested or disturbed tribe and,produced accomplished, is to in the possession of strenuous efforts for suppose the human such parts of,our domin- Indian alliances 1.)y character under the ions and , as, both colonialand im influence of such not 11.7.ving been ceded to,perial governments. stubborn habits as . or purchased by us, are The young American gto be incapable of reserved to them, or any revolutionary govern- melioration or of them, as hunting ment attempted to win change." grounds." the friendship of the In the early colonial The proclamation by Indians through treat- period the Indians King,George III defined ies; But most of the represented a strong the "Indian country" to tribes supported George balance of power betweenbe administered by two III, and even tribal the forces of Spain, superintendents, one neutrality was counted France, and England north and one south, anda success by the and were therefore set aside,"reserved colonists. treated as sovereign lands" for the Indians. nations until the issue The two superintendents of North American took on the role of domination was settled. diplomatic agents nego- tiating with the various tribes by means of a series of treaties.

4 Low 32 The Continental Con- commotions." The first The Beginning of gress, in one of its negotiation was with Forced Reinovel first actions, named a the Six NatiOns Committee on Indian (Mohawk, Oneida, Affairs in 1775. This Onondaga, Cayuga, In 17R4 the Congress committee produced a Seneca, and Tuscarora) of the Confederation report a month later in July, 1775, and placed the administra- which prompted the caLled for employment tion of Indian affairs Congress to set up of two b:lacksmithA within the War "three departments of' among the Indians and Department, with the Indians" - the North- the opening of trade. Secretary of War ern, Mddle, and The first of 370 directed to place Southern. The Con- Indian.tribes to be armed militia at the gress coritinued many cf concluded during the disposal of the Indian the policies of Colonialnext century was with commissioners "for times as well as the Delawares on negotiating treaties creating new ones. September 17, 1778. with the Indians." Included among the out- This treaty held out The Northwest Ordi- standing Americans the possibility that nance of 1787 was serving as commission- an Indian state might important in ers of the Indian later be established establishing the' Departments were as one of the states framework for Benjamin Franklin and in the new country. settlement beyond the Patrick Henry in the This idea reappeared Alleghenies and in Middle Department, and many times as an shaping Indian policy. General Philip Schuyler ultimate goal for It provided that: in the Northerm Depart- Indian policy, "The utmost good ment. without substantial faith shall always The Indian Commiss,ion- result. be observed toward ers were given author- During the Revolu-. the Indians; their ity "to treat with tionany War, the land and property, the Indians...in, Indian commissioners rights and liberty, order to preserve acted primarily as they shall never be peace and friendship diplomatic Agents, invaded or disturbed with them and to negotiating with unless in just and prevent their taking ' various Indian tribes lawful wars author- part in the present to gain their ized by Congress; allegiance. Their but laws founded in work was kept under justice and humanity the authority of the shall from time to Congress until a year time be made tor after the war ended. preventing peacL id friendship with them."

a

33 39 Over the next 50 Meanwhile the system- Georgia's action. years, the new Nation atic forced removal Chief Justice John and its government of Indian groups from Marshall's decision grew stronger. Laws the choice eastern recognized that earlier regulating the trade lands to the western Congresses had passed between whites and wilderness across the laws "which treat Indians were added to Mississippi had begun. (Indians) as nations" the books, and a Nearly all the and "as distinct network of Indian in the lower political communities, agents and subagents Appalachian area were having territorial was established driven across the boundaries." following a report mountains to settle in The relating to military the Indian.Territory. Act of 1830 established administration of This territory, carved procedures for

trade practices with from the Louisiana . voluntary exchange of Indians. The report Purchase, was created eastern Indian lands called for legislation by President Thomas for new western "to ensure faithful Jefferson, who acreage that was to be.. disbursement of expressed the hope held by the tribes public money" and to that the remoVal of under perpetual enforce "prompt settle- Indian groups from guaranty from the ment of accounts." heavily wIttled Federal government. In 1824, Secretary eastern regions would In 1834 Congress gave of War John C. Calhoun contribute to their regular and permenent had begun to tie advancement. status to the.Indian together all Federal The "removal" policy Affairs office and it Indian activities had been precipitated began carrying out under an Indian by activity in the late President Andrew . Affairs Agency. He 1820's within the State Jackson's directive to saw the Federal role of Georgia. The remove all Indians as providing for: (1) Cherokee Tribe in that living east of the appropriations for State, a highly Mississippi River to tribal annL...ties to be advanced civilization, new western 'ands.

made to tribes for had adopted an Indian These removz . policies lands they had lost; constitution: appeals relied more on (2) examination of made by the Cherokees military force than Indian claims ielating eventually resulted in diplomatic treaty. to trade Laws; (3) a U.S. Supreme Court bookkeeping; (4) decision nullifying correspondence with Indian superintendents and agents; and (5) administration of a fund for the civil- ization of Indians.

34 The Five Civilized Another Indian The Start of Indian Tribes -- Cherokees, Commissioner, George Education Programa , Ch9ctaws, Mahypenny, 1854, urged Creeks, and Seminoles-- the abandonment of the A number of separate were pressured by removal policy. treaties with Indian negotiations and threat "By alternate persua- tribes had set the of force to move sion and force," precedent for placing westward to the new Manypenny said, "some responsibility for . of these tribes have Indian education in the Although some members been removed, step'by hands of the Government. of these Tribes step, from mountains One of the first of resisted, moSt became to valley, and from these treaties was with established in the new river to plain, until the Oneidas, Stock- lands and were among they have been pushed bridges, and Tuscaroras the first citizens of half-way across the in 1794. Two years Oklahoma when statehood co,ntinent. They can earlier the famed was proclaimed. go no further. On the Seneca Chief, Otber Indian tribes ground they now occupy, Cornplanter, visited from the northeast and the crisis must be met, President Washington, Great Lakes regions and their future asking the Government also were subjected to determined. to "teach our children the removal policies. Many of those people to read and write and Removal was justified who sympathized with our women to spin and by the Federal the plight of the weave." A Federal Government as a means survivors of Eastern directive to provide of protecting the tribes who were now the "blessings of Indians from repeated settled west of the civilization".to encroachments of Mississippi, thought Indians through eastern white settlers. they were doing these treaties was issued in people a good turn by The Government policy that year. . bitterly divided the removing them from country--in the civilization's path Congress, among the until they dould religious groups, in acquire the skills and the press, and among knowledge necessary Indians themselves. for assimilation. "In the consummation of this grand'and sacred object rests the sole chanee of averting Indian annihilation," argued Commissioner of Indian Affairs Elbert

Herring, in 1832. -

35 A "civilization fund" Civil Administration Noting the increased was contained in a law Bagins In Mid-Con*ury lands to be supervised passed by Congress in by a still-growing 1819 which appropriated Repeated efforts United States, and the $10,000 annually to were made in the Jack- need for establishing Indians. All funds peaceable relations s,- .an period to with the Indians, provided by this act rvegularize Federal were channeled through Indian administration Treasury Secretary religious and mission through legisiation. Robert J. Walker voiced groups combined later The War Department's the sentiment of many in the 1840's 'to launch head of Indian Affairs who advocated transfer the first Indian board- reported in 1828, that of. the Bureau of Indian Affairs from the War ing school system. Not there'were "fruitful until 1860 was the sources of complaint" Department to a new first non-mission due to the lack of an Department, soon to Federal Indian school organized system. In take shape as the started. (Congression- 1834 Congress passed a Department of the al Acts of 1896, 1897, Trade and Intercourse Interior. and 1917 eventually Act setting up an Walker said: "The established that no Office of Indian duties now performed by further Federal funds Affairs, and modern- the Commissioner of for education could go izing trade practices Indian Affairs are most to sectarian schools.) as the result of a numerous and important, report in 1829 by two and must be vastly experienced Indian increased with the affairs specialists, great number of tribes Lewis Cass and William scattered over Texas, Clark. Oregon, New Mexico and Both Clark (of Lewis California, and with and Clark Expedition the interesting pro- fame) and Cass had been gress of so many of the territorial governors tribes in Christianity, in Indian country for knowledge, and civiliza- many years and Clark tion. These'duties do also had been super- not necessarily intendent of Indian appertain to war, but affairs at St. Louis. to peace, and to our Cass was to become domestic relations with Secretary of War in those tribes placed by 1831. Their report the Constitution under called for new legisla- the charge of this Government." tion "to ensure a . faithful disbursement of the public money" and "to enforce a strict accouritability and a prompt settlement of accounts." By 1849, with crea- sovereign and federated I5eace Commission tion of the Department But many of the Plains field trips had dis- ok the Interior, the Indians resisted all closed considerable Bureau of Indian' military moves to corruption among Indian Affairs passed from relocate them.'They agents. Its report of military to civil possessed the white 1867 stated: "The control. Its work man's horse and gun and records are abundant to cofisisted of attempts fought bitterly against show that agents have at "civilizing" the further encroachments pocketed the funds 'Indian people by train- on their lands and appropriated by the ing them for farming or their way of life. Government and driven trades. In 1862, Tensions grew between the Indians to starva- Secretary of the Inte7 Indians and whites in tion." It blamed rior Caleb Smith the western territories corruption rcommended a "radical in the late 1850's and or incompetence for change in the mode of throughout the 18604s, creating Indian treatment of Indians" as the railroads began incidents, notably the to regard them as moving west, culmi- 1862 Sioux uprising in "wards" of the nating in a series of Minnesota. Government. Consequen- Indian "uprisings" and Two separate actions tly, the Bureau,'s a Congressional demand were taken by the efforts were often in that peace prevail in Federa.1 Government to conflict with military Indian country. After produce reforms in policy and it sometimes the Civil War, Congress Indian policy. In 1869 became the uneasy and authorized establish- a Board of Indian unhappy buffer between ment of an Indian Peace Commissioners was named the Indians and the Commission, comprising and charged by Congress U.S. Army. four civthans and with the responsibility three military leader's for advising the including Indian Secretary of the The Call For Peace Commissioner Nathanel Interior on matters G. Taylor and General relating to Indian The removal policy William Tecumseh affairs. President had succeeded in large Sherman. Grant at the same time measure with the Five requested religious Civilized Tribes be- organizations to cause they envisioned nominate Indian agency an Indian nation, fulli superintendents. The Board of Indian Commis- sioners, lacking any policy-making authority, was continued until 1933, when it was abandoned by President Franklin D. Roosevelt's executive order, nominating of Indian

"=11.010mimmimmili NaNIEMEN. 37 Bureau agents by Ironically, it was a ment pressured them religious groups was mixed-blood Seneca into relinquishing discontinued a few Indian, Eli S. Parker, customs and culture. years after,it was said to,be the grand- Chieftainship, which. begun. son of the warrior Red' had been encouraged In 1867.and 1868 the Jacket, who presided since Colonial days as Indian Peace Commission over the Indian Bureau a means of tribal negotiated the last of when the last chapter control, was not attack- 370 Indian treaties. in the history of ed directly. Instead, These required tribes treaty-making was chiefs were by passed of the Upper Great written? Parker was a while law ind order was Plains, the Southwest, professional engineer, delegated to tribal and the Northwest to recognized authority on police forces and settle on various the Iroquois League and Courts of Indian reservations in the personal secretary4 to Offenses. The result West. The last treaty, General Ulysses S. was a gradual breakdown signed 'with the Nez Grant in the Civil War. of tradition upon which Perce of Oregon on the Indian had always August 12, 1868, e leaned heavily, with removed the tribe to a The Rservation System nothing to replace it. new reservation in Native religions were Idaho. Twenty years of discoura4ed, some The U.S. Congress, on intermittent warfare ceremonies forbidden, 3, 1871, finished followed the signing of and Christian the Indian treaty the last Indian treaty missionaries encouraged. period with a clause before the last of the Particularly vicious tacked to a Congres- Western Indians were were the attacks upon sional appropriation moved to 'reservations. Indian "prophets" which for the Yankton Indians:'s surrender in culminated in the hereafter no the southwest in 1886 battle of Wounded Knee Indian nation or tribe and the battle of in 1890. within the territory of Wounded Knee in South the United States shall Dakota in 1890 followed be'acknowledged or numerous Federal recognized as an military victories in independent nation, the southwest, Dakotas tribe, or power with and Oregon, and.marked whom the United States the end of serious shall contract by resistance to re- treaty." location policies. The reservation system brought a new set of woes to the Indians, as the Govern-

e

k, 3 8 Commissioner Francis Those Indians who not by systematic Walker (1871-73) set "went right," were, as gratuities of food and the tone of the "forced Walker promised, clothing continued reservation" period, "protected and fed" beyond a present which lasted until 1887, through a new practice emergency, but by stating that, when the of furnishing daily directing these people reservation system food rations and cloth- to new pursuits which began, "it was express- ing to Indians, shall be consistent ly declared that the instituted as a by- with the progress of Indians should be made product of the Indian civilization upon the as comfortable on, and peace treaties of the continent." uncomfortable off, late 1860's and con- There were contrary their reservations as tinued by the Indian views, too. Indian it was within the power Bureau until well into Agent, V.T. of the Government to the 1920's. McGillicuddy, on the make them; that such of The rations practice Pine Ridge Reservation them as went right was the forerunner of in South Dakota, later should be protected and special aids for commented. fed, and such as went Indians which continue "What reason or wrong should be to this day. The inducement can be harassed and scourged giving Of rations was advanced why an Indian without intermission." defended by Commission- should go to woY-k and Those Indians who er Walker: earn his own living by "went wrong"-such as' "Can any principle of the sweat of his brow, the under national morality be when an indulgent Cochise in the early dearer than-that when Government furnishes 1870's, the Sioux led the expansion and him more than he by Crazy Horse and development of a civil- wants to eat and Sitting Bull in the ized race involve the clothes him for mid-1870's, and the Nez rapid destruction of nothing?" Perce with Chief Joseph the only means of The "wardship" a short while later- subsistence possessed approach prevailed, were "harassed and by members of a less , with the pace set by scourged without inter- fortunate race, the Secretary of the mission," conquered higher is bound as a Interior Caleb Smith. eventually and returned simple right to provide Education for farming to reserva'tions. for the lower some and trades became a substitute.for the goal. means of subsistence which it has destroyed? That substitute is, of course, bet realized,

4

39 A start in providing On the land develop- subdivided to indivi-

health services to . ment side, some tribal dual Indians through Indians had come in groups were encouraged what is known as 1832 through.funds to enter into allotment in _authorized by Congress livestock grazing, severalty--or for smallpox vaccina- although these individual ownership -tion of certain tribes. enterprises were not of small pieces of By the 1870's health highly successful services had bxpanded among.the nomadic Dating back to 1633, to icclude medical groups, and overgraz- when the General Court doctors on various ing and loss of stock of Massachusetts Colony reservations in an were common. Some provided for Indians to 'effort to combat the irrigation of Indian receive "allotments ravages of disease lands was attempted-- amongst the English," _that were Caking a as early as 1876 on there had been slowly heavy toll of the the Colorado River growing advocacy of an

Indian population. . Reservation in allotment policy for As the 19th Century Arizona--but this Indians. came to a alose, project was later It was in the 1850's steps had been taken abandoned. Even into that the Federal to launch programs of the 20th Century, Government reached its education and land irrigation and peak in Indian land resource development. conservation measure title extinguishment Two vocational on Indian lands and began to spell out schools--Haskell Lagged behind the more clearly in the Institute in Kansas national efforts as a next 30 years a and Chilocco Indian whole. growing preference for School in Oklahoma-- the allotment policy opened in 1884; and which at last was -five years later a Th Land Allotmnt approved by Congress broader education Period in 1887. program was instituted "In no former equal at the Carlisle Indian All of these Indian period of our history School in Pennsylvania. programs, the initial have-so many treaties phases of the broad been made, or such "civilizing" process, vast accession of land came at the height of a obtained," Commissioner long Indian Bureau and George Manypenny said Congressional push for in 1857. Through 52 helping Indians to separate treaties from become "self- 1853 to 1857 a total supporting" by allowing of 174 million acres the Indian lands to be of Indian land was acquired by the United States Government.

40 4 6 Many allotments of land the Indian, if In the'first decade were provided through adjudged "competent," of the 20th Century the treaty to individual would be given the Bureau of Indian Affairs Indians, -and Boor the land to use as he saw embarked on further land next 30 years each fit and would also development programs--in succeeding Commission- acquire un citizen-. establishing services of er of.Indian Affairs ship status. However, conservation, reclama- (except Francis A. before the 25 years tion and forestry--all Walker in the 18701s) had elapsed, the designed to complement fdvored the policy of Burke'Act (1906) execution of the subdividing the large permitted those allotment policy. tribal-held lands into Indians adjudged small pieces owned "competent" to acquire individually. ownership at once. The Road To Citizenship The Indian Allotment The result of nearly Act, introduced in 50 years of the-allot- The determination of COngress by Sent.aor ment policy wis to Indian "competency" was Henry L. Dawes of reduce the Indian land carried out as part of Massachusetts, was holdings from over 140 Federal Indian policy passed in 1887. Its million acres in 1886 well into the 1920's, intent was to to under 50 million and was highlighted by assimilate the Indian acres in 1934. a 1917 "Declaration of by giving him indivi- Thousands of Indians Policy" by Commisioner dual ownership of receivinq these allot- Cato Sells and Interior bland, as opposed to ments sold them to non7 Secretary Franklin Lane, which'stated; "The the collective land . Indians who had the use and possession financial means and time has come for practiced by most business abilities to discontinuing guardian- Indian groups. develop the lands. ship over all competent Under the plan, sma:1 This sale or rental Indians and giving even pieces of tribal of land tended to closer attention to the land--from 40 to 160 increa6c the Indian's incompetents that they acres--wouId be depundence upon Govern- more speedily achieve allotted to Indian ment 5upport.. In many competency." families or cses ren*al income was individuals. Within too small or sale funds 25 years, in a manner soon exhausted and the similar to that of .Indian was forced to the Homestead Act, turn back to the Government for assista,nce. In addi- tion, the (lemands of this newly imposed civilizatimr: wore often contrary to Indian cul- ture and created psychological conflicts that still persist.

41 To determine whether The Attack on the 2. "A material an Indian is "as com- Allotment System strengthening oi the petent to transipct his school and reservation own business as the Increasing public forces that are in average white man," a agitation for reforms direct contact with practice-of issuing in the administration the Indians and are "certification of com- of Indian affairs led responsible for petency" was establish- Interior Secretary developing and im- ed', and a network of Hubert Work in 1926 to proving their economic "competenc!, commis- request the Institute and social condition sions was created. of Government Research through education in This approach was (the Brookings Institu- the broadest sense of hailed by Commission- tion) to study-the the word" by deemoha- er Sells as indicating Federal Indian policies. sizing the boarding that "the competent. He asked for recommend- school practice of Indian will no longer atibns that would taking children out of be treated as half "embrace the education, their tribal environ- ward and half citizen." industrial, social and ment and accelerating Because of the growing medical activities development o: a day number of Indians who maintained among the school system on the obtained citizenship Indians, their property reservations. through allotment and rights, and their 3. "Maximum practical because of a national general economic condi- decentralization of appreciation for the tions." An institute authority" from the record of Indian staff headed by Lewis central office to the volunteers in World Meriam produced the local agency offices, War I, the Indian lengthy document in plus better salaries Bureau began a push 1928 to be known as the for Indian Bureau for full Indian Meriam Report which personnel and enlist- citizenship. In 1924 called for these basic ing more Indians into Congress passed the Indian policy reforms: career Indian ad- Indian Citizenship ministration. Act, granting citizen- 1. "Establishment of ship to all Indians who a professional and had not previously scientific Division acquired it. of Planning and Development to hasten agricultural advances, vocational guidance, job placement, and other aspects of economic development on the reqervations.

42 4,8 Of the allotment law, sell their allotmentsIndian Reorganization Period the Meriam Report and to live for a time 1934-1961 charged: on the unearned income resulting from the "When the Government The Congress responded sale. IndiVidual adopted the policy of to the Meriam Report ownership brought with passage of reform individual ownership promptly all the of land on the legislation in 1934-the details of inheritance,Indian Reorgarazation reservations, the and frequently the expectation was that Act). sale of the property It brought a halt to the Indians would of the deceased become'farmers. Part the process Of allotment, of the plan was to Indians to whites so prohibited unrestricted instruct and aid them that the estate could sales of Indian land, in agriculture, but be divided among the and provided for heirs. To the heirs this vital part was acquisition of not pressed with vigor the sale brought fUrther unearned in- additional lands by and intelligence. It come, thereby lessen- tribes and individuals. almost seems as if the It created a foundation ing the necessity of Government assumed for tribal economic self support." that some magic in self-sufficiency by the individual ownership establishment of The report also pro- of property would in constitutional tribal itself prove an posed that Indians be permitted leasing rightsgovernments, the exten- educational civilizing sion of credit from factor, but in order to add enough Federal funds, the unfortunately this land to their own allot- ments to make an fostering of tribal policy has for the enterprises, and the most part operated in efficient farm or ranch, This policy would institution of modern the opposite direction. conservation and "Individual ownership counteract the easier - tendency to lease these resource development in many instances o actices. The keynote permitted Indians to same lands to whites, a -r policy which deterred became cooperation be- active land management tween Indian tribes and by Indians. Furthermore,the Federal Government leasing to whites "gave to achieve change with- the Indians unearned in-out forcing it. come to permit the The new Wheeler- continuance of a life ofHoward Act marks a idleness," the study decisive shift of concluded, direction of American Indian policy, and endeavors to give the Indians not only a broad measure of economic assistance but also those "national rights of man" mentioned by President Roosevelt 'in his letter of

43 4,9 endorsement sent to In the 1930's these the practice of educa- Congress, it stops far activities were ting Indian children in short of the ultimate carried forward the public school goal. It is merely a vigorously. The system. The Arts and beginning in the process Indian Reorganization Crafts Board revived of liberating and Act (IRA) has given interest in native rejuvenating a subju- .further impetus to the crafts as a means of -gated and exploited race economic- program by livelihood for Indian living in the midst of authorizing enlarge- people. an aggressive civilize- ment of Indian lands, The Indian Extension extending the leading Service program began . tion far ahead, 0 materially speaking, of function, and providing modern tech- its own." establishing a policy nical assistance to From the perspective of scientific range Indians in the fields of of two decades later, and forest management." conservation, irriga- tion, grazing and the Committee on Organi- The IRA also paved the y- g. zation of the Executive way for.revival of Branch of Government credit program was tribal organization, andlaunched with a (Hoover Commission) establishment of tribal summarized the impact of revolving loan fund. law. But the big develop- the Meriam Report and Aside from the the resulting 1934' ment of the whole period wneeier-tiowara Act, was the start of tribal Indian Reorganization other significant as follows: self-government, with legislation of the several hundred "In the years 1930's included the reservation tribal immediately following Johnson-O'Malley Act of groups determining by the Meriam Report 1934 and the creation inpopular vote to govern there was marked 1935 of an Indian Arts themselves in a progress in profes- and Crafts Board within democratic manner with sionalizing the modern constitutions. Indian Service through Interior. Today's tribal council better personnel, The Johnson-O'Malley form of Indian govern- improved methods, and Act provided Federal ment largely stems from educational funds to higher professional this Act, although a assist States and local standards. Indian number of Indian tribes districts, and brought education was had maintained modernized and a about an expansion of constitutional self- stronger and .better government prior to 1934, coordinated economic and still others reject- program got underway. ed the self-governing feature contained in the Indian Reorganization Act.

44 Effects of World War II The fifteen-year Establishmnt of post-war period also saweIndian Claims CommissiOn (1) greatly increased World War II, to a programs to aid The Indian Claims great extent, changed education of the Commission was created both the Indian way of Nation's largest tribe, in 1946 to permit life and Federal Indian the Navajos. (A study Indians to,file suits policy directions. in 1947 showed that against the Government. Nearly 70,000 Indian mennearly 75 percent of all*The Commission received and women left reserva- Navajo children were a total of 852 claims, in tions for the first timenot in school);(2) a 370 petitions entered to go into military ten-year economic during the five years service and defense in- development and allowed for filing. Any dustries. The Indian, rehabilitation fund for "identifiable" groups of record in both instancesthe Navajos and.Hopis toIndians within,the was wi4ely praised. bring much needed United States or Alaska-- The war produced both capital investment to then still a territory-- new skills and a greaterthis poverty-stricken could take their claims degree bf cultural to this Commission. It region of the southwest-, sophistication than had (3) development of "was empowered to hear ever before been Federal Indian programs and adjudicate suits achieved by large of employment assistancearising from claims in numbers of Indians. But including vocational law or equicy; tort it also brought post-wartraining and on-the-job claims; claims based on demands for assistance training to Indian fraud, duress, uncon- in Indian vocational scionable consideration, workers; (4)a start on training and relocation, Indian adult education mutual or lateral for expanded education for those Indians who, mistake; claims based and for reservation had missed the elemen- upon fair and honorable economic development. tary educat.idn now beingdealings not recognized The post-war period expanded for their by existing rules or law brought on the "area children; and (5)the or equi,ty; or claims office" system of beginnings of an Indian based on the taking of decentralized Indian industrial development land without payment of Bureau administration. program to encourage the agreed compensation. Many development private business and Commissioner Collier projects--roads, industry to locate in and others hoped the irrigation and building Indian areas. settlement of claims construction--were resumed in 1946, 'after being stalled during the war.

45 would enable the Indians House Concurrent On June 17, 1954 the to become socially ahd Resolution 108 of the of Wisconsin

economically assimilated . 83rd Congress in 1953 became the first tribe into the fabric of led to passage in the slated for termination American life. By next few years of a of Federal trusteeship. November 1969, about number of termination The tribe had a large one-half of the claims bills. Introduced by investment in forest had been adjudicated, Representative lands and tribal and settlements William H. Harrison of sawmill. The exceeding $305 million Wyoming and by Senator Menominee Reservation made. Although- in some Arthur V. Watkins of was to be fully instances the judgments Utah (who later became removed from Federal resulted in a per capitaChairman of the Indian trust status on distribution of funds, Claims Commission), the December 31, 1958, many tribal awards have termination resolution although later remained largely intact read in part: Congressional Acts delayed final termina- with the money "It is the policy of tion until "programmed" for Congress, as rapidly community and economic April 30, 1961. as possible, to make Other tribes development. the Indians within Congress has directed "terminated" by law in the territorial this period were the . the Commission to limits of the United i Klamaths and Western complete the .ok of States subject to hearing and determining Oregon.Indians; four the claims before it by the same lavas and small bands in Utah; entitled to the same April 10, 1972. the Alabama-Coushattas privileges and of Texas; the Ponca responsibilities as Tribe of Nebraska the New Trends of tits 1950's are applicable to Uintah and Ouray Ute other citizens of Mixed Bloods of Utah; Revival of pressures the United States, the Wyandottes, Ottawas, and to granf them for Federal termination and Peorias of Oklahoma. all the rights and of trusteeship Termination proceedings responsibilities pre.rogatives have,been moving on a occurred with the Hoover pertaining to American piecemeal basis under Commission's recommenda- legislation passed in citizenship tion that programs be 1958 for the Indian developed to terminate rancherias throughout "the trust status of Indian lands." Among members of the Hoover Commission's committee on Indian affairs was John Nichols, who became Indian Affairs COmmissioner in 1949.

46 the State of California 3. The Division of if, as they fear, the Strong opposition to Indian Health was Indian Reorganization termination from among transferred effective Act will be junked some Indian tribes and July 1, 1955, from the some day, their ethers led to a Bureau qf Indian struggle will be statement by Interior Affairs to the U.S. hopeless. It is the Secretary Fred Seaton, Public Health Service. Government's who declared in 1958: Notable progress has responsibility to "It would be subsequently been made enable (Indians) to incredible, even in reducing the Indian keep and use what they criminal, to send any life span, and already have, to allow Ihdian tribe out into curtailing the them an ordinary the mainstream of severity *of many choice, and not the American life until illnesses. flaf alternatives of and unless the The record in Federal migrate or starve." educational level of Indian relations over that tribe was one . two decades was New Direction in the 1960's which was equal to the summarized in the late responsibilities which 1950's by the noted A "New Trail" for it was shouldering." anthropologist and Indians leading to The 1950's produced Pulitzer Prize winning equal citizenhip several other important author, the late rights and benefits, new legislative Oliver LaFarge, as maximum self- directions affecting follows: sufficiency, and full Indian policy: "The progress has 1.. Indian lands in been great, and it has participation in American life, became three States and part been spotty. You of two others were cannot make over a race the keynote for brought under State in 25 years, despite administration of the Civil and criminal what the allotment programs for ,the Bureau of Indian jurisdiction by an Act theorists believed. It of August, 1953, takes,more than one Affairs after the 2. The prohibition generation to make the close of fiscal year was lifted against the jump from a home in 1961. This keynote was ' sale of alcoholic which no English is beverages to Indians provided ip a report spoken, where the to the Secretary of the outside Indian country thinking is the same as and a local option Interior Stewart L. . it was 300 years ago, Udall, by a special system was established to full competence in within reservations, task force on Indian our alien and complex afrairs, which hc also in 1953; If, while way of life. appointed in the Indians are February, 1961. struggling desperately to make the great adjustment, the last remnants of their land base are lost to, them; To move toward the in Washington but in To alleviate Indian accomplishments of area offices and unemployment, the these goals, the task agencies-combining in Bureau also increased force recommended one new Division of attention to job less emphasis on the Economic Development opportunities, purely custodial all operating units through expanded functions of the directly concerned programs in adult Bureau, greater with economic vocational training, concentration of development. The voluntary relocation resources functions of of Indians.for time, energy, and employment in urban funds on fostering the Bureau were fuller development of brought into clOser centers, industrial development on or near both the human and relationship with the natural resources on industrial development the reservations, and increased use of . work and .ehe revolving Probably the most credit program. In Indian labor by the important single the Washington office, Bureau on needed work recoMMendation was a the new division also in road maintenance shift in program incltded a program and construction, effiphasis away from planning staff and a repair and maintenance termination of specialist in housing. of bulidings, and Federal trust In later years, the construction of relationship. housing activity was buildings and This was coupled, transferred to the utilities, all of however, with a. Division of Community which provideci.the recommendation that' Services. Indians valuable eligibility for A program to improve construction training. special services be Indian housing, a Projects launched withdrawn from Indians product of the 1960's, und,pr the 1963 with 5ubstantial opened up Indian Accelerated Public incomes and superior reservations to the Works Program on educational experi- housing agencies to nearly 100 reservations ence who are as non-reservation areas. provided useful work competent as most Indian tribes for thousands of non-Indians to look established local tribal members and after their own housing authorities as contributed importantly .affairs. a first stepin to the protection and An administrative qualifying for Federal development of Indian reorganization was housing assistance timber stands and accomplished--not only under the programs of other physical the Department of resources. Housing and Urban Development (HUD). The Indian hbusing program is slowlyand steadily gaining a foothold on the reservations. The declaration of The programs for the emerging with the war on poverty, first disadvantaged under Bureau taking the enunciated by President the Economic form of a coordina- Johnson in his State of Opportunity Act of ting and advisory the Union message to 1964 have provided the agency, rather than 'the Congress in Indians an opportunity the sole primary January 1964, was to participate in and agency concerned with followed by his control their own development of the assurances to tribal programs. The human and economic leaders that Indian heaviest activities resources of Indian poverty was to be a have been in programs communities. major target. The for community action Early in 1967, a 16 Bureau of Indian and youp training. member National Affairs was fully The Bureau, together Indian Education committed.in the with other Federal Advisory Committee battle to drive agencies launched was appointed to pdverty from American selected Indian assist in school Indian reservation reservation programs programming and to communities. Education zo step-up the pace on improve communications and economic develop- the economic develop- between the schools ment were the major ment process on 39 and the'Indian people fronts in the war on Indian reservations they service. The poverty. and waged a concen- Committee has devised This period saw trated effort to a set of guidelines substantial progress stimulate economic and for the orderly in involvement of social change for transfer for Bureau other agencies of the Indians. schools to local Federal Government in In 1966, the.Indian Indian boards of Major providing meaningful people were in the education. programs among the forefront of public financial support will continue to come from Indian people. They attention. That year, included the Depart- Robert L. Bennett, an the Bureau under Oneida Indian, was contracts with the ments of Labor; Indians Commerce; Health, appointed Commissioner Indian tribes. Eslucation, and for the Bureau of are now participating Welfare; Housing and Indian Affairs. The in planning for the Urban Development; people-oriented education of their own and Office of Economic approach was apparent children, both on many Opportunity. in the stated policy public school boards of Commissioner and for Bureau schools. Bennett. He espoused greater Indian involvement in decision-making and program execution. A riew era of Federal Indian relations was

49 For the first time,. "Our goal must be: A The President's in the fall of 1967, standard of living message and the Senate 34 kindergartens were for Indians equal to pronouncement in Senate opened for Indian that of the country Concurrent Resolution children under the as a whole, freedom 11 of the 90th Congress, auspices of the Bureau. of choice--an clearly enunciated for These were the first opportunity to remain the first time since to be funded by the in their home1an3, if 1953, a declaration of Bureau and complements they choose, without purpose toward the 'the Head Start program surrendering their American Indians and of 0E0. To reach dignity, and an the Alaska Natives. those adult Indians opportunity to move These pronouncements _ who for various to the towns and also took affirmative reasons had little or cities of America if action to reverse the no education and they choose, equipped unilateral termination training, the Bureau with skills to live in policies since House began a breakthrough equality and dignity; Concurrent Resolution effort in employment full participation in 108 of 1953. assistance with the the life of modern establishment of America, with a full "whole family" .share of economic Prsidnt.Nixon Reaffirms residential trainin,,- opportunity and social Spcial Relationship centers, which justice." attempts to fit the Indian involvement During the 1968 entire family to in decision-making was Presidential campaign- urban life. m'ade an integral part ing, President-elect A historic special of policy planning by Richard M. Nixon messale on goals and the issuance of an presented to the programs of the Executive Order which American public some of American Indians was established a National the guidelines for the sent to the Congress Council on Indian Federal Indian policy by President Johnson Opportunity to review' his administration in March of 1968 Federal programs for would pursue. He which proposed "a new the American Indians, reaffirmed the special goal--a goa] that ends make broad policy relationship between the old debate about recommendations, and the Federal Government termination of Indian to ensure that programs and the Indian people programs and st-sses reflect the needs and and emphasized that self-determinaty n, a desires of the Indian termination would not goal that erases old people, including those be a policy objective. attitudes of who live in urban areas. paternalism and The Vice President was promotes partnership appointed as Chairman and self-help." The and council members message continued: include a cross-section of Indian leaders and high Government officials. Mr. Nkxon also stated one Alaska Native, and In his messagei that the right of four non-Indians. More President Nixon called self-determination of Indians than ever before for self-determination Indian people would be in Bureau history now for Indian peop,le respected And their hold management without the threat of participation in positions. termination of the trust planning their own President Nixon's relationship over Indian destinies would be special Message to the lands and the services actively encouraged. Congress on July 8, 1970guaranteed to Indian "We must recognize that regarding Indian affairs peopl,e along with this American society can established future relationship. While allow many different Federal Indian policy. President Nixon's cultures to flourish in Along with more specificmessage is the second harmony and we must proposals for delivered by the provide an opportunity legislation, the messagePresident of the United for those Indians affirmed the historic States, it is the first wishing to do so to relationship between theto be implemented by lead a useful and Federal Government and legislation. Among his prosperous life in an Indian communities, recommendations, the Indian environment.': guaranteed that it would President asked for: The right of Indian not be abridged without - A new Concurrent people to direct the Indian consent, an, Resolution that would affairs of their proposed that Indian "renounce, repudiate communities has become communities be allowed and repeal" the the keynote for policy to take over control andtermination policy decision-making in the pperation of Federally- outlined in HCR 108 of Nixon administration. funded Indian programs the 83rd COngress. In August 1969 when they chose to do - Support for voluntary President Nixon so. The President Indian control of appointed Louis R. added, "It is long past Indian programs with Bruce, an Indian of the time that the Indianthe necessary technical Sioux-Mohawk descent, policies of the Federal assistance from the the new Commissioner of Government began to Government to facilitate_ Indian Affairs. recognize and build upontransfers of Mr. Bruf.le is the third the capacities and responsibilities; Indian to be appointed insights of the Indian - restoration of the Commissioner since the people...the time has sacred lands near Blue Bureau of Indian Affairs.come to break decisivelyLake to the Indians of was established in 1824. with the past and to Taos Pueblo; With the approval of create the conditions the, President, for a new era in which CoMmissioner Bruce the Indian future is subsequently announced determined by Indian a realignment of the acts and Indian top management positionsdecisions." at the BIA central office and appointed a new executive staff, composed of 14 Indians,

51 6 - support for Indian The.first of the - providing tribes with communities to take over President's recommen- the option of taking Indian schools, to dations to become law over any or all BIA establish Indian school was the act restoring program functions with boards, to receive fundsBlue Lake and the the understanding that and to contract for the 48,000 acres of Bureau will provide operation of schools; sui.rounding land to the assistance or resume - economic development Taos Pueblo Indians of control if requested to legislation through the New Mexico. This act isdo so; "Indian Financing Act significant because it - working with Indian of 1970" to enable returns lands to an organizations to become Indian leaders to Indian tribe that had a strong advocaLe of arrange for the been taken and used for urban Indian interests. development and use of other purposes. Former The idea of self,: natural resources; practice had been to determination--the - improved government make cash settlements right of Indian to efforts to deliver alone in compensation make their own choices services needed to for land taken. and decisions--is assist Indians living in In keeping with the becoming a reality as urban centers; President's Indian people begin to - establishment of an recommendations and assume the authority to

Indian Trust Counsel ' proposals for legisla- manage their own Authority "to assure tion, Commissioner Bruce affairs. Since the independent legal and his Indian executiveannouncement of the new representation for the team began working to BIA goals, tribes have Indians natural resourcerestructure the BIA at chosen to undertake rights" and to avoid all levels so that its increasing responsi- conflicts of interest policies and programs bility for service within government would reflect the programs previously agencies; thinking and feelings of administered by - the creation of a new the majority of Indian Federal agencies. office within the people. Five policy Department of the goals were announced in Interior--Assistant November 1970 to guide BIA Service and Support Secretary for Indian the Bureau in its new Agency and Territorial AffairF administration of Indian affairs;. In its new role as a - transformation of BIA service and support from a management to a rather than a management service organization; organization, the BIA - reaffirmation of the is encouraging and trust status of Indian assisting tribes in landi their assumption of . - making the BIA Area program operations. Offices fully responsive to the Indian people they serve;

52 6 The Zuni Tribe of New Evidence of this new Since World War II/ Mexico assumed the attitude is apparent in when thousands of responsibility for the establishment of the Indians left the directing BIA National. Tribal reservations for activities at the puebloChairmen's Association military service or for in May. 1970.. Almost a (NTCA), a new war time jobs, a steady' year late17, the BIA organization of elected. off reservation signed a contract with tribal chairmen. movement has been taking the Miccousukee'Tribe Created in April 1971, place. This was given of Florida empowering NTCA set up a an additional boost in them to administer BIA 15-member commission the early 1950's with programs on the 'to advise the BIA on the initiation of the reservation, including national Indian policy. BIA Employment all.education and socialThrough this grqup, Assistance Program operations. BIA field reservation Indians can which assisted Indians technicians and present a single, united in locating pe;manent administrators are voice in shaping the employment in working directly with future of Indian non-reservation areas. these two Indian groups affairs. The urban Indian to assist with the NTCA is Rot the only movement of the 1950's development and voice being heard at and 196.0's has resulted implementation of the decision-making in an estimated 350,000 programs to meet the levels in Indian Indians living off the * expressed and affairs. As the urban reservations today. particular needs of the Indian population has In his message to the two Native American gained dn numbers, otherCongress on national communities. Indian organizations Indian policy, President The recent emergence such as the National Nixon pointed out that of a strong and Congress of American although the "BIA's positive attitude on Indians and the American responsibility does not the part of Indian Indian Movement have extend to Indians who people that they can been instrumental in have left the and will have better bringing recognition to reservation", this fact lives has become the Indians in is "not always clearly historically important. off-reservation understood. As a result Indians of all ages, communities. of this misconception, representing all tribes Indians living in urban undertaking unprece- areas have often lost dented efforts to out on the opportunity overcome the problems to participate in other cqpfronting them. programs designed for disadvantaged groups." President Nixon directed the Office of Economic The Indian desk An Indian future Opportunity (0E0) to conCept, after determined by Indian lead efforts to help experimentation'and acts and Indian urban Indian leaders successful operation decisions, President work toward solutions in OEO, has been Nixon states as a goal to their problems. extended to the in his historic July 0E0 announced in May Departments of Commerce message. In the last 1971 that it had joined Labor, Agriculture, few years the Federal with the Departments of Justice, HUD, and HEW. Government has come to Health, Education and In February 1971 an recognize that Indians Welfare (HEW), Housing Indian was appointed can and should supply and Urban Development Consultant on Indian the leadership for (HUD), and Labor to Affai.rs to the Senate their people. Maximum create a Model Urban Committee on Interior Indian involvement and Indian Center Program and Insular Affairs. commitment will help to to provide special In March an IndiAn achieve the goals of assistancb to the . woman was appointed present Indian policy. growing'urban Indian Special Assistant for Commissioner Bruce population. Federal Indian Affairs to the welcomed 1972 by grants totaling some Secretary of the announcing plans for a $880,000 will be used Inttrior. Over 50 massive re-direction of to upgrade Indian percent of the BIA the BIA's programs for centers in Los Angeles, employees are Indian the future. In a press Minneapolis, Gallup, although a much smaller conference on January and Fairbanks, and to though steadily 12, 1972, Commissioner establish a central increasing percentage Bruce and Assistant research technical are employed in Secretary of the assistance and management level Interior Harrison coordinating office positions. Eight of Loesch unveiled a in New York City. the 16 members of the five-point program As a result of National Council on entitled "A Way to Go experience gained in Indian Opportunity are in 72'. The new various tribal, State Indians. Other Indians program designed to and Federal programs are taking leadership assist Indians toward there is presently a in the establishment of self-determination trained and educated such projects as plans for reservation Indian leadership Deganawidah- by reservation evailable to staff 'Quetzalcoatl University development, re- management positions at for Indians and direction of the BIA levels where decisions Mexican Americans near employment assistance are made regarding Davis, California. program, resources Indian affairs. Indian protection, reservation 3.aders are working in roads improvements, and government agencies increasing tribal having programs that control over Indian serve Indians both on education. and off the reservation. The five-point community I want A new tool for program includes a to see Indian economies increasing skilled reversal of a 15 year- where dollars move manpower and managerial old policy of.training from Indian hand to know-how was establihed Indians to work in Indian hand and are not on Reservations in FY urban areas off the drained out by those 1971. The Indian

, reservations. Instead, non-Indian cities that Action Team Program the new plan proposes develop and grow and includes classroom that the $40 million feed upon Indian work, shop application, employment assistance reservations," states and on-the-job ex- program be centered on Commissioner Bruce. perience that enables the r2servation for the Each of the five blue-collar workers to development of a local policy points is progress toward a .labor force. The directly related to journey man level. primary objective of the goal .of self- the new stiategy is to determination. In the start the development reservation by t i of a total viable reservation development loty tz Indian economy on the program, each tribe rytip VI .1* 1,1 f reservations. formulates its own "De:loping Indian comprehensive economic economics does not mean development plans. A really locating non- new Indian Water Rights Indian industry close Office is designed to to or on the protect Indian water reservations so that and land rights from these corporations can encroachments by enjoy a cheap labor Federal and private sukply. It means the interests. Increased development of truly number and quality of Indian economic systems roads on the so that a dollar once reservations is essen- .earned by an Indian tial to optimum citizen can be spent economic, social and and kept moving educational development. throughout an Indian The presenL $30 million economy, thus develop- allocated for road ing that economy and construction will be making a maximum doubled in thenext impact upon.that fiscal year, accord,ing to Secretary Loesch. The final point is aimed at making Indi'an education truly reponsive to the needs of Indian children and parents.

NursEllio 55 6 7 Administrators of U.S. Federal Indian Policy

Henry Knox* 1789 George Washington Thomas Pickering 1795 George Washington James McHenry 1796 George Washington and John Adams Samuel Dexter 1800 John Adams

Henry Dearborn 1801 . Thomas Jefferson William Eustis 1809 James Madison John Armstrong 1813 James Madison James Monroe 1814 James.Madison William H. Crawford 1815 James Madison and James Monroe John C. Calhoun** 1817 James Monroe . James Barbour** 1825 John Quincy Adams Peter B. Porter** 1828 John Quincy Adams John H. Eaton** 1829 Andrew Jackson Lewis Cass** 1831 Andrew Jackson

*Knox had served as "Secretary in the War Office"since- 1784.. Prior to that, from 1775 on, Indian affairs had been carried on by Indian Commissioners from three departments, responsible to the Continental Congress. **On March 11, 1824, Calhoun named Thomas L. McKenney,who had served from 1816-22 as Superintendent of Indian 'Trade under the War Department, to be the "head' of the Bureau of Indian Affairs within the War Department. McKenney served in this capacity'underSeCretaries Calhoun, Barbour, Porter, and Eaton, untilreplaced by Samuel S. Hamilton on September 30, 1830. Hamilton, in turn, was succeeded by Elbert Herringin 1933, who a year later became thefirst Commissioner of Indian Affairs by an Act of Congress. Commissioners of Indian Affairs 1832 to Present

Year of Appointment President

Elbert Herring 1832 Andrew Jackson Carey A. Harris 1E06 Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren .T. Hartley Crawford 1838 Martin Van Buren, William H. Harrison, and John Tyler William Medill 1845 James K. Polk and Zachary Taylor Orlando Brown 1849 Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore Luke Lea 1850 Millard Fillmore George Manypenny 1853 Franklin Pierce James W. Denver 1857 James Buchanan Charles E. Mix 1858 James Buchanan James W. Denver 1858 James Buchanan

6 Alfred B. Greenwood 1859 James Buchanan William P. Dole 1861 Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson Dennis Cooley 1865 Andrew Johnson Lewis V. Bogy 1866 Andrew Johnson Nathaniel G. Taylor 1867 Andrew Johnson Eli S. Parker 1869 Ulysses S. Grant Francis A. Walker 1871 Ulysses S. Grant ta Edward P. Smith 1873 Ulysses S. Grant John 0; Smith 1875 Ulysses S. Grant and R. B. Hayes Ezra A. Hayt 1877 Rutherford B. Hayes R. L. Trowbridge 1880 Rutherford B. Hayes

57 Year of Appointmnt President

Hiram Price 1881 James Garfield and Chester A. Arthur John D. C. Atkins 1885 Grover Cleveland John H. Oberly 1888 Grover Cleveland Thomas J. Morgan 1889 Benjamin Harrison Daniel M. Browning 1893 Grover Cleveland William A. Jones 1897 William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt Francis E. Leupp 1904 Theodore Roosevelt Robert G. Valentine 1909 William Howard Taft Cato Sells 1913 Woodrow Wilson Charles H. Burke 1921 Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge Charles J. Rhoads 1929 Herbert Hoover

John Collier . 193 Franklin D. Roosevelt William A. Brophy 1945 Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman John R. Nichols 1949 Harry S. Truman Dillon S. Myer 1950 Harry S. Truman Glenn L. Emmons 1953 Dwight D. Eisenhower Philleo Nash 1961 John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson Robert L. Bennett 1966 Lyndon B. Johnson Louis R. Bruce 1969 Richard M. Nixon

-emomemmilmeNalli 6 Important Dates in Federal Indian Relationships

1633 First land allotment policy established (by General Cot4t of MassachusettsColony, acting to provide land allotments among Indians). 1754 English colonies met at Albany Congress to discuss unified colonial Indian policy. 1763 King George III proclamation setting aside "reserved lands" for Indians. 1764 Plan for Imperial Department of Indian Affairs. 1775 Continental Congress named Indian commissioners in north, middle, and southern departments. 1775 First negotiation betcieen Indian commissioners 4rid Indian groups (Six Nations). 1778 First Indian treaty signed (with Delaware, September 17). 1784 Congress assigns War Office to provide militia in assisting Indiancommissioners negotiating Indian treaties. 1789 Congress gives Indian authority to War Department; later it passes first appropriations for Indian affairs and designates territorial governors as ex-officio Indian superintendents under War Department. 1794 First Indian treaty providing education for Indians (Oneidas, Tuscaroras and Stockbridges). 1796 Establishment by law of Indian trading houses, operated by government. 1803 Louisiana Purchase from France, vast lands inhabited by Indians. 1806 Creation in War Department of an Office of Superintendent of Indian Trade, to administer Federal Indian trading houses. 1815-25 Post-war treaties with tribes north of resolving trading areas and beginning removal to new western lands. 1817-18 First Seminole War in Florida. 1819 Congress enacts "civilization fund"--first Federal Indianeducation program. 1819 Final Florida boundaries resolved with Englan0; Indian lands involved. 1822 Act abolishing Indian trading houses and Office of Indian Trade,"lso naming new Office of Superintendent of Indian Affairs at St. Louis fdi- western lands. 1827 Adoption of Cherokee Constitution; Georgia legislature nullifies it. 1829 Cass-Clark Report in regularizing Federal Indian administration. 1830 Passage by Congress of Indian Removal Ace. 1832-42 Federal Government conducts removal of "Five Civilized Tribes" from southeast States to new western territories. 1834 Acts creating an Office of Indian Affairs, coordinating FederalIndian adminis- tration, and modernizing Indian trade administration. 1845 Entry into Union on Republic of Texas. 1845-48 Mexican War. 1849 Act transferring Bureau of Indian Affairs from War Department to new Department of the Interior. 1853 Gadsden Purchase, acquiring new Indian lands from Mexico. 1867-68 Indian Peace Commission negotiates final treaties with Indians (last of 370, Indian treaties on August 13, 1868 with Nez Perce). 1869 Act creating Board of Indian Commissioners (lasting until 1933). 1870-86Federal Indian policy, backed by military support,.places finalIncqahs on reservations; practice of giving Indians food and clothing rations started. 1871 Act abolishing all Indian treaty-making. 1887 Dawes Severalty Act, establishing official land allotment policy. 1902-10 Start of Federal Indian reclamation, forestry, conservation programs. 1906 Burke Act, amending on allotmgnt, describing Indian "competency." 1924 Act giving Indians citizenship.and right to vote. 1924 Indian Health Division established within Indian Bureau. 59 study), emphasizing new Indian reforms. 1928 - Meriam Report published (after 2-year Indian Reorganization Act (IRA), ending .1934 New Indian legislation, including allotment policy, providing for tribalself-government, launching indian credit program; and Johnson-O'MalleyAct, spreading out Federal India nadmipistration to many agencies. 1935 Act setting up Indian Arts and CraftsBoard (established in 1936). 194H Hoover Commission recommends transfer ofIndian Bureau to Federal Security A incy. 1953 House Concurrent Resolution 108 calling fortermination of Federal trusteesh p over the affairs and property ofIndian tribes and groups. 1954 First of several acts calling for termination ofFederal trust status over Indian lands (Menominees of Wisconsin). 1954 Act transferring Indian Health Divisionfrom Indian Bureau of Public Health Service (transfer made in 1955). 1961 Interior Secretary Udall names Task Force onIndian Affairs, reporting later in year with long-rangerecommendations. 1961 Federal housing assistance programs opened up toIndian reservations. 1962 Interior Secretary Udall names Task Force onAlaskan Indian Affairs, ieporting later in year. 1964 Economic Opportunity Act programs provideIndians opportunity to participate in and cOntrol their own'programs. 1966 Appointment of Robert L. Bennett, an OneidaIndian, as Commissioner of Indian Affairs. 1968 President Johnson's special message dealingexclusively with Amcrii:ui Indians and Alaskan Natives, a historic first. 1968 By an Executive Order, National Council onIndian Opportunity, under Chairmanship of the Vice President, established. Indian involven!ent in decision-making made an integral part of policyplanning. 1969 Appointment of Louis R. Bruce, a Sioux-MohawkIndian of New York, as commis:iio of Indian Affairs. 1970 President Nixon's special message dealingexclusively with American Indians and Alaskan Natives sets forth a legislative programand expresses the idea of self- determination without the threat' of termination. 1970 Forty-eight thousand acrers of land includingBlue Lake returned to the Taos Pueblo,.the first time a sizeable piece of land hasbeen restored to an Indian group 1972 The Employment Assistance or relocation programredirected to enalfle Indians t() be trained for work on reservations.

60 60 Federal Indian Policy and Labor Statisticsareview essay

Commission's report to the Congress objects tothe lack of uniform definitions of Indians and Indianunemployment, and recommends new procedures for the 1980. census Mary Ellen Ayres

Decause issues A joint'congressional Senators and Congressmen concerning the American resolution gave the --the majority repre- Indian are so old and American Indian Policy senting States with still unresolved, and Review Commission a large Indian because the Indian mandate "to conduct a populations.52 The heritage is woven comprehensive review of Commission submitted its deeply into the :abric the historical and report to the Congress of American life, legal relationships on.May 17, 1977, and social scientists are.. tulderlying the Indians' disbanded. Where likely to be interested udique ties with the legislation is required in the final report of Federal Government in to bring about the the American Indian order to determine the recommendations of the Policy Review Commis- nature and scope of Commission, the matter sion, submitted to the necessary revisions in will be referred to Congress last year. the formulation of appropriate committees The Commission was the policies and programs of the Congress, where first top-level for the benefit of definitive reports are investigative commis- Indians." The legisla- required within 2 years. sion in Indian affairs tion acknowledges that The final report makeg since the Institute for Federal Indian policy 206 specific recommenda- Government Research, has "shifted and tions, ranging over a which produced the changed" throughout the number of issu. The Meriam keport in 1928. 20th century, "without Commission mentions.in The Commission was apparent rational its report a significant formed in 1973, follow- design and without a problem which could ing 3 years of.protest consistent goal to hamper the implementa- activity by American achieve Indian self- tion of its Indians. Three demon- determination." recommendations: the strations in particular The Commission was lack of comprehensive, --the occupation of made up of five American accurate statistical Alcatraz Island, the Indians, representing a data on Indians. Trail of Broken spectrum of Indian Treatit),s protest communities and condi- .Washington, D.C., and tions, and seven the demonstration at Wounded Knee--captved national and interna- tional headlines. st, When an American Today, some of the Data Dficincis Indian tribe was placed Indiand on tribal rolls on an Indian reservationno longer live on The Federal Government, about 50 to 100 years reservations. Some State governments, and after the first Indians solved their the Census Bureau all Europeans landed in whatproblems with the have different criteria is now the United States, newcomers to the for identifying a person the name of each,member continent at any early as an "Indian." was probably put down ondate, without being Federal criteria are a roll which very likely placed on reservations inconsistent from one exists to this day--a Their names do not agency to another. For bit yellowed--in the appear on tribal rolls. example, a State that National Archives and This situation wishes Federal Records Service. Some contributes to the gaps financial help fer the of the names on these and inaccuracies of education.of Indians lists are Indian names: statistical.data on receives it only for Isminat makpahs, Bah Indians--statistics the people in its ooh key ichis, Ah key that could be the basis program who can prove chis. Some reflect the for charting conditions at least one-gum:ter mergingeven then--of planning programs, and Indian blood. To the European and measuring progress in receive preference in aboriginal worlds: Indian affairs. But hiring as an Indian, Bull Over the Hill, the basic reason for enrollment records from Yellow Coyote, Antelope the questionable a federally recognized Trail. others are statistics, the tribe have been required. indistinguishable from Commission argues, is Under regulations on law those found today in . that no clear cut, and order, anyone merely the American mainstream: generally accepted "of Indian descent" is Virginia.Pearson, Paul definition of an considered an Indian. Hill, Effie N. Davis. "Indian" exists. State criteria for From-this highly deciding who is or is personal census, with not an Indian are even social implications that less consistent. When continue 'to this day, several SCates with stems one case for a large Indian population special relationship were asked about their between the U.S. guidelines, two accepted Government and the self-declaration, four American Indians. counted individuals as Indian if they were "recognized in the coniMunity" as such, five used residence on an Indian reservation'as criterion, and one required at least one- quarter Indian blood.

62 68 The result of this is Plsidnce Texas receive some data that lack compara- Federal assistance. Two .bility and cannot be Of all of the States, additional tribes are combined. Vermont has the smallestrecognized in a limited The difficulty of. Indian population (229), fashion. There are also Indian data collection although more than 25, 24 State Indian reserva- -is compounded by the percent of all Indians tions, 219 Native 'fragmented jurisdiction (792,730) live in the Alaskan or over Indians. Health i Northeast and, contrary reservations, and even services, agricultural to popular belief, more some urban reservations and other developmental than half live outside such as Aqua Caliente in assistance, business the Western States. Palm Springs, Calif. loans, housing aid, landNorth Carolina, for Federal reservation land development, and other example, has the fifth 'is generally held in programs--although all largest Indian popula- trust for a particular directed to Indians-- tion (44,406) in the tribe and there is no are handled by differ- country. general law that will ent government agencies. Only 28 percent of 'permit the tribe to sell Thus, statistics that all U.S. Indians live such land. Reservation would reflect the Indianon land reserved to-the land is usually free condition are scattered. Indians--reservations. from real property taxes There is, at pregent, These reservations rangeand the income from this no central clearinghousein size from the 15.4 land is also generally for the data. million acre Navajo exempted from taxation. Despite the imperfec-. reservation in the However, State and tions of Indian Southwest with Federal reservation statistical information approximately 125,000 statistics do not begin the report of the tribal members, to the to tell the whole American Indian Policy one-quarter acre Golden American Indian sto y.' Review Commission has Hill Reservation in An estimated 32,000 collected a wealth of Connecticut with six Indians exist without data. The social citizens. A total of statistics by the 289 tribes and bends Commission and cited in live on 268 "federally this article come recognized" reserva- primarily from the 1970 tions or otherwise census. The concept of defined "trust areas" in race used by the Bureau 26 States. Nine "State- of the Census does not recognized" reservations denote any scientific or otherwise defined definition of the "trust areas" In 26 biological stock, but States. Nine "State- rather indicates what recognized" reservations race a person identifiesin New York and one in with. For persons of mixed parentage who are unsure of their classi- fication, the race of the person's father is used. 63 6 9 'either Federal or State without its own reserva- As noted, Indian recognition. Some tion or land, or a incomes are lower than belong to tribes that "terminated" tribe. The those of the U.S. were never recognized by largest number of urban population, with 34 the Federal Government, Indians (23,908) live inpercent of all Indians others to tribes whose the Los Angeles-Long having an annual income Federal status was Beach area, followed by of $4,000 or less, "terminated" by legis- TulSa, Okla. (15,983), compared with 15 percent lation during the 1950'sOklahoma City (12,981) of the total porulation. and early 1960's. TheseSan Francisco-Oakland Only 22 percent of all tribes or communities (12,041), and Phoenix Indians earn $10,000 or are scattered across the (10,127). The Census more, compared with 47 United States and Bureau lists 30 Standardpercent of the U.S. incluide the Mohegan Metropolitan Statisticalpopulation. Statistics Community in Connecticut, Areas with large Indian on health care, in the Montauk Community onpopuletions. general, do not la(4 as Long Island, the badly as those for Narrangansett Community income. Since the in Rhode Island, the Income & Health Indian Health Service Houma Community of began in 1955, mortality Louisiana, the Yacqui The Commission's rates have declined and Indians of Arizona, and report states: "From life expectancy has others. the standpoint of increased. Between 1955 The largest percentage .personal well-being, theand 1971, for example, of American Indians live Indian of America ranks the Indian infant death neither on reservations at the bottom of rate decreased by 56 nor in communities, but virtually every social percent and the maternal in cities. More than statistical indicator. death rate by 54 percent. 46 percent of all On the average, he has Deaths from tuberculosis, Indians (335,738) were the highest infant gastritis, and influenza urban residents in 1970, mortality rate, the pneumonia declined 86, double the number in lowest longevity rate 88, and 57 percent, 1960, These Indians maythe lowest level of respectively. belong to a State or educational attainment, But health ca're federally recognized the lowest per capita remains a serious tribe,a community income, and the .poorest concern of :Indians. housing and transporta- Although life expectancy tion in the land." increased from 60 year!. in 1950 to 65.1 years in 1970, it remains the Since the health prob- men are working (table lowest of any populationlems of Indians on 1). Although Indian group. The Indian deathreservations are women are not as often rate from accidents was believed to be greater unemployed as Indian three times the nationalthan those of urban men, they are often average in 1971, as wereIndians citing underemployed--earning the Indian mortality' reservation figures in $4,000 a year or less. rates for cirrhosis of the report without In addition, they are the liver, tuberculdsis, explanation may less likely to earn the and gastritis; Althoughillustrate the danger of $10,000 a year that is death rates have generalizing from data at least a beginning decreased, the incidencebased on one definition toward a living wage, of certain diseases of an Indian. according to the (such as strep throat, Commission. scarlet fever, and Education & Employment Poverty is more severe influenza) has amonglIndians who live increased substantially. in rural areas than The Indian Health Educational levels of among city dwellers. Service serves those Indians. compare poorly This includes impover- Indians enrolled in a with the larger ishment in terms of federally recognized population, and this housing, sanitation, tribe--the same group weighs against Indians and transportation. served by the Bureau of when they seek work, the Rural Indian women face Indian Affairs. Commission's report the greatest difficul- Generally, these Indians indicates. Of all the ties, because they rank live on or near a men in tlie United below all urban women reservation. Although States, 74 percent are and rural and urban men the Commission's report employed, but only 56 in education, income, does not make the, point, percent of all Indian presumably these health Education & Employment of Indians 1970 and life expectancy figures apply to this 'Indian All Indin All group of American Characteristic men men womeii women , Indians. However, the census data (used more Education: generally 'throughout Completed grade school 63.0 73.0 the report) include both Completed high school 34.0 54.0 3').0 r.)5.:r Indians on the reserva- Completed college 3.5 I2.6' J..5 7.0 tion and those in the Median number of years 10.5 12.1 10.5 12.1 general population. Employment Unemployed 11.6 3.9 10.2 Employed 56.0 74.0 31.0 10.0

Income $4,000 per year or less 55.0 31.0 Income $10,000 per year or more 8.5 25.2 1.5 3.2

Median income $3,509 $6,614 ,404

65 71. and employment. Sixty- Unmployment & Training A major difficulty eight percent of rural' with the available data Indians have incomes of The Commission is that the two agencies $4,000 a year or less contends that the size use different defini- and only 4.3 percent of the Indian labor pooltiphs of unemployment. . have annual incomes of on reservations is The Census Bureau $10,000 or more. unknown. Bureau of defines an unemployed The unemployment ratesIndian Affairs unemploy-person as ond who has cited in the table of ment statistics, it beep seeking work within 11.6 percent for Indian charges, are "based on, the 4 weeks preceding men and 10.2 peneent forat best, arbitrary the interview, while the Indian women (based uponcriteria; at worst, Bureau of Indian Affairs Bureau of the Census impressionistic judg- also includes persons data) do not saIisfy thements by local agency who are hot seeking work Commission, because onlypersonnel...The agency but are employable. As those persons who have does not take a house- a result, the Bureau ot actively sought hold survey to establishIndian Affairs figures employment are .included. these figures but merelyshow a larger labor The Commissimi contends adjusts the previous force and higher rates that since a reservationyear's figures to of unemployment. They generally affords few reflect any changes it justify their definition jobs, many persons do thinks may.have by the nature of job not actively seek what occurred." However, search on the reserva- does not exist, and despite the problems tion, where'there is therefore do not show with the Indian income almost perfect job up in the unemployment and unemployment information. figures. statistics from the Because statistics on Census Bureau and the American Indians are Bureau of Indian not always accurate or Affairs, they are used up-to-date, the true by the Department of extent of Indian Labor to determine unemployment and poverty Indian fund allocation is not known, according under the Comprehensive to the Commission's Employment and Training report. In addition, it Act. is impossible to establish clearly, at this time, whether programs directed toward improving the lives of American Indians are having significant success.

66 The Commission As an example of present training suspects that the census dependency, the Commis- programs is that most of figures are under- sion cites a General them have involved estimates, the Bureau Accounting Office reportblue-collar occupations. of Indian Affairs that ndtes that althoughThe inadequacies of figures overestimates, the gross reservation secondary education on and the truth somewhere product of one tribe hadthe reservation have in between. They increased by 89 percent probably been a major suggest, "possibly for from $20.3 million in force pushing young the 1980 census the 1968 to $38.5 million in Indians toward trade question should be 1972, the bulk of the schools. The few modified for the increase was in Govern- professional training

American Indians. They ment expenditures. . programs have focused on should be asked, "When However, the percentage teaching, the sOcial job opportunities occur of Federal funds sciences, and, to a do you seek them?" The allocated to welfare and leSser extent, law and differences over unem- unemployment payments health; the hard ployment figures may be had decreased. Says thesciences, such as

addressed by the nine- Commission, "These enginering, business, . member Pational figures are encouraging. and administration, have Commissron on Employment If additional opportu-, been neglected. and Unemployment nities for training and However, the Commis- Statistics created by education in the sion's report points out the Congress to study economies such as that the greatest the Government's business management and barrier to increased system of collecting natural resources employment on reserva- job data. (development) were tions is simply lack American Indian available, Indian tribesof jobs, "...it is , .reservations are a would have an increased unfair to criticize

dependency environment capacity for developing these (training) . today, the Commission a self-sufficient programs if Indian charges, implying that economy." communitieS do not this status contributes Education and traininghave an iAventory of to the low income and should be intermeshed what skills are most poor health of Ind.ians. with reservation needed. In addition, development, says the it is futile to train Commission. This workers when there is no

includes developing possibility of obtaining - skilled workers in many employment." areas, includiftg technical experts, administrators, and managers. Counseling that will support this goal is also necessary. A difficulty with the The Commission The final report and Complete enumeration recommends that,the instructs the Office of of American .Indians Bureau of Labor Management and Budget to during the 1980 census, Statistics collect insure that.'(1) an Congres4 should direct accurate, unifo,rm, and approach is-developed toall Federal departments consistent statistics coordinate Federal and agencies to utilize. each year on-the Indian.efforts at the reserva- this definition: labor force on every tion level,(2) contin- "American Indian or FedeTil and State uous evaluations are Indian" means any resel'iation, as well made of the effect that individual who is a as data on what jobs areFederal programs have onmember, or a descendant available on each the standard of living of a member, of a North reservation by type of on reservations and American tribe, band, or economic activity, and information systems are otherwise organized which jobs'are held by developed to support group of Native people Indians. The Bureau of such evaluations, and who are indigenous to Indian Affairs and the. (3) annual reports are the continental United Department of Labor are submitted to the States or who otherwise currently required to Congress on progress have a special relation- keep accurate and made in improving the ship with the United detailed statistics on standard of living'of States or a State, every participant in reservation Indians and through treaty, agree- federally funded on any legislative ment, executive order, employment and training changes necessary to or statute. programs. The Commis- improve the effective- According to the sion suggests that the ness of Federal programs. report, the term "race" participants' subsequent should be replaced with. job status be monitdred "ethnic group" and the for at least 5 years. Th 1980 Cnsus use of the term"mixed The Commission further Indian" in census suggests that these One of the task force questionnaires, programs be coordinated reports (number 10) tabulations, and reports, with the tribal develop-contains specific recom- should be abandoned. ment programs and the mendations concerning The Bureau of the Economic Development the Bureau of the Census Census should make Administration, which count of American tabulations--both will specify the labor Indians. The Census routine and special--of requirements for their count is of far-reaching "American Indian projects. The Bureau importance to statisti- communities" as defined of Indian Affairs and cians and to social by the population- the DepartMent of Labor scientists. For example, should institute the statistics on labor necessary training for force, employment, and the projects v.ell in unemployment are derived advance. from census data. The task force report indicates that, for the purposes of a successful

68 clustering of American The task force also Although the methods Indians within geo- recommends that the to be used in making the graphic boundaries of Census Bureau consider a 1980 census are as yet Federal and State special 1935 census of unknown, special survey reservations, federally the American Indian work for any population resricted or tribally population involving is expensive and time owned lands, and within selective tabulations consuming. Not all the urban and rural areas. and limited-purpose statistical work demand-

Suggestions to the population surveys, to ed by legislation is . Census Bureau for be conducted in coopera- presently being done by planning and executing tion with the various reporting agencies the 1980 census include Indian communities. .because of lack of time, using local Indian These efforts should be money, and staff. To people, whenever coordinat'ed between the hring about any survey, possible, for advance Indian communities and report, or statistical public relations and with such Federal work i?eyond that already related information and agencies as the Bureau being undertaken, it data collection, of Indian Affairs, the seems that the.Congress cooperating with local Department of Labor, thewould have to establish community governments Department of Health, the Indian data as high and organizations, Education, and Welfare, priority and appropriate revising classificationsand the Department of considerable money to for tribes and other Housing and Urban accomplish the results Indian groups, and, Development. A special it agrees are necessary. whenever possible, usingcensus would correct 100 percent enumeration any.significant of selected Indian deficiency found in the communities. The 1980 census, or any recommendation that prior censuses, which Indians make the count hampered the successful of other Indians might administration of be.brought about throughfederally funded pro- existing job placement grams by Indian program*, which could community governments or pinpoint prospective organizations. It would Indian census takers andalso provide full and even train them. adequate information to the Indian community govgrnments or organiza- tions and the Federal agencies.

69 EvaluatingtheRepod However, solutions to is no standard defini- current problems will tion of an "Indian;" the statistics in the Planners who deal withcontinue to begin at the local level because the report are cited in some American Indians . history of American instances without . frequently contend that Indian tribes and their indicating what group of each Indian tribe is so Indians are represented unique that taking an experiences with non- Indians vary, and by them. Therefore, to overview or establishing use the data in the 9verall guidelines in because States, local governments, and the report, it may be Indian affairs is almost necessary to do consid- impossible. The report courts are often of the American Indian involved. Every issue erable research to Policy Review Commission thathas arisen or may isolate appropriate and the task force arise is not addressed figures and insure that reports refute such an by the Commission. they are consistent. argument and outline the Statistical research attitudes and hopes of people may feel some frustration with what _ the Indian community as a whole. The contribut-they view as-imprecision ing Indian authors in statistical presenta-

include leaders from . tiong of the final across.the Nation who report. Although the cannot be discounted as g eneralstatement is representatives of smallmade that most of the factions. The report isIndian employment and a research tool of unerriployment data cited immeasurable value are from the 1970 census, during the present some data in the census period of misunderstand-are for Indians age 14 ing between Indians and and 15 years, some for non-Indians on various 16 years'and over, some issues in a variety of for all ages, and so on. geographic locations. The Commission's report Overall policy toward does not make clear the American Indians which figures are used. .will continue to be It also does not pin- developed at the Federalpoint the time period level, and legislators to which the material who are concerned with applies. this as well as bureau- Although the point is crats who see made that statistics on anthropoldgy texts as American Indians can be scant help in relating misleading because there to modern-day Indians will find the reports invaluable.

70 Significant T.That the long-term 7. That the (_!ongre:;% objective of Federal enact Ir.gi!Aation to Racommondations Indian policy to aid tribal government develop tribal govt:rn- in ar-;:;umirl,; tA,r; A dozen of the 206 ments into fully responsibility for recommendations in the operational govern- education. final report indicate ments with the same That appropriate some of the major points powers and respon5i- services be provided and capture the basic bilities as other for off-reservation intent of the Commission local governments. Indians, when feasible, members: 4. That a Department through urban Indian 1. That the Congress of Indian Affairs or centers. require the Assistant an independent atjency 9. That a process be Secretary of Indian be created to set up by which ter- administer all Indian minated Indian tribes Affairs to provide a ' comprehensive annual matters now taken care may be restored to the report on Indian of by other agencies. status of federally matters, containing 5. That the Congress recognized Indian current and accurate provide funds and tribes. data. technical assistance' 10. That the Congress 2. That the Congress for the preservation, affirm its intention direct all executive consolidation, and to recognize agencies to act in acquisition of Indian Indian tribes as accordance with the lands upon which to eligible for the principle: the trust build tribal futures. .benefits and protec- responsibility to 6. That the Bureau of tions of general American Indians is an Indian Affairs and the Indian lei.slation established legal Department of Labor be and polic7. obligation that required to coordinate requires the United their employment and States to protect and training programs with enhance Indian trust tribal development resources and tribal programs and the self-government and to Economic Development provide economic and Administration, and social programs to that education be raise-the Indians' releciant to needs. standard of living and social well-being to the level of the rest of the American people

Pi+

71 11. That the Congress No. 4. Federal, State and require mandatory Tribal Jurisdiction training in Indian No. 5. Yelort on Indian history, legal status, Education and cultures of all government employees No. 6. Indian Health administering any Report Indian program funded No. 7. Reservation and in whole or in part by Resource Dev,lopment

Federal funds. . 12. That the Congress Protection appropriate funds to No. 8. Rviort on Urban assist school systems and Rural Non-heservdtion in developing Lndians education.al programs No. 9. Vol. 1 Law in Indian affairs. :ft-vision ,20J ,:odification No. 9. Vol. 2 Affendf!ce American Indians: othE, Ffna! !le; ort problems & policy No. 10.ler,inated and 7, *;cn-Fcdepal:j 2coojn!;:ed :na7.zno 2 Volume 1, 1977, No. 11. 1: zn 624 pp., $ki. Eleven task forces, Two special reports pub- composed almost entirely of lished by the Commission are Indians, contributed 2a0k Fon!&', research to the final JPtON A:askan Natfoc report and published their :ssues, and S:e.:!:aZ own reports, as follows: 1-UPC.114(,)f :ndlan

No. 1. 7, Nznajement. L7tudiy. All of the above publica- " tions are available from the Superintendent of Documents. No. 2.

No. 3. . i,/'

;

7 2 0 Employment Excerpt From American Indian Policy Review Commission Report

Labor Force Participatio'n and Unemploymnt53 BREAKDOWN - MEN

ilY;,1%; ,"11 "Mcile Indians riLiod10 dnd over also have an unemploymort rdtc (11.()) three times higher than the U. tot,r1 tritc."

"The unomrloyment !ate for urban males((3 .4-) is more than twice the n.tional average." "Unemployment tor uroan Indian mon varies from 7.1

in urban k!klahcmr t a high of 22.5 in ut ban Washinqt."

"Indidn have the lowestrat0 of malt labor force

part i ij at i ii in t , (2nly ,of

men 1* Vtar. t doe dnd c,v(2r art in the labor force, 14 1)clow total avcraue."

" ( I&n&I '! .11 t1,"11+,4'1. ()It)rate for urban

Indians ha:; hy tlio!ASt deCade

wh t ik t i ii al I ntli an men has increased

hy c n 1,.'

" t 1 1 ik,, 1 y t itt 111:-; 1 a, .1.:of job%)}14.+1 tuni t yadds

)mi r t t : i,lalat ion shift from iural to urban dtt.a:,"

"The I't ,1! art irati ul init0 , urban

1.... al ....I.:11111at ht!hit 1 uTi,i1 1 eve I for allmen '7

BREAKDOWN.- WOMEN - "AtIo.: the unems 1(i men ttate tor Ind ian wOmen is twice !)1 .111 wk)m(!r;."

"Th(. linemflont !AteK !ft!' Indiar; WoMe!r1jonot differ sh,11.1 ani ruial altnough the

iat(' ;Y I 114 Ilrbal,dleas."

"The temale torce ;.al'tiil .ation rate is 1,)wcrt11,111tho nutilJtid] average for all women."

'''1'1 iihin. fOTT11#'lahcit-cu-ce, participatl:m rate is 424 1' ar.,,,v tht, Natiunal average for. women."

73 The figures given on Although low levels The report suggests the preceding page, Of education are often tHat low employment may reveal that although cited among reasons for be due more to urban Indian this high unemployment, inadequate vocational unemployment rates fall a 1974 H.E.W. study training, a result of

significantly below . states, "Despite the .a limitedfacilities those of rural Indians, comparability in levels in rural reservation unemployment rates for of education completed, areas where the both far exceed Indians have far more' majority of urban national rates. unemployment compared Indians reccive their Without a doubt, to the total education.' concerns about Indian population." employment reflecting these statistics, pervade urban Indian Rates Of Unemployment56 life. .0m0.010010a A response to a Sural Vrban survey conducted by IndiaN Indiar this task force, as 9.4% well as numerous state- Male 14.0% 5.1%, _ 'ments made by Indian Female 10.6% 9.9% persons across the country during the NOTE: Unemployment rates among urban Inotian males are 2.4 course of hearings times greater than rates for the national male . placed the need for increased or improved population. employmerq above other The rate of unemployment among urban Indian females concerns.D4 is 4.8% greater than the rate for the national Increased employment female population (5.1%). opportunity for Indians living in urban areas, as reflected by greater rates of labor force participation, has not ourtailed high unemployment among urban Indians. Where jobs exist, Indians enter the labor force but continue to have difriculty in securing employment.

74 80 As Task Force # 8's Upon arrival in urban Indianpersons may historical review of communitites, Indian have difficulty the Bureau of Indian persons are faced with completing application Affairs, (BIA) innumerable probleMs of forms,57 handling Employment Assistance adjustment. As with personal interviews and Program indicates, most individuals who they may not be aware there have been highly move from rural of their employment controversial questions communities to urban rights. raised regarding the areas, problems in As noted previously, development of policies locating housing, Indians lack adequate which have resulted in meeting new friends and skills. With greater the implementation of adjusting to the urban proportions of Indians this program. environment are arriving in urban areas Testimony and plentiful. Unlike most from rural reservation recommendations made by individuals, however, communities, Indians Indian personnel American Indian often lack skills which involved with adjustments must limited,and low level employment programs include increased reservation employment outside the Bureau of stress on language opportunities cannot Indian Affairs, specify usage (often a change provide. Although additional problems; from native speaking or recent tribal and 1. Employment bilingual communities); federal programs have assistance skills are changes in cultural begun to institute often not saleable. values, and perhaps reservation economic 2. Employment more visibly, changes development and Indian assistance skills are from an economically preference hiring not in demand. lower standard of policies, rates of 3. Employment living. That Indians unemployment on assistance programs move to cities reservations are still, have not encouraged primarily to seek staggering. intensive follow-up and employment, places More often than not,, career development. additional inpetus on the rural Indian These problems and these adjustments. arrives upon an urban additiohal concerns Unfamiliarity with Indian scene with which question existing employment sPekim, severely limited BIA Employment Assist- avenues and processas economic resources. ance policies that view begin a succession of His success in vying clients in terms of obstacles. Existing for unskilled positions outviacement employment agencies in competitive labor statistics, begin to have few counselors markets is often reveal need for familiar with Indian dependent upon his work different and perhaps problems. Affirmative attitudes, and personal more comprehensive action hiring of Indian appearance. employment assistance.. personnel within these agencies is often minimal. Cultural attitudes When such attitudes on reservations and in about competition, time exist, non-Indian Indian communities. and ideal working employers, particularly Certainly, feelings of relations are left to in the private sector, alienation can increase play significant see no imperative to the need for roles--often to the hiring of Indian socialization, detriment of the persons. particUlarly among prospective Indian As testimony other persons familiar employee. (See section indicates, low paying, with such problems. on non-Indian community monotonous and (See section on attitudes.) unskilled jobs may problems of Initial lack of funds encourage feelings of alcoholism.) hinders the purchase of being trapped, Employment patterns ,clothing appropriate .discouragement and of urban Indians for types of work generally, feelings particularly'those of (clerical, managerial, that one had been short-term, low paying etc.) Lack of funds, placed in lower nature, increase the furthermore, inhibits economic and spcial need to have both adult possession of adequate status by employers cr members of families and reliable means of society in general. employed. This is transportation; a Certainly, these accomplished at reliable car to get to problems can occur additional cost (for and from work, bus where Indians face day care, transporta- fares, etc. Addition- discriminatory tion) and marginal ally, Indians seeking attitudes as well. benefit. In terms of employment may not have Other testimony family disintegration permanent addresses or states that such and frustration the .telephone numbers where feelings may contribute costs may be they may be notified to a tendency of many immeasurable. about pending Indians to leave work, employment. (See often without notice, to section on housing.) return home to attend Findings Many of these traditional ceremonies Troblems, even if A primary reason overcome, result in Indians leave,rural and employment at reservation communities particularly low levels for urban areas, in of employment, addition to federal characterized by low policies encouraging pay, seasonal or them to do so (see unskilled labor. These historical summary) , is factors may contribute that they wish better to Indian employment economic opportunities, stereotypes: they leave primarily to instability, seek employment. unreliability, poor attitudes, poor attendence, etc.

76 82 National statistical data reveals that all Indians suffer high rates of unemployment. Testimony reveals that urban Indians have difficulties obtaining employment because: 1. They lack skills that reservation rural Indian community empl.oyment can rarely provide. 2. Vocational educational opportuni- ties are limited, existing opportunities, BIA employment assistance training programs are not saleable. 3. They lack information on how to find jobs, where to look, what employers expect, how to be nterviewed, etc. 4. They.lack ifiitial HI:ids for the purchase of uniforms, equipment, and reliable means of transportation to and from work.

. They are victims of discriminatory practices where overt discrimination does not exist, employers of the private sector see no imperative toward the hiring of Indian personnel.

77 a Education

Excerpt From American Indian Policy Review Commission Report .

Conflicts between by far, the desire to education levels,58but Indian people and white have greater control as much of the testimony society regarding the over the education of stresses this is only a education of Indian his child heads the list part--be it a signifi- children have been of urban Indian cant part of many historically consistent. educational needs. educational objectives Initial attempts to Current statistics that must be served. educate, or "civilize" indicate that Indian The following are basic the Indian child placed educational achievement needs identified in extreme hardship on his levels are rapidly areas of education: parents, the community catching up with U.S. he lived in and most of all--the child. (See historical review.) During early periods of Indian-white contact, Schooling completed, by Age & Sex, for 59 Indian children were U.S. Total and Urban & Rural Indiana often forcefully taken

from their families and 7 delivered to off-reser- vation schools far from their . There 7)!ift..0.:(1 the rndian child faced /1141.Z7 !-,14m1,1 a series of demoralizing experiences, his hair 16-24 11, 12'r, 23'., 89. 11% 19% was cut, his traditional 8 Years of 25-34 11 17 35 10 17 34 dress taken away, and School or 35-44 19 29 52 15 26 48 under fear of punish- Less 45-64 33 40 63 30 36 60 ment--he was prohibited 65 + 61 69 84 55 61 81 from speaking his native language and 16-24 66 48 26 71 48 30 practicing native 25-34 72 58 39 71 53 36 High School religion. Among the 35-44 61 45 25 61 46 24 Graduates most serious of these 45-64 46 37 19 49 38 19 'lardships, however, was 65 + 24 18 7 29 22 8 the fact that these events occurred outside 16-24 6.5 1.9 O.? 6.1 1.4 9.4 the control of the 4 or More 25-34 19.0 8.9 .0 1?.1 5.8 1.9 Indian parent and when Years of 35-44 17.5 7.8 2.4 8.9 5.0 1.2 the Indian child College 45-64 10.8 5.6 2.0 7.1 4.1 1.7 returned, he and his 65 + 6.3 4.1 0.6 4.9 3.7 1.1 parent were all too often cultural NoTE: This table reveals that although the percentage of strangers. educational attainment levels of urban Indians are Testimony after better than those of rural Indians, and that in testimony reveals that lower levels of education they are catching up with average attainment levels of the U.S. population, the percentages of Irban Indian attainnr. levels fall significantly behind at the high school and college level. AIM 78 8 .Need for More Parental Involvement Opportunities in Existing EducationalSystems

As noted earlier, 2. Target programs, 3. More viable ro there have been inadvertently, are in target program historical inhibitions beset with compllcated poliey tormation. on Indian parent policy and r-.gulation. Testimonies indicate involvement in the 3. Tacget program that obtaining initial education of their funding is unstable. funding for target children. Testimony programs can be indicates however, that 4. 'Target program especially difficult these opportunities goals and objectives tor urban groups. They still form a significantare pre-determined by are often forced into problem. persons or groups far competition with In urban areas, removed from the Indian reservation groups, or indian people seldom community. must seek endorsement .find themselves in 5. Target program from unresponsive positions to favorably funding is limited. educational systems for, influence the educa- Indian'parents and program implementation. tional policies and Application for fundin'f: priorities of city-wide community leaders in urban areas have has been noted to be of school boards, district particular difficulty, school boards or state consistently urged that Indian parent high levels of boards 4 education. expertise and tremen- Indiahs in the urban committees and administrators of such dous amounts of energy setting are a minority must be directed toward of minorities and have target programs be given: the application achieved little success process. As a in making their needs 1. Technical assist- consequence, fund- known. ance in understanding seeking in and of Special programs complicated regulations itself, becomes a targeted for Indian and funding processes. priority all too often children, Johnson- 2. Stable funding at the expense of othe- O'Malley and Title IV educational goals. of the Secondary bases upon which they Education Act of 1972, can be assured of have begun to provide a educational continuity wedge in allowing for the Indian children parentad involvement, participating in the but even these fall programs, and upon short. Among the most which coordination common complaints are: among other Indian groups can exist with- 1. Target programs out fear of inter-group

. for Indian educational competition for limited needs have often been funds. misManaged or misused.

Nrommintworwr ANIII101110 79 Ned for mor Program eligibility for care centers might well Child Care Centers such programs include be able to meet current children of the urban needs were it possible Indian poor, but urban for them to share With greater Indians do not facilities with proportions of Indians participate to the existing Bureau of falling in low income fullest extent. This Indian Affairs programs. categories, and may be a result of Particulae fadility iflereasing proportions costly regulation, as needs include: trans- of female heAds of some testimony portation vehicles and no households," it is indicates or a result space. surprise that quality of a desire for Furthermore, child child care centers was specifically Indian- care program a commonly expressed oriented programs. administrators urged need among urban Indian Nonetheless, as an that Indian children be communities. given access to Indian Educational statis- H.E.W. report states, "On the basis of their Health Service tical reports indicate facilities and services .that although federal high incidence of poverty and language for regular dental and local pre-school checks, and physical programs (Headstart and disability the 3-4 year old urban Indians examinations. The others) have involved qualify for programs initiation of such good significant numbers of health measures, they rural Indian community such as Headstart, yet only 11% are enrolled stated, would no doubt students, such programs in any.program."61 assure the development suffer little use by of good health Indians in urban Administrators of existing child care maintenance for the communities. This child's family as well. deficiency further programs urged that in defines the need for addition to the need increased opportunity for more adpquate in this area. Pre- funding support, day schools and Headstart programs when properly Enrollment in School for Pre-School A ed Indiens62 instrumented have provided a means to '1, alleviate problems of U.S. Total . language and poor educational adjustment Indian Total of the minority and Urban Total indigent child. Rural Total

NOTE: This table reveals that attend nce ih pre-,-;chooI aye level educational programs fallu be1ow that of U.S. average and notably below ruralIlian averaye.

80 Among special day 2. Day Care Adminis- and tell inaccutate care needs for Indian tration and Policy stories of the American children reported were: Formation. Includes Indians."63 a. Additional audio- parental involvement in Parents indicated a visual equipment some of the day-to-day desire for culture administrative concerns awareness programs for b. speech therapy, Includes community the non-Indian, as well and special education education activities to as for their own programs, involve the Indian children. Several c. psychological parent in a unified parents noted that were community advocacy for services, there sufficient the child care ceater, employment opportunities Among special day as well as for related available on reserva- care program needs educational needs for tions, and were it reports were: his child. possible for their families to have a. Increased parental Ned for Indian Cultur remained in more involvement Awareness in Existing traditional Indian b. employment of communities, the Education Systms education of their Indian staff, and their children would have subsequent upgrading Indian parents note included traditional via formal/informl with much anguish, that education programs in, Indian types of in addition to the education. These child development, i-acial based harassment family living, day care parents, therefore, many of .their children felt that courses about administration, child receive from other health, etc. Indian heritage and students in urban culture, at a minimum, public schools, the It is important to should be incorporated children are often into existing educa- note that the extent of taught by instructors parental involvement in tLonal programming and that are insensitive, requirements in public day care programs in poorly informed about active communities have schools attended by Indian heritage and been two-fold: Indian children. culture, and are Indian- parents and 1. Child service. basically incompetent administrators urged Involves extensive to provide such prompt affirmative communication between services. action in hiring of the child's parents, But instructors and teachers, counselors his instructors, and fellow-student short- and administrative administrative personnelcomings are only a part personnel. They of the center regarding of the problems Indian further urged that the need of the students face--as one schools assume more individual child--his spokesman states: viable roles in seeking educational, healthful "The books within the and eMotional growth. education system still stereotype us, mock us special Indian educa- point out that on- Existing urban Indian tion programs (Johnson- reservation program. education classes O'Malley; Title IV), lack many basic Suppnrt overcro.,:dod, and and in assuring that functions (adequate irc(!uickly fair and unbiased transportation to and indiNfiduals, often textbooks be utilized from classes, child rec(.nt arrivals from in the education of care, etc.) and hay(' reseivatiun communities, their children. relatively high kr-- who dusire to improve Among course pupil costs that ba:tin in English. requirements, other inhibit the full AI; man': c)t, tho:,;t: than cultural heritage utilization and !; I At. er return courseS, Indian parents development of thee to rc,:x'rv:ition!-; nd urged that supplemental programs. 11 return hac:k to courses in Indian Urban Indian adult ,iftcr affairs, and reserva- education program, 1(1:1 : i'f tion policy-making he conversely, though I' '!IL 'HI . 9 11 rht:11 made available. a better position to 1,1!,10 Particular counseling offer more compreht,T! r-rn,:r.11,y; i t_11 need needs include: college supportive service c(A)rinati(in With preparation, financial (child-care, tr,inH:, aide processes ;ilia tation, adult t,dneatiion tribal educational to facilities, Put duc grant processes for instructors, etc.) 01,.r:A-et,l- high school,aged often find therlisl- tio: ofc.,n-rf-;orvation students, as well -as ineligible for P.I.H1- !/(:1-.1 Hilf-it. this sensitive personnel needed BIA fundit';.: I and academic counseling. textbooks, teach(,t expenditures, etc. Adult Education Moods Enrollment in Saool for Indians by Age65 Although many Indians 01611.0.1".=1010 111.1.1.41 migrating to urban PopOation Age 14-17 IP-24 areas from rural Indian Group Age 45-4 Mule fcAale FentiZc communities are recent high school graduates, Tot-i there are still numerous adults in Indian Total urban communities that Urban Total need and desire basic adult education. kural Total Presently, the Bureau of Indian Affairs :4,yrE : Th istil I ,., offers programs in propw t Adult Basic Education on reservations, but positive I- educators in urban the colle,.;e Inaian communities however, ,,,.L; is an rxc,A11-, have ccmv1c,trI 8288 The rate of the fact that those information about enrollment by Indian Indians living in general day-to-day urban youth 14-17 years old rural areas who have living and this is virtually the same completed school have limitation contributes in both urban and rural left rural areas for significantly to areas indicating that urban locations. By feelings of powerless- in both these areas doing so, the overall ness, etc. To some young persons are percentage of high extent the need for remaining in school at school graduates among consumer education the saTe rate. Yet a rural Indians decreases pervades every area of comparison of the years and the percentage amongconcern under of schooling completed urban Indians examination by this by young Indians living increases."66 task force. Particular in urban and rural sections on Housing, areas shows great Legal Aid, Employment, disparity. If the Consumr Education etc. will attempt to disparity is not due to deal with these a greater dropout rate Without a doubt, urbanindependently--but such among rural Indians-- Indians, particularly treatment .cannot be 'and current enrollment those migrating from ' understated in this figures suggest that rural Indian communities, generalarea of concern. they are not dropping possess limited out at a greater rate compared to urban Indians--the imbalance could be explained by

83 Findinos encouraged in existing educational There is an historical .systems. lack of Indian parent B. Educational participation in the Administrators have educational processes urged: of Indian children. 1. That Indian In urban areas Indian adult education people are seldom in a programs in urban and position to meaningfully rural areas influence the particularly those educational policies of servicing bilingual existinp school persons, coordinate systems, as Indian programs where parents form a small feasible and initiate proportion of the urban a sharing of population. resources. A. Parents, in 2. That the addition, have urged: development of 1. That they be policies encouraging be given technical coordinative, rather assistance to enable than competitive the development of efforts between local Indian educational Indian education target programs (JOM, target programs be

Title IV), and instituted. facilitate parept C. A variety of participation in findings, as noted in policy formation and this section (Education) grant processes. ;Ind others, health, 2. That additional 'lousing, employment, facilities for child etc., indicate that care be developed and there is need'among that child health urban Indians for maintenance pr6grams sensitive availability be an integral part of consumer education of child care covering all aspects of programs. urban living. 3. That cultural sensitivity and course relevancy be

84 Health of The American Indian Region VIII Task Force Report

Who Are The American Indians? Information about them In Region VIII, which is sparse but their consists of Colorado, An American Indian is health needs must be Montana, North Dakota, considered if any South Dakota, Utah, and . anyone who declares himself an Indian and impact is to be made Wyoming, there are an is accepted as such by upon the health of estimated 98,000 his peers. Throughout American Indians as a Indians. They live on this paper, the term total group. 23 reservations that "American Indian" will The other half of the are fully or partly be used to include Indian population, located in the region, American Indians, living on reservations, as well as in towfts and Alaska Natives, has maintained much of cities throughout the , Eskithos, and Aleuts. its traditional region. In the Denver The 1970 U.S. Census religion, social metropolitan area there reports that there are or9anization, language are an estimated 8,000 827,000 American and values, and is to 10,000 Indians, a generally described as population roughly Indians in the country." poverty-stricken. (NOTE: The U.S. Census double the official Howeveri it is 1970 Census figure of for 1970 underreported impossible to Make the, number of Indians in 4,348 Indians residing valid generalizations in the Denver Standard the United States.) that will apply to' all However, the term Metropolitan Statistical reservation Indians Area. (See NOTE above.) "American Indian"-does because there are not refer to asgeneti- well-to-do and poor, cally homogeneous group Levels of Problems urban and rural Relating to.Health of people. These dwellers within a people are diverse genetically and have single reservation. Good health results Between reservations widely different from a variety of cultures and there are differences factors such as in climate, general experiences. In sanitation (safe, water addition, persons income, natural and air and adequate recognized as Indians resources and culture. waste disposal) , may have non-Indian adequate protection anceStry. In 1968, from the elements one-third of all births (housing and clothing), classified as Indian nutritionally adequate had one Indian parent.67 food, and an available Approximately one- health delivery system half of American that protects against Indians are living off reservations.

85 Health Services contagious diseases by The second level For Indians immunization, provides deals with some for early detection and specific health needs 4 There are two main treatment of disease, such as dental care, systems for health care provides health family planning and an delivery to Indians. education to promote adequate diet. The The most organized and practices that will third level of prominent of these is prevent diseases, and consideration has to do the Indian Health gives services in a with making the Service. culturally acceptable services accessible and way. acceptable by removing Some American Indians barriers Of distance, Indian Health Service have problems in . culture and poverty. securing any of the Finally there is the The Snyder Act, above conditions. A leciel of very-basic passed in 1921, discussion of Indian problems of sanitation provided for health health problems must and housing. services for all then discuss and make The extensive Indians. However, recommendations about interaction of the since sufficient money levels of problems. various factors in the was never appropriated For example, much of various levels must for service to all the morbidity is due to also be appreciated. Indians, anr poor housing and For instance, poor administrative decision sanitation, which is sanitation and was made that services due to poverty, which crowding combine with would be provided is due to lack of jobs poor nutrition to cause mainly for Indians which is due to the a high rate of living on or near a educational system and infectious disease. reservation. The the clash of Indian and Distances to services legality of this non-Indian cultural and the strangeness of decision has been values. their settings and questioned. There are wide methods mitigate differences in the key against early care. health indices between Late carc increases the

_Indians and non-Indians, likelihood of death or and unique health permanent disability, problems that'seem to reduces the chances of affect Indians much quality survival and more often or severely tends to assure the than other populations. repetition of the cycle This constitutes the of poverty. first level of problems Each of these layers and the health delivery will be discussed in system must attempt to more detail later in address these the report. deficiencies.

qr 86 The Indian Health while the school-age The 712 community Service (IHS) acquired child is served by the health representatives the responsibility for school health program. now working as Tribal Indian Health from the The dental program employees on Indian Bureau of Indian started about 12 years reservations have been Affairs (BIA), ago.on an incremental very helpful in Department of the plan and is making use improving health Interior, in 1955. IHS of dental assistants services. They provide

has a broad range of with extended health education, . health programs and responsibilities. outreach, and education operates hospitals, Since otitis media about sanitation, and health centers, was the.leading they help develop itinerant clinics and, reportable disease resources to meet needs in addition, contracts among Indians in 1970, for transportation and with State and there were special other services. community hospitals, monies-allocated for a Involvement of the public health depart- concentrated attack on Indian community has ments, and private this problem, and each been another emphasis physicians and deutists area office has a of the IHS program. In for care." Nearly special otitis media 1972 there were 30 500,000 Indians receive program." intertribal health care from IHS. IHS, in cooperation committees,8 area The, charge to IHS is with Federal agencies Indian health boards, to plan and implement a such as the Bureau of 200 reservation health total health program. Health Manpower committees, 200 In addition to Education, National community health environmental health Institutes of Health, committ'ees and one, services, acute and and the Office of national Indian Health chronic diagnostic and Economic Opportunity Board. treatment services and (0E0), has been The achievements of health,education involved in training IHS during the past 12 activities, there are a Indians for profession years have been range of other specific and for a variety of impressive. An health programs aide positions. increased budget from including the following: $40 million appropri- The maternal and ated in FY 1955 to child health program $168 million for health includes paternity care activities and $44.5 and family planning, million for with the recent construction of health addition of nurse- care facilities in FY midwives in some 1973 has helped IHS locations to extend and improve its service. augment these services. 'Well-child clinics. provide preventive care for infant and preschool children

87 One indication of physicians, dentists In addition to these improved Indian health and hospitals or public services which help the is the drop in the clinics and hospitals. Indian Secure the infant death rate from The same problems of necessities of life, 62.5 per 1,000 live inaccessibility, the center provides

, births in 1955 to 32.2 impersonal treatment, some help with medical per 1,000 live births eligibility restric- care. Indians are in,1967. During the tions, long waits, referred to medical and same period t.he U.S. frightening dental resources, and infant death rate surroundings, etc., are accompanied to dropped from 26.4. per await the Indian as clinics in local healn 1,000 live births to await all of our departments and public 22.4 per 1,000 live socioeconomically hospitals in order to births. The maternal disadvantaged as they help guide them through death rate for Indian attempt to avail the process of getting women also decreased, themselves of care. medical care. The from 82.6 per 100,000 A few off-reservation center also operates a live births in 1958 to Indians who live well-baby clinic one 33.9 per 100,000 live primarily in urban day a week." births in 1967; the centers have a chance An Indian center was total U.S. rate was to utilize separate established in Dallas 37.6 deaths per 100,000 Indian centers. These about 1969. This live births in 1958 and centers are fairly new center assists Indians 28.0 per 100,000 live to the city scene and in finding employment births in 1967.67 generally provide a and housing, tnus variety of social contributing to some 141,9 a th Ca re f o r seiwices, but basic needs that occasionally have some affect healt,h. The Off-Reservation Indians health services center also provides a Indians living near available. prescheel program and reservations aro most The Denver Indian sponsors a youth apt to get their health Center is funded by 0E0 organization for care from IHS. The and provides a variety Indians. At this time, other off-reservation of social services to no health activities

Indians must use the Indians, especially are provided, although . usual sources of health those who are newly the need is care, including private arrived in Denver. recognized.71 These services include An Indian health referral for job center has been, placement and housing, established in San small loans, ogal Francisco to serve an assistance, free estimated 45,000 clothing, food baskets, fildians in the Ray Area. groceryorders,4sewing and cooking classes, and escorted trips to the welfare department to secure food stamps. (The U.S. Census states Such Indian Cente.rs, Life expectancy for that there were 12,011 then, are beginning to Indians.born in 1967 is Indians in San provide some health about 64 years. This Francisco-Oakland care specifically for is the sameasthe life Standard Metropolitan urban Indians. The expectancyfarall Statistical Area in number of centers, nonwhites,butit is 1970.) The center however, is still very significantly below the provides general health limited. 71 year span for services, including whites.67 Health Problems of dental and emergency The leading causes of care. The staff Reservation Indians death for Indians and rbcently completed a the rates of deaths due health survey and will Morbidity and Mortality to these causes in 1967 publish its findings. Statistics about the are listed below, along In Seattle, Washington ' state of health of with the comparable Indians have American Indians are rates for the total established a health available mainly from U.S. population:67 clinic with space the Public Health donated by the Public Service and cover Health Service Hospital. mainly reservation It is currently funded Indians. from a variety of sources, including the ''CP100,000 State Department oT Health, the Regional tota7 Medical Program, and other Department of All causes Hb3.8 935.7 Health, Education, and Accidents 180.9 57.2 Welfare sources., The Diseases of the heart 140.0 364.5 clinic staff represents Malignant neoplasms 70.9 157.2 a variety of Influenza and pneumonia excluding disciplines--a social newborn 53.5 28.8 worker, two outreach Certain diseases of early infancy 49.4 24.4 workers, a pharmacy Vascular lesions affecting the assistant, two dental central nervous system 48.8 102.4 assistants, a dental Cirrhosis of the liver 38.9 14.1 clinic coordinator, Homicide 19.9 6.8 and a medical clinic Diabetes mellitus 19.4 17.7 coordinator. These Suicide 17.0 10.8 services are augmented Tuberculosis 16.3 3.5 by professional Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis volunteers. In and colltis, except diarrhea of addition, the National the newborn 14.5 3.8 Health Servrce Corps Congenital malformations 13.2 8.3 has provided the clinic All other 181.2 136.0 with a physician, a (NOTE: Rates do not add to totalsshown because dentist and a nurse.71 of rounding.) Accidents are the The Aberdeen, South 'from cirrhosis of the major cause of death Dakota Area Office, liver, the seventh in Indians and a major responsible for Indian leading cause of death, cause of death for all health in a seven- is 38.9 per 100,000 a-s age groups except the State area, reports contrasted to 14.1 per neonate.67At present, mortality from 100,000 for the,total information is not adcidents for calendar U.S. population. avaitable classifying years 1969-71 as Whether the cirrhosis is accidents as to follows: of an infectious origin location, age of or secondary to victims, or circum- alcoholism, it con- stances. stitutes a major cause of death and disability among Indians. Morbidity statistics are available for tha_ 200.0 111.4 88.6 total Indian U.S. (,111 ta(7t.$) 54.2 26.2 28.0 population butnot for MN! age groups. The leading reportable diseases in These data do not The importance of 1968 were, in order of separate, home, highway, diabetes mellitus in frequency; otitis media; and industrial maternity patients and gastroenteritis; strop accidents; motor vehicle its relationship to sore throat, etc.; accidents associated infant mortality is pneumonia, excluding with alcQhol have been being studied at the newborn; inf1uenz,17 mentioned as,the leadingPhoenix Indian Medical gonorrhea; trachoma; cause of death among Center with support chickenpox; mumps; anti, Indians. from the National dysentery, all forms.' The 1967 death rate Institute of Arthritis, The Public Health from diabetes mellitus Metabolism, and Service Orientation among Indians was 19.4 Digestive Diseases and Manual for 1971 lists per 100,000 population, the Indian Health the leading Indian compared to a 17.7 per Service. health problems in 100,000 rate for the While cardiovascular the following order; U.S. total, 17.3 for thediseases are important communicable diseases U.S. white po)ulation, causes of death foe among children, and 20.8 for all U.S. Indians, the rates are accidents, mental nonwhites." To accountmuch lower than for the health, nutritional for the higher rate total U.S. population. deficiencies, alco- in Indian populations Infectious diseases holism, problems of compared with the cause greater aging, and white population, there mortality among Indians environmental health isca. poorly documented than among the total conditions. The but general belief that population. .manual states that most Indians have some It is further illnesses are due to differences from other important to note that races in carbohydrate the Indian death rate metabolism.

90 96 infectious diseases Maternal death rates (gastroenteritis, in the United States dysentery, influenza, show the following pneumonia, tuberculosis, trends for Indians otitis medial trachoma; and other population measles)./3 groupings.°7

Year Maternal deaths per 100,000 live births Indian U.S. total U.S. white U.S. nonwhite 1967 33.9 28.0 19.5 69.5 1966 54.6 29.1 20.2 72.4 1964 74.2 33.3 22.3 89.9 1962 89.7 35.2 23.8 95.9 1960 67.9 37.1 26.0 97.9 1958 82.6 37.6 26.3 101.8

The downward trend the white population, is in maternal deaths in much lower than the rate, the United States for all nonwhites. In is apparent. Maternal 1967 about 8 percent of death rates for Indians the liveborn Indian are generally.two to infants weighed 2,500 three times hi§her grams (5-1/2 pounds)or than the rates for the less compared with 7 white population, percent for whites an4 although they are 14 percent for all significantly lower nonwhites.67 than the rates for all More pertinent to* nonwhites. this report is the following information from IHS concerning low Family Planning birth weight rates:

The low birth weight rate for Indians, while higher than the rate for

Alitamtne1111111104,1mwe Percent low Population Year birth weight Total births Billings Area 1971 6.9 1,051 Aberdeen Area 1971 7.3 3,911 North Dakota 1971 6.3 538 South Dakota 1971 8.2 1,334 Indians, U.S. total 1963-67 7.9 109,134

91 The 1967 infant A comparison with other With this information mortality rate for popu14tion groupings is in mind, we should Indians was 32.2 deaths presented in the consider the major per 1,000 live births. following table: causes of death in Indian infants. The leading cause of death Infant deaths perin the Indian neonate PopuLaZon Year 1,000 live births is immaturity; mortality U.S. Indian tota167 1967 32.2 due to this cause in Neonatal 15.3 1966 amounted to 3.1 Postneonatal 16.9 deaths per 1,000 live births, the same as the U.S. white tota167 1967 19.7 white rate.67 In view Neonatal 15.0 of the relatively low Postneonatal 4.7 percentage of Indian U.S. nonwhite tota167 1967 35.9 infants born at low Neonatal 23.8 birth weight and the Postneonatal 1'2.1 high percentage of deaths in the first 28 Aberdeen area 1967-71 24.8 days due to immaturity Neonatal 12.2 and its complications, Postneonatal 12.6 a careful study of Navaj0110 1966 45.7 maturity of Indian infants at birth should be conducted. Postneonatal death As can be seen, the as white infants and 50 rates indicate the Indian infant has as percent greater than special vulnerability of good a chance as the nonwhite infant,s as a Indian thfants. The white infant of whole..67 Postneonatal followinl, table compares surviving the neonatal death rates for Indian rates for Indian and period (birth througli infants are dropping U.S. total population 27 days). In the post- but still are, much in 1966.67 neonatal period (28 higher than they should days through 11 months), be. Indian infants are at a risk 4 times as great Tstne:)n44: i(7:1q1c te 1,000!vc bipthe Causes 7%, Respiratory diseases 7.1 2.5 Digestive diseases 3.6 .5 Accidents 1.9 .8 Infective and parasitic diseases 1.6. .3 Congenital malformations 1.3 1.1

92 th; k

OEM, pininimin~

The birth rate for Indian cultural values The IHS dental

Indians in 1968 was 38.5may interfere with . program has established per 1,000 population; adequate family planningguidelines for planning, the rate for whites was services and in some setting objectives and 16.6, and the rate f94 tribes there are goals, and carrying out all nonwhites, 24.2.°1 Ireligious or cultural dental care to Indians. The Indian birth rate objections. It is Such programs are based is considerably higher reported that in one on data regarding than,the nonwhite rate. Sioux tribe, a husband epidemiological:factors In 1963 and 1964, a who found that his wife such as climate, study was done at the was taking the pill accessibility, methods IHS Hospital in Gallup, threw the supply away. of water delivery to N.M., concerning the use Nonetheless, Indians are, communities and the of intrauterine-contra- generally well aware of ability to fluoridate ceptive devices (IUD), the need and desira- the water which are The IUD wai demonstrated bility of good family important considera- to be a successful planning. More efforts tions in planning such programs. New method of family need to be made to . .planning for the large provide a full range of careers are being 6 group of women who were family planning services established in the field of dental mainly illiterate and in conjunction with . non-English-speaking general health care for therapy. Efforts are and who were having families, being made to train their first experience the dentist to be the with birth contrgl and manager of a program family planning." Dental Care as well 4§ thd provider In many BIA high of care."About 12 schools, courses on years ago an family life education Dentalcareis a incremental program include information major ne:1 f^r Indians. was started with the about family planning. Surveys showthat youngest children, and In addition, most of among theBlacfeef t' by 1973 most children . these high schools and Fo.l` Blke (v p had been enrolled in a offer Teen-Age Self Indians peroonaid tl maintenance program. Improvemqnt courses and deiseas s iamjaor oral While the dental mental health counseling,health problem andis program is good, there When a school on a the main reason froe th is not enough money to avajo reservation higaeh rt ad nw lo gea extend the service to N at which teeth are attempted to provide all reservation Indians: lost. Gingivitis is family planning common, along with a counseling to teenage high rate of debris girls, however, both accumulation. BIA and parents objected.Virtually all the White Mountain Apache preschool childrin who weresexamined had significant dental disease.72

93 Nutrition In ine Billings area survey of Blackfeetand during 1967-68, there Fort Belknap Indians of were 31 child Montana, the Dakota Malnutrition is inpatients diagnosd Study of eight BIA another health problem as nutritionally boarding schools, and of 'Indians,,especially deficient and 341 cases the study of Alaska The book the children. of anemia in children. Natives showed "Nutrition, Growth and Twenty-four of the deficient intakes of Development of North former cases were vitamin A and C and American Indian attributed to neglect calcium and, except Children" rev.Lewed a by mothers who were among the Eskimos, number of studies on either alcoholic or borderline protein Indian children incompetent. Informa- intakes. diagnosed clinically or tion from the Aberdeen The cause for biochemically as having area revealed a high malnutrition among malnUtrition. The incidence of infant Indians is complex. incidence ranged from and preschool anemia. Eating patterns are .001 percent to 14 Studies show that affected'by food percent of hospitalized other Americans have acculturation, children, with been getting taller limitations in food malnutrition being and heavier with each availability, changes diagnosed as general generation but Indians in breast-feeding malnutrition, anemia or patterns, and poverty. weights below the norm have not. Only experience with good All American Indians, for chronological age. including the Alaska . Nutrition surveys using nutrition wi1l show if American Indians are Natives, have been the norms of the Iowa forced into extensive and Boston Standards currently reaching their genetic potential food acculturation reveal a preponderance because of loss of of children falling for height. Dietary surveys have revealed lands, disappearance well below t4e normal of game, and riunting growth rate." mild to marked deficiencies in the restrictions. New intakes of calories, foods introduced by trading posts as a calcium, riboflavin, vitamin A, and vitatin result of modern food C that were substanti- technology and ally below those advertising campaigns considered to meet have often been low in normal needs. The nutritive values. Flour, sugar, coffee, salt, lard, soda pop, Kool-Aid, candy, and

94 crackers are foods with Another serious The extreme poverty poor nutritive value effect of accultura- of most Indians is that have replaced tion of food habits is another factor in their native foods. Such a the increased use of poor nutritional status. high carbohydrate diet bottle feeding rather The average Indian also has implicatiods than breast feeding. family of five on a for the extent of In Alaska it is common reservation is living dental disease. to breast feed but on an annual income Frequently the frequently only until of below $2,000. Many trading post is the the child is 2 months families are receiving only source of foods, of age. Also, a study welfare but the pay- and fruits and found a substantial ments vary from State vegetables are not number of infants over to State. In Montana available. When'the 12 months of age on the monthly allowance trading post or grocery breast milk or formula for a family of five is store is many miles without supplementary $226 and in Wyoming it. from home, transporta- foods. Navajo mothers is $215. The cost of a tion difficult, and were breast feeding nutritionally adequate refrigeration absent, slightly over one-third low-cast diet is high carbohydrate foods of their infants, and computed at $131.24 per month for a family of are apt to be chosen. . among the Micmac, Welfare recipients may Ojibwa, and Iroquois, five.76- get commodity foods on breast feeding has The consequences of many reservations but declined both in poor nutritionalstatus availability depends on popularity and duration are highlysignificant. current surplus and the with canned milk being With reduced nutrition status, a child is more local administration. . substituted almost The number of foods universal The susceptible to disease, 4eemed surplus is decline in breast and the course of the steadgily. decreasing. feeding,is'a problem disease is apt to be Many of the surplus because Indian mothers more difficult. The foods are unfamiliar to may substituteformula Indians, and if the which is hard to women are not taught prepare sanitarily. how to prepare them, The role of breast ,they will not be eaten. feeding in immunologi- Furthermore, commodity cal development is foods.are generally not still poorly defined. good sources of vitamin Nonetheless it is known A and C. that in developing .as womerr become sophisticated and stop breast feeding, both malputrition and infant mortality increase.76 preschool and school- Thirty-five percent is particularly aged child may reflect lived in houses without important for health. poor nutrition by sanitary facilities. In fact, the combina- retarded growth. Other Another 41 percent tion of unsafe water, complications of states lived in homes with inadequate housing and of chronic undernutri- poorly constructed heating, exposure to tion are lowered energy outhouses. Twenty-two harsh elements, poor and lessened percent had indoor diet and lack of concentration and toilets.. A few information about attentiveness in the families had wells, hygiene results in an learning situation. If usually some distance unusually high the child has had a from their homes.74 incidence of infectious disease within the poor physical and . On the Fort Apache nutritional start, we Reservation in Arizona, Indian population. .. can expect hisachieve- the families of.200 Construction of water ment to be poor. preschool children were supplies and waste studied. Three-forths disposal facilities of the families are included aspart,,of Sanitation and Housing included six or more IHS responsibility." persons; the majority Some major efforts have lived in dwelling units been made to bring On the lower Grease- of four or less rooms. Indian sanitdtion wood Reservation in One-third had indoor facilities up to Arizona, 596 (74 toilets; 85 percent of standard but much percent) of the 808 the families used remains to bedone.77 inhabitants were community piped water, Some efforts had helen studied. The average 11 percent'used water made to provide family size was 5.5 from aprings, streams, adequate housing on the persons; 44 percent-of and lakes; and the reservation but problems .the families lived in remainder from wells, arose. In one instance one-room hogans,29' cisterns or unknown the Indians failed to percent in primitive sources.72 pay their housing notes two-room houses, and 27 The lack of a safe to the Tribal Housing percent in houses of watetmsupply and Authority because they three or more rooms. genefElly poor were 'not used topaying sanitation is a major for housing, and io cause of infection some cases their manifested as incomes were too low to gastroinWtinal pay for housingalong disease." The Indians with their other needs in Region VIII must and wishes. Since this contend with very solution did not work, severe- weather, and for many Indians will them, adequate housing continue to live in unsafe housing with poor sanitationuntil a better solution to providing,housing is found.

*. Many patients have to ' Simply supplying more Welfare payments are adequate housing is not generally too low to depend on hitchhiking the total answer either provide for minimal or costly rides from When.families move to needs. Unemployment neighbors to get to better housing, in March of 1970 for health facilities. rnfamiliarity with the Indians 16 years of age Such dependency new housing and and older was 40 frequently makes it equipment (stoves, percent compared with impossible to keep heating units, sewage the nationa1,4verage of appointments. disposal) causes 4.4 percent.'4 The Rosebud Reserva- accidents. Unfamiliar- Attempts have been tion (s.p.) tried to ity and fear may made to establish small establish a bus system. prohibit the Indian manufacturing and The attitude of the from using the new tourist businesses.on Indians was that this facility effectively, some reservations, service was a tribal thereby negating the but so far this,has not service.and should be solution of the been enough to provide provided for them free . problem for which the the needed number of of charge. They new housing was jobs, especially in therefore refused to .,rovided. For example, the'light of the pay. the fares to fear of using the gas increasing *Indian support the system and heater may mean the population. it failed. Phones are family is still scarce on the reserva- exposed to the cold. tions, although there A number of other Distance and, usually is one avail- problems exist that Communication Problenisable somewhere in each have major and direct of the communities of bearing on the Indian's any size. The accessibility of There are still size- ability to utilize services on the health services. able portions of the reservations is hamperedolder Indian Fopulation by the great distances that'do not'speak Poverty and the communication 'English. Although problems. interpreters are used Underlying the poor in the health facilities, housing and sanitation there may be much lost as well as-many other in the translation. problems affecting Landuage barriers are health care for Indians just an example of the is the problem of cultural differences poverty. As noted. the between Indian users average Indian family and non-Indian providers. .of five on a reservation is living on an annual income of below $2,000. Indian Health Service Problems The monies allotted This isolaiion and fOr hospitalization of lack of cultural patients At off- orientation is apt to The Indian Wealth reservation facilities lead to inappropriate Service has never had is also inadequate. recommendations from enough funds to provide Every effort is made to the health providers all of the necessary utilize Federal to Indian patients. health care to the hospitals (Veterans For instance, the . reservation Indian. Administration, physician may relate a Some well-conceived military, Public treatment schedule to programs cannot be fullyHealth Service) because three meals a day when ,implemented and other of the lower hospital the family pattern does 'needed programs simply per diem cost. not include three regu- cannot be undertaken. At times the attitude lar meals. Some of the facilities of Indian health cannot accommodate personnel, whether they CultdralBarriers additional health staff are Indian or non- that might become Indian, can be detri- There are additional available to increase mental to the services. cultural barriers which acceptability of serviceinterfere with the The staff now When non-Indian staff available to provide effective delivery of members come to remote health care to Indians. health care are quite IHS locations, there is limited in numbers. IHS facilities may seem some orientation strange and foreign to In one instance it is provided as to cultural reported that a single the Indian users. There differences, but this are limited numbers of public health nurse is is not generally given responsible for 9,000 Indians employed in the by Indian employees. health disciplines ,patients. Lack of funds IHS staff are then apt precludes hiring , responsible for deliv- to live in a separate ering care; and, when additional staff, area with superior _professional or sub- Indians are employed, housing and a totally they tend to be at the professional. Recruit- different life style ment of professional nonprofessional and from the Indians they lower-paying levels. manpower is particularlyhave come to serve. difficult because.of theLittle time can be spent isolated and remote in familiarizing the nature of the reserva- physician who is on a -tion locations. Once 2-year assignment with oh the reservations, the local Indian culture INS staff suff.er from bordom and isolation just as the Indians !themselves do. The pending termination of 'the physician draft will kely increase the difficulty of recruiting Aysicians.

.04 There are 38 Indian Furthermore, there may The Indian people have physicians in the Unitedbe some problems. around taken the positiori that Statesl but only four the attitudes of the medical care is a treaty_ wotk for IHS. Basic health professionals right and the respon- hostilities that may themselves, who are sibility of the Federal remain between Indians simply not used to the Government alone, so and non-Indians hinder idea of consumer that rec.Piving health full utilization of involvement in making services from State and services. decisions about health local programs Certainly the IHS has policy. The director constitutes a threat of . made a concerted effort of the National Indian termination to them or to develop a liaison Health Board has another example of the. role by way of the expressed the hope that Federal Government's community health the local boards would shirking ,its representatives. The become more than responsibility. success of that effort advisory. On the other hand, has already been States and local health mentioned. There is programs and particu-. -increased'involvement Jurisdictional Disputes larly State medicaid of Indians in making programs are reluctant tha hard decisions One large additional to extend 'coverage to , around their health set of barriers to the reservation Indians services. More delivery of lwalth care since they also consider intertribal committees to Indians is created themselves as residual and health boards are by jurisdictional resources for Indians. developing but it would disputes. Such jurisdictional appear that many of them The Administration's disagreements have .do not as yet have real policy holds that tended to result in authority, nor do their reservation Indians as failure to maximize members understand bona fide.U.S. citizens limited health care their responsibilities should obtain health resources to the best in terms of deciding on services from State and advantage. Further, health programs. local sources, but that these disputes plus Additional education the Indian Health limited fund's often' must be undertaken to Service is responsible result in IHS pdlicies alhow such bodies to as a residual resource that cause problems for function as policy- for insuring that health Indians. making boards. services are available and provided to Indians. Health Problem et IHS is accused of "red Montana spent $18,414 tape" policies that for hearing aids, care Off-Raservatlon Indians interfere with the of cleft palate utilization of care children, and CC The health prob'ems . when those policies services, primarily for of off-reservation actually are designed hearing problems. In Indians, who are to conserve inadequate Lewis and Clark County, generally in urban dollars. Examples Montana, 56 Indian areas, are very little include apparently families were served in different from the restrictive criteria the Children and Youth problems of reservation for eligibility for ZHS (C&Y) project. In Indians. There are, care, and the North Dakota, 56 however, some areas in requirement for Indians received which differentiation preauthorization when services, which of reservation and an IHS recipient included mastoid urban Indians is not a requires care in a operations, for $13,233; very clear cut one, as non-Indian setting. in South Dakota it is Indian populations move Generally the State estimated that 10 back and forth from *.lealth departments' percent of the CC money urban to reservation maternal and child is spent for Indians; settings. One health programs (MCH) four of South Dakota's consultant told us that have assumed Chat IHS 12 CC clinics are on.or a fairly typical is responsible for and near reservations. In pattern would be as taking care of most of Utah, during'1970, 59 follows: the ba6ic MCH services Indians were cared for An Indian family for reservation Indians in the CC program and moves to an urban in the State. State 2.3 percent of clinic setting, locates crippled children's visits were by Indians housing and a job, and servicd (CC) agencies with an estimated appears to settle down. have provided services expenditure pf $19,000. Often homesickness to reservation Indians In addition, Utah has follows and the family in a number of a contract with San remembers the pleasiknt instances. Juan County for parts of reservation A February 1971 generalized service, living. The family is report indicated that including family then apt to return to the following States planning for the Navajo the reservation, giving spent MCH and CC funds Indians. Wyoming spent up the job and housing for health services to $12,000 for hearing situation. After a Indians; Colorado aids, cleft palate period of time back on expended $15,000 for children, dental health the reservation, the Indians, of which and other services. family discovers that $7.000 was MCH money; the nostalgia is not reality. At that point they accept the advantages of urban !t. living and move back to the city and again have to locate housing and employment.

100 106. Morbidity and Mortality may run into difficul- Indians have reported ties with the usual difficulties in getting efts.. - social service food stamps. They have _ We do not currently resources, e.g., no experience with this have specific statfs- employment placement process on the . tics about the health and job counseling. reservation because of urban,Indians. A First, he does not know food stamps are not number of efforts are that the resources available there, underway to qbtain such exist; second, he is although commodity data. distrustful of the foodi are. The A study conducted in white man's institu- inability to get food the Seattle area found .tions; Und last some stamps may seriously that suddentinfant State social service hamper their getting an death syndrome.(SIDS) directors and adequate diet. occurs up to four times employment department as often in Indian directors do not infants 141 in white proVide services to Transportation and infants." Indians because they Communication think bhat the BIA has Poverty this responsibility. Diatances and trans- Sometimes the Indian portation problems are Because unemployment cannot find a job or is perhaps as real for the is so widespread on laid off, or the off-reservation Indian reservations, many pressures of city life as for those on the Indians go to the break up fithe family. reservations. Health cities looking for jobs The urban Indian now care resources, once and a better life. The faces the many problems located, are apt to be Indian is apt #o be of getting welfare a considerable distance unskilled and the type assistance, such as, away and public and quality of Does he know welfare is transportation in urban education available to available, where it is settings is hardly him has not prepared available, how he can re9ponsive to anyone's him for competition in cope with proving oeeds. Communication the city; therefore, he eligibility? Does the 1.6 easier in the urban can generally expect to welfare department setC.ng as phones are think this is a DIA obtain only low-paying generally available. ' jobs. responsibility? Is.the The urban Indian The Indian needs help worker prejadiced? In community, thogh in finding a job and many instances, if an scattered, sets up an Indian applies to an effective person-to- agency for assistance, person communication he is reffered to system. another agency because of the misconception that Indians receive special privileges from the Federal Government and are nmehow taken care of." Housing Obtaining Health Care to prove eligibility and to cope with part- payment mechanisms. The low-income urban The Indian who comes In addition, he has the Indian may have as much to live in the city new experience of difficulty in buying faces new problems in mingling with patients adequate housing and seeking health dare. of other ethnic groups may face similar Familiar with receiving and may be additionally problems with sanita- free health services handicapped with tion, safe water supply, from IHS facilities, he transportation problems ard unfamiliarity with must now learn to find and language new equipment as his a physician and buy difficulties. brothers on the health services. Long waits in clinics reservation. In Finding a satisfactory and the impersonality Addition, the urban physician in a new city of the clinic staff are Indian may face racial is a problem for many complaints of the urban prejudice in finding U.S. citizens. Indian. He may also housing. In March 1973 The indigent Indian become confused about a Denver TV station usually does not use .jurisdictional showed a documentary Medicaid because of his boundaries for delivery entitled "Why Did lack of knowledge about of service, such as the .Gloria Die?" The this source of possibility of being heroine of the story, assistance, his feax of 'eligible for services Gloria, had been on the white man's if he lives on one side welfare and her friends institution and because of the street but not told of inadequate heat/of pride. He may find if he lives on the rain that leaked in, it difficult to prove other. electricity that was eligibility, and the turned off, and other welfare agency may problems. Other think he is ineligible Cultural Barriers Indians recounted because IHS is taking 'stories of being care of him. Most off-reservation turned away when If the Indian goes to and some reservation looking for housing if a public facility, he Indians must use the "Indian-looking" must learn to use private hospital husband accompanied the identification cards, facilities. The staffs wife on the house- to respond to questions of urban hospitals are hunting trip. The about income and usually completely settings for this expenditures in order unknowledgeable about telecast were cultural differences, Minneapolis, Detroit/ community resources/ and the midwestern and special Indian region.' needs. Consequently the services offered .may not be acceptable to the Indian user.

1 102 . (18 Medical practice in the who leave. Some tribal for private care. United States in health leaders have Additional problems private offices and voiced strong opposi- that students have particularly in clinics tion to IHS having to related include the is characterized by pay,for care for the difficulty of getting impersonality, long members who are no' eyeglasses, dental waits.for service, and longer on the care, and phychiatric brief explanations. reservation when those services. Such For the Indian, whose funds have to come from problems are obvious life Style is based on the contract health barriers to the interpersonal relations services budget. On maximum utilization of this can mean cultural the other side, of educational opportuni- shock. course, the Indian who ties by Indian has left the reserva- students. tion may need this Jurisdictional Disputes coverage to obtain care. There seems to be a Suggested Solutions to Jprisdictional great deal-of confusion Indian Health Problems disputes, already about Indian students . mentioned above, who gre eligible for The first suggested further disrupt the IHS coverage but availability of health solution to Indian apparent,ly are expected health problems is that care for the urban to- return to IHS Indian. Indian people be facilities for such . maximally involved in There are some . care. Some IHS staff signiificant problems the identification of may feel that students the health problems, . concerning payment by who are away from the their causes and IHS for care provided reservation are not to patients who have alternative solAtions. full-time residents Experts from various left the reservation. eligible for IHS care. As a matter of fact, Federal agencies, such The students themselves as IHS and other one tribal affairs have great difficulty officer stated that components of the in getting transporta- Department of Health, there is a definite tion,to service units polarization im regard Education, and Wel1are,, for health care, and Ahe Department of to use of IHS dolars may not be able to pay between Indians .who Housing and Urban . remain on the Development, the U.S. reservation and those Department of Agriculture (USDA), and others, should provide their expertise in exploring with the Indian people the relationship of various levels of problems to deaths for age About 8 percent of the poor hpalth status groupings. Such liveborn Indian infants of Indian people. The information would allow weighed 2,500 grams or Indians themselves, the development of a less compared with 7 with this additional specific accident percent for whites and expertise available, prevention effort to 14 percent for all should establish curb this major cause nonwtites, as noted. priorities among the of morbidity and Although.this low birth specific health mortality among Indians. weight rate does not problems to be remedied seem unduly high, and participate in Indian infants have a decisions about which Morbidity and Mortality significant neonatal alternative solutions death rate due to will be attempted. The special efforts ipmaturity and Some of the problems to combat otitis media prematurity. There identified in this should be continued. needs to be some report are not yet Other causes of careful assessment of fully explored or morbidity tend to be clinical gestational understood. Continued due to infectious . status and comparison efforts to understand diseases which are with estimated the problems and tn aggravated by the poor gestational age to try formulate solutionb living conditions, to determine the true should,be an ongoing crowding, lack of incidence of immaturity activity. health information, and in Indian infants who limits of available and may have larger than acceptable care. expected birth weights Accidents Suggested solutions for for gestational age. these problems are Maternity patient's In view of the presented later in this carbohydrate metabolism prominence of accidents section. should be carefully as the major cause of explored in view of the .death for Indian fact that infants of populations, we diabetic mothers are recommenftd that area apt to weigh more than offices, service,units expected for gestation- or urgin Indian centers al age but are less do a major study of the mature than expected. indidence of accidents, The reported high breaking them down into incidence of SIDS home, motor vehicle and should be documented industrial accidents for Indians. Efforts And specifically studying the nature of accidental injuries and to inform 1HS staff and group whiCh most 2. Significantly the Indian people about readily responds to increase the health SIDS and its nature preventive measures. care dollars so ttlat would be particularly In countries which acute care needs can important if there are place a high value on 'continue to be met excessive numbers of the child, as well as while MCH program is Indian infant deaths on the benefits of strengthened. from this cause. All prevention, maternal 3. Maximize the help-givers who are apt and child health acceptaNlity, to come in contact with services form the basic accessibility, this situation need to structure around which appropriateness, and know the fpcts about additional family availability of MCH SIDS so as to dispel health services are services to Indian the guilt associated established. families. with such unpxplained Since we are address- deaths. As research ing the needs of a 4. Eliminate boarding progresses to define low-income population schools in the interest the cause or causes of who can look back on of mental and probably SIDS there should be generations of physical health. It is' particular efforts to deprivation, it is generally agreed that apply the research important to assist the children, especially findings to Indian Indian population in young children, fare populations. strengthening their better living in family ,basic MCH program. As units with their in developing countries, parents where they can Strengthening Maternalsuch a program should receive protection, be. the most inclusive love and guidance from and Child possible and should be ' parental figures. Health Services undertaien second only Institutional settings to improved sanitation are generally Special emphasis . detrimental. should be placed on the and adequate water health care for mothers supply. An MCH program 5. Include family and children because improvement might well life educlation in its "prevention is the most require the following: broadest sense in the logical and economical 1. Reorder priorities curriculum of all approac4 to health in IHS so that maternal school children from care,"19 While- and child health kindergarten through mothers and children activities make further secondary school. Such are affected by impgct on Indian content must include whatever affects the morbidity and mortality information about good health of the family health habits and attitudes, human and the total popula- . tion, and though the relationships, adult biological demands of responsibilities, reproduction and of parenting skills, etc. growth and development make them especially

vulnerable to health ' haiards, they are the J'Amillmimmisormnow 105 e..Z 11 As with.all such course Nurse-midwives may also Nutrition work, there must be be used to provide Indian involvement in family planning Malnutrition is a . the design, content.and counseling to both men significant problem in teaching. Tribal and women, and to, Indian populations on councils, school boards provide supervision of the reservations. Here and other influential interconceptional care. are some suggestions . groups should decide on for improving nutrition: how much of the Dental Health Services' 1. Foods should be made traditional Indian . mere readily available culture is taught and in an acceptable thow much non-Indian The incremental care fashion to the,Indian culture is transmitted. program in IHS should on the reservation. Ideally, the content be continued. Services should recognize and might be expanded by a. Provide informa- build on the strengths purchasing fluoridation tion to the parents of the Indian heritage. equipment and install- about infant and ing it for the water child nutrition. *6. Expand and add supplies of communities This could be done by nurse-midwifery schools and health programs to hospital facilities that house representatives or staffs and field children. Topical nutrition aides who services. Nurse- fluoride applications are taught counseling midwives are excellent might be expanded to on foods and sources of additional reach children not nutrition, or by health manpower to work presently being served nutritionists. with physicians and by the fluoridation b. Make available on other professional efforts. Dental care personnel in providing might also be expanded the reservation the naternity care, newborn to serve expectant foods necessary for good nutrition, services and health mothers. Counseling. particularly fruits, vegetables, milk and eggs. Provide Family Planning adequate transporta- tion so that these Men and women should foods can be carried be educated about home without spoil- family planning. Some ing, and provide ,family planning methods refrigeration at home are more useful for so that the foods can certain populations be properly stored. than others. Therefore/ Further suggestions a variety of medically will be made in the Sound and cu4turally sections on trans- acceptable methods portation and should.be made aimil- sanitation and shils to Indian couples. housing. c. Probect indigenous preparation." 3. Since breast feed- foods by various ing is decreasing in f. Require enrich- popularity amongb legal and program- ment and/oi matic approaches." Iadian women and this fortification of decline may be An example of this is foods commonly protecting Indian implicated in excessive distributed and sold gastrointestinal hunting and fishing onreservations." rights, and disease in infancy, protecting the g. Indian tribes ways of encouraging and survival of the should be made enhancing breast species which the eligible for Federal feeding for more Indian hunts and programs that are adequate periods of fishes. now available to time should be States. Examples undertaken.76 There d. Expand Head Start include welfare should be more , and school food. assistance and food additional and careful programs, which have stamp programs. investigation of the undoubtedly improved role of breast feAdlng the nutrition of 2. Another set of suggestions has to do in avoiding milk Indian children, to allergy, gastrointes- include free with eliminating poverty on the tinal disease, and breakfasts and .infection. Of course, 'lunches in all reservation (see also the section on poverty).in order to make schools with a sub- breast feeding stantial number of a. Expansion of the successful, the Indian students. available income for mother's diet has to e. Consider transfer food, for both be nutritionally of.the responsibility reservation and adequate. .for Federal food nonreservation assistance programs Indians, might be from USDA to DHEW. possible through the

. The .White.House department of Conference 4M Food, cooperatives of Nutrition and Health buyers' clubs and by made this suggestion the use of home with the hope that gardens. pliEW,could better b. Reduce.the cost assure that foods orpurchased food on available through the the reservations by commodity food law and regulate the program would be prices and profits chosen on the basis of traders. of nutritional needs, cultural patterns and the facilities avajlable for".home Transportation and Sanitation and Housing be available to help families learn to Communkation The problems involv- manage improved Many of the trans- ing sanitation and housing so that new portation and housing are difficult heating apparatus, communication problems for the reservation ' refrigerators, and of Indians on Indian to solve. other unfamiliar reservations result Increased income could features are not left from the fact that make it possible for unused or do not become Indians live scattered Indian families to buy hazards to families. over' wide areas. This better housing with was not the dustom for safe water and many Indian tribes adequate sanitary Poverty before contact with the facilities. It would white man, but was appear to be important Poverty is obviously a major, overriding instituted in a futile for IHS to continue its and unsuccessful efforts to make safe barrier to health care in general. Solutthns attempt to make water supplies and farmers out of Indians. sewage disposal systems to poverty have evaded our society for a very Before this effort was generally available to made, many tribes reservation Indians. long time. Nonetheless, one simple solution for lived and travelled Community health together in communal representatives or eliminating poverty which has been tried fashion. Larger sanitation aides do and communities of Indian can continue to play an in the United SCates, populations WOuld important role in is to simply give each result if adequate educating Indians.about citizen the basic necessities of life, jobs and industries proper sanitation and were developed on the i.e., housing, clothing safe water supplies. resrvations. and food. If this is Additional financing If Indians lived in by, and increased not possible or not acceptable to reserva- larger communities, cooperation with, HUD telephones would be is a possible route to tion Indians, efforts should be made to more readily available improvement in housing. and communication Perhaps a housing co-op improve the income of the Indians by problems would be could be developed on lessened. Transporta- reservations with maximizing their employment and by tion, too, would be a construction done by much less severe the Indians who are- increasing the welfare allowance to cover the problem as many of the trained in these skills. necessary services for Community health basic needs. . Indians would be representatives or readily available in homemaking aides should the communities. 4 4

Indian tribes and othek activities, whether Also, the Department of tribaf councils should individual or group, Transportation, as a be approached as to private of govern- member agency of the . their attitudes in this mental, etc. With Federal Regional regard, but a solution this information, some Council, should be will require major different ways of involved in seeking' undertakings around capitalizing on means of obtaining or develapments,of. existing transporta- leasing buses for industries anajobs on tion availability reservation transporta- the reservation. might be possible. tion systems. If it is not possible For instance, there Priorities need to be or acceptable to are certain existing set up through a increase the number of vehicles that travel feasibility study. ,Indians living in on fairly set schedules Such a study would take communities, another including commercial into consideration such solution for the major delivery tiucks, school factors as the transportation problem buses, and mail trucks availability of roads, is suggested. A and other Federal apcatiotis of MC thorough study .of the vehicles. Such a study facilities, existing current transportation might also have patterns of transporta- problems, methods, implications for the tion for patients facilities and patterns times at which services without private means, should be made for a are offered. etc. The Health natural servic.e area. An alternate Program Systems Center This study should not suggestion is that the in Tucson,. Arizona, concentrate on model of a bus trans- can serve as source transportation patterns portation system used for information with for health care, but on the Papago respect to conducting should include all of Reservation in Sells, surveys on the transportation Arizona, 65 miles from reservations. Tucson, be reviewed for applicability or adaptability to other reservation settings.

109 Indian Health Service Problems Professional staff There have been some working on reservations poorly documented The Indian people need particular efforts allegations about may wish to consider made on their behalf so Indians having very the pros and cons of that they can maintain significant complaints participation in a their professional about the health care national health expertise. Travel they receive but being insurance plan sometime costs and time off to afraid to report those in the future. If such attend postgraduate complaints. In-view insurance provides for education courses, of the fact that adequate payment for workshops and seminars Indians are totally health services for are important. Another dependent on IHS for everyone, this would suggestion is that more their health care, relieve the problem of continuing education such fear is ceitainly inadequate funds for be taken to IHS understandable. There buying and providing facilities from the should be an increased, health service. IHS medical centers. specific effort on the could then continue to These types of part of IHS staff to be the health delivery opportunities could establish complaint syst. 4 and be paid help combat the and grievance under the national plan recruitment and mo4ale mechanisms. Grievances rather than by special problems of IHS can be heard, appropriation.. employees who live and investigated and An alternate work on the corrected in such a suggestion is that reservations. Better way that both sides sufficient appropria- morale and less learn and gain from tions be made to IHS so loneliness and the experience. that comprehensive boredom should result health serVices can be in better healtn 'provided for all Indian services to reserva- Cultural Barriers people living on the tion Indians. reservation. The non-Indian IHS There are, as Staffing is a serious staff need an adequate indicated, major problem for INS. The orientation to the cultural barriers to staff might be more local Indian culture. Indians fully easily recruited and This orientation should utilizing IHSesources. retetined if they were be by Indians and it The orientation of offered special pay should include non-Indian IHS staff categories for hardship introduction to will he/p to ccirrect locations, additional 4.mportant members of some of these barriers. amthorized leave for the community. Only In addition, it Cs ongoing education and with this kind of iMPortant that Indian sicre vacation time then sensitization will IHS health workers such as is normally allowed. staff be able to community health provide acceptable representatives or services to Indians. medicine men participate in the education of the Once educated, these children who are patient. Medicine men organizations should residents of the State. are respected by many be put in truly An alternate solution Indians for their policy-making is for the responsible ability and work in positions. It should health agency to make close partnership with be mandatory that their the serVices available physicians. In some decisions be carried to the reservation ihstances, additional out as long as they just as it makes those training is currently are not inappropriate services available being provided to ones requiring medical throughout the rest of thedicine men. expertise. the State. This has Indian involvement recently been done in the delivery of care by the Montana State must be increased. Jurisdictional Disputes Department of Health Young.Indians should be and Environmental encouraged to study to Additional services Sciences in two become health could be provided for reservation areas. professionals or reservation Indians if Other Medicaid paraprofessionals. State agencies worked provisions should be In order to do this, together for made available to more Indian educators maximization of the eligible reservation will need to use Indian availa3le services to Indians, just as they role models fpr Indians. For are made available to children and youth. instance, IHS should other residents. Indians who are in work closely with the It is important that health delivery roles State Medicaid clear-cut statements should have decision- agencies to assure of eligibility be made making responsibility that the early and for health services wherever possible'. periodic screening, and the responsi- There is more Indian diagnosis, and bilities of IHS, State involvement today in treatment are health departments and decisions about total availablo to Indian other health agencies. health care by way of children who are Indian people shoUld eligible ,c)r Medicaid, have a voice in the Indian health just as these required- boards, councils and establishi.ng these services are available policies, and should committees. Individual to other eligible members should be be adequately informea gitten extensive about the policies eduaation.in the role once they are and function of such established. organizations. DHEW could perhaps provide some expertise in this effort, either directly or by contract. recommends Federal State health EIA should continue to expand its program funding for urban center department staffs enclaves built near should consider the .for.Indian relocatees. towns and smaller health needs on This pro-ram includes reservations as th6y thorough medical, cities. Such centers assess total needs in physical and would provide training and employment place- the State. The Indian psychological examina- people and IHS should tions, employment ment and should include close then be involved in assistance and coordination with decisions about whose accurate, practical dollars will be used orientation for urban Indian urban centers living. BIA should and individual tribes. in what way to address An example is the the needs that are continue to monitor the adjustments of Indian Sioux City Indian found. relocatees and Center which is a focal Tribal councils are point for coordination 'probably eligible for provide arrangements with health personnel of employment, housing, more HEW grantsfor education, and related health services for their counseling. These activities should activities for Indians delivery than we in four States. As tribal be continued until the realize. relocatees and tribal This center was councils and Indian established in 1969. health boards increase authorities determine to discontinue them. To help the non- their capability and reservation Indian get authority, they will Vine Deloria, Jr., Sioux health care, the use be in a better position a Standing Rock Indian, past ExecUtive of already existing to make use of such health facilities grants. Director of the National Congress of should be maximized. American Indians, This would include, an Special Problems of believes the future of agency such as BIA or Indian affairs lies an Indian center making Off-Reservation Indians with the urban Indian. the relocated Indian He stresses that one- aware of the health half of American Indiansresources available to First of all, the him and effecting needed Indian who leaves the already live in citie's and more are expected referrals. In addition, reservation and goes members of the Indian to the city needs a because there are more jobs and opportunities center or BIA could skill that will permit accompany Indians to, him to earn a decent in the city as contrasted to the the health facility living. !HA and the and guide them through -Office of Education repervation. Deloria might cooperate in working out plans for job training experiences for urban the strange process. iervices miqht be more regional office to The provider staff acceptable.to Indians. provide liaison could roceivo some If an Indian loses between other health inserviec education his job.or is unafile service agencies and about the culture of to work, he should be the Indian Health Indians, their health able to receive public Service. The liaison needs, problems and assistance. State and officer would serve on community resources. local welfare directors the staff of the It would also help if should be advised that regional health direc- clinics and hospitals Indians are eligible tor, with direct would hire Indians, for welfare resPonsibility for who could be trained allowances, and the. drawing the health the same way as Federal agency should ,interests of the community health monitor the local regional office and representatives to do agencies to see that IHS closer together. outreach ahd Indians receive the He would also be interpretation to both help.to which they responsible for the Indian patient and are entitled. If seeking, gookdinating, health facility staff. Indians are able to and facilitating It would be most get public assistance, health services that .helpful if Federal they would also be can be integrated agencies carefully eligible for Medicaid. with other funding monitored any bhealth This Regional Office sources. facility receiving receives many calls He would work Federal funds to see urgently requesting directly with State that Indiarrs are given help in locating ahd health departments, the services to which paying for health care. medical centers, and they are entitled and The large number of voluntary health that those services calls and inquiries organizations in are given in courteous warrants consideration highlighting the and helpful ways. of special' needs of Indians for Another suggestion appropriations to service, discussing is that.separate pay for emergency their dpecial health facilities for health care, cultural problems,and Indians be established. particularly hospital helping social These facilities could care, for urban agencies who work with be in connection with Indians when no other Indians become aware an Indian center or source of funds can of health resources. urban Indian enclave, be found. There is a need to .

.or theY may be free- provide such a T standing. regional focal point The service-, offered Coordination of Services to work with the would be those generally Regional Councils in needed for good , Within the Department matters involving ambulatory health of Health, Education, health services for care. Funding would and Welfare a full- all Indians. ob7iously be a problem, time position has been Mit such separate planned for each

113 Health Excerpt From AmericanIndian Policy Review CommissionReport

Urban Indian health General lack of addition, testimonies care needs, as many information am9ng the indicate Indians may other problems facing non-Indian community hesitate to use Indians, echo those of about Indians living in existing facilities the ruralIndian.81 urban or rural non- because of language Need for additional reservation communities barriers, limited facilities, doctors, often results in knowledge about medicine, general similar referrals of available services, health information and Indians who have lived alternative methods of care is high. The off-reservation for payment and health urban Indian, however, most of their lives, insurance programs, etc. does not have the same and has even included Existing health care access to existing those carrying health facilities in urban health care facilities insurance. areas, city, state and as his rural counter- Generally, new Indian county, have not worked part, as many of the arrivals to urban areas with Federal Indian facilities have been are unfamiliar with Health Services centralized on or near existing health agencies to assure reservation communities facilities and are general Even these are remote uncertain as to cooperation in services, for rural Indians. whether they are particularly in Testimonies have eligible for duch identifying urban indicated that, health services. These Indian health needs, paiticularly in off- Indians are often much less preparing a reservation areas local reluctant to go to ,comprehensive approach non-Indian health local hospitals because to meeting these needs. Without a doubt the , service hospitals are of financial barriers reluctant to accept until they are within identification of urban Indian patients fOr means of visiting an Indian health care '-feir they will not Indian health facility needs is crucially receive payment and and so they usually lacking. Indian frequently.refer most wait, risking more agencies interested in patients to distant serious illnesses in assuring services to Indian hospitals if the process. In Indians in urban cash or financial communities are finding responsibility cannot it difficult to obtain be verified. specific needs state- ments from existing

114 . 20 heilth agencies. Indian persons Pervading the many

. Indeed, as most testifying at hearings Indian health problems agencies attempting to conducted by this task in urban areas, and service Indians in, force indicate that', rural areas, is the urban areas, it has particularly in off- need for additional been difficult to reservation border employment of Indian accurately determine towns, alcoholism personnel, and such basic-data as the treatment-centers are alternatively, the need current urban Indian far from adequate. to inform key personnel population figure. Current alcoholism in existing city, (See section under control methods involve county and state Housing relating to little or no thera- facilities about Indian problems of enumerating peutic services and the health problems, Indian a highly transient. problem drinker is left rights to services.' population.) to face repeated Some urban Indian incarcerations, fines health agencies, often and release with little Findings a board of representa- opportunity to examine tives from boards-of alternatives. Local Urban Indian health various health agencies governments of many needs have gone largely and Indian people from off-reservation border unassessed, other than the urban communities, towns limit the baslc assumptions that bave instrumented development of the health problems of general health facilities and programs urban Indians.are education programs because they feel that similar to those of which, through vehicles subh care must be a rural Indian communi- such as the Indian responsibility of the ties and those of Community Health Indian Health Service reservation communitiei. Representatives, or or feel they lack Existing off- other combinations of jurisdiction to deal reservation health paraprofessionals and with such social agencies have not, for outreach workers, have . problems. Again, there the most part, assumed succeeded in providing is lack of adequate and responsibility toward the urban,Indian with. specific coordination either assessing or information about of efforts. meeting Chisgecific existing agencies and health needs of urban about basic health Indians. maintenance in areas of nutrition, prenatal and postnatal care, etc. .The need for additional alcoholism treatment centers cannot be overlooked..

115 (.111Erraw Relevance of Indian Life to Civilization

by Frank Mc 'Amore by our highways, Literature, Music &Arts railroads, and canals.83 Americans have copied their dress,and not only As Rome hid its debt in the fringed buckskin American Indians to the Etruscans, of Daniel Boone. From have influenced Americans have the Indians, Americans Americans' literature obscured its inheritancelearned to substitute far beyond Coopert's from the Red Man. long pants for knee Mohicans and Anthropologists know breeches;, American women Longfellow's Hiawatha that acculturation borrowed their feathers 'which is the alleged proceeds in both and paint,*and to wear national truest epic. directions when two Edna Ferber', Hamlin their moccasins, their ' societies are in any parkas and ponchos.84 Garland, Helen Hunt kind of contact and Their beads and bells Jackson and pliver that even a conquered are popular with hippies.La Farge are a few people help to shape Americans learned to among many who have the destiny of their smoke their tobacco fild portrayed the Indian overloads. "North eat their food; the in novels. Thomas Americans have tapioca oUthe Amazon, Wolfe and Ernest FIRIEtirTIFFIR the beans, avocados, Hemingway used Indian European level with pineapples, chocolate, themes in short tWe ctest posscble peppers, and cranberries,stories, while Philip pur tan sm, wrote squashes and pecans of Freneau, John Neihardt, psychiatrist Carl Jung, North America. The Lew Sarett and Walt "yet they could not pemmican of the Plains Whitman glorified them prevent the souls of Indians has served as in poetry. 86 Indian their Indian enemies food for antartic mythology constitutes from becoming theirs."82 explorers. From the America's most For our own benefit, Pexican Indians, authentic American Jet us resurrect some Americans borrowed folklore. Appropriate- lost truth. chewing gum, tamales, ly, the first Bible 41 Indians picked the chili and tortillas, printed in this country sites now occupied by from North American. was in an Algonquian many of our great Indians, hominy, language, John Eliot's cities and plotted the succotash, corn pone Indian Bible of 1663. trails and canoe and popcorn.85 Indians,have portages which are influenced composers followed to this day of music; imong those indebted to them are: Charlps Wakefield -C3dman, Anton Dvorak, La Fonda Hotel in made their reputation Anton P. Heinrich, Santa Fe and Moshe with Indian subjects Victor Herbert, Safdie's Habitat at are: Carl Bodmer, Thrulow Lieurance, Expo '67 in Montreal. ,George Catlin, Harvey W. Loomis, Willard Carl Kruger's Frederick Rooington, Edward A. McDonwell New Mexico State House and Alfred Miller. and Charles S. is in the shape of the Americans borrowed Skilton.87 Zia Sum Symbol. Frank Indian inventions and Indian arts and Lloyd Wright acknow- even used their names designs have ,ledged Eis debt to the for many of them; . influenced America's Maya-and incorporated canoe, kayak, Pirogue, .arts; jewelry, home their themes in some cigar, hammock, and decorations, and of his buildings. Of toboggan. Americans architecture.88 Not their temples; he use the Indian's only did early wrote: "A grandeau snowshoeg, cradleboard, settlers initiate the arose in the scale of rubber, pipe, and Indian wigwam and total building never cigarettes. Some of palisade, but the army since excelled, seldom the American youth modified the Plains equalled by man either play lgcrosse and tepee into the Sibley in trutli of plan or other games which tent. Today a simple integrity of evolved from Indian 'prefabricated vacation . sports.92 Indian lore. meform."99 =MI. home .in the shape of a Not only was the enlivens the program of tepee, called Wigwam Indian a sculptor, but youth organizations. 7009 has been marketed he has inspired Indian dance clubs and by the National Design American sculptors as craft groups composed Center in Chicago. The well. Leonard of white adults are Quenset hut, which is Crunelle, Malvin flourishing in the U.S. widely used where Hoffman, Ivan and in Europe.93 Indian simplicity is demanded, Mestrovic and Lorado themes are in the has both an Indian Taft are among those children's toyS and name and Indiandesign who have portrayed Buckminster Fuller's the Indian in stone "Geodesic,Dome" is an and bronze.91 "Let aboriginal wigwam us not forget that covered with metal or authentic American glass instead of bark. creationthe cigar Modern skyscrapers store wlndow Indian!" copy the terraced Among painters who setback of the Maya. Pueblos Adobe bricks became the white man's ,building material in the Southwest. The cube style of the pueblos appears in the

117 juvenkle literature. Because of fancy or Americans plant, Indians have long been Indian usage, other Cherokee roses, Catawba important in the movies, words have been used grapes, Pima cotton, as they were earlier on like Indian paint and Black Hawk the stage,94 but it has brush, Indian pipe, raspberries. Americans only been recently that Indian turnip, drive Pontiac and thiy have been portrayedmoccasin flower, papooseCherokee Chief cars, pn the screenwith root, and vine. ride in trains called sympathy and dignity, inAmericans use their "The Chiefn and films like Broken Arrow, words for topographic "Hiawatha." Americans Devil's Doorway and features such as call their athletic dheyenne Autumn. muskegs, bayous, and teams: Black Hawks, savannas, and speak of Braves, Illinie hurricanes and chinook Redskins, Warriors,. Names & Languags winds. Red man taught and Indians. There s Americans toiay are Cayuse and Indian'people have !-3och, okay, punk, and Appaloosa ponies and enriched the language pewee. From them came Malemtite dogs. of Americans. Their borrowed terms such as Indian words have words are used for caucus, tammany, been used to name animals: cariboup, pow-wow, mugwump, twenty-seven States, chipmunk, cougar, podunk, and tuxedo. four great lakes, and coyote, jaguar, Other commonly used many mountains and manatee, moose, words or phrases, like rivers, to give as oppossum, racoon, "Buck," "bury the Menchen said, "IA skunk, and woodchuck. hatchet," "go on the barbaric brilliancy Trees carry their warpath," "Indian to the Americanmap."96. names: catalpa, Summer," "Indian and four of its chinquapin, hickory, giver," "Indian File," and two of papaw, pecan, "great white Vath9r," its territories have persimmon, Sequois, and "warpaint,"9have Indian names, as do ten

Tamarack and Tupelo. connections to the Red . nations in Latin Some sixty plants have Man. America. Indian words Indian words used to were used to name name them including cities like: Chattan- ;16ohosh, puccoon, ooga, Chicago, pipsisseaw and poke. Kalamazoo, Kenocha, Keokuk, Kokomo, Mankato, Miami, Milwaukee, Muncie, Muskegon, Omaha, Oshkosh, Paducah, Pawtucket, Peoria, Sandusky, Schenectady, 6 Seattle, Sheboygan, r!"

Spokane, Tacoma, The Indian Imdianw are mentioned Tallahassee, Tucson, in the Declaration of & Political History , Tulsa, Waco, and Indeyendence, the Articles of Wichita.. Some of. The Indian is an their names were Confederation, the important ingredient translated into Northwest Ordinance, colorful English and of America's political the U.S. Constitution, French equivalents history. The colonial the Constitution of like Bad Axe, Battle charters speak of the Confederacy, and Creek, Des Plaines, Trade and Conversion in numerous and Fond du Lac. as objects of the presidential messages colonizers. The Indians brighten the (Y2.11X...0A5.12E11- advertising field. Indian presence was a Indians are on record Totem Poles invite you spur to efforts at with having at least to Alaska and the Colonial Union, from five treaties-with Indian calendar store the New England foreign powers,Sf calls one to Mexico. Confederation to the have 372 treaties with Indians are featured Albany Congress.. The the U.S., and over in the advertising of Iroquois Alliance 4,000 laws have been the Santa Fe and Great helped to defeat the passed pertaining to Northern Railroads, Fr-nch and Indians the Indians. Several and in the tourist were significant government agencies advertising of many participants in all are involved with the States. The Indian is colonial wars, and Indians. on the baking soda can, later ones, both as Montaigne, Rousseau, on a box of corn friends and foes. and Jefferson paid starch, on chewing Their rebellion under tribute to the Indian tobacco, patent Pontiac in 1763 won capacity to organize medibines, and many the royal proclamation human affairs in the other products. choosing the West to libertarian manner. Indian names are used settlement, and . The Iroquois developed as trade marks: Black launched a chain of a system of Hawk meats,'Cherokee events leading to confederated govern- garment, Pequot sheets, America's independence. ment which, according Sioux tools, Wyandotte to Benjamin Franklin Chemicals and Navajo served as an example truck lines. The for his Albany Plan of Indian is on coins and Union,98 and stamps. An aztec eventually for the legend is pictured on Articles of the MeXican Flag and Confederation. Felix Indian symbols Cohen has lashed the decgrate'the State assumption that our Flag of New Mexico and democracy was born in Oklahoma. Greece: ...it is out of a rich Indian

119 democratic tradition isms the "rebel yell" Indians are few in -"that the distinctive in the Civil War and number and lived a political ideals of Tristom Coffin says,: largely separate life, American life emerged. "We even put the Pow- they cannot point to a Universal suffrage for Wow on, large number of such women as for men, the We dance the night persons.' In athletics, pattern of States before we fight, however, fame came to 1 within t State that we Republicans, Democrats,Jim Thorpe, Louis ball federalism, the football teams Tewomiom, Don Eagle habit of treating With red hot songs and Charles Albert Chiefs as servants of build up their Bonder. In military the people instead of night.11100 service, there are their masters, the The predominant Brig. Gen.' Eli S. insistence that thg ethnic strain in all Parker (who wrote the community must respect but four of the surrender to the diversity of men nations of Central and Appomattox), Major and the diversity of South America is Gen. Clarence Tinker, their dreams--all Indian. Indians have and Rear,Admiral these things were pakt shaped the study of Joseph Clark. Indians of the'American way of anthropology, can point with'pride life before Columbus linguistics, and to artists Brummet landed.99 archaeology, Echohawk and Beation The followers of Sam particularly in Yazz, ballerinas Marie Adams masqueraded as America, and have and Marjorie Tallchief, Indians at the Boston contributed to thought humorist Will Rogers, Tea Party and ih psychology, actor Jay Silverheels, Americans borrowed sociology, law, William Keeler, Indian military political theory, and President and Board tactics in the education. They Chairman Phillips revolutiod, as the taught Americans Petroleum Corporation, poet Robert P. Tristom progressive, non- former Vice President Cbffin has written: authoritarian ways of Charles Curtis and "We bent down to the rearing and teaching numerous other bobcat's crouch children.101 people.102 Took color from the The tragedy, if one butternut tree, were to find tragedy, at Saratoga, Cultursi Cha Hong is that nowhere can we Lexington, & Individual Response find a history book ift fought like that tells more than a Indians and went It is a trap to. small fragment of .free." measure the worth of these things. Even customs and any people by the folkways: frontier degree to which they hospitality, and a have successfully neighborly cooperation, participated as smth as barn-raising, individuals in a rival were copies of Indian culture. Because mannors. We learned hie weather and plant altEUmmatigiEat22P 120 116 Housing Excorpt From American Indian Policy RviewCommissiosiReport

Housing problems for Because of discrimina- Indians all too Indian families and tory practiqes of frequently find them- individuals begin landlords ' large selves in substandard immediately upon family composition,104 and cramped living leaving reservation and low incomes and a quarters. rural communities. general lack of These problems are information about basically generated by housing alternatives, accritical lark of adequate housing in the rural communities Indians leave, a Housing, :,an Ration Data tor Urban and Rurallndlana105 general lack of prior experience or knowledge U;ban Rural of related domestic U.S. Indians U.S. Indians activities (e.g. renting, /.easing, etc.) Housing -.. Degree which are matters of of Crowding: course for most (Persons/Room) individuals. Advice about housing, leasing, 1.00 or less 92.5% 81.3% 89.9% 55.0% search and other 1.01 to 1.50 5.7 12.2 7.1 15.4 fundamentals to relocating are not 1.51 or more (Severe) 1.9 6.4 3.0 28.6 readily available since most family and Sanitation. friends Living in rurar Facilities: areas are also ignorant of 6rban living Without Water 0.3 0.9 8.7 67.4 situations. Lacking Without Toilet 0.6 8.6 11.6 48.0 orientation and proper preparation for finding NOTE: This table reveals that Indians have greater adequate housing, each tendencies to live in overcrowded conditions both family must learn by in rural and urban areas. In addition, there is a experience--a situation gteater tendency for both groups to settle for that proves to be housing without adequate sanitation facilities. costly and more often Notably, the presence of such basic deficiencies than not for the low in housing is far from tolerable for urban living. 'income familie.s, resulting in less than adequate living conditions. Reports and testimonies point out that it is not unusual for Indian families to arrive in cities with little or no funds to spend son housing.

121 Charaotastatioa of the ILL Total & American Indian POpuktloase111701"

U. S . Total Urban Rural Total Indian Indian Indian

%Husband-Wife Families 86% 77% '77% 77% Ibliith Children Under 18 56 67 64 70 $ With Children Under 6 27 40 28 41 0 Persons Under 18 Living Vith Both 67 70 Parents 85 . ,69

iliale-Headed Families 11 18 19 18 % With Children Under 18 55 66 70 61 % With Children Under 6 21 32 33 30

0 Families With 3 Or Nor* Own Children Under 18 20 33 .27 38 Families With 5 Or More Persons 25 41 32 50 WOMStThis tdble reveals.that greater percentages of Indian familis have children under ages 18, and children under six years of age. The chart also shows that greater percentages of Indians have families withlive or more persons. (Note the high percentage of urban Indian female heads of household.) Family Composition: Summary1970107 may be willing to accept- sub-standard housing in Nuclear Families Extended Families marginal neighborhoods Pamilies with where there are high 3-4 generation concentrations of Zinear family, only relatives poverty. The result is including grandother than children or grandchildren that Indian families parents of heador parents of are left to learn urban head (brothers, adjustment in areas of Total Total sisters, etc.) high crime, poor sanitation, and cramped 12% 7% 5% living conditions. The U.S. Total 88% extent of these problems Indians 78 22 13 9 may cause many 9 8 individuals to consider Urban 83 17 that perhaps, they were Rural 74 26 17 9 better off living in their rural community. In addition, many costly repairs on Without doubt, this. Indian families must property they do not ihitial period of urban forego essential own or that are not living is one of great expenditures on within their legal confusion and utilities or on the obligations to repair. .dependency for Indians. purchase of basic For lack of legal In presence of few furniture requirements serVices an4 vital other sources of until they feel they information about support, the Indian can afford them or housing codes, there often turns to other until they are able to are few means whereby members of his family establish credit. It the Indian family can for moral and financial must be emphasized that be assured that such assistance, thus all these problems and practices do not occur. others occur at a most Bias and discrimina- crucial period, when tion also inhibit the the head of the choice and selection'of household is in the desirable housing. If process of seeking housing markets are employment. tight, the family must When Indian families often settle for what succoed in finding is available. As a housing, particularly result the Indian family when it is located in better neighborhoods, they are often coerced intosigning long-term leasing agreements which-they may not understand, or are told binds them into making placing additional communities, a number needs of this portion burden on other of urban Indian center of the urban Indian families in similar coordinators state, population. predicaments. Should have notably complicated The transitory nature individuals or entire statistical gathering of a substantial families move in with processes and the portion of urban Indian other members of an formation of an adequatepopulations to and from immediate or extended urban Indian needs reservations, and more family to lower assessment. recently identified expenses, etc., the Indian and non-Indian trend, to and from situation is worsened agencies attempting to other. urban Indian by overcrowding,108 service the urban communities, are a landlord harassment, Indian find it significant character- and unhealthy living especially difficult to istic of a visible conditions.109 When include this fluid portion of the urban all urban family support population as part of Indian community. breaks down, it is not permanent population Without a doubt it uncommon for the Indian bases when seeking to carries with it, to return to his justify what they substantial financial particular rural consider to be and emotional buidens. community, only to appropriate Indian Perhaps even more venture back later, shares of community crucial, it inhibits after resources there chest and foundation unifying effort§ to as well, become funds for program overcome a series of depleted. Frequent services to meet the related problems. . migration to andfrom Where unifying efforts urban and rural Indian have occurred, however, and small inner-city organizations have developed, Indian groups have been able to generate interest in

124 130 improving housing loans, housing improve- Findings conditions. Utilizing ments and rent various types of supplements during the 1. Upon arrival to political support and family's initial tenure . urban areas, most thrust some groups in cities. Indians are not have begun to assess Concurrent programs adequately informed housing needs, identify could also enlist the about how to find housing problems and interest of the non- housing. implement orientation/ Indian members of the education programs in urban communities such 2. Already at a Indian communities. that they are made disadvantage hecause of Programs which make acutely aware of their lack of money, the available housing responsibilities Indian family will education, orientation, towards Indian people, often settle in listing of rentals, as members of the urban inadequate housing leasing information, community in assuring located in distressful. and offer advice, tSat Indian people neighborhoods. provide a necessary receive standard 3. Lack of funds will first step in relieving housing at fair prices. also cause many some initial problems Other efforts to families to forego of housing facing newly stablize economic and basic necessities, and migrated Indian social conditions those conveniences families. Such consequently provide vital for seeking programs could be incentive for the employment. (Adequate/ expanded to include development of Indian reliable transportation, activities that provide family roles in urban telephones, utilities.) information regarding settings, are in order. direct supplemental Education projects 4. In addition, the grants for housing, regarding credit Indian family, larger application procedures, than average U.S. advice on managing families tend to share economic conditions housing with relatives and the identification to save expenses. and/or development of 5. Existing agencies fiscally responsible designed to service credit mechanisms for housing problems, know Indian people, are little about Indian additional areas cf housing problems or the need. Indian situation as a whole, as a consequence, they find it difficult to assist the Indian family individually.

125 01 Indian Population by Regions (1970 CensusStitistics)

Dallas Region: 25%

1960 1970 % of Projected Stat's Pop. !oat. Increase 1980 Pop.

. Arkansas 580 2,014 247% Louisiana 3,587 5,294 48% New Mexico 56,255 72,788 29% Oklahoma 64,689 98,468 52% Texas 547$0 17.957 212% Total 130,861 196,521 SO% 294,782

San Orancisco Region: 25%

1960 1970 % of Projected State Pop. Increase 1980 Pop.

Arizona 83,337 95,812 15% California 39,014 91,018 133% Hawaii 472 1,112 136% Nevada 6,681 7,833 17% Total 129,504 195,775 51% 295,620

Denver Region: 13%

1960 1570 % of Projected State PoP% Pop., Increase 1980 Pop.

Colorado 4,288 8,836% 106% Montana 21,181 27,130 28% N. Dakota 11,736 14,369 22% S. Dakota 25,794 32,365 25% Utah 6.961 11,273 62% Wyoming 4,020 AFINP 24% Total 73,980 98,953 '3411 132,597

126 Chicago Region: 10%

1960 1970 % of Projected State Pop. pop. Increase 1980 Pop.,

a Illinois 4,704 11,413 143% Indiana 948 3,887 310% Michigan. 9,701 16,854 74% Minnesota 15,496 23,128 49% Ohio 1,910 6,654 248% Wisconsin 14 297 18,924 32% Total 47,056 80,860 72% 139,079

Seattle Regfon. 9% 1960 1970 % of Projected State Pop. Increase 1980 Pop.

Alaska 14,444 ,16,276 13% Idaho 5,231 6,687 28% Oregon 8,026 13,510 68% Washington 21,076 33 386 58% Total 48,777 69,859 43% 99,898

Atlanta Region: 8%

1960 1970 % of Projected State pop., Pop. Increase 1980 Pop.

Alabama 1,276 2,443 '91% Florida 2,505 6,677 167% Georgia 749 2,347 213% Kentucky 391 1,531 292% Mississippi 3,119 4,113 32% N. Carolina 38,129 44,406 16% S. Carolina 1,098 2,241 104% Tennessee 638 2,276 257% Total 47,905 66,034 38% 91,127

127 New York, Region: 4%

1960 1970 % of Projected State Fop. Increase 1980 Pop. 14°P. New Jersey 1,699 4,706 177%

New York 16,491 28,355 72% . Puerto Rico 0 0 0%

Virgin Islands , 0 0 0% Total 18,190 33,061 821 60,171

&Louis Region: 3%

1960' 1970 % of Projected State Pop. Pop. Increase 1980 Pap.

Iowa 1,708 2,992 75% Kansas 8,261 Missouri 1,723 5,405 214% Nebraska 5545 6,624 19% ...... f Total 8,976 23,282 159% 60,300

Philadelphia Region: 2%

1960 1970 % of Projected State pap.. Pop. Increase 1980 Pop.

Delaware 597 656 1Q% Maryland 1,538 4,239 176%. Pennsylvania 2,122 5,533 161% Virginia 2.155 4,853 125% N.Virginia 181 751 315% 'Total 6,593 16,032 143% 38,958 Boston Region:1%

1960 1970 % of Projected State Pop: Po,. Increase 1980 Pop.

Connecticut 923 ?,222 141% Maine 1,879 2,195 17% Massachusetts 2,118 4,475 111% New Hampshire 135 361 167% Rhode Island 932 1,390 49% .Vermont 57 229 302% Total 6,044 10,872 80% 19,570

1960 1970 % of irojected Pop. Pop. Increase1980 Pop,

Total U.S. 517,886 791,249 53% 1,210,41 IndianeTribes/Organizations Dallas Rgion VI

Mr. Rodney P. Arnetp, Chief Mr. Mont*Cotter, Chief Mr. Lawrence Snake, Peoria Tribe of Oklahoma Wyadotle Tribe of Oklahoma President P.O. Box 1308 P.O. Box 636-309 N. Main Delaware Tribe of Western Miami, OK 74354 Miani, Ok 74354 Oklahcma P.O. Box 825 Mr, Claude A. Cox, Mr. Lewis Barlow, Chief Anadarko, pit 73005 Otawa Tribe of Oklahoma Ptincipal Chief P.O. Box 1308 Creek Nation of Oklahoma Mr. Doyle Edge, Chairman Miami, OK 74354 P.O. Box 1114 Caddo Tribe of Oklahoma Okmulgee, OK 74447 P.O. Box 855 Mr. Bill Follis, Chief Mr. Sylvester J. Tinker, 115 NE First Modoc Tribe of Oklahoma Anadarko, OK 73005 P.O. Box 1308 Principal Chief Miami, OK 74354 Osage Tribe of Oklahoma Ms. Joyce Bell, President P.O. Box 1346 Wichita Tribe of Oklahoma Tri-Tribal Office Pawhuska, OK 74056 P.O. Box 729 811 3rd Avenue Anadarko, OK 73005 Miami, OK 74354 Mr. Jess McKibben, Chairman Quapaw Tribe pf Oklahoma, Mr. Housten Klinekole, Mr. Bruce M. Townsend, P.O. Box 765 Chairman Chairman Quapaw, OK 74363 Apache Tribe of Oklahoma Delaware Tribe of Eastern P.O. Box 733 Mr. Ross 0. Swimmer, Oklahoma Anadarko, OK. 73005 201 Denver Building Principal Chief Tulsa, OK 74119 Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma Mr. Lawrence Murray, P.O. Box 948 Chairman Mr. Overton James, Governor Itahlequah, OK 74464 Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma of P.O. Box 99 Mr. Jerome Shawnee, Oklahoma Perkins, OK 74059 P.O. Box 1548 Chairman of Bus. Comm. Ada, OK 78420 Cherokee-Shawnee Tribe of 'Oklahoma Mr. Hollis E. Roberts, 4957 N. St. Louis Principal Chief Tulsa, OK 74126 Chdctaw Nation of Oklahoma Drawer 12r1 Mr. Tom Palmer,Principal Durant, OK 74701 Chief Seminole Nationof Oklahoma Mr. James H. Allen, Chief P.O. Box 745 Seneca -Cayuaga Business .wewoka, OK 74884 Comm. P.O. Box 1283 Miami, OK 74354 Mr. George J. "Buck" Captain, Chief Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma 308 Robinson Building Miami, OK 74354 Kr. Duane Pratt, Chairman Mr. Leonard Biggoose, United Indian Tribes of of the Bus. Council Chairman Western Oklahoma 6 Pawnee.Tribe of Oklahoma Ponca Tribe of Oklahoma Kansas, Inc. P.O. Box 67 Box 1, White Eagle P.O. Box 1382 Pawnee, OK 74055 Ponca City, OK 74601 Shawnee, OK 74801 Mr. Jacob Ahtone, Chairman Mr. Kenneth Harragarra, Ms. Iola Hayden, Executive Xiowa Tribe of Oklahoma Chairman 'Director P.O. Box 1028 Otoe-Missouri Tribes of Oklahomans for Indian Anadarko, OK 73005 Oklahoma Opportunity, Inc. P.O. Box 68 333 Constitution Ms. Mildred I. Cleghorn, Red Rock, OK 74651 Norman, OK 73069 Chairperson Ft. Sill Apache Tribe Mr. Paul Schmidlkofer, Mr. Bob Gann, Executive 115 NZFirst Chairman Director Anadarko, OK 73005 Citizen Band Potawatomiof Oklahoma Indian Affairs Oklahoma Commission Mr. Joseph Pedro, Chairman Rt. 5, Box 151 4010 Lincoln Blvd. Cheyenne/Arapaho Tribes of Shawnee, OK 74801 Oklahoma City, OK 73105 Oklahoma P.O. Box 38 Mr. Elmer H. Grant, Director Conch°, OK 73022 Principal Chief "ive Tribes Foundation, Inc. SAC 6 Fox Tribe of Oklahoma P.O. Box A-F Mr. James M. Cox, Chairman Rt. 2, Box 246 Muskogee, OK 74401 Comanche Indian Tribe Stroud, OK 74801 P.O. Box 72 Ms. Millie Giago,.Director Lawton, OK 73501 Mr. John L. Sloat, Governor Native American Center, Inc. Absentee/Shawnee Tribes of 1214 N. Hudson Mr. Jessie Mehejah, Jr., Oklahoma Oklahoma City, OK 73103 Chairman P.O. Box 1747 KAW Business Committee Mr. Les Cusher, Executive Shawnee, OK 74801 P.O. Box 710 Director 515 S; Pine Mr. Henry L. Allen, NE Oklahoma Inter-Tribal Ponca City, OK 74601 President Council, Inc. TOnkawa Tribe of Oklahoma P.O. Box 1308 P.O. Box 70 Miami, OK 74354 Tonkawa, OK 74653 Mr. Clifford W. Kilpatrick, Mr. Herbert White, Chairman Director Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma Central Tribes of Shawnee, P.O. Box 58 Inc. McLoud, OK 74851 P.O. Box 24271, University Station Shawnee, OK 74801

132 137 TuiSa Indian Youth Council,' Mr. Joseph L. Juancho, Supt. Mr. Floyd Correa, Governor Inc. Tigua Indian Commun -y Laguna Pueblo 716 S. Troost P.O. BoK 17579-Yslet- P.O. Sox 194 Tulsa, OK 74107 Station Old Laguna, NM 87026 El Paso, TX 79917 Mr. John Daughtery, Mr. Victor Martinez, Director 7ay Concho, Governor Governor Native American Coalition ACOMA Pueblo Picuris Pueblo of Tulsa, Inc. P.O. Box 309 P.O. Box 228. P.O. Box 2646 Acomita, NM 87034 Penasco, NM 87553 819 S. Denver Mr. Juan Valencia, Governor' Mr. Andrew Garcia, Governor Tulsa, OK 74119 San Felipe Pueblo Sap Juan Pueblo Director P.O. Box 308.,0, P.O. Box 1099 W.C.D. (Ink) Enterprises, Algodones, NM 87001 San Juan, NM 87566 Inc. Ms. Inez Baca Mr: Moses Shije, Governor P.O. Box 998 Sandia Pueblo Zia Pueblo Anadarko, OK 73005 P.O. Box 608 General Delivery Mr. Walt Broemerc Executive Bernalillo, NM 87004 San Ysidro, NM 87053 Director Mr. Sam Armijo, Governor Mr. Pete Concha, Governor Texas Indian Commission Santa Ana Pueblo Taos Pueblo 1011 Alston P.O. Box 37 P.O. Box 1846 Livingston, TX 75206 Bernalillo,'NM t7004 Taos Pueblo, NM 87571 Mr. Mike Mahsetky, Chairman Mr. Isaac Herrera, Governor Mr. Robert Lewis, Governor Board of Directors Cochiti Pueblo Zuni Pueblo American Indian Center, Inc. P.O. Box 70 P.O. Box 338 1314 N. Munger Cochiti Pueblo, NM 87041 Zuni, NM 87327 Dallas, TX 75206 Mr. Walter Dasheno, Mr. Ben J. Cuho,President Mr. Ray'Johnson, Chairman Governor Ramah Navajo Board of Directors Santa Clara Pueblo P.O. BOx 267 Dallas Inter-Tribal Center, P.O. Box 580 Ramah, NM 87321 Inc. Espanola, NM 87532 334 Centre Dallas, TX 75208 Mr. Alvino Lucero, Governor Isleta Pueblo Mr. Emnett Battise, Supt. P.O. Box 317 Alabama-Coushatta Tribe Isleta Pueblo, NM 87022 Rt. 3, Box 640 Livingston, TX 77351 Mr. Frank Loretta, Governor Jemez Pueblo P.O. Box 78 Jemez Pueblo, NM 87024

147 133 Mr. Wendell Chino, Mr. Joe Herrera, Executive Mr. Ernest Sickey, Chairman President Director Coushatta Tribe.of Mescalero Apache Tribe New Mexico COmmission on Louisiana P.O. Box 176 Indian Affairs P.O. Box 988 Mescalero, NM 88340 Bataan Memorial Building Elton, LA 70532 Santa Fe, NM 87503 Mr. Joe A. Padilla, Ms. Helen Gindrat, Chairman Governor Mr. Herman Agoyo, Executive Homa Tribe of Louisiana Tesuque Pueblo Director Star Rt., Box 958 Rt. 1-Box 1 Eight Northern Indian Golden Meadow, LA 703571 Pueblos Council Santa Fe, NM 87501 Mr. Howard Dion, Chairman P.O. Box 969 Homa Alliance, Inc. Mr. Jacob Viarrial, San Juan Pueblo, NM 87566 Governor Rt. 6, Box 888 Pojoaque Pueblo Mr. Delfin Lovato, Chairman Boma, LA 70360 All Indian Pueblo Council, Rt. 1, Box 71 Mr. Joe Pierite, Chairman Santa Fe, NM 87501 Inc. Tunca-Biloxi Tribe of P.O. Box 6507, Station B Louisiana Mr. Gilbert M. Pena, Albuquerque, NM 87107 Governor P.O. Box 101 Nambe Pueblo Six Sandovol Indian Pueblo Marksville, LA 71351 Rt. 1, Box 117-BB P.O. Box 580 Mr. Norris Tyler, Chairman Santa Fe, NM 87501 Bernalillo, NM 87004 Clifton Choctaw Community Mr. Derinis Martihez, Mr. Gerald Wilkionson, Rt. 1, Box 37 Governor Executive Director Mora, LA 71371 San Ildefanso Pueblo National.Indian Youth Mr. Clyde Jackson, Chairman Rt. 5, Box 315-A Council, Inc. Jena Band of Choctaws Santa Fe, NM 87501 201 Hermosa Dr., NE P.O. Box 212 Albuquerque, NM 87108 Mr. Alex Garcia, Governor Trout, LA 71371 Santa Domingo Pueblo Mse Ladonna Harris, Mr. Peter D. Mora III General Delivery President Office of Indian Affairs Santo Domingo Pueblo, NM Americans for Indian Dept. of Urban & Community 87052 Opportunity Affairs' )6000 Second, NW P.O. Box 44455-Capitol Mr. Leonard Atole, Albuquerque, NM 87105 President Station Jicarilla Apache Tribal kr. Don Benally, President Baton Rouge, LA 70804 Farmington Inter-tribal Council Mr. Ernest Sickey, Chairman P.O. Box 507 Indian Organiiation Inter-Tribal Council of P.O. Box 2322 Dulce, NM 87528 Louisiana, Inc. Farmington, NM,87401 264 Riverside Mall, Suite Mr. L. M. Burgess, Chairman 208 Chitimacha Tribe of Baton Rouge, LA 70801 Louisiana P.O. Box 661 Charenton, LA 70523

134 9 Oootnots.

'Felix Cohen's Handbook ofFederal Indianhaw, 1945, listed the existence of 4,264 separate statutes having application to American Indians. 2 See Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. 350 (1832). 3Art. II, Sec. 2, Cl. 2: "(The President) shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties....7 4 Art. I, Sec. 8, Cl. 3: "Congress shall have power...to regulate commsrce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes...." 5See Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. 1 (1831); United States V. Eagama, 118 U.S. 375, 383-84 (1886). 6 See comment, the Indian Battle for Self Determination, 58 Cal. L.R. 445 (1970). 7 31 U.S. 350 (1832). 8 4 16 stat. 566, 25 J.S.C. 71. 9 See cases cited in notes 3, 4, and 5, Fcdi:ia1 rndiun Law, supra, p. ,25. 10 316 U.S. 286 (1942). 11 41 Am. Jur. 2d, ti 11, p. 840. 12 Ke-Tua-c-iqun quail 1.:(11.4P.?, 122 Ind. 541, 23 N.E. 1080 (Ivo). 13 FederalIndian Law, surra, p. 469. 14 Supra atpage 379. 15 180 U.S.261 (1901). 16 231 F. 2d 89, 92 (1956).

17 / Feaeral Indian Law (1940 ed.) T. 123. 18 Federal. Indian Law, sKra, p. 395. 19 Federal Indian Law, stq2,a, p. 396. 28 Mid, at 403. 21 See Act of June 7, 1897, 30 stat. 62, 84. 22 See Colliflower v. Gaviand, 342 F. 2d 369 (1965). 23 Little v. Nakai 344 F. 2d 486, ccm. 382 U.S. 986 (1965). 24 Wlttlams V. Lee, 358 U.S. 217 (1958) 25 Colliflower v. Garla; i supra.

135 26Native American Church v. Navajo Tribal Council, 272 F. 2d 131 (1959). 27 41 Am. 'Jur. 2d, i 66, p. 869. 28 25 U.S.C. 1301, 35. seq. 29 18 U.S.C. 1153. 30 28 U.S.C. 1360. 31Pioneer Packing Companlj v. Wins7ow, 159 Wash. 655, 294, p. 557. 32 PUyalZup Tribe V. Pepartmentof Game,391 U.S. 392 (1970). 33garris v. Scckey, 170 F. 2d (1S48). 34 See Note, 13 Yale L.J. 250 (1904). 35 135 F. 947 (1905). 36Morris v. Hitchcock, 21 app. D.C. 566 (1903). 37 Acosta v.7c2n P:(-vo :ount2, 126 Cal. app. 2d 455, 272 p. 2d 92; Dci2re v. NowYork (D.C. N.Y.) 22 F. 2d 851

* (1927).

38Snithv. linitcd St(.1tc)o,151 U.S. 50, 38 (1894) 39Halbert, v..01 ci S,-2tcs, 283 U.S. 753, 762-763 (1931). 40 163 U.S. 376 (1896). 41 219 F. Supp. 19, 21 (1963). 42 272 F. 2d 131, 10th Cir.(1959). 43 Toledo v. Fu,-blo .'t-reL.119 F. Supp. 429 (D.M. Mex. (1954)). 44 272 F. 2d 131 (1962). 45 272 F. 131, p. 135. 46Public Law 90-284; 25 U.S.C. 1301, et. seq. 47P.Lper V. Big Pines , 193 Cal. 664,226 pac. 926 (1924). 48See memorandum, Solicitor for the Departmentof Interior, April 22, 1936, holding that theSocial Security Act was applicable to Indians.

136.141' 49Although originally true, this has not been the case for decades.. 50Onited States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, May 1968. 51 In Re Celestine, 114 Sed. 551 (1902). 52The Commission members were Senator James Abourezk, Chairman (Dem.--S. Dak.); Congressman Lloyd Meeds, Vice Chairman (Dem--Wash.); Senator Lee Metcalk (Dem.-- Mont.); Senator Mark Hatfield (Rep.--Ore.); Congress- man Sidney Yates (Dem.--I11.); CongressmanSam Steiger (Rep.--Ariz.); Ada Deer (Menominee); Jake Whitecrow (Quapaw--Seneca--Cayuga); John Brobridge (Tlinget); Louis R. Bruce (Mohawk--Sioux);sand Dr. Adolph A. Dial (Lembee). 53n A Study of Selected Socio-EconomicCharacteristics of Ethnic Minorities Based on the 1970 Census. Vol. American Indians." Office of Special Concerns, Office of the Assistant Sec. for Planning and Evaluation, Dept. of H.E.W. (1974) .(pp. 49-57) 54Responses from 62 organizational questionnaires regarding the needs of urban Indian communitiesrevealed employment needs were the most frequently expressedand that respondents characteristically mentionedthis before any other. 55Ibid. H.E.W. Report (p. 51) 56Ibid. H.E.W. Report pp. 49-53

e. 13 7 7 Common questions asked on employment forms can be particularly difficult for traditional Indian persons to answer without extensive explanation:Example follows: Name It is not unusual for this to_change with various situations. 1) Non- Indians may.not be able to pronounce the name, so it is changed to one easily pronounced. 2) A name may.not have been given consistently to same members of a family--a result of students attending different off- reservation school systems. 3)It is not unusual for persons to simply change a name--perhaps remnants of a. cultural attitude about names etc. Address Many IndianS consider their "real" home the reservation and urban areas are merely temporary residences. Telephone Cannot afford. Same problems ',associated with address. Birthdate/Age Many reservation born persons were born at home. Parents, unfamiliar with dates have allowed many tradi- tional persons in fact, to choose their own birthdate. With the same ease, one could forget or change the date, month or even the year. 58Urban Indians, in particular, show notable strides. But the figures, when interpreted, reveal that a substantial number of.individuals included.in the urban high educational attainment count may well be those who migrated to urban communities from rural areas. Compar- atively similar enrollment figures between the two groups add significance to such a theory. 59 U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1970 Census ofPo!,ula.tion: DetaiZed Characteristics, United States Summar?, PC(1)- D1 Subject Reports: American'Indians, PC(2)-1F 60HEW Report. Ibid. p. 62 "The disparitybetween need for and availability of an adequate income for female households is an important'issue for Indtans,particu- larly in light of the increase of this type of household in their popu100.on." 61 Ibid., P. 47 62U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1970 2ensusof Population, General Social and Economic Chapacteriètics, United stateS Summary, PCW-Cl: Detxiled Characteristics, United States SummarLy, PC(1)-,D1; Subject Reports: American Indians, PC(2)-1F. 63 Omaha testimony. 64Problems associated with this migratory patternwill be discussed in the Housing section of this report. 65U.S. Bureau of the Census, 100 Cenwof PCplaation, General Social and F(.on,)mic, Adraoterictics,Unted States Summary, PC(1)-Cl; CharacterisT cs, United States Summar?, PC(1)-D1: Subject Reports: American Indians, PC(2)-1F. 66 Dept. H.E.W. A Stud Sc-E,.onomL! Characterie!ica of Y'h)21,.. i. f Bas,:d (2n the 1970 Ceristis Vol. III, American Indians p. 45 67Charles A. 9111, Jr.", and Mozart I. Spector:"Natality. and Mortality of American Indians Compared with U.S. Whites and Nonwhites," ii 2i R,!;.,,rts, Vol. 86, No., 3, March 1971. 68The Indian Health Program of the U.S.Public Health Service, HDEW PUb. No. -WSW 73-12,003 August 1972. 69Otitis Media Program, Indian Health Service:Annual Report Fiscal,Year 1972 (unpUblished). 70-To the First Americans: The Fourth Report onthe Indian Health Program of the U.S. Public HealthService, PHS Pub. No. 1580; Revised 1970. 71Tony Casto: "Crisis of the UrbanIndian," Human Needs, Vol. 1, No. 1, August 1972. 72William M. Moore, Marjorie M. Silverberg, MerrillS. Rgad: Nutrition, Growth and Development of North American Indian Children, DHEW Publication No.(NIH) 72-26 (National Institute of Child Health andHuman Development) 1972.

AV 111=WHIIIM 139 73Orientation Manual, U.S. Public Health Service, Indian Health Service, The Office of Education, Clinton, Oklahoma, July 1971. 74Charles C. Bollinger, M.D., Thomas C. Carrier, M.D., William J. Ledger, M.D.: "Intrauterine Contraception'in Indians of the American Southwest," AmericanJournal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Vol. 106, No. 5, March 1, 1970. 75Joseph Abramowitz, D.D.S.: "Planning for the Indian Health Service," Jourral of Public Health :)entIstry, Vol. 31, No. 2, Spring 1971. 76J. Davld Baum, D.C.H.: "Nutritional Value of Human. Milk," Obstetrlcs and aynocolocy, Vol. 37, No. 1, January 1971. 77 A. Rubenstein, J. Boyle, M.D., C.L. Odoroff, PhD., S.J. Kunitzi M.D.: "Effects of Improved Sanitary Facilities on Infant Diarrhea in a Hopi village," Public Health Reliorto, Vol. 84, No. 12, December 1969. 78Abraham B. Bergman, M.D., C. George Ray, M.D., et al.: "Studies of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome in King County, Washington," iYiTatrii.s, Vol. 49, No. 6, June 1972. 79 Alice D. Chenoweth, M.D.: "Maternal and Child Health," February 1973 (unpUblished). 80.1969 White House Conference on Food, Nutrition and Health: Final Report, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1970. 8 1Seereports from Indian Health Task Force 82Jung, "Contributions to Analytical Psychology," NY Harcourt 1938, p. 139 83,Archer B. Hulbent, "Indian Thoroughfares," Columbus, A.H. Clark Co., 1902 4,Tbe forecast is for more and more Indian influence on fashion." Tony Minor Broadcast, WNUS, 1/27/68. The entire "Feminique" section of.the Chicago Tribune, 10/2/67, deVoted to Indian influence to fashions, jewelry and .home decorations. 85'A. Hyatt Verill & Otis W. Barrett, "Foods America Gave the World," Boston; C.C. Page & Co. 1937, Yeffe Kimball and Jean Anderbon, :The Art of American IndianCooking, Garden City, N.Y. Doubleday & Cul. 1965

140 45. ; 86A1bert Keiser, "The Indian in American Literature," N.Y. Oxford Univ. 1933 87 Gilbert Chase, "America's Music ' N.Y. McGraw/Hill 1955, Passim, 88John Burchard & Albert Bush-Brown, "The Architecture of America," Boston, Little-Brown Co. 1961, pp. 57, 236, 351-5 89 Tepee & Wigwam are the Dakota and Algonquin Terms, respectively, for the dwelling. In English, the first term properly belongs to the Skin or Canvas Tents of the Plains Tribes. 90 Wright, "Writings & Buildings," N.Y. Meridian books, 1960, p. 22 91Marian Gridley, "America's Indian Statues," Chicago, The Amerindian, 1966 92 Allan A. MacFarlin, ".Book of American Indian Games, N.Y. Association Press 1960. 93 Robin Richman, "Rediscovery of the Redman," Life, 12/1/1967, p. 52-71 94Contance Rourke, "The Roots of American Culture,"

N.Y. Harcourt, Brace & Co. 1942, p. 60-74 , 95Mitford, Mathews, "Discovery of Americanism, 2 Vols, Chicago Univ. of Chicago 1951, I. 866-80. A.F. Chamber- lian, "Memorials of the Indian," "Journal of American Folk-Lore, XV, No. 17,(April/June 1902), p. 107-16, iden. "Algonkian Words in American English," Ibid, XV, Vol. 19 (Oct/Dec) 1902 p. 240 96H.L. Mencken, "The American Language, N.Y. Alfred A. Knopf, 1947 97Jays' Treaty with Great Britain, 1794; Pinckney's Treaty with Spain, 1795, p. 528, Treaty of Ghent, 1814; Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 1648, Alaska Pu.rchase Treaty, 1867.

I. 141 98 ,"It would be a very.strange thing if six nations of ignorant savages should be capable of forming a scheme for such a union, and be able to execute it in such a manner, as it has subsisted for ages, and appears indissoluble, and yet that a like union should be impracticable for ten or a dozen English colonies, to whom it is more necessary and must be more advantageous4 and who cannot be supposed to want an equal under- standing of their interest." B. Franklin to Mr. Parker, March 20, 1751, in John Bigelow, ed, "The Complete Words of Benjamin Franklin," New York, G.P. Puttnam's Sons, 1887, II, p. 219 99 Cohen, "Americanizing the White Man," The American Scholar, XXI, No. 2 1952 100 Both Verses from "We put the Feathers on" in R.P. Tristam Coffin, Primer for America, N.Y. MacMillan Co., 1943, p. 54-55 101 Wayne Dennis "The Hopi Child," N.Y. John Wiley 1965, Robert J. Havighurst & Bernice Neugarten; "American Indian & White Children," Chicago; Univ. of Chicago Press, 1955 102 Mariam Cridley, Indian of Today, 3rd Edition, Chicago: Indian Council Fire, 1960 103 Testimony states that it has not been unusual for Indians to find that upon personal inquiry, all vacant units have already been filled or that rent payments turn out to be substantially higher than originally expected once the Indian person begins negotiations for housing.

104 See Tables on Family Characteristics and Family Composition

142 147 105U.S. Bureau of the Census,1970 Census of thePopulation, Subject Report American Indians, PC(2)-1FU.S. Bureau of the Census, 1970 CensusofHousing Detailed Housing Characteristics, United States Summary,HG(1) Detailed Hausing Characteristics for theUnited States, Regions, Divisions and States: 1970, SupplementaryReport, UC(S1)-6 106U.S. Bureau of the Census,1970 Census of Population General Social and EconomicCharacteristics, United States Summary, PC(1)-C1Detailed Characteristics, 'United States Summary, Pc(1)-D1Subject Reports: American Indians, PC(2)-1F 107U.S. Bureau of the Census,1970 Census of Population, Table 32 a Subject Reportg: Family Composition, PC(2)-4A, 108"Crowdedhousing, a contributory factor to poorhealth, is also one of the surest indicesof poverty. Urban ' Indians experience moderate overcrowdingat twice the incidence foethe total urbanpopulation and severe overcrowding at three times the-levelfor the total urban population. In all, 19% of all urbanIndians Live in moderately or 'seVerelyovercrowded housing while only 7% of the total urban U.S.population live under such substandard conditions." 109uPoor housing and sanitationconditions characterize the dwellings of both urbanand rural Indians. Among urban Indians, jusunder 1% of all dwellings are with- out water,cempared to only 0.3% of dwellings for the total U.S. urban.population. The incidence of urban Indian dwellings without toiletsis 14 times higher than dwellings for the total U.S. urbanpopulation." 110 Their Children," Archie s. Golden: "The Other Poor and ClinicalPediatrics (Philadelphia), Vol. 10,ho. 2, February1971.

143 8