Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism

Edited by

William C. Gartner

Department of Applied Economics and Tourism Center University of Minnesota St Paul USA

and

David W. Lime

Department of Forest Resources and Tourism Center University of Minnesota St Paul USA

CABI Publishing CABI Publishing is a division of CAB International

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Trends in outdoor recreation, leisure, and tourism / edited by W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-85199-403-2 (alk. paper) 1. Outdoor recreation. 2. Leisure. 3. Tourism. I. Gartner, William C. II. Lime, David W.

GV191.6.T74 2000 99–087665

ISBN 0 85199 403 2

Typeset in 9/11pt Melior by York House Typographic Ltd, London. Printed and bound in the UK by Biddles Ltd, Guildford and King’s Lynn. Contents

Contributors ix

Introduction 1 The Big Picture: a Synopsis of Contributions 1 William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

Part I Society: Factors/Forces Shaping Demand For and Use of Resources 15 Gender 2 Gender Inclusion as a Recreation Trend 17 Karla A. Henderson Demographics 3 Changes in Family and Work: Impacts on Outdoor Recreation and Tourism in North America 29 Norma P. Nickerson and Rita J. Black Social Evolution 4 The Effects on Travel and Tourism Demand from Three Mega-trends: Democratization, Market Ideology and Post-materialism as Cultural Wave 37 Jon Teigland Technology 5 Trends in Information Technology and Tourism 47 Dimitrios Buhalis Cultural Dimensions 6 Race and Ethnicity in Leisure Studies 63 Ray Hutchison

Part II Resources: What Exists and How Did We Reach This Point 73 Current Situation/Supply 7 Trends in Outdoor Recreation Supply on Public and Private Lands in the US 75 H. Ken Cordell and Carter J. Betz Policy 8 US Recreation Policies Since World War II 91 George H. Siehl

v vi Contents

9 Trends and Implications of Tourism Policy in Developing Countries 103 Salah E.A. Wahab 10 Trends in Recreation, Tourism and Protected Area Planning 111 Stephen F. McCool and Michael E. Patterson 11 Coming of Age: History and Trends in Outdoor Recreation Research 121 Robert E. Manning

Part III Participation: How We Are Using Resources 131 Activity 12 Trends in Americans’ Outdoor Recreation 133 H. Ken Cordell and Gregory R. Super 13 Trends in Hunting Participation and Implications for Management of Game Species 145 Tommy L. Brown, Daniel J. Decker, William F. Siemer and Jody W. Enck 14 Trends in Casinos and Tourism for the 21st Century 155 William R. Eadington 15 Health Tourism Trends: Closing the Gap between Health Care and Tourism 165 Anna Pollock and Peter Williams 16 Festivals and Special Events: Life Cycle and Saturation Issues 175 Donald Getz Styles 17 Cultural Tourism: Challenges for Management and Marketing 187 Greg Richards Beneﬁts 18 Planning to Provide Community and Visitor Beneﬁts from Public Lands 197 Dorothy H. Anderson, Ron Nickerson, Taylor V. Stein and Martha E. Lee

Part IV Evaluation and Valuation: Determining How Valuable the Resources Are and What is Happening to Them 213 Methods and Measurement 19 Trends in Leisure Value and Valuation 215 George L. Peterson and John B. Loomis 20 New Developments in Measuring Tourism as an Area of Economic Activity 225 Stephen L.J. Smith 21 Trends in Tourism Economic Impact Estimation Methods 235 Daniel L. Erkkila 22 Holiday Styles and Tourist Types: Emerging New Concepts and Methodology 245 Sara Dolnicar and Josef A. Mazanec Impacts 23 Biophysical Impacts of Wildland Recreation Use 257 David N. Cole 24 Assessing Social Impacts of Resource-based Recreation and Tourism 265 Patricia A. Stokowski

Part V Development: How Resources Are Organized For Use 275 Global 25 Development Economics 277 John Fletcher and Stephen Wanhill Contents vii

26 Globalization and Tourism 287 Peter F. Keller Region and Community 27 Rural Tourism Development 299 Patrick Long and Bernard Lane 28 Community Tourism Development 309 Gail A. Van der Stoep

Part VI Management and Operations: Tools to Get the Job Done 323 Distribution 29 The Role of Tour Operators in the Travel Distribution System 325 Nevenka Cavlek Marketing 30 National Tourist Offices and the Language of Differentiation 335 Graham M.S. Dann Conflict 31 Recreation Conflict Management 347 William E. Hammitt and Ingrid E. Schneider Services 32 Service Quality in Resort Settings: Trends in the Application of Information Technology 357 Richard R. Perdue Partnerships 33 Partnerships and the Changing World of Park Management 365 Will F. LaPage Best Practices 34 Tourism and Sustainability: a Positive Trend 373 John J. Pigram Professionals 35 Citizen Participation Trends and their Educational Implications for Natural Resource Professionals 383 Dennis B. Propst, J. Douglas Wellman, Henry Campa III and Maureen H. McDonough Youth 36 Trends in the Development of Recreation Services for Youth at Risk 393 Peter A. Witt and John L. Crompton Conclusion 37 So What? Implications of Trends for Management, Public Policy, Marketing and Planning 403 William C. Gartner and David W. Lime References 415 Index 455

Contributors

Biosketches (alphabetical listing):

Dr Dorothy H. Anderson is Professor in the Department of Forest Resources at the Uni- versity of Minnesota. She coordinates the Recreation Resource Management undergraduate and graduate programme and the planning, policy and law concentration in the Natural Resources Environmental Studies undergraduate programme. Dr Anderson has 25 years experience in conducting research with federal and state agencies including the US Depart- ment of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service, US Department of the Interior (USDI) National Park Service, Bureau of Land Management and the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources Division of Parks and Recreation. Her research has focused on developing and testing management frameworks to better plan, manage and monitor recreational use on public lands. Dr Anderson’s research has also looked at ways in which management frameworks, such as the beneﬁts-based management framework, can be extended beyond recreational use as landscape level management tools.

Carter J. Betz is an Outdoor Recreation Planner with the Outdoor Recreation and Wilder- ness Assessment Research unit of the USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Athens, Georgia. His speciality is database development, management and analysis. He contributed to both the 1989 and 1998 Forest Service Renewable Resources Planning Act (RPA) Assessments of Outdoor Recreation and Wilderness, including authorship of the chapter on recreation resources in the 1998 Assessment. Currently, he provides research support for the multi-agency National Survey on Recreation and the Environment (NSRE) 2000. Betz has an MS in recreation resources from North Carolina State University and previously served as a Research Associate in NCSU’s Ofﬁce of Park and Tourism Research.

Dr Rita J. Black recently ﬁnished a 2-year postdoctoral appointment with the Institute for Tourism and Recreation Research at the University of Montana–Missoula. Her research interests include sport tourism and the social dimensions of sport and recreation, especially as they relate to gender.

Dr Tommy L. Brown is a Senior Research Associate and Leader of the Human Dimensions Unit at Cornell University. His research in outdoor recreation, tourism, and human dimensions of ﬁsh and wildlife management over the past 30 years has been diverse. Long-standing research interests include recreation participation trends and associated

ix x Contributors

factors, attitudinal studies, market segmentation of recreation user groups and other stakeholders, incorporating human dimensions information into management decision making, and survey research methods. A recent major effort has been coediting a text on human dimensions of wildlife management with colleagues D.J. Decker and W.F. Siemer, sponsored by The Wildlife Society. Tommy is a member of The Wildlife Society, American Fisheries Society and Rural Sociological Society. He has been an active participant in each of the 5-year Outdoor Recreation and Tourism Conferences.

Dr Dimitrios Buhalis is Senior Lecturer in Tourism at the Department of Tourism, Uni- versity of Westminster in London. Dimitrios is also Adjunct Professor at the Institut de Management Hotelier International (Cornell University–Ecole Superieure des Sciences Economiques et Commerciales ESSEC) in Paris. Other professional activities include: Reviews Editor of the International Journal of Tourism Research and Books Editor of the IT and Tourism: Applications-Methodologies and Techniques journals; Associate Editor for the Encyclopaedia of Tourism; Mediterranean Editor for Anatolia International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research; Books Editor for Tourism, the Tourism Society journal; and Board Member of the Journal of International Hospitality, Leisure and Tourism Admin- istration. Dimitrios is Chairman of the Association of Tourism Teachers and Trainers; Executive Committee member of the International Federation of Information Technology and Tourism and the Tourism Society; and Chairman of the ENTER 1998, 1999 and 2000 conferences on Tourism and Information Technology.

Dr Henry Campa III is an Associate Professor of Wildlife Ecology in the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife at Michigan State University (MSU). His research interests are in the areas of wildlife–habitat relationships, wildlife nutrition and ecosystem management. He teaches courses in upland ecosystem management, conservation biology, and wildlife nutrition. Prior to working at MSU, he was a Wildlife Research Biologist with the Michigan Department of Natural Resources. Dr Campa has received a Lilly Endowment Teaching Fellowship and the Teacher-Scholar Award at MSU. He holds a BS in wildlife management from the University of Missouri–Columbia, MS and PhD degrees in wildlife ecology from MSU, and is a Certiﬁed Wildlife Biologist with The Wildlife Society.

Dr Nevenka Cavlek is Assistant Professor and faculty member of the Department of Tourism at the Faculty of Economics, University of Zagreb, Croatia. She joined the Faculty after 9 years experience working in the field of the tour operating business. Dr Cavlek belongs to the younger generation of Croatian tourism experts and is well known as a result of a large number of articles and papers published by her on the topic. Her latest book (1998) focuses specifically on tour operators and international tourism. She is also editor of the scientific journal Acta Turistica, has worked since 1992 on the Croatian Tourism Magazine as a columnist dealing with international tourism, and edits the International Tourism News Programme on Croatian Television. Dr Cavlek ’s discipline and expertise includes: Tourism Economics, Multinational Corporations in Tourism and Management of Tour Operators.

Dr David N. Cole is research biologist with the Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute (ALWRI), Missoula, Montana. He has degrees in geography from the University of Cal- ifornia, Berkeley, and the University of Oregon. He has conducted research related to the management of wilderness, especially on the biophysical impacts of recreation use for the past 25 years for the USDA Forest Service’s Wilderness Management Research Unit, Systems for Environmental Management and ALWRI. His recent work has been diverse, addressing ecological restoration visitor education and factors that inﬂuence the quality of recreation experiences. He is married, with two young children, and spends as much time as possible whitewater rafting and hiking. Contributors xi

Dr H. Ken Cordell earned his PhD degree in economics and forestry at North Carolina State University. As a USDA Forest Service scientist, he has worked on the application of social science theory and methods in outdoor recreation, wilderness, and, generally, natural resources management. Recently, Dr Cordell directed an ongoing series of national studies, including the US National Recreation Study. He is a national authority on recreation demand and supply trends and serves as adjunct faculty at several major universities.

Dr John L. Crompton is Professor of Recreation, Park and Tourism at Texas A&M University. Dr Crompton’s primary interests are in the areas of marketing and ﬁnancing public leisure and tourism services. He is author or coauthor of seven books and more than 350 articles and monographs which have been published in the recreation, tourism, sport and marketing ﬁelds. He is past recipient of the National Recreation and Park Association’s National Literary Award, the NRPA Roosevelt Award for outstanding service; the Society of Park and Recreation Educator’s Distinguished Teaching Award, the Travel and Tourism Research Association’s Travel Research Award and the Texas A&M Vice-Chancellor’s Award in Excellence in Graduate Teaching. He is a past president of the American Academy of Park and Recreation Administration; a past president of the Society of Park and Recreation Educators; and a current member of the NRPA Board of Trustees.

Dr Graham M.S. Dann obtained his PhD from the University of Surrey in 1975. Graham spent the next 21 years lecturing in sociology at the University of the West Indies in Barbados. In 1996 he was appointed Professor of Tourism at the University of Luton. A founder member of the International Academy for the Study of Tourism, and of the Research Committee on International Tourism of the International Sociological Association, he has research interests in tourist motivation and the semiotics of tourism promotion.

Dr Daniel J. Decker is a professor in the Department of Natural Resources at Cornell University, where he is co-leader of the Human Dimensions Research Unit. He received his PhD from Cornell University. His research of 25 years has focused on the human dimensions of wildlife management, especially improving understanding of diverse stakeholders in management and using that insight for wildlife programme planning, implementation and evaluation. Research during the 1990s targeted stakeholder involvement in wildlife management, especially stakeholder expectations for participation in decision making and the role of community-based management in a vision of ‘next-generation wildlife management’. A feature of this pursuit is the articulation of a model of wildlife management and policy making that integrates human and biological dimensions in wildlife management and policy making, and considers how human attitudinal and behavioural considerations can be addressed effectively in these endeavours.

Dr Sara Dolnicar is assistant professor at the Institute for Tourism and Leisure Studies of the University of Economics and Business Administration, Vienna. Her research interests are centred on consumer psychology, tourism market segmentation and adaptive techniques in analysing tourist data. Dr Dolnicar is a participant in the Joint Research Programme on ‘Adaptive Modelling and Information Systems in Economics and Management Science’ which is sponsored by the Austrian Research Foundation. Dr Dolnicar is the current Secretary General of the Austrian Society for Applied Research.

Dr William R. Eadington is Professor of Economics and Director of the Institute for the Study of Gambling and Commercial Gaming at the University of Nevada, Reno. He is an internationally recognized authority on the legalization and regulation of commercial gambling, and has written extensively on issues relating to the economic and social impacts of commercial gaming. Professor Eadington has edited or coedited a number of books, xii Contributors

including The Business Of Gaming (1999), Gambling: Public Policies and the Social Sciences (1997); Gambling and Public Policy: International Perspectives (1991); Gambling and Commercial Gaming (1992); Gambling Behavior and Problem Gambling (1993); Gam- bling and Society (1976); Indian Gaming and the Law (1990); and Tourism Alternatives (1992). Dr Eadington has served as a consultant and adviser for governments and private sector organizations throughout the world on issues related to gaming laws, casino operations, regulation, gambling legalization and public policy. He is a founding member of the International Academy for the Study of Tourism, and a former Associate Editor of the Annals of Tourism Research.

Dr Jody W. Enck is a Research Associate in the Human Dimensions Research Unit at Cornell University. He received a BS in wildlife biology from the University of Vermont, an MS in environmental and forest biology from the State University of NY at Syracuse, and a PhD in resource policy, management and human dimensions from Cornell University. His research interests include investigating recreationists’ motivations and satisfactions, exploring factors affecting the social feasibility of restoring extirpated wildlife species, and analysing hunting policies as they relate to wildlife management. He also teaches an upper level undergraduate course in the human dimensions of natural resource management.

Dr Daniel L. Erkkila is a tourism and travel specialist with the University of Minnesota Extension Service and serves as associate director of the University’s Tourism Center. He is also an adjunct associate professor within the University’s College of Natural Resources, Department of Forest Resources. Dr Erkkila has more than 20 years of experience in natural resources and tourism, with positions in private business as a natural resource consultant, as well as in the public sector, including USDA Forest Service positions as an operations research analyst at the forest level and policy analyst in Washington, DC. His extension work for the University’s Tourism Center includes development of a tourism business retention and expansion programme and his research interests include regional economic impacts from tourism and travel, nature-based tourism, sustainable development, and tourism and travel transportation systems.

Dr John Fletcher is Professor of Tourism and Head of the International Centre of Tourism and Hospitality Research, Bournemouth University. He received his doctorate from the University of Wales in economics and was Director of the Institute of Economic Research, University College of North Wales, Bangor. Before moving to Bournemouth, he was leader of the tourism group at the University of Surrey. His research interests have been in the development of interactive software for tourism impact and forecasting models. He has undertaken numerous tourism impact and development studies in the Caribbean, the South Paciﬁc, the Indian Ocean and throughout Europe. He works closely with the World Travel and Tourism Council and is on the editorial board of leading academic journals.

Dr William C. Gartner is the Director of the Tourism Center and Professor of Applied Economics at the University of Minnesota. Bill has conducted numerous research studies in the area of tourism image, development, seasonal home impacts, tourism marketing and methods for tourism research. He is active regionally, nationally and internationally, having served as secretary, vice-president, president and Chairman of the Board of the CenStates chapter of the Travel and Tourism Research Association, on the editorial board of many tourism journals, and as secretary, vice-president and president for the International Academy for the Study of Tourism. He has also been involved in international development work including major projects in Ghana and Israel. He is the author of numerous tourism articles published in professional journals and most recently a book, published by Van Nostrand Reinhold, entitled Tourism Development: Principles, Processes and Policies. Contributors xiii

Dr Donald Getz is Professor of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Faculty of Manage- ment, at the University of Calgary. He also holds a visiting professorship at the Australian International Hotel School in Canberra, and has strong research links with Edith Cowan University in Perth, Western Australia. He teaches, conducts research, writes and consults in the area of recreation and tourism planning and destination management. Don has authored two books on events: Festivals, Special Events, and Tourism (1991) and Event Management and Event Tourism (1997). He is co-founder and coeditor of Festival Manage- ment and Event Tourism: An International Journal. Don has coedited and contributed to a third book, entitled The Business of Rural Tourism (Thomson International Business Press, 1997), and has worked with several colleagues to produce a workbook entitled Planning For Sustainable Tourism. Reﬂecting his interest in rural development and wine, Dr Getz recently completed a book entitled Wine Tourism. Other current research themes include family businesses in tourism and hospitality, and event evaluation concepts and methods. Increasingly, Don is examining global leisure and tourism trends and giving speeches with a ‘futurist ﬂavour’.

Dr William E. Hammitt is Professor of Wildland Recreation in the Departments of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, and Forest Resources at Clemson University. He has been at Clemson since 1990, teaching and conducting research in the area of wildland recreation. His research speciality is recreation behaviour and visitor management. He was previously employed at the University of Tennessee for 12 years. Dr Hammitt is an author and/or coauthor of more than 150 papers and articles in professional and trade publications in his ﬁeld. He is a past associate editor of the Journal of Leisure Research, Leisure Sciences and currently is an associate editor for the Journal of Human Dimension of Wildlife and Fish Management. He is a senior author of the text, Wildland Recreation: Ecology and Manage- ment, 1987, 1998. He is the recipient of two Fulbright Awards, Peru and Norway, and The Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt Award for Excellence in Recreation and Park Research (1998).

Dr Karla A. Henderson is professor and chair in the Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She is the author of several books and numerous articles addressing gender and leisure as well as research methods. Karla has over 20 years of experience in higher education and has served the profession in a number of capacities including being president of the Society of Park and Recreation Educators, president of the Research Consortium of the American Alliance of Health, Physical Educa- tion, Recreation, and Dance, and president of the Academy of Leisure Sciences. She has been on the Board of Trustees of the National Recreation and Parks Association, the Board of Directors of the World Recreation and Leisure Association and the American Camping Association.

Dr Ray Hutchison is Professor of Sociology and Urban and Regional Studies at the University of Wisconsin–Green Bay. He received his MA and PhD in sociology from the University of Chicago and has taught at DePaul University, the University of California–San Diego and the University of Nevada–Las Vegas. His research on ethnic, racial and immigrant groups has been supported by funding from the USDA Forest Service, the W.T. Grant Foundation, and the University of Wisconsin Institute on Race and Ethnicity. He is coauthor with Mark Gottdiener of The New Urban Sociology (McGraw-Hill) and series editor of Research in Urban Sociology (JAI Press). Dr Hutchison’s discipline and expertise includes urban sociology, race and ethnicity, immigrant and refugee populations, and the leisure and recreation activity of urban populations.

Dr Peter F. Keller is Director for Tourism at Switzerland’s Secretariat of State for Economic Affairs (SECO) and Professor at the School for Economics and Management of the University xiv Contributors

of Lausanne, where he is in charge of the Tourism Research and Education Unit. Professor Keller is a member of the board of the Swiss Tourism Industry Association, the Council of Switzerland’s National Tourism Office, and various other organizations of his country which he represents in the network of international organizations. Since 1991 he has been president of the Commission for Europe of the World Tourism Organization (WTO) and since 1994 president of the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism (AIEST). He is also in charge of the relaunch of the Tourism Committee of the OECD, which groups the world’s highly developed countries. He is the editor of the AIEST publication Globalisation and Tourism (1996, St. Gallen). Dr Bernard Lane is Director of the Rural Tourism Unit at the University of Bristol, responsible for a programme on rural and sustainable tourism development issues. He has been a consultant on rural tourism for the Paris-based Organization for Economic Coopera- tion and Development (OECD), for the government of Australia, for development agencies and tourist boards in Canada, France, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Norway and Poland and for many communities and local authorities throughout Britain. He also works with a range of private sector tourism enterprises. In 1992 he founded and is coeditor of the international Journal of Sustainable Tourism. Dr Will F. LaPage teaches parks, recreation and tourism in the Department of Forest Management at the University of Maine. He has taught at the University of New Hampshire, University of Wyoming and Colorado State University. Prior to coming to Maine, he served as the director of the Wolf Education and Research Center, in Idaho, director of New Hampshire State Parks, and as a senior recreation research scientist with the USDA Forest Service. His current research focuses on noneconomic and nontraditional uses and benefits of public parklands. Dr LaPage has been a consultant on parks and tourism in South Africa, Bulgaria, Jamaica, and with Croatian National Park directors; and he served as a member of President Reagan’s Commission on American’s Outdoors from 1985 to 1987. Dr LaPage has authored numerous technical reports on outdoor recreation trends and partnerships; and is completing his third book of outdoor poetry. Dr Martha E. Lee is an associate professor in the School of Forestry at Northern Arizona University. Dr Lee teaches undergraduate and graduate classes in the human dimensions of ecosystem management, including wildland recreation management and planning. Her current research interests include documenting the benefits that users and nonusers receive from forest and park resources and understanding the relationships between the benefits of recreation and the wildland settings in which they occur. Dr Lee’s discipline and expertise include: motivations for recreation behaviour, outcomes of recreation and leisure, visitor use management and attitudes and perceptions of wildland use and management. Dr David W. Lime is a senior research associate and faculty member in the Department of Forest Resources at the University of Minnesota. He serves as the social science programme leader and unit leader for the Cooperative Park Studies Unit, a research partnership between the University of Minnesota and the National Park Service and US Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division. He also is a staff member with the University’s Tourism Center. Dr Lime has over 30 years experience conducting research and other services with the USDI National Park Service, USDA Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and other federal and state land management agencies. Dr Lime’s discipline and expertise includes: human geography, human behaviour concerning recreation and tourism, social science research methods, recreation resource management, resource-based tourism and visitor use management for parks and protected areas. Dr Patrick Long is a Professor of Business at the University of Colorado at Boulder (UCB) where he teaches and conducts research in tourism. He also served as CEO/president of the Contributors xv

National Rural Tourism Foundation and is a faculty afﬁliate with the Center for Sustainable Tourism at UCB. Dr Long works primarily on issues related to tourism impacts, policies and planning, with particular focus on community-based tourism development.

Dr John B. Loomis is a Professor in the Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Colorado State University. During his 20-year career he has worked as an economist for the Bureau of Land Management and US Fish and Wildlife Service, as well as being an Associate Professor at UC–Davis. Dr Loomis has published extensively on recreation economics, including coauthoring a book entitled Recreation Economic Decisions. Dr Loomis has been involved with the USDA Forest Service in estimating the economic value of recreation on national forests since 1984.

Dr Stephen F. McCool is Professor, Wildland Recreation Management at the School of Forestry, The University of Montana. He received his PhD from the University of Minnesota during the Cretaceous Period. Dr McCool is currently interested in various paradigms of planning as they are applied to protected areas and tourism development. His work encompasses the concept of sustainability as applied to tourism and recreation planning, public participation in planning processes and use of systems such as Limits of Acceptable Change in developing planning frameworks for protected areas.

Dr Maureen H. McDonough is a Professor of Social and Community Forestry in the Department of Forestry at Michigan State University. She holds a BS degree in biology from Baldwin-Wallace College, a MSF in Wildlife Ecology from the University of Florida, and a PhD in Forest Resources from the University of Washington. She has been a faculty member at Michigan State University since 1980. Her work focuses on the interactions of people and natural resources and currently includes community forestry projects in Thailand and Detroit. She has studied public participation in natural resource decision making in the US, Thailand, Taiwan, Jamaica and the Dominican Republic. She is currently involved in projects to expand participation by underrepresented groups in both ecosystem planning and urban and community forestry in the USDA Forest Service and the Michigan Depart- ment of Natural Resources. She serves on the Michigan Urban and Community Forestry Council, the technology transfer committee of the Urban Forestry Center for the Midwestern States and was an invited panellist at the Community Futures Forum: Building an Urban Natural Resource Agenda for the 21st Century sponsored by the USDA Forest Service.

Dr Robert E. Manning is Professor of Natural Resources at the University of Vermont where he chairs the Recreation Management Program. He teaches courses and conducts research on the history, philosophy and management of parks, wilderness, and related areas. He conducts a programme of research with the US National Park Service on carrying capacity, crowding and management of outdoor recreation, and has spent year-long sabbatical leaves at Grand Canyon and Yosemite National Parks and the Washington Ofﬁce of the National Park Service. Dr Manning is the author of Studies in Outdoor Recreation.

Dr Josef A. Mazanec has been full professor of business administration in tourism and director of the Institute for Tourism and Leisure Studies of the Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration (WU Wien) since 1981. He was a visiting scholar at the Alfred P. Sloan School of Management, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, during the spring term 1992. Since 1997 he also functions as the Vice-rector for Research of the WU Wien and as the Speaker of the Joint Research Programme on ‘Adaptive Models and Systems in Economics and Management Science’. His research interests are in hospitality and tourism management, explanatory models of consumer behaviour, strategic marketing, multivariate methods, decision-support systems and management science applications in leisure and tourism. xvi Contributors

Dr Norma P. Nickerson is an associate research professor and Director of the Institute for Tourism and Recreation Research (ITRR) and faculty member in the School of Forestry at the University of Montana–Missoula. As ITRR director she is responsible for the legislatively funded travel research programme for the state of Montana which conducts market, economic and environmental research on travel and tourism in the state. Dr Nickerson serves as the research workshop co-coordinator of the Travel and Tourism Research Association (TTRA) annual conference and is the incoming president of the Greater Western Chapter of TTRA representing the states of Alaska, Montana, Washington, Idaho, Oregon, Nevada and California. Dr Nickerson’s discipline and expertise includes: strategic planning, travel behaviour, tourism marketing, outdoor recreation impacts, economic impacts of travel and nature-based tourism.

Dr Ron Nickerson is an assistant professor in the Department of Recreation, Parks and Leisure Services at Minnesota State University (Mankato). His primary teaching responsibilities include outdoor recreation planning, commercial recreation and tourism, park administration and park and recreation policy. Dr Nickerson had 19 years of state government experience as a business manager and senior state park planner with the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources and a ﬁscal analyst with the Minnesota House of Repre- sentatives prior to his appointment to the Minnesota State University (Mankato) faculty. He has also served as an adjunct assistant professor in the Department of Forest Resources at the University of Minnesota with responsibilities for natural resource planning and management courses. Dr Nickerson’s research interests and expertise include: beneﬁts-based management, human behaviour concerning recreation and tourism; outdoor recreation planning, social science research methods, recreation resource policy and management, and park and recreation curriculum design.

Dr Michael E. Patterson is currently in his second year as an assistant professor on the Wildlife Biology and Recreation Management faculties in the School of Forestry at the University of Montana. He was previously an assistant professor in the Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management at Clemson University for 3 years. He received a PhD from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in 1993 with a dissertation focusing on the nature and meaning of recreational experiences in wildland settings. His research interests focus on human dimensions of natural resource management. He is especially interested in research that explores human wildlife interactions and how these shape people’s perceptions of and values toward wildlife; the nature of environmental beliefs, values, and philosophies that shape how people interpret and respond to wildlife conﬂicts; and approaches to conﬂict resolution.

Dr Richard R. Perdue is a professor and coordinator of the tourism management curriculum in the University of Colorado College of Business and Administration. He is an active researcher who has published extensively in the tourism research literature. He currently serves as coeditor of Tourism Analysis and on the editorial boards of the Journal of Travel Research and the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing. Additionally, he has served on the editorial boards of the Journal of Leisure Research and Leisure Sciences, on the board of directors of the Society of Park and Recreation Educators, on the tourism research review board for the National Coastal Resources Institute, and on the US Travel and Tourism Administration task force on accountability research. He has conducted tourism research and development projects for state tourism ofﬁces in North Carolina, Tennessee, Nebraska and Colorado, for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, for the National Marine Fisheries Service, and for numerous local and regional tourism development authorities. His current research is focused on service quality and marketing in the Colorado ski industry. Contributors xvii

Dr George L. Peterson is a senior-level Scientist and Project Leader with the Rocky Mountain Research Station of the USDA Forest Service in Fort Collins, Colorado. The first 18 years of his 35-year career were in academic positions, first in Environmental Systems and Resources at the University of California at Los Angeles and then at Northwestern University, where he served as Assistant, Associate and Full Professor of Civil Engineering specializing in urban and regional planning, environmental resource management, and impact assessment. Dr Peterson’s publications include numerous scientific and technical papers on outdoor recreation research, environmental psychology, impact analysis and natural resource economics, as well as five edited books. Since joining USDA Forest Service Research in 1982, he has worked primarily in nonmarket valuation, outdoor recreation research, and environmental resource damage assessment. Professional assignments and activities have included forest health policy, forest planning, road policy reform, USDA representative on the Economic Steering Committee for the Exxon-Valdez damage assessment, Leader of Economic Evaluation of Multifunctional Forestry for the International Union of Forestry Research Organization (IUFRO), Human Dimension representative on the IUFRO Task Force on Management and Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources, the UNEP Global Biodiversity Assessment, the Board of Research Advisors for the National Outdoor Leadership School, Associate Editor of Leisure Sciences and the Journal of Leisure Research, the Editorial Review Board of Environment and Behavior, and the Editorial Advisory Board of Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design. He is also a Fellow of the Academy of Leisure Sciences.

Dr John J. Pigram is Director of the Center for Water Policy Research at the University of New England. He has widespread research interests in resources management, in particular, tourism, water resources, recreation and parks management. Current research interests include policy issues arising from resource allocation, environmental auditing, and impediments to the adoption of best management practice in the water and tourism industries. Professor Pigram is the author of several publications in resources management including Outdoor Recreation and Resource Management, Outdoor Recreation Management and Issues in the Management of Australia’s Water Resources. Dr Pigram is a charter member of the International Academy for the Study of Tourism. He is also a member of the Universities Council on Water Resources, and the American Water Resources Association, vice- president of the International Water Resources Association, a member of the Board of Governors of the World Water Council and Chair of the Organizing Committee for the 10th World Water Congress in Melbourne, Australia, March 2000.

Anna Pollock has worked as a researcher, consultant, facilitator and entrepreneur in the tourism industry. As a researcher she has been instrumental in identifying trends associated with the development of new adventure and health tourism products in Canada. As a consultant, she has played a key role in the development of more systematic approaches to the delivery of tourism education in Western Canada. Her role as a facilitator has focused on the creation of an effective industry-driven tourism association for British Columbia, Canada. Currently she resides in England, where she manages an information technology enterprise. Her company, the Pembridge Group, develops and markets database management systems to tourism destinations in Europe and North America. She is a recognized leader in Canada’s tourism industry.

Dr Dennis B. Propst, a native of the Shenandoah Valley (Virginia), is an Associate Professor in the Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources at Michigan State University, where he has been a faculty member since 1983. His degrees are in biology (BS), outdoor recreation management (MS), and forestry (PhD). His academic interests include the economic impacts of recreation and tourism, human/natural resource interaction, leisure and xviii Contributors

recreation behaviour, and natural resource management and planning. He has 15 years of research experience with various federal and state agencies pertaining to the economic impacts of outdoor recreation and has authored or coauthored numerous publications stemming from this work. He has also conducted 10 years of research and authored several journal articles related to perceived control, participation and choice in outdoor recreation. He teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in behaviour, environmental attitudes and natural resources policy and serves as an Ingham County (Michigan) Parks Commissioner.

Dr Greg Richards obtained a PhD in geography from University College London in 1982, and entered market research with RPA Marketing Communications. He worked on a number of travel and tourism projects, including surveys of the UK conference and exhibition industry, hotel feasibility studies and tourism development and marketing consultancy for local government. In 1984 he became a partner in Tourism Research and Marketing (TRAM), a consultancy specializing in tourism and event marketing. With TRAM he has worked on projects for the British Tourist Authority, the English Tourist Board, the Scottish Tourist Board, and numerous local authorities. Greg is coordinator of the European Association for Tourism and Leisure Education (ATLAS) and has directed a number of ATLAS projects for the European Commission on topics including cultural tourism, sustainable tourism and tourism education. He is currently directing a second European Cultural Tourism Survey, which covered some 30 cultural attractions and events in 12 European countries in 1997. ATLAS is also undertaking a project for DGXVI of the European Commission on crafts tourism, aiming to support local crafts and regional cultures through the promotion of craft products to tourists.

Dr Ingrid E. Schneider is an Assistant Professor at Arizona State University in the Depart- ment of Recreation Management and Tourism where she teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in leisure behaviour and outdoor recreation management. Her academic training includes a BS degree in technical communication from the University of Minne- sota, a MS degree in forest resources, specifically outdoor recreation management, from the University of Minnesota, and a PhD from Clemson University, Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management. Her research interests include visitor behaviour, recreation conflict and response to conflict, stress, diversity and sustainable tourism.

Dr George H. Siehl is adjunct staff with the Institute for Defense Analysis in Alexandria, Virginia, and principal in Capitol Research and Strategies, a consultancy operated from his home in Gaithersburg, Maryland. Projects include ongoing work on stewardship of military lands, and compilation of Outdoor Recreation: A Reader for Congress. Previously he served as specialist in natural resources policy in the Environment and Natural Resources Policy Division (26 years) and Foreign Affairs and National Defense Division (4 years) at the Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress until his retirement in 1997. His areas of specialization include parks, recreation, tourism, and military land use and construction issues. His recommendation led to the establishment of the President’s Commission on Americans Outdoors, on which he served as associate director for trends and forecasts.

William F. Siemer is a Research Support Specialist with the Human Dimensions Research Unit at Cornell University. He holds an MS in the human dimensions of wildlife management from Michigan State University and a BS in wildlife management from the University of Missouri, Columbia. Since coming to Cornell in 1987, he has conducted human dimensions studies on a wide range of topics, including wildlife-related activity involvement, attitudes towards wildlife, wildlife-related risk perception, wildlife damage management, hunting access, and educational programme evaluation. He is a Certiﬁed Wildlife Biologist and is currently serving as coeditor of an undergraduate wildlife management text, The Human Dimensions of Wildlife Management in North America. Contributors xix

Dr Stephen L.J. Smith is Professor of Recreation and Leisure Studies, University of Water- loo, Waterloo, Ontario. He earned his PhD in 1973 at Texas A&M in Recreation and Resources Development. Stephen consults for Canadian government agencies and tourism businesses. He has served as a Special Projects Ofﬁcer with Tourism Canada and with the Canadian Tourism Commission and currently serves as Chairman of the Research Commit- tee of the Canadian Tourism Commission. Steve is an elected Fellow of the International Academy for the Study of Tourism, a member of the Travel and Tourism Research Associa- tion International, and is active with regional and local tourism destination marketing organizations. He has given guest lectures and seminars at numerous universities throughout the world. His specialities are tourism measurement, product development strategies, and geo-economic analysis of tourism development. Steve publishes frequently in journals and is the producer of a video on tourism development and the author of several books.

Dr Taylor V. Stein is an Assistant Professor in Natural Resources Management – Ecotourism for the School of Forest Resources and Conservation at the University of Florida. He has conducted research and assisted in natural resource planning in Florida, Minnesota, Utah and Colorado on state, USDA Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management and private lands. With expertise in beneﬁts-based management, nature-based tourism, landscape values, and wildland recreation management, his research efforts focus on the market and nonmarket beneﬁts of natural or near-natural landscapes with an emphasis in the social sciences. Dr Stein completed his PhD in Forestry at the University of Minnesota in 1997. He received a BS in Recreation Resource Management from Utah State University and a MS in Forestry from Northern Arizona University.

Dr Patricia A. Stokowski is an Associate Professor with the Recreation Management Program, in the School of Natural Resources at the University of Vermont, where she teaches and conducts research on topics related to outdoor recreation and tourism planning. Before moving to Vermont in 1998, she was a faculty member at Texas A&M University and the University of Colorado–Boulder. Her PhD (1988) is from the College of Forest Resources at the University of Washington. Dr Stokowski is the author of two books: Riches and Regrets: Betting on Gambling in Two Colorado Mountain Towns (1996, University Press of Colorado) and Leisure in Society: A Network Structural Perspective (1994, Mansell Press). Her current academic interests centre on rural community development, social impacts research, and rhetorical issues in sense of place studies. Beyond the halls of academia, Dr Stokowski is also a gold-medallist ﬁgure skater and professional ice dance coach.

Gregory R. Super is an economist and programme manager in the Recreation, Heritage and Wilderness Resources Staff at the USDA Forest Service national headquarters in Wash- ington, District of Columbia. His USDA Forest Service career has included forest planning, strategic planning, campground management, ﬁreﬁghting and the development of recreation fee systems. Mr Super is a graduate of Colorado State University (BS) and Utah State University (MS). He lives in Arlington, Virginia, with his wife, Sue, and son, James.

Jon Teigland is a Senior Social Scientist at Western Norway Research Institute. He was responsible for Norway’s first national holiday and recreation surveys in the early 1970s. Trends and processes influencing consumer behaviour and travel demand internationally have been a major research interest since then. Applying research findings to decision making processes both at policy, planning and at project level is another issue of interest. For the past 10 years, Teigland has done impact assessments of the effects on tourism and recreation from major projects, including hydro power and highway developments, mega- events such as the Olympic Games and the designation of national parks. Jon has done impact assessments and planned regional tourism developments on several continents, among them two pilot tourism and recreation regional plans in Saudi Arabia. xx Contributors

Dr Gail A. Van der Stoep is an Associate Professor at Michigan State University (MSU) in the Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources. For the past 15 years, much of her professional work has focused on interpretive communications, and has included serving as president of the National Association for Interpretation. She also is an adjunct faculty member with the MSU Museum. Her current research, outreach and training efforts are integrative in nature and include work in community-based tourism development, heritage and nature-based tourism, use of communications as a resource management tool, human dimensions of resource management, and integrated maritime resource management. As Faculty Liaison with MSU’s Center for Maritime and Underwater Resource Management (CMURM), these areas of expertise are applied in coastal and marine park areas, including international work in Anguilla.

Dr Salah E.A. Wahab is Professor of Tourism at the University of Alexandria School of Tourism and Hotel Management. He is also chair of the Tourism Division of the National Council on Productivity and Economic Affairs in Egypt, chair of ESSET, Egyptian Society of Scientific Experts on Tourism, and founder and chair of Tourismplan, and a member of the Advisory Council of the World Tourism Organization. Formerly Dr Wahab was chief of the State Tourist Administration, first under Secretary of State for Tourism, chair of the National Organization of Tourism and Hotels in Egypt, and chair of investment companies in the public and private sectors. Dr Wahab is author, coauthor and coeditor of more than 15 scientific books on tourism in Arabic and English as well as author of more than 100 research papers and chapters published in international journals. Dr Wahab is a member of ten international associations including the International Academy for the Study of Tour- ism, the International Association of Scientific Experts on Tourism, and the Travel and Tourism Research Association in the US.

Dr Stephen Wanhill is Travelbag Professor of Tourism at the School of Service Industries, Bournemouth University, and Head of Tourism Research at the Research Centre of Born- holm, Denmark, where he is involved in a multi-annual programme, funded by the Danish Social Science Foundation, researching tourism in the peripheral areas of Europe. His experience as a practitioner and as an academic in the ﬁeld of tourism spans more than 25 years and he has previously held professorial posts at the University of Surrey and the University of Wales, Cardiff. He has been a parliamentary Specialist Adviser on tourism to the UK House of Commons and a board member of the Wales Tourist Board. His research interest lies in the area of tourism development and he has published on development policy, tourism projects, investment incentives and the impact of tourism. He is editor of Tourism Economics and has collaborated with John Fletcher as author of Tourism: Princi- ples and Practice.

Dr J. Douglas Wellman was a member of the Forestry faculty at Virginia Tech from 1976 until 1990, during which time he taught courses in natural resources policy and outdoor recreation behaviour and pursued scholarly work in outdoor recreation policy, public involvement in natural resource planning, urban forestry and professional education. In 1990, he joined the College of Forest Resources at North Carolina State University as Associate Dean for Academic Affairs, in which position he helped develop innovative interdisciplinary undergraduate and graduate programmes in natural resources management. In 1998, he became the founding director of the Faculty Center for Teaching and Learning, a university-wide faculty development ofﬁce at North Carolina State. Dr Wellman is author/coauthor of more than 100 publications and presentations.

Dr Peter Williams is a strategic planner, researcher and educator who has worked for more than two and a half decades on projects related to the tourism industry. As a strategic Contributors xxi

planner, he has worked around the globe for clients on issues related to the development, marketing and on-going management of tourism destinations and businesses. As a researcher, he is Director of the Centre For Tourism Policy and Research at Simon Fraser University in Vancouver, Canada. Located in super, natural British Columbia, this leading edge tourism institute focuses its research on projects which encourage more sustainable forms of tourism development. As an educator, Dr Williams is a professor in the University’s School of Resource and Environmental Management, where he teaches graduate courses in tourism policy and planning. He is also a past president and former Chairman of the Board for the International Travel and Tourism Research Association – an organization dedicated to encouraging excellence in tourism research and strategic planning.

Dr Peter A. Witt is Professor and Head, Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences at Texas A&M University. Besides departmental administration, Dr Witt’s major interests are in the area of evaluating outcomes of recreation programmes being offered by recreation and park departments for at-risk youth. Dr Witt is also involved in efforts to identify best practices and characteristics of successful programmes in the recreation and parks ﬁeld. Much of this work is based on models of risk, resiliency and protective factors. Dr Witt is the coordinator of the At-Risk Youth Recreation Consortium, a joint effort of eight universities, some 14 cities and the National Recreation and Park Association, who are jointly seeking to improve available information about the impact and value of park and recreation services for at-risk youth. Dr Witt has written or edited ﬁve books and authored more than 75 articles on the social psychological aspects of leisure involvement and recreation services for a variety of different user groups.

1 The Big Picture: a Synopsis of Contributions

William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

How will we choose to travel and recreate in lions of travellers and recreationists who 20 years time? Will we still be content to make up today’s active leisure society? Not squeeze into an airline seat and endure only will the equipment we use change, but hours of uncomfortable travel to do the how we select where we do what we want things we want to do in the place where we will also change. How we choose where we want to do them? Will we still recreate in want to travel and recreate is now in the ways that our mentors taught us or will we throes of a major transformation as the Inter- ﬁnd new forms of recreation to challenge net becomes an even greater force in our our skills? Will technology enable us to daily lives. travel to all the places and do all the things This book is about trends in recreation, that we can vicariously experience now leisure and tourism. It attempts to detail using the Internet, or will new communica- where we are today in relation to some of tion and virtual reality devices substitute for yesterday’s events. In other words, where old-fashioned recreation and travel? How are we now and how did we get here? It also will public and private sector providers of attempts to take us into the future by dis- leisure opportunities and services adjust to cussing the ‘so what’ of where we are now. the numerous forces with which they will Implications related to the trends discussed have to contend and, often, only periph- tell us, as a society, what we should expect erally control? These are only some of the to contend with in the coming years. many questions being asked today regarding This is not a book about predictions. the future of recreation and tourism. Trends are based on documented historical As we enter the new millennium hardly precedents. Predictions are based on any- anyone expects that how we select or partic- thing, including the alignment of Jupiter’s ipate in our chosen leisure and travel moons! What we hopefully have delivered activities today will be the same in 20 years in this book is an analysis of some of the time. Certainly, most people will still be more interesting trends of today shaping drawn to challenge themselves physically how people travel and play. We also hope to and mentally in the outdoor environment, inform the reader about what these trends but increasingly people may be doing this mean for the foreseeable future. Given the with equipment that is unheard of today. immensity of the literature regarding recrea- Twenty years ago no one, outside the mili- tion, leisure and tourism this book provides tary, was even thinking about global only a fraction of the multitude of relevant positioning systems. What else is out there trends which one could argue are opera- waiting to be released and sold to the mil- tional in today’s world. We recognize this © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 1 2 William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

but feel that readers will find trend con- with no appreciable growth except from vergence as they read through the chapters. immigration. The annual growth rate of the Trends are not isolated occurrences. world population is expected to decline There are discernable patterns that affect shortly after the new millennium begins numerous aspects of recreation, leisure and (Evenson, 1999). All this is good news for a tourism, and many of the trends addressed world that has only known increasing rates in this book are variants of other related of population growth and all the implica- trends. This will become evident to the tions associated with it. However, statistics reader as he or she progresses through the 37 can be deceptive. While it is true that many chapters of this book. countries have achieved population stabil- Putting the trend information in this book ity most of these can be considered as into perspective requires a review of the developed countries, with China being the mega-trends that affect how all of us live and notable exception. In addition new medi- play. Once this is done, the specific trends cines and medical techniques have more detailed in this book will become clearer than doubled life expectancy in the last 100 and more understandable. years. We live longer and are healthier. This applies to people in all parts of the world, although in many regions one would be hard Mega-trends pressed to conclude that people are better off today. What this means, with special emphasis on developing countries, is that Mega-trends are those forces that affect overall population growth is still very high, almost everyone in the world. Individually resulting in extreme pressure on environ- no one person can initiate, control, or man- mental and other resources. age a mega-trend. They can only be dealt Some people argue that more people in with through collective action. It is impor- the world means more consumers and tant that society understands how greater economic opportunity for all. How mega-trends affect certain aspects of life. true is this statement? Can the world afford Only through understanding this can millions more consumers if they consume at informed collective decisions occur. The the same rate as those of us in the developed next section of this chapter examines one world? Can our stressed environment sup- mega-trend that affects us all – population port these growing millions of consumers? growth. We then discuss ancillary outputs of How will we cope with millions more vehi- that mega-trend and eventually move on to cles contributing greenhouse gases to an more specific trends relevant to understand- atmosphere that, by many indications, has ing what forces are affecting recreation, already exceeded its carrying capacity? leisure and tourism. Concomitant with the growth in population is the increasing urbanization of the Population growth world’s people. Mega-cities (population The mother of all trends is simply popula- more than 10 million) now number 14 tion growth. At the beginning of 1900, the where none existed in 1900. Urban popula- world population was estimated at 1.6 bil- tions around the world are expanding with lion. Thirty years later, the world some very undesirable results. Shanty population had increased by 25% to more towns with unsanitary conditions are com- than 2 billion. Today it is estimated to have mon in places like Mexico City and New surpassed 6 billion and is still growing at an Delhi. In Cairo one of the popular taxi tours annual rate of 1.4% (Brown and Flavin, is through the City of the Dead, where squat- 1999). One could argue that population ters have moved into the open spaces of growth is under control, as the percentage mausoleums. Traffic jams are everyday increase has slowed from its record annual occurrences in large cities throughout the rate of 2.2% in 1964. Thirty-two countries world and more vehicles will not only con- now report relatively stable populations tribute to atmospheric pollution but make The Big Picture 3

cities even more undesirable as living Once scientists discovered and con- spaces for residents and visitors alike. vinced decision makers that chloro- The mega-trend of population growth has fluorocarbons (CFC) were destroying the led to decreasing environmental quality. earth’s ozone layer, substitute chemicals Part of the blame for declining environmen- were developed. Technology is praised for tal quality results from the travel age we find helping clean up water and air emissions. ourselves in today. In 1900 only a few thou- Some bodies of water, previously thought of sand automobiles were in service, today as ‘dead’, are now able to support a more there are more than 500 million (Brown and diverse selection of species. Sometimes, as Flavin, 1999). Jumbo jets routinely carry with Lake Erie (one of the five US Great thousands of passengers millions of miles Lakes), a clean-up is so successful that it each day. Jet vapour trails have been asso- leads to a major tourism boom as the envi- ciated with destroying ozone and ronment once again becomes conducive to contributing to the greenhouse gases affect- leisure pursuits. ing world climate. The travel age has made it There is theory behind the belief in tech- easier not only to move people but to move nology to solve most problems. The theory other sentient life forms, deliberately or of induced innovation (Runge, 1999), ini- unwittingly. The importation of exotic spe- tially confined to the microeconomics of the cies to areas previously geographically company, has been expanded to institutions isolated has caused enormous harm to many (Binswanger and Ruttan, 1978). Simply of the world’s ecosystems. Darwin’s theory stated, the theory rests upon decisions being of evolution may no longer be operable as it taken to find the ‘right’ mix of inputs in the becomes harder and harder to find places production process. For example, at the firm untouched by the introduction of exotic spe- level, if one input (e.g. labour) becomes cies. Slow evolutionary change has been scarce with a commensurate increase in the replaced by rapid environmental transfor- price of the input, a search for substitutes mation. will take place. By rearranging the production process, firms found they could Technology change increase output and at the same time lower Counterbalancing the relatively dark picture costs. This extends the ‘innovation possibil- painted above is an almost religious faith in ities frontier’ for the firm. If one examines the power of technology to overcome many the different production processes, for of today’s problems. Hardin (1968) in his essentially similar products, utilized by dif- classic work, Tragedy of the Commons, ferent cultures in the world it becomes clear paints a picture where all members of a that factor substitution is operable. society eventually lose as individuals act to At the institutional level, the theory is maximize their individual return from a pro- not as straightforward, as the production ductive enterprise based on communal process is subject to forces such as policy resources. If we assume the world’s stock of decrees that are usually not tied to measur- environmental resources is more or less a able output (e.g. profit). However, there are communal resource to be divided among the forces operating at the institutional level world’s citizens based on relative purchas- that will change inputs and ultimately how ing power, it becomes clear the world will these organizations do business. eventually consume all that it needs for con- Since the theory of induced innovation is tinued survival. One need only look at the based on the relative abundance or scarcity state of the world’s tropical forests or major of inputs, measured by market- or policy- fishing grounds for validation of this state- imposed values, how inputs change in value ment. Recognition of limited resources has is an important consideration. Most econo- not stopped or appreciably slowed con- mists accept the basic argument for Engel’s sumption of these precious resources. Why? Law which, simply stated, is that each prod- Because many people believe that technol- uct will have a consumption level ogy will solve the problem. associated with it for a certain level of 4 William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

income. When income changes, superior as Costa Rica, Tanzania, Kenya and Bots- goods will capture additional shares of wana have substantial tracts of land set income whereas inferior goods will claim a aside in national parks and preserves. The smaller percentage of the total income avail- reason for their creation and their continued able. Food consumption was the basis for existence has been due, in part, to tourist Engel’s Law and is still used as the primary expenditure, thus giving value to environ- example today. When income increases, less mental resources. Tourists’ expenditures are of the total budget will be allocated to food a form of income redistribution. One could purchases after a certain level of consump- argue that citizens of developed countries tion has been reached. Certainly there will are paying for the environmental inputs in be substitutes for more expensive food items the tourism product production process. If but other goods, previously unattainable, this is the case, why then does the world still will now be purchased and consumed. lose vast tracts of fragile environmental Extending this theory into the realm of envi- resources each day? Is it because we still do ronmental decisions was the intent of not have enough tourists to provide value to Ruttan’s work (1971). He intended to show these exploited resources? that after society reaches a certain level of Two questions that must be asked are: afﬂuence, nonmarket goods, such as the will technology and its progenitor, induced environment, assume value. Runge (1987) innovation, be able to overcome some of the termed the extension of Engel’s Law to envi- most pressing environmental stresses of ronmental considerations the ‘Ruttan today? And if so, at what cost? These ques- principle’. Simply stated, Ruttan’s principle tions are critical as we discuss recreation, claims that as societies advance and acquire leisure and tourism trends. As will be wealth, the environment assumes value. shown shortly, this growth has been phe- This is reﬂected in policy decisions nomenal since the end of World War II. intended to protect certain environmental Looking at the travel patterns of today, it can values (e.g. US Endangered Species Act) or be argued that the number of tourists, of all prohibit certain actions (e.g. toxic waste dis- types, counted on a daily basis may exceed charge). Policy decisions that protect or the total number of tourists recorded since enhance the environment effectively raise the very beginning of touristic activity environmental input costs, thus forcing through World War II. Surely it already input re-allocation or productivity increases exceeds the total number of tourists up until brought about by using new technology. 1900. So where are we today with respect to Population growth leading to urbaniza- solving some of the world’s problems? For tion and decreasing environmental quality example, technology has not yet advanced is the mega-trend of the 21st century. Even to the point where tropical forests, in gen- though the rate of population growth has eral, are being preserved or conserved levelled off and shows signs of a gradual instead of exploited. It is easy to argue that decline, world population is still growing developing nations have yet to reach a level rapidly. Will the theory of induced innova- of economic security where they have tion manifest itself in ways that will protect enough income to value their environment resources, now exploited to provide short (i.e. invoke Ruttan’s principle). Thus, envi- term relief, for future generations? How ronmental degradation will continue. Yet important will tourism, recreation and lei- tourism has the ability to change the factor sure be in invoking induced innovation and input mix in the production process. extending the frontiers of innovation possi- Regardless of how one feels about the term bilities? Attempting to answer these ecotourism, travel based on an attraction to questions requires us to look at some of the certain environmental values has been most salient trends relevant to recreation, growing in popularity. Successes in saving leisure and tourism. environmental systems and their inhabitants are well documented. Countries such The Big Picture 5

Tourism, Recreation and Leisure are finding more ways to spend money Trends while they travel, and the industry is finding even more ways to entice them to spend Against the backdrop of the population money. A review of some ongoing develop- growth mega-trend and its ancillary outputs ment activity indicates that even more we analyse recreation, leisure and tourism expensive and amenity-laden leisure prop- trends. As will be argued, we are now in a erties are soon to be competing with period of leisure affluence. In spite of the properties considered the ‘ultimate’ a few concern throughout most of the world over short years ago (Tourism Development longer working hours and less leisure time, Report, 1999). people are still travelling more than ever before. Tourism and its resulting recreation Tourist distribution and leisure activities have become so impor- Where is all the tourist money going? It is tant to many economies that any disruption apparent from reviewing worldwide travel in demand will have serious implications. patterns that tourism remains an economic We are now at a point in world history in activity that primarily benefits developed which we have achieved global dependen- countries. Travel today from Europe to cies. Travel to maintain global trade is North America and vice versa accounts for essential and the future of the world econ- approximately 79% of all travellers and omy is now tied, for better or worse, to 78% of all tourism receipts (WTO, 1999). A tourism. few countries in Asia, in particular Japan, Tourism, as defined by Smith (see Chap- have entered the picture as major recipients ter 20) or Gartner (1996b) is a product of and generators of tourists. In most cases technological and economic advances since tourism growth is tied to level of develop- the end of World War II. Travel before World ment. Those countries that show economic War II was almost the exclusive activity of growth are most likely to be the ones to the leisure and trading classes. Turner and generate and benefit from tourism. Coun- Ash (1975) named the new wave of tourists tries in Africa and South America, with few appearing since the end of World War II the exceptions, are not yet major tourism gen- ‘golden hordes’. It is easy to see how this erators or receivers. For example, Africa, name was coined. In the 1970s and into the which has great resource wealth, especially 1980s, annual tourism growth was regularly in primary commodities such as timber, in double figures, pausing only in the reces- gold and tropical agricultural products, sion years of the late 1970s and early 1980s. attracts only 4% of all world travellers In terms of percentage increases, interna- (WTO, 1999). Given Africa’s burgeoning tional tourist arrivals are expected to grow population, its tourism adds very little to the well into the new century at rates of around Gross National Product (GNP) of many 4–5%. Although this rate of increase is very countries. impressive, it is below the percentage Reasons for low levels of travel to the increases of 10–20 years ago. What is more world’s developing countries are numerous impressive, however, is the amount of and include political instability, medical money spent. Worldwide, tourism receipts fears, poor facilities and inadequate levels of stood at US$445 billion up from US$221 service. However, the major reason tourism billion only 10 years ago, an increase growth has been retarded has to do with exceeding 100% (WTO, 1999). At the same inadequate distribution channels. Travel to time, international arrivals stood at 625 mil- remote parts of the world is not easy or lion in 1998 up from 426 million in 1989, or inexpensive. Government policies, such as less than a 50% increase. What this tells us overflight charges (fees airlines pay for fly- is that although percentage increases for ing over sovereign air space) add to the cost total travel will remain at pretty constant of travel. The infrastructure needed for mov- levels for the foreseeable future, receipts ing people around a country is in many continue to show impressive gains. People places so poor or nonexistent that many 6 William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

regions appeal only to the most resilient development for consumption cities is to adventure traveller. Added to the structural reduce the distribution channel barriers by problems of travel encountered in many making attractions available in a centrally developing countries are policies that located district or finding ways to move peo- restrict travel. Edgell (1988) details many of ple, efficiently and with little extra cost, the barriers making travel time-consuming between consumption centre zones. and expensive. Included in his list of barriers are restrictive and relatively expensive Travel patterns visa entry regulations, exit taxes and a host The next decade is bound to show a shift in of other travel-sector specific taxes. One travel patterns. Large groups of consumers, could add regulations, still mandatory in ‘baby boomers’, for example, are nearing the some countries, that require people to regis- end of their child-rearing years and are ter their movements within the country. The beginning to enter their retirement years. result of these and other barriers is that for There are some indications that common most people travel becomes too much of a short holidays will decrease in favour of hardship for any rewards that may be long-haul, long-stay destinations. A recent gained. In an age where globalization is a Delphi study of experts in the travel and common word, many of the travel barriers tourism industry (Obermair, 1998) indicates that countries face are self-imposed. This is that long-haul travel is expected to increase very surprising, especially when developing markedly in the next 5–15 years, with most countries have been advocating more open of this travel headed to developing coun- trade policies with their major trading part- tries. The US and Canada are expected to be ners. the sole exceptions to the trend away from travel to developed countries. Traditional Consumption centres European destinations are expected to The tourism of today increasingly takes remain unchanged or be the big losers. To place in areas that look nothing like they did facilitate this trend, developing countries 20 years ago. When tourism was still experi- will have to spend large sums of money to encing double-figure increases, many improve their infrastructure and internal travellers were new to the travel scene and distribution channels. Because many of appeared to be content simply to see what these long-haul countries are in Asia, their the world had to offer. However, many com- ability to capitalize on this trend depends in munities began to realize that tourism is the large part on their ability to rebound from perfect consumption activity. Whether trav- the most recent economic recession they elling on business or pleasure, goods and have experienced and achieve sustained services must constantly be purchased. economic growth. Most travellers are in consumptive mode from the very beginning of their trip. For this reason new consumption centres are being Consolidation built and older industrial cities are being Tourism businesses worldwide have for the redesigned. In the US, for example, Las most part been independently owned and Vegas (Nevada) and Orlando (Florida) are at operated. Depending on the sector, the per- the forefront of new consumption centre centage of small businesses has been design. Older European cities can still count estimated to be greater than 90% with most on their historical development as an attrac- sectors having more than 50% of the busi- tion, but increasingly more consumption nesses classified as small businesses. The activities are being added to the mix of what major exception to this is the airline indus- is already available. Even single purpose try which, because of the cost of the touristic activity (e.g. shopping) can be equipment, is heavy on large corporate own- developed using a consumption centre ership. Other sectors, such as tour operators, model. Such is the case of the Mall of Amer- lodging and resorts, have increasingly ica in Bloomington, Minnesota. The focus of merged into larger and larger corporations. The Big Picture 7

For example, the major ski resorts in Colo- basic business operations. Since consolida- rado recently merged to form one of the tion for tourism enterprises is still in its world’s largest alpine skiing corporations. early stages, many of the long-term conse- Tour operators and travel agents have also quences of this trend are still unknown. been going through a period of consolidation. This is more apparent in Europe than Energy in the US, even though US airlines were at Tourism has moved beyond the ‘golden the forefront of the consolidation trend start- horde’ period described by Turner and Ash ing in 1978 with the passage of the (1975) and is now in the ‘platinum’ stage. Kennedy-Pearson Act. This act essentially Since tourism requires travel and most deregulated the airline sector in the US. The travel is carbon powered, we are now at a first wave of consolidation was primarily period in history where the price of travel brought on by mergers as airlines purchased may never be lower. There is no doubt that other airlines, not so much for the acquisi- the number of travellers will continue to tion of their equipment but, more grow, but at what cost? Energy is still rela- importantly, to secure bases for their hub- tively cheap but with increasing attention and-spoke systems. being paid to global warming and the emis- Recently, mergers have taken second sion of greenhouse gases, it is inevitable that place to the formation of strategic alliances. things will change. Even with the advances These partnerships allow for the consolida- in fuel-efficient planes and motor vehicles, tion of many airline operations without the projected increases in tourist numbers will risk and cost involved in outright acquisi- more than offset the saving in energy usage. tion. One of the most successful strategic The concern now is not that the world will partnerships between international carriers run out of fossil fuels, as it was during the has been that of KLM and Northwest Air- 1970s and early 1980s, but that the con- lines (and recently Continental Airlines), sumption of carbon-based fuel will extending the reach of each carrier (Gartner, irreparably damage the environment before 1996b). European airlines, many supported a solution can be found. Automobile com- by government, are now experiencing the panies are investing millions of dollars in wave of deregulation experienced by US finding alternatives to carbon fuels. Most of carriers. their attention is being directed to develop- Consolidation has its advantages and dis- ing solar or electrically powered vehicles. advantages. On the one hand, large Might alternative fuels for boats and aero- corporations can use economies of scale to planes also be developed? offer services at a reduced price, something Governments are reluctant to impose fur- that most tourists agree is a good thing. On ther restrictions on the use of fuel or even to the other hand, product lines may be elimi- raise taxes on its consumption, in part nated and consumer choice may be because of the fear that large increases in restricted. Some would argue that this is energy costs may have a drastic effect on all already happening in the Mediterranean aspects of their economy including those basin where control of travel by a few opera- tied to tourism. Even in Europe, where tors has forced destinations to either lower petroleum prices are approximately four prices or suffer loss of business to other times those in the US, the 4 : 1 ratio has destination areas which are more willing to remained relatively constant for the last dec- accept lower returns in exchange for book- ade or more. The wildcard in the energy-use ings. In the long run this has serious equation is technology. Will technology implications for the condition of the phys- reach a level that will not only support the ical plant which may not receive enough level of tourism we now enjoy but also allow revenue to maintain the facility. It also rai- it to grow at the expected rate of 4–5% a ses the issue of maintaining the year? Even if technology comes to the res- environmental integrity of the destination if cue, who will pay for these new revenues are not even sufficient to support technological innovations? The answer is 8 William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

simply the tourists. The question then build travel, leisure, recreation and physical becomes how elastic is the demand for fitness into our lifestyle and routine; (iii) the travel? Will it continue to increase in the reduction in pollution associated with many face of increasing costs? When all this hap- resources (e.g. waterways) near where peo- pens, the question of how much we are ple live and improved access to these willing to pay for environmental values (i.e. resources; (iv) growth in the number of com- Ruttan’s principle) will take centre stage. mercial sector providers offering relatively Many parts of the world are so dependent on inexpensive service; (v) the increased mar- tourism now that the answers to these ques- keting and advertising of various outdoor tions will ultimately determine whether the settings as places to have a good time; and platinum age of tourism continues or (vi) growth in the manufacture of a variety of whether we retreat to a point where tourism both inexpensive and expensive high-tech growth eventually levels off and/or equipment that attracts new consumers as declines. well as creating the impression that anyone can enjoy leisure pursuits. Communications These and related societal trends have Communication technology is a mega-trend witnessed a growing demand by women, for affecting all aspects of life. Its importance to example, to partake in leisure activities tra- recreation, leisure and tourism is only now ditionally dominated by men (e.g. Kelly, beginning to be revealed. Traditional tour 1987; Henderson, 1996b). Members of many operators and travel agents will find them- ethnic groups who have not traditionally selves at risk as individuals bypass the participated in outdoor recreation activities wholesaler and book travel directly with the are also entering the leisure and travel mar- providers (Obermair, 1998). Individual ket in increasing numbers. Such activity mass tourism is projected to be the outcome will create new opportunities for commer- of all the positioning now taking place on cial sector providers and for public land the Internet. Since it is such a new phenom- management agencies concerning interpre- enon, and changing on a daily basis, many of tive and information materials. its implications are yet unknown beyond the Because age is closely linked with out- belief that it will dramatically change how door recreation and tourism pursuits, it is people select and book their travel arrange- particularly important to speculate on possi- ments. ble changes that might result as the age A few years ago, in the early days of structure changes in many countries. The communications technology, much was general ageing of the population in many heard of virtual reality systems and how developed countries significantly influences these would become substitutes for travel. what goods and services are purchased. Experiencing remote places without leaving The growth in the number of mature- home was viewed as a distinct possibility. market adults pursuing travel and outdoor Given the extent of travel today, it can be recreation will be one result of the general argued that either the technology does not ageing of the population. Many of yester- yet exist to simulate a travel experience or day’s parents were introduced to leisure that there is simply no substitute for the real activities in their youth, and they will have thing. considerable experience with and knowledge of available resources and the people Societal change that provide the services. Many of these Throughout much of the world, particularly mature adults will continue to buy the latest in developed countries, a widening segment equipment, but commercial sector providers of society is participating in leisure and will still have excellent opportunities for travel activities. Reasons for this continuing growth. trend include: (i) more discretion in when In general, people will participate in their people can take holidays, such as more flex- chosen activities longer because of ible work schedules; (ii) a greater desire to improved physical fitness and previous The Big Picture 9

experience in their preferred activities. Bet- approach, public land managers, interest ter public health programmes, increased groups and commercial sector representa- emphasis on fitness and early exposure to tives could be brought together to leisure activities and increased marketing communicate with one another and to come aimed at older people will all come to up with a mix of opportunities within a encourage more people to participate region that is politically acceptable. Not all longer. This should entice some commercial uses and activities can necessarily be sector providers to experiment with trips accommodated in any given region and and activities designed for ‘older’ people. some users may have to seek what they want The trend toward a greater proportion of in other locations. older people being healthier may be offset, Collaboration and coordination among in part, by another trend in which more government bodies are essential to improve travellers will have physical problems and public rapport, to implement regional plan- be less physically fit. As such, training and ning and management strategies, and to safety programmes will have to adjust to meet other goals. Partnerships also can be accommodate a wider distribution of age formed with commercial sector providers groups. and organizations (Howe et al., 1997; A proportionally older, more experi- LaPage, see Chapter 33). For many outdoor enced, and knowledgeable leisure and recreation pursuits (river running, for exam- travelling public will generate new oppor- ple), a large proportion of visitors (if not tunities for learning and education to most) have direct contact with outfitters, liv- become important components of travel and ery operators and outing groups. They outdoor recreation. Increased levels of seldom interact with area resource man- demand for educational products and ser- agers. As a result, these business people and vices will fall on both public and private organization representatives are in a favour- sector providers. The trend also will result able position to aid public land managers in in increasingly significant challenges to getting information to users before their vis- land-management agency decision makers. its and in educating their clients about For example, a more diverse public will appropriate river etiquette and expected vis- want to learn about available leisure oppor- itor behaviour (Lime, 1985). tunities and to express their feelings about To accommodate a rapidly changing trav- important issues in the planning and man- eller, all segments of the public and agement process. commercial sector community can benefit from continuing education programmes Public involvement aimed at upgrading the knowledge base and As a wider segment of the world’s popula- technical skill levels of their professional tion seeks to engage in recreation and leisure staff (Anderson et al., 1995; Propst et al., see pursuits, ages, gains first-hand experience Chapter 35). Such programmes seem espe- and demands higher quality experiences, all cially necessary because the number of years sectors of the tourism community will be since many key officials received formal challenged to find innovative ways to training continues to increase and many involve these people in decision making. managers, at least among public land man- With more and changing clientele groups agers in the US, are tending to stay in one job there undoubtedly will be more conflict or location longer. among user groups and between recreation and nonrecreation tourism interests. Some Fees for using public lands seemingly homogeneous groups will be dis- Public land managers worldwide who are placed and others may be excluded responsible for park and recreation resour- altogether from gaining access to their pre- ces have experienced a trend in reduced ferred settings. A regional, drainage basin or budgets to finance their programmes. Budg- systems approach may be useful in address- ets have not kept pace with inflation, ing some conflicting demands. In such an government budget priorities have changed, 10 William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

costs have risen and the backlog of repair agement agencies too dependent on visitor and maintenance projects continues to use and promote agendas to solicit higher grow. All this is coupled with more people levels of visitor use to generate more in search of the out-of-doors, who demand income? more and more services, programmes and facilities. New expanded user fee programmes are The Purpose of this Book seen as one alternative to help finance public recreation. In the US, for example, Most experts (e.g. Obermair, 1998) expect Congress recently (1997) authorized federal tourism to continue to grow by at least the agencies (including the USDA Forest Serv- 4–5% annual rate projected by the World ice, Bureau of Land Management, National Tourism Organization (WTO). In the short Park Service and US Fish and Wildlife Serv- term there is no reason to suspect otherwise. ice) to increase or establish new recreation However, the mega-trend of population user fees on a trial basis in some of their park growth and its ancillary trend of declining and recreation areas (Public Law 104–134). environmental quality is one of the big This 3-year recreational fee demonstration unknowns in the equation. Will increasing programme allows individual areas to keep numbers of people translate into a larger 80% of all the increased revenue, with the tourism market, or will the crush of human- remaining 20% retained by the agency for ity lead to accelerating environmental distribution among other areas. Such funds damage resulting in governments, reluc- are earmarked to address the huge backlog of tantly, imposing energy taxes to dampen repair and maintenance of existing build- demand? Will technological advances be ings and trails. This currently stands at able to overcome and reverse the trend of about US$8 billion for the National Park environmental damage brought on by the Service. These funds cannot be used to build increasing use of carbon-based fuels? How new facilities. will the consolidation movement already In spite of the evidence that current visi- under way affect the supply and price of tors generally accept the concept of paying a tourism products? Will communication user fee, if all or most of the fees collected technology lead to more travel or simply remain in the area where collected or with make purchasing travel products easier? the agency to improve visitor services or Will distribution channels evolve to move protect resources, many questions remain more people to developing countries, as pre- concerning the appropriateness and long- dicted, or will there simply be more travel term benefits of fee programmes (e.g. from developed to developed nations? Some Lundgren and Lime, 1997). To what extent answers to these and related questions, might new fees lead governments to reduce derived from documented trends, are appropriations for individual park and addressed, in part, by the authors in this recreation areas or agencies? Can and should book. You are encouraged to read on and see public resources be income generators and how what is happening today will affect perhaps become self-sufficient? With expan- how we live and play in the 21st century! ded or new fees will visitors expect additional facilities, services and pro- Structure of the book grammes? Will visitors accept that the new This book has an introductory and a con- income will be spent primarily on the large cluding chapter, enclosing six sections, each and growing backlog of repair and main- with a variable number of chapters. It is the tenance projects – not on new facilities and intention of the editors to lead the reader development? Over time to what extent will through a logical sequence in order that the increased user fees deny access or be a bar- trends and implications can build on each rier to some users or user groups – lower other. This introductory chapter, ‘The Big income people and minorities, for example? Picture: A Synopsis of Contributions’, is Might user fees make public resource man- intended to introduce the reader to some of The Big Picture 11

the more pervasive issues and related debate altogether different topic related to under- surrounding how the identified trends affect standing how resources are utilized for our lives. leisure pursuits and focuses on a review and Part I, ‘Society’, will examine some of the synthesis of social science research in out- forces shaping the demand for and use of door recreation. He highlights the diversity resources. In this section Henderson exam- of research activity over time and character- ines how gender issues affect recreation izes some of the significant theoretical and choice and provision. Nickerson and Black methodological directions this research has look at demographic changes in society but taken. also concentrate on how women in the Part III reveals how people use the workforce affect recreation choice and pro- resources available to them for recreation vision of services. Teigland addresses and travel purposes. Cordell and Super dis- broader issues of societal changes, espe- cuss the current situation in the US with cially those affecting how societies organize respect to many different recreational activ- themselves politically. With the ascendancy ities. Because of their long-standing work in of market-based societies and the decline of the area of recreation use, it is possible to see centrally planned and controlled economic which forms of recreation are on the and social systems has come a reconsidera- upswing and which are stagnating or declin- tion of what effect this will have on travel ing. This chapter is followed by some and recreation. Buhalis discusses the ever- in-depth looks at specific types of increasing influence of information and recreation/tourism options. Brown et al. communication technology on tourism sys- detail what is happening to hunting partici- tems and operations. Hutchison ends this pation in the US over time. Especially section by reviewing the literature on eth- revealing in this chapter is the implication nicity and subcultures. He concludes that that even though a sport may not show par- very little attention, in the provision of lei- ticipation growth over time, this does not sure services, has been given to groups in mean that expenditures are stagnant. developed countries, outside the main- Eadington examines a recent growth activ- stream Caucasian majority. ity, gaming, which provides an excellent Part II examines the supply of resources contrast to the more traditional recreational that attract tourists and provide recreation pursuit discussed by Brown et al. Pollock and leisure pursuits. Cordell and Betz and Williams focus on a specific trend, explore recent trends in the supply of fed- health tourism, which is important to a pop- eral, state, local and private sector outdoor ulation interested in extending the number recreation opportunities. While the supply of years they can enjoy the good life. Travel of opportunities continues to grow in the to participate in organized health care activ- US, patterns of growth differ between cer- ities appears to be on the increase and tain types of natural or undeveloped settings Pollock and Williams reveal why. Getz and developed recreation opportunities. examines another growth activity of recent Also from a strictly US perspective, Siehl years, festivals and events, with respect to examines not only the pieces of policy where this trend may be in its product life which provided for the plethora of travel cycle. Richards also discusses what has been and recreation resources now available to a growth activity in recent years and sounds US residents and guests but the times in a note of caution to communities relying on which the policies originated. Wahab dis- their heritage to sustain a tourism industry. cusses policy as well but from a developing He reveals that even though there is nation’s point-of-view: the role of national increased interest in heritage tourism, there agencies is a focus of his chapter. McCool are a number of indications that supply is and Patterson then review planning issues growing faster than demand. Finally Ander- as they affect the creation and/or develop- son et al. round off this section by ment of resources needed for recreation and examining the benefits, in a sociocultural tourism. Finally, Manning addresses an context, that people gain from recreational 12 William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

pursuits. While Anderson et al. recognize examines tourism from a developing versus benefits under four general categories – per- developed country perspective. His conclu- sonal, societal, economic and sions are optimistic for developing environmental – they focus their discussion countries but suggest some concern for tour- on the personal benefits that can be obtained ism in developed countries. Long and Lane both on and off site. investigate rural development issues which Part IV is dedicated to understanding are becoming increasingly important to how valuable the recreation/tourism resour- communities that may be losing manufac- ces are and what is happening to them in the turing and agricultural jobs. Van der Stoep way of human induced impacts. Peterson brings the issue of development into the and Loomis review the history of attempts to community and examines various concerns value nonmarket recreation resources. What that must be addressed to have successful we do with resources in the future has a recreation/tourism development at the local great deal to do with this body of work level. regarding nonmarket valuation. Smith looks Part VI focuses on tools to get the job at another tricky valuation exercise by done. Cavlek reviews the recent history of examining the work currently under way to the tour operation business in Europe. Her provide a form of industry classification to chapter deals with the consolidation trend tourism. The focus of his work deals with discussed earlier in this chapter. Dann tourism satellite accounts and their relation- reviews marketing issues from a semantics ship to traditional input–output analysis. and image development perspective. The Erkkila dissects economic impact methods use of words to influence personal behav- and discusses the advantages and disadvan- iour is a focus of his work. Hammitt and tages each brings to understanding tourism’s Schneider address an age-old human economic value to a region. Often the valua- dilemma; conflict resolution and manage- tion techniques discussed by Peterson et al., ment. As recreation and tourism activities Erkkila and Smith do not include some of are expected to expand, conflict manage- recreation and tourism’s dark side which is ment will take on even greater importance. the creation of externalities (i.e. pollution). Perdue returns to the issue of technology Moving away from discussing specific activ- and shows how it is being applied to ity trends, Dolnicar and Mazanec discuss increase customer satisfaction. At a time, new methods for categorizing and under- especially in the US, where it is becoming standing tourists. Increased competition harder and harder to find labour, improving requires new marketing research methods. service while reducing the workforce is a Cole addresses the biophysical impacts cre- goal of many companies. LaPage continues ated by recreation use. As pressure mounts with a review of the role of partnerships in on public recreation resources, the work of creating synergy to improve product avail- Cole takes on even greater importance. Sto- ability and quality. LaPage, a practitioner kowski examines impacts from a and researcher of the subject, examines the sociocultural, community-based perspec- partnership issue as it has come of age. Pig- tive. Her appraisal is not upbeat, indicating ram discusses how businesses are that too often sociocultural assessment is too rethinking their operational standards to superficial and fails to account for the com- make them more environmentally sustain- plexity inherent in social systems. able. This reaction supports the Ruttan Part V focuses on how resources are orga- principle addressed earlier in this chapter. nized for use or, in other words, how Part VI also addresses education and resources may be developed to achieve their training issues. It has already been men- recreation and tourism potential. Fletcher tioned that a lack of employees poses a and Wanhill provide the overall develop- problem for the expansion of tourism and ment picture by discussing development related recreation activities. What is being theory and applying it to national and multi- done to prepare individuals to work in the national tourism development issues. Keller recreation/tourism sectors of the global The Big Picture 13

economy? Probst et al. review the increasing Management, Public Policy, Marketing and role of public participation in resource- Planning’, from the trends revealed in ear- related decision making. They discuss the lier chapters. Instead of providing a short need for practitioners to gain the skills nec- synopsis of what that section contains, we essary to integrate citizen input more fully advise the reader to give it a thorough into planning and management activities. review. It is in the implications section that Witt and Crompton deal with an issue ger- the question posed earlier in this chapter, mane to many communities which is what ‘How will we choose to travel and recreate do we do with our youth to keep them from in 20 years time?’, will be addressed. After idleness and its sometimes severe conse- reading this book, the reader may even quences. Are community recreation prog- change the question from how we will rammes part of the answer and has the time choose to travel and recreate to one that come round again for revisiting this issue? addresses how we will adjust to the changes The book closes with a concluding chap- that may be thrust upon us by forces we can ter, ‘So What? Implications of Trends for only peripherally control.

Part I Society: Factors/Forces Shaping Demand For and Use of Resources

2 Gender Inclusion as a Recreation Trend

Karla A. Henderson

Kelly (1987) predicted that by the year 2000, ought to have equal opportunities in the women would be participating in recreation workplace and in their leisure. Despite this activities in greater numbers than ever general attitude, however, gender issues before. Statistics suggest that women are have not been resolved in all aspects of participating more than previously in everyday life. Recreation professionals must recreation, adventure and tourism activities continue to address ongoing gender con- (Simmons Market Research Bureau, 1994; cerns. Not to acknowledge and confront State of the Industry Report, 1998). For these issues may mean that little further example in the US, women are currently progress occurs in the new century. The one-third of the participants in fresh water overall goal of gender inclusion is that all fishing, one-quarter of the hunters, more individuals, regardless of their sex, will than half the hikers, and have surpassed have opportunities to find identity and males in the percentage of cross-country ski- interaction through socially responsible ers (Simmons, Market Research Bureau recreation and leisure opportunities. 1994). The most significant determinant of This chapter identifies some of the issues participation in outdoor recreation, and addressed during the past 30 years through most likely in other recreation activities, is the contemporary women’s movement and whether or not one participated as a child. through the recreation field’s ongoing focus With the passage of major legislation, not on gender inclusion. These interpretations only have girls been given opportunities to emanate from my feminist philosophy. participate in organized sports, but the vari- Research on women’s experiences and the ety of recreational opportunities has issues of gender from feminist perspectives expanded. This involvement has translated addressing equity, liberation and integrity into increasing numbers of women continu- have provided the foundation for social ing their active participation in a variety of change not only for women, but also for activities as they get older. men. These perspectives also permit the Because of the visible increase in recrea- redefining of some of the questions recreation and tourism among women, one might tion professionals are asking about assume that problems regarding demand inclusion. Inclusion means addressing the and use have been solved. Gender equity is a experiences of girls and women and other common idea in North America today. Most traditionally marginalized groups to facili- people would agree that women and men tate their recreation needs and interests.

A Brief History their recreation experiences such as choice, enjoyment and social interaction. Individ- A brief analysis of how research concerning uals, however, may desire and/or learn to gender and recreation has evolved from the access those beneﬁts in different ways. past to the present day is useful to recon- Recreation involvement by diverse groups sider (Henderson, 1994b). Research about may be a function of what exists and not and the provision of recreation activities in necessarily what they would really prefer if the ﬁrst two-thirds of this century were greater choices were available (Dwyer and generic. Mostly males were visible in recrea- Gobster, 1992). This research determining tion, and therefore they were studied with that differences exist, therefore, is just the the assumption that females were like them initial step towards making recreation or should be like them. In reality girls and opportunities available to all populations. women were involved in many aspects of Another approach to understanding girls recreation, but their efforts were often not and women that may occur concomitantly seen as being as noteworthy as those of boys and as a reaction to the gender differences and men (Bialeschki, 1992; Henderson, phase, is research about the experiences of 1996a). female participants. These studies are use- In the past 25 years, a focus on gender ful, particularly when related to under- differences emerged. In this situation, the standing the value of women as leaders and gender differences in recreation are descri- in relation to all-female groups. Understand- bed and studied with the male model of ing the needs of women, in particular, is recreation experience generally compared useful but it does not give the complete with female ways of being. Although these picture of what gender inclusion means. studies have made girls and women visible, The newest emerging phase related to they have not always helped to understand understanding the interface of gender and the meanings of gender. The problem with recreation takes into account the great diver- this approach is that the differences become sity that exists in society, not only related to the conclusions rather than the starting gender but to other aspects such as race, points for understanding the experiences of class, disability, age and sexual orientation. both males and females regarding recrea- Recreation professionals are moving tion. A number of problems occur when towards a greater understanding of gender people begin to identify what constitutes and its meanings in recreation including the ‘differentness’. For example, how much dif- diversity that exists. Today, the best way to ference makes a difference? Different from examine gender is from an inclusion per- what? Who determines what different spective. This outlook recognizes both means? How much is difference a function males and females and broadens our under- of culture and not chromosomes? An exam- standing of how gender expectations relate ination of gender differences has been, and to recreation choices and opportunities. probably will continue to be, useful in Gender refers to the cultural expectations understanding recreational behaviour. that occur as a result of one’s biological sex. Recreation professionals, however, must be Although gender and women are not synon- careful in making gender differences simple ymous, the impact of gender has been most answers to the complex issues of gender often felt by women and has had constrain- inclusion. Differences may exist, for exam- ing effects on their recreation. An ple, between men and women and their application of the philosophy of gender recreation participation but greater differ- inclusion, however, will also ensure that ences may also exist between women boys and men are not disadvantaged or con- regarding age, class, ethnicity and other strained in their recreation involvement characteristics. Some women and some men either. may share more similarities than some women do with other women. Generally most individuals want the same outcomes in Gender Inclusion as a Recreation Trend 19

Trends into the 21st Century Molotch goes on to describe the specific situation of intermission time at a theatre When discussing gender inclusion for the where long queues for women and no coming century, several trends emerge for queues for men are usual. The ‘liberal’ pol- consideration. Each of these emerging ideas icy or solution is to make women’s rooms builds upon previous scholarship to lead to larger than men’s. An alternative solution more meaningful recreation opportunities. (which he calls ‘conservative’) would be for women to be like men and to change the way Just recreation they do things, rather than for society to As the millennium changes, the discussion change the structuring of rest room space. In of recreation programming and management other words, a conservative approach would requires a continuing focus on ethical say there is no need to overturn the principle dimensions. Just recreation is not intended of equality of square footage between the to mean ‘mere’ recreation, which implies a genders. Instead, women need to use their devaluation of the contribution that activ- allotted square footage more efficiently. This ities and leisure pursuits make to people’s conservative argument, however, discounts lives. Rather, it relates to the notion that the role that men play in the problem. For leisure and recreation contribute to social example, most men expect women to look justice (Henderson, 1996b). Recreation pro- demure and beautiful so they need more fessionals must ensure that recreation is not time and privacy in the rest room. What if unjust nor a contributor to the devaluation the problem is not because women primp of girls and women, or to any other group. and gossip in the rest room, but that men To illustrate this idea of just recreation, a expect them to be beautiful? Another possi- rather crude metaphor described several ble solution might be called a ‘radical’ years ago by a sociologist named Molotch approach where women decide for them- (1988) will be used. This example provides a selves what they will need for rest room basis for examining gender and just recrea- space and how they will use it. This tion: approach will also enable them to resist In many public buildings, the amount of dominant views about how women use rest floor area dedicated for the men’s room and rooms. the women’s room is the same. The Molotch (1988) concluded that figuring prevailing public bathroom doctrine in the out equality is not a matter of arithmetic US is one of segregation among the genders, division, but social accounting and justice. but with equality the guiding ideology . . . The equal treatment of groups may create Such an arrangement follows the dictum unequal opportunities for individuals. This that equality can be achieved only by rest room analogy prompts us to think about policies that are “gender-blind” (or “color- what is ‘just’, who is going to change and in blind” or “ethnic-blind”) in the allocation of a public resource . . . Women and men what ways, and who makes the decisions. It have the same proportion of a building to provides a foundation for examining the use as rest rooms. outcomes of gender inclusion in the new The trouble with this sort of equality is millennium. that, being blind, it fails to recognize Just recreation is not likely to occur until differences between men as a group and recreation managers begin to delineate the women as a group . . . (such differences important, but often subtle, differences include hygiene needs, different between equality and equity (Henderson, physiological functions, and the use of 1997). Equality and equity are widely con- toilets versus urinals) . . . By creating men’s fused. Equality is a matter of fact (e.g. and women’s rooms of the same size, society guarantees that individual women women have as many rest rooms as men, or will be worse off than individual men. By women have the same access to programmes distributing a resource equally, an unequal as men), and is basically objective. Equity is result is structurally guaranteed a matter of ethical judgment (e.g. women (Molotch, 1988, pp. 128–129) need more rest rooms than men because of 20 Karla A. Henderson

the way they use rest rooms, or women need idea opens the door for further equity dis- more outdoor skills development opportun- cussions. Both women and men have used ities than men because they have not had the recreation and leisure as a way to find iden- same learning opportunities when younger) tity and interaction over the years, but a and it takes subjective assessments into greater awareness of how leisure shapes our account. Recreation provision is an inten- gendered lives is a trend going forward into tional act deliberately designed to bring the 21st century. about the development of worthwhile states Individual women sometimes use leisure of mind and the development of character in activities to resist or challenge traditional participants. This act assumes that if equity roles. When a woman undertakes a non- is to occur in recreation, then recreation traditional role such as playing ice hockey, managers must intentionally frame their she presents herself as a strong, independent aims and not leave matters to chance (Hen- person not swayed by social norms. When derson, 1997). Thus, issues of equity and not people step out of their expected social merely equality will be critical trends roles, growth is most likely to occur (Hen- related to gender inclusion in the coming derson et al., 1996). Resistance, however, is years. not without potential negative impacts. If an individual can work through that negative Negotiating constraints and resistance aspect, then leisure is empowering. Whether Linked to the evolving visibility of gender is she deliberately sets out to challenge those the way in which people define their recrea- traditional norms does not make any differ- tion and leisure. The leisure that all ence. The more that previously held individuals experience may be personal stereotypes are addressed and resisted, the (autonomous) or social (relational) leisure more likely it is that opportunities are going (Henderson et al., 1996). Within those two to be available for all, regardless of biolog- contexts, both social and personal con- ical sex. straints also exist for women and men. The Gender is created, resisted and trans- literature in the past decade has focused on formed in human practices, including constraints. These constraints may not leisure. Women’s resistance embodied in relate so much to females or males but to leisure as a source of empowerment mani- gender roles, as Jackson and Henderson fests itself in other aspects of their lives. (1995) found in their research. When these Through resistance, people force them- researchers controlled for childcare and selves and others to re-examine hegemonic household work responsibilities, they found assumptions. The resistance of individuals similar constraints for both men and to gendered roles can result in institutions, women. These gendered constraints, how- such as recreation organizations, question- ever, do not mitigate the institutionalized ing some commonly held assumptions sexism that is omnipresent in women’s about behaviour. For example, if women lives. Some of the recent visibility of women comprise more than half the individuals in recreation activities may relate to their who go fresh water fishing, then agencies conscious and unconscious resistance to should find out what they want and need. sexism as well as to gender expectations. Resisting stereotyped roles may lead indi- Many women are attempting to claim perso- viduals and recreation providers into new nal leisure as an entitlement in their lives. opportunities in the future. Resistance and the resulting empowerment are emerging as important aspects that Targeting specific (i.e. all-women) groups all recreation professionals may benefit from Gender inclusion in the future will necessi- using. Philosophically and practically, tate the examination of the value of recreation is a place where gender discrim- specifically targeted groups. The visibility of ination can be resisted. Shaw (1995) argued gender-specific groups has been primarily that leisure and recreation is a domain about all-women groups. In one way, these where gender is resisted or reinforced. This targeted groups may be more exclusionary Gender Inclusion as a Recreation Trend 21

than inclusionary. On the other hand, they research is not conclusive in suggesting that may provide a safe environment in which to ending any type of segregation necessarily encourage greater involvement by the tar- results in better educational or social out- geted group. Although all-women groups comes, given that resources are equal are not for everyone and may not be needed (Riordan, 1990). Are mixed-gender or as much in the future, they offer an impor- gender-specific groups best? Under what cir- tant way for some women to experience cumstances? Most people today agree that recreation and adventure activities. the answer is ‘it depends’. To move this To examine the efficacy of gender- question farther, recreation providers need specific groups in recreation, the literature to address two issues: (i) How can people be from educational research offers some given choices in what they want to do? and insights. The educational literature consis- (ii) Once given a choice, how can providers tently suggests that, overall, coeducational ensure that the leadership is such that all experiences are better for boys, but gender- individuals get an opportunity to gain the specific opportunities (given equal most from the experience? No one pro- resources) are generally better for girls (K.A. gramme structure is always going to be the Henderson, 1999). Although the passage of best. Opportunities to choose, however, pro- Title IX in the US in 1972 ensured that vide the means for greater inclusion. educational institutions should have equal resources for male and female students/ Skills development participants, it also mandated that all public Skills development is necessary to enable programmes that were previously segre- both boys and girls to grow up feeling com- gated must now be coeducational. In recent fortable with different aspects of recreation. years, particularly in some sports and out- The effects of Title IX are only now begin- door programming, recreation providers ning as a new generation of young women may deliberately attempt to keep girls and has had the opportunity to participate in women separate from boys and men for a various physical activities. Recent research number of reasons. also suggests that the most significant deter- Girls and women continue to make sim- minant in outdoor participation is whether ilar statements about why gender-specific or not one participated in outdoor recreation groups are good for them. McClintock (1996) as a child. About two-thirds of those indi- described several themes emerging from rea- viduals who recreate outdoors were sons given: (i) emotional and physical introduced to their favourite outdoor activ- safety; (ii) the freedom to throw out gender ity before the age of 17, and half of those role stereotypes; (iii) opportunities to before the age of eight (Widdekind, 1995). develop close connections with other These trends in outdoor involvement are women; (iv) a comfortable environment for likely to continue as people get more experi- beginners or for individuals practising ence in the outdoors. Researchers have advanced skills; and (v) opportunities to confirmed the same finding among women have or be a role model or leader. of colour in the outdoors. Those individuals Outcomes of recreation experiences may who have had previous positive outdoor also reflect these reasons not only for girls experiences as young people, whether with and women but also for other targeted the family or other youth groups, were likely groups such as men, particular age cohorts to continue to be active in the future or ethnic groups. The implication that (Roberts and Henderson, 1997). For those gender-specific programming has for the individuals, however, who did not receive future relates to how it parallels other broad the training as young people, opportunities questions about diversity and social justice. must continue to be developed so that Some individuals would argue that all- recreation can be more enjoyable. Skill woman programming is a regressive step. development can be learned at any age. A Civil rights legislation has pushed for end- recent example of skill development that ing segregation of any type. Unfortunately, has exploded in the US is involvement in 22 Karla A. Henderson

hunting and fishing. These skill develop- that the oppression or domination of women ment classes are open to all women who is connected with the domination of the want to gain skills that they did not get when earth (Plant, 1989; Henderson and Bia- they were growing up. The trend to provide leschki, 1990–91; Warren, 1990). No one these opportunities, especially for women form of ecofeminism exists, but all the views and other previously under-served groups, share a common commitment to making vis- is likely to continue in the future. ible the ways in which patriarchy dominates Diversity is an issue that also must be women and nature. Ecofeminists suggest addressed through skill development. For that all acts (including recreation activities example, Roberts and Drogin (1993) descri- and recreation management) should focus bed the lack of participation of African- on respect for, and the diversity of, human American women in outdoor activities and beings and the life enhancement of natural identified such potential factors as: histor- environments. Applying aspects of ecofe- ical oppression and racism, stereotyping by minism can help us consider what race and gender, lack of role models, insuffi- recreation managers do, why they do it, and cient exposure to activity options, limited how it contributes overall to ending the accessibility to outdoor recreation areas and domination of people and of nature. oppressive economic conditions. In another Although the environment and its preserva- study, Roberts and Drogin (1996) found that tion are not issues for only one gender to most women of colour believed that they consider, a variety of philosophical approa- had not been socialized to participate in ches will be necessary. Without clean air outdoor activities, often due to their race. and clean water, the continued existence of Safety issues are also linked to skill recreation is a moot point in the coming development. These issues have always century. No discussion of trends regarding been around but the impact of issues of gender inclusion would be complete with- feeling physically and psychologically safe out an ongoing connection being made with is becoming more obvious. Fear and safety impacts on the natural environment. are omnipresent for both women and men, but women are more likely to report fear as Recreation and health issues subconscious in their minds (Whyte and As the millennium changes, the relationship Shaw, 1994). For skill development to occur of recreation to physical and mental health and a recreational experience to be mean- will be a basis for ongoing work. The ingful, most girls and women in the coming benefits-based recreation movement has years will seek experiences and places helped us to begin to identify the potential where they do not have to face overt fear. multitude of values associated with recreation (Driver et al., 1991a). Recreation will Ecofeminism and concern for the still be fun and enjoyable, but people will environment also be seeking ways to maximize the health Many recreation and tourism activities take advantages. People will look consciously to place outdoors. Therefore, environmental recreation for stress relief and for therapeu- issues must not be ignored. The interaction tic benefits. between social and environmental concerns The therapeutic benefit of the outdoors will continue to provide important philo- for women is an area that has assumed great sophical underpinnings for the work that significance in the past 10 years. Therapeu- recreation managers do and the ways the tic benefits range from dealing with stress on outdoors is preserved into the new millen- a daily basis to examining how recreation nium. might be a major therapeutic treatment. Mit- A number of ecophilosophies exist that ten (1986) suggested that women do not like can guide the thinking of participants in to be under stress and that outdoor activities recreation as well as managers. One philoso- might provide a way of counteracting the phy that has been useful is ecofeminism. negative effects of stress. Survivors of vio- The hypothesis of ecofeminism is the belief lence have also found great solace in the Gender Inclusion as a Recreation Trend 23

outdoors (Mitten and Dutton, 1996); for crimination; organizations, however, must example, Pirfman (1988) confirmed that a enforce these laws. Unconscious discrim- 3-day wilderness course as a supplementary ination is more difficult to identify and to treatment for victims of rape resulted in a remedy. Some women feel isolated and decrease in overall levels of fear, fear of rape internalize their experiences by thinking and fear of failure. they are all alone. More importantly, many Roberts (1995) explained how wilderness women feel their equity problems, or the therapy may be beneficial for women in gen- lack of them, are a result of their personal eral, but ethnic minorities less comfortable history and fail to see that the social system with the outdoors might need nurturing. has sometimes discriminated against any- Women of colour may not seek an educa- one who is not white, middle-class, tional opportunity to find energy and able-bodied, heterosexual and male. The healing in the wilderness when traditionally acknowledgement of legislative and equity the outdoors has signified a foreign concept issues by individual women as well as to them. Outdoor researchers are just begin- employers is the first step in addressing how ning to address the issues of women of to overcome them. All aspects of profes- colour and the benefits of the recreation and sional development in the future will be leisure for all women. Clearly more empiri- dependent on the joint efforts of individuals cal research is needed in this area. and organizations. Nevertheless, the results gained so far are Additional research is needed to under- compelling regarding the value of outdoor stand how to enhance the lives of women recreation for addressing health issues in employed in recreation organizations. both women and men. Women have come a long way in establishing themselves as contributing members in Professional development all areas of employment at all levels. The emergence of women in recreational Although some variability exists among the activities parallels their rise in the recrea- women within employment areas and tion workplace. Therefore, the recreation employment levels, the factors important for field must acknowledge the growing poten- career development appear to be similar for tial for women to be involved in leadership women in the field of recreation, parks and roles in providing recreation opportunities. leisure services. Recreation employers must To enable women and men to perform at acknowledge that career development may their highest level, however, also requires differ between males and females and that professionals balance their careers and among females because of the traditional personal lives. Career development is an family and work expectations of women, the area that has implications for gender inclu- cultural and organizational barriers that sion in the coming century. may affect women’s advancement and the A number of factors enter into career socialization that women experience (Rose development for women employed in and Larwood, 1988). Understanding profes- recreation and leisure services. Some of sional development and how different these career development factors have more women may attach meaning to their work salience for certain women than for others. can lead to strategies to help individuals, For example, Henderson and Bialeschki organizations and associations enhance the (1995) found that many women perceived contributions that both women and men can that discrimination continues to exist in make to the field of recreation, parks and leisure services in both conscious and leisure services. unconscious ways. Women in the traditionally male-dominated area of parks said they experienced more sexual harassment than Policy Implications did women in other areas of leisure services. Fortunately for women, laws now protect None of these preceding trends have any them from harassment and conscious dis- practical meaning unless connected to pol- 24 Karla A. Henderson

icy issues. The US Bill of Rights guarantees certain groups of people? Claiming and life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness for acknowledging differences are not enough all. This premise ought to underlie all policy without exposing, challenging and disrupt- issues in recreation organizations. Recrea- ing previous understandings of the tion opportunities for all cannot occur divisiveness of differences. The challenge to without acknowledging the power of privi- recreation professionals lies in considering lege and the diversity among people. differences and adopting a policy inclusive Differences between men and women are of gender, race, class and other potentially one aspect, as are differences among women divisive characteristics. and among men. Even if women and men were to obtain ‘equal rights’, the diversity that exists due to race, class, physical ability, sexual orientation, age and other issues Management Implications of privilege needs examination. Just recreation requires that ‘gender Policy issues shade into aspects of manage- inclusivity’, ‘race inclusivity’, ‘class inclu- ment pertaining to gender inclusion. sivity’, and ‘ability inclusivity’ rather than Management includes both the management ‘neutrality’ related to any of these diverse of participants involved in recreation activ- situations ought to be the policy of recrea- ities and the supervision of professionals tion providers (Henderson, 1997). Ignoring who assist in facilitating those activities. gender differences or any kind of differen- Providing recreation areas and proces, and suggesting they are not important, grammes that are ‘equal’ for everyone may as Molotch (1988) described in the bathroom result in disadvantaging some individuals story, does little good. Arguing that no dif- as Molotch (1988) illustrated. For example, a ferences exist, however, draws attention recent American Association of University away from actual differences in power and Women (1991) study found that as young resources between groups (Rhode, 1990). girls reach adolescence, their self-esteem Ignoring gender differences does not chal- plummets. Most girls enter first grade with lenge the existing structure and assumes the same aspirations as most boys, but by the that women have no special needs. Affirm- time they reach high school their attitudes ing the similarity between women and men, have changed. They emerge from adoles- black and white, gay and straight, or any cence with reduced expectations of life, and groups, may inadvertently validate the with much less confidence in themselves norms of the dominant social groups. These and in their abilities than boys. Because of norms often have not addressed diverse these facts, recreation programmes for ado- interests, experiences and perspectives for lescent girls should not be equal to that of groups participating in recreation activities. boys if for no other reason than boys and On the other hand, the basic values for all girls are not equal in other ways. Recreation groups may be similar and ways to address professionals must struggle with how to them must be examined as the essence of teach and provide recreation opportunities public policy. for girls and women, as well as other groups, To change anything about recreation that will enable them to become empowered opportunities, policy makers must know not only in their leisure time but also in what differences they seek to address. For other areas of their lives (Henderson et al., example, are more opportunities for sports 1996). participation for women (e.g. making the A management model for gender inclu- opportunities equal to men’s in recreation sion in the future should have as its departments) warranted if women do not foundation gender equity. Achieving gender feel safe going out in a particular neighbour- equity means recognizing and addressing hood to play sports at night? Are the the needs and interests of females and males differences such that different scheduling or equally. In education, this model means different accommodation may be needed for that: Gender Inclusion as a Recreation Trend 25

a wider range of choices will be genuinely sity of role models is also a step towards this available to girls only when an equally inclusive recreation (Henderson, 1996a). wide and nontraditional range of choices is Management not only includes providing available to boys as well opportunities for participants but also hav- (Bailey, 1993, p. 322) ing a gender-inclusive workplace. The professional responsibility of recreation The model also seeks to counter ster- managers is to create an atmosphere of integ- eotypes and behaviours that diminish the rity, excellence, and performance reflecting value of education and/or recreation. Equi- ethical standards within the organization. table recreation means that managers For recreation managers concerned about address common stereotypes. Frequently the workplace, several issues relate to the when a person does not perform in some treatment of employees. Affirmative Action way, attributions are made to that person’s is one of those issues. This is the generic group affiliation. For example, if a woman term that describes policies intended to rem- does not shoot an arrow well, the assump- edy the effects of past discrimination. It is a tion is that females cannot shoot well. If a fair and equitable policy when it considers man cannot shoot an arrow well, then he is the extra effort women have to make to sur- simply not a good shot. mount systemic barriers resulting in Managing for recreation in the future distributive equity. A second issue in the using gender inclusion would result in workplace pertaining to gender and other recreation and leisure opportunities that aspects of diversity relates to how employ- provide a wider range of choices for all indi- ees are treated holistically inside and viduals. A number of steps will be necessary outside the workplace. Gender roles may in implementing these recreation pro- result in different opportunities and levels grammes. For example, clearly worded, of energy that women contribute in the widely distributed and strictly enforced workplace when forced to balance, or more policies requiring fair treatment of all partic- appropriately ‘juggle’, their work and family ipants and staff must be established. Criteria commitments. According to Salem (1986), must be developed for what an equitable women who work often pay with their time, situation is. Furthermore, promotional energy and increased levels of stress for a material and training materials must be system that gives them primary responsibil- reviewed to ensure that no gender or racial ity for domestic affairs but offers minimal biases exist. In future, all participants must institutional support to help alleviate that have an opportunity to learn a variety of burden. Managers in leisure service organi- skills with the focus on the process and not zations must at least recognize the necessarily the outcome. Professionals can quandaries of some working women as well facilitate inclusive recreation by encourag- as working men regarding their lives outside ing individuals to feel emotionally and the workplace. Thus, managing for gender physically safe trying various activities, inclusion will require that supervisors being supportive of differences in partici- within organizations are aware that manag- pants’ needs, supporting the belief that ing areas, facilities and programmes is one individual needs vary, recognizing that dimension of work along with managing a individual accomplishments are different more diverse workforce. and special to each person, and encouraging individuals to set their own standards. The personal power available to both males and Marketing Implications females is based on participation and involvement, and not history or gender Marketing is the human activity directed at expectations. Along with this notion of satisfying needs and wants through some power would be the desire to allow all par- type of exchange. Marketing textbooks gen- ticipants to experience expertise so that they erally describe the marketing mix as might assume leadership positions. A diver- including the four Ps of marketing: Product, 26 Karla A. Henderson

Place, Price and Promotion. These princi- nication is going to be information which ples must continue to be considered for attracts attention, is stated clearly and is females and males as gender inclusion is relevant in fitting the audience’s frame of addressed in the coming years. mind and their everyday experiences. The product or the product-service of Women are a growing new market for a vari- recreation consists of carefully planned pro- ety of recreation activities. Managers, grammes that result in benefits to people. however, must examine more than just an People seek benefits or positive outcomes economic potential. Programmes and ser- when they recreate. The product marketed is vices ought then to be based on what not activities per se, but experiences and recreation managers know about issues such benefits. In a service field like recreation, as the ethics of care, safety and family con- providers are really marketing the intangible cerns. aspects of involvement. Thus, the product- services of recreation, regardless of gender or any other characteristic, include such Conclusions outcomes as friendships, safety and security, relaxation and happiness. When examining these ideas about gender Market segmentation is determining who inclusion and recreation, a body of knowl- wants the product recreation managers have edge appears to be evolving. Data exist that to exchange. Psychographics, or an exam- describe what girls and women want and ination of values and lifestyles, are useful in how the concept of gender inclusion works identifying market segments. Recreation for males as well as females. These data can managers are beginning to pay more atten- be applied directly to recreation program- tion to the issues of gender regarding what ming and management. Further, the basic girls and women want and need as well as concepts of equity and inclusion and the how decision-making about recreation issues identified relate to policy, manage- occurs. Thus, in the future providers may be ment and marketing regardless of the better able to target the market towards par- recreation or tourism entity. Yet, as some ticular groups of women based on answers emerge, other questions arise. No geographic (i.e. a neighbourhood, county, simple answers exist. region or country), sociodemographics When all individuals are confronted with (including such characteristics as age, comparable life, leisure and employment income, education, ethnicity) and/or behav- choices, there will be no need for discus- ioural (i.e. ability, interests, values) foci. sions about equity and inclusion. Society is Price, as an important aspect of the mar- a long way from that point, as are providers keting mix, relates to the attractiveness of of recreation and tourism services, despite recreation experiences. Although women the gains made by women and other under- today have more spending power, they still represented groups in the past three do not have the same wage-earning capa- decades. Eventually it is hoped that people bility as most men. Each recreation manager in organizations will reach gender blindness must carefully consider price related to the or gender neutrality. Yet, it has been this recreation opportunity as well as target mar- very blindness that has made women, as kets. Because the product-service can never well as other disenfranchized groups, invisi- be disconnected from the price, perceived ble. A silence surrounding women and price/value is an essential part of the pre- diversity issues implies consent. By making sentation mix. gender visible, recreation managers focus on The communication mix involves all the improving programmes for all individuals. aspects of promotion used to tell people Focusing on gender issues can help to re- about recreation opportunities. The chal- examine the way that recreation occurs. The lenge in communication is to make sure that models that have worked for boys and men their meaning reflects the product-service in the past may not be as effective for girls that is being promoted. The best commu- and women. Additionally, however, those Gender Inclusion as a Recreation Trend 27

models may not work perfectly for all males More discussion and additional perspec- either. Therefore, gender inclusion and tives are needed to ascertain alternatives for empowerment have implications for all inclusive recreation today and into the new individuals in their recreation choices. millennium.

3 Changes in Family and Work: Impacts on Outdoor Recreation and Tourism in North America

Norma P. Nickerson and Rita J. Black

Life is not composed of theme parks and ily’ is changing. Dad, the breadwinner, cruises. It is composed of dinner table talk, Mom, the homemaker, and two kids at home holidays together, getting the house and gar- has almost become a thing of the past. In den in shape, fooling around, caring for each 1960, more than 70% of Americans lived in other, relaxing, day-dreaming and all the such ‘traditional’ family units; today, less minutiae of the day and the hour. That is the than 15% of Americans fit into that family real life in real conditions that is important structure (Brock, 1994, p. 64). to us all (Kelly, 1997, p. 134). While predictions are that married famil- Family changes in the past quarter cen- ies will remain the ideal living arrangement tury are increasingly viewed as a major (Crispell, 1996), what is changing is the fam- contributor to work-related concerns and ily structure. There are first marriages, challenges. When family life changes or stepfamilies/blended families (which are brings additional responsibilities such as the products of remarriage and/or cohabita- care for children, stepchildren, or elderly tion), single-parent households and other relatives, personal home-life stress tends to families (e.g. multigenerational families, increase, causing more employers to recog- solo householders). nize ‘family’ within the work environment. The separation between family and work is First marriages slowly becoming closer and more balanced. Statistics indicate that attitudes toward mar- This chapter will focus on changes in the riage are changing. According to family and changes in the work environ- Furstenberg and Kate (1996), women still ment. These changes are then discussed in tend to marry at least once by age 45, the terms of implications for outdoor recreation figure declining slightly since 1960. How- and tourism into the 21st century. ever, both men and women are delaying the age of first marriage, and the proportion of women who have never married by their late The Changing Family 20s has tripled. The average age of first marriage is correlated with an increase in the Nearly everywhere one looks today, the proportion of college-educated women institution currently recognized as ‘the fam- (Schwartz, 1992). According to Blum (1991), © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 29 30 Norma P. Nickerson and Rita J. Black

the education gap between men and women marry, divorce and remarry. However, the is beginning to close worldwide. rate of remarriage has fallen since 1960, despite a rising divorce rate. Roughly two- Stepfamilies/blended families: products of thirds of divorced women currently remarriages and cohabitation remarry, compared to three-quarters in In 1992, only 58% of American children 1960. A similar trend is seen for divorced lived with both biological parents (Cherlin men as three-quarters currently remarry, and Furstenberg, 1994). According to the US compared with four-fifths in 1960. There are Bureau of the Census (1994), American chil- definite racial differences in these trends. dren in 1990 lived in the family structures Non-Hispanic whites are far more likely to shown in Table 3.1. remarry than are Hispanics or African Amer- icans. About half of non-Hispanic whites remarry, compared to one-third of Hispanic Table 3.1. Family structures of American children, Americans and one-fifth of African Amer- 1990. icans.

% of all US Cohabitation Type of family structure children According to Wu (1996), cohabitation has become an increasingly popular lifestyle choice for heterosexual couples in postin- Lived with both biological parents 58 Lived with one biological parent 25 dustrial countries including the US and Lived with a step-parent 11 Canada. In the US the estimated number of Lived with neither parent 6 cohabitating couples has increased ﬁvefold from 0.5 million in 1970 to 2.5 million in Source: US Bureau of the Census (1994, The diverse 1988 (Revolution in Family Life, 1990). living arrangements of children). Bumpass et al. (1995) further speculate that if the deﬁnition of ‘stepfamily’ is broadened to include people who cohabit (e.g. More than 20% of married couples rais- single parents who live together for a long ing children under 18 years old include a time but do not marry), an estimated 40% of step-parent (US Bureau of the Census 1994). all women and 30% of all children will Approximately 80% of stepfamilies are cus- spend time in a stepfamily situation. These todial mother–stepfather families, 13% are percentages will vary depending on cultural custodial father–stepmother, and the rest group and other variables such as income. are stepfamilies with two custodial parents marrying each other (Mason and Mauldon, Single-parent families 1996). The prevalence of stepfamilies/ In 1996, 28% of children lived in one-parent blended families should remain constant or families compared to 12% in 1970 (US even increase. Two forces are at work: (i) Bureau of the Census, 1997). Another esti- divorce rates are remaining stable (not mate states that approximately half of all of decreasing), and (ii) an increasing number of today’s children will spend part of their children are born to unmarried women. For childhood in a single-parent home (New example, in 1993, 30% of all births were to Families, 1993). Although the number of unmarried women, more than double the single fathers continues to grow, single percentage in 1973 (Mason and Mauldon, mothers outnumber them in a ratio of 4 : 1 1996). (Crispell, 1996).

Remarriages Single-mother households Cherlin and Furstenberg (1994) stated that The proportion of children under 18 years divorce and remarriage rates are higher in old living in single-mother families the US than in other developed countries. increased from 11% in 1980 to 20% in 1990 Almost one-third of all Americans will (US Bureau of the Census, 1993, 1994). Changes in Family and Work 31

These proportions vary substantially when once a year or less and receive no child looking across racial lines. For example, support, one-quarter have periodic contact 13% of non-Hispanic white children, 49% and receive some child support, and one- of African-American children and 24% of quarter see their father once a month or more Hispanic children live in mother-only famil- but may or may not receive child support. In ies (US Bureau of the Census, 1993). studying the determinants of postdivorce However, Manning and Smock (1997) warn contact between noncustodial fathers and that these figures may be misleading because their children, Stephens (1996) suggests that the complete household context is not contact decreases over time as fathers usually considered. For example, of the chil- develop new relationships, regardless of the dren living in single-mother families, 57% characteristics of the children, the mothers live with their mother only, 8% live with a or the former marriage. cohabitating couple, 32% live with exten- According to Fost (1996), the National ded families and 3% live with nonfamily Fatherhood Initiative and the Institute for members. These proportions also vary sub- American Values estimate that nearly 40% stantially across racial lines. Manning and of today’s children do not live with their Smock (1997, p. 539) continue: biological fathers. The repercussions of such a statistic include the following: 70% of In particular, theories purporting to explain juveniles in state reform institutions grew the association between family structure up with one or both parents absent; 43% of and children’s life chances (e.g. incarcerated adults grew up in single-parent socialization, family stress, social control, and residential stability) tend to be homes (mostly with absent fathers); and conceptualized without acknowledging the 30% of children living with never-married complexity of children’s living mothers and 22% living with divorced arrangements. mothers repeat a grade in school, compared with 12% of children living with both bio- The number of unwed mothers (either logical parents. never married or divorced) is also on the increase. In 1970, one-in-ten babies was born to an unwed mother. Currently, one-in- The Changing Work Environment in four babies is born to an unmarried mother North America (New Families, 1993). According to Thomas et al. (1996), most white single-mother fam- In the 1950s, the father worked outside the ilies form through divorce or separation home while the mother stayed at home and while their African-American counterparts raised the family. By 1997, the majority of form through mothers who have never been families are working couples who ‘assume married. Families headed by single mothers their employers should address their needs, have an approximately 50% chance of living offering informal flexibility or a wide range in poverty (US Bureau of the Census, of advancement options’ (Employers, 1998, 1993). p. 17). By 2010 the dual-working couple will expect company benefits and policies Absentee fathers geared toward the family. Successful Since the majority of single-parent families employers cannot ignore the home-life any are headed by single mothers (i.e. single longer. These and many changes are occur- mothers outnumber single fathers 4 : 1), the ring throughout the workforce in developed question of absentee fathers has become a countries. With increased dual-career famil- hotly debated topic in the last decade. ies and single-parent families, home-life is Mason and Mauldon (1996) estimate that forced upon the employer. approximately one-quarter of all stepchil- According to a study conducted by the dren have no contact at all with their Families and Work Institute (the National biological father and receive no child sup- Survey of the Composition of the Workforce, port, one-quarter see their biological father 1997), job and family conflicts have 32 Norma P. Nickerson and Rita J. Black

emerged. Among the ﬁndings (Americans, 1992). By 1995 in Canada, 57% of women 1998, p. 39) are: aged 15 and older were in the paid labour force (Statistics Canada, 1996). The likeli- ● Among workers with a spouse and/or hood of a mother working increases with the children, 54% reported having ‘some or age of her youngest child. a lot’ of interference between their job According to the US Census Bureau, 85% and family life, versus only 38% in of all new workers will be women and/or 1977. members of minority groups by the year ● Seventy-eight per cent of married Amer- 2000. In 1960, 36% of 25–34 year-old icans reported they have an employed women were working. In 1995, that propor- spouse (up from 66%, 20 years earlier). tion had jumped to 75%. In 1960, 50% of ● The mean hours worked per week (paid 45–54 year-old women were in the work- and unpaid) climbed to 47.1 h from 43.6 force. By 1995 that percentage had increased h in 1977. to 74% (Troland, 1997). There appears to be ● Twenty per cent of respondents report no decline in the number of women in the working at job-related tasks at home workforce, and women are expressing dis- occasionally, versus 14% 20 years ear- satisfaction with the increased demands lier, while 31% work at home once a they face from work and family roles (Hoff- week or more, up from 21%. man, 1989). Employers will need to look ● The average age of the workforce is 39.9 positively at the needs of women and famil- years, up from 37.3 in 1977. ies in order to remain successful. ● Twenty-seven per cent of respondents said they are managers or professionals, Balancing work and family down from 34% 20 years earlier. Three of every four US employees are par- ● Women composed 47% of the work- ents. In 1994 these parents had 1.7 million force, up from 42% two decades ago. children in childcare schemes before and after school (Lozada, 1997). With dual- Compared with 20 years earlier, the mar- career households, the division between riage between work and family is now paid work and work at home has become beyond the honeymoon and is into the mid- harder to separate. Family and work respon- life crisis. Working women, dual-career sibilities have created tension in the families and changes in family structure workplace, the home and the marriage. It appear to be the catalysts for change. This has become a balancing act. has brought about a new focus in balancing In a survey conducted by William M. work and family, home workers and alter- Mercer, Inc., 64% of increased employee native work arrangements. morale was attributed to family-friendly Until employers are willing to share in programmes. Eighty-six percent of the the family concerns of their employees, employers surveyed agreed that ‘a company proﬁts will decrease, turnover will increase cannot remain competitive in the 1990s and job satisfaction will plummet. The need without addressing the issue of the balance for employers to become more family between an employee’s work and personal friendly is in the forefront. The following life’ (Lozada, 1997). pages will highlight some of the changes For businesses and government agencies taking place and why these changes are to succeed into the 21st century, more atten- occurring. tion will need to be paid to the job satisfaction of employees which inherently Women in the work force means dealing with family issues. In the last decade of the 20th century, 59% of US married women with preschool chil- A good example is Hallmark Cards Inc., dren and 75% of married women with who supports a balance between work and children between the ages of 6 and 17 years family through such offerings as family care were employed (US Bureau of the Census, assistance, counseling and education, and Changes in Family and Work 33

alternative work arrangements that enable Table 3.2. Types of worker in 1990. employees to fulfill their work and family responsibilities without sacrificing one or Office Home the other. In 1995, Hallmark celebrated its worker (%) worker (%) 10th year on Working Mother magazine’s “Best Companies for Working Mothers’ list” (Flynn, 1996) Private wage and salary 77 36 Government 17 6 The balance between family and work Self-employed 5 54 does not simply refer to childcare. The lack Unpaid family 1 4 of care policies for elderly relatives within companies is becoming a big issue. In a Source: US Bureau of the Census (1998, Increase in Canadian study on workplace policies, it at-home workers reverses earlier trend). was found that companies have a childcare bias in family-friendly policies, a gender bias in policy formulation and a focus on do not work at home (US Bureau of the workplace productivity rather than Census, 1998). employee well-being. The research found In addition to the self-employed, home- that workplace policy generally expected based worker is the ever-increasing number that: of telecommuters. According to Interna- tional Data Corporation’s (1996) market . . . care provision for elderly kin, like other research study, approximately 7 million of caregiving, continues to be regarded as a the 30 million telecommuters are corporate private issue to be resolved within the family, that is by women. As such, it is employees who work from home. The unpaid, undervalued, individualized, and remainder are either self-employed or gov- unrecognized. In this context, workplace ernment workers. A growing number of both policy does not regard women’s private private and public employers are imple- labor within the home as having legitimacy menting telecommuting programmes to (Medjuck et al., 1998) reduce costs, minimize environmental problems, improve employee retention and Home-based offices morale, and enhance performance (Reilly, According to the US Bureau of the Census 1997). (1998), ‘The decade of the 1980s marked a During the 1996 Summer Olympic rebirth of work at home in the US’. The Games, Atlanta city officials promoted tele- number of home workers jumped 56% commuting as a way to help keep city between 1980 and 1990. Although estimates workers from adding to the crowds and traf- vary widely, and it is difficult to ascertain fic. Now, to reduce ozone-forming air the numbers in part-time versus full-time pollutants, the governor of Georgia is recom- employment, some 30–40 million people in mending that all state departments and the US are purportedly either telecommut- agencies – covering a total of 26,000 employers or home-based workers (Apgar, 1998) ees – reduce solo trips to and from work by (Table 3.2). Certainly, the advances in perso- 20% on so-called Ozone Action Days nal computers and Internet technology have between May and September (Girard, 1998). been instrumental, but this does not give the Telecommuting is how Georgia employees whole picture. are dealing with this mandate. The differences found between home While telecommuting seems to be the workers and on-site workers indicate that answer for some people, it appears to have a home-based workers are more likely to live negative side that employers need to in rural areas, are more likely to work non- address. One example is the housebound standard hours, and are far more likely to be research analyst who was not among those women, to be white, and to work in the chosen when his boss was awarding promo- service industries and occupations. Home tions; ‘It seemed like you weren’t around workers generally earn less than those who much’, the boss explained (Warner, 1997). 34 Norma P. Nickerson and Rita J. Black

Another issue identified by home-based the US (about 37 million people) were in workers is work that is never done. It is too nonstandard jobs (34% of all female workers easy to work late into the evenings, at week- and 25% of all male workers). Of these ends and through meals. Since the work is NSWAs, 47% were in regular part-time jobs, right there, it does not go away. According to 41% were independent contractors or were Morris (1997), the expected advantages for self-employed, and 5% were on-call work- family life are therefore not always appar- ers. Most observers expect to see the number ent. Additionally, home workers miss their of NSWAs rise in coming years (Rasell and friends and resent having to maintain and Appelbaum, 1998). fix complicated office equipment like computers and fax machines. According to Tanaka (1997), telecommuting works best as Implications an adjunct to the office, not a replacement for it. With the above-mentioned changes in the family and the work environment, many Flexitime, part-time and temporary workers implications for the outdoor recreation and Flexibility, adaptability and responsiveness tourism fields can be identified. While the are crucial to business success in a con- social forces identified in this chapter reflect stantly changing environment (Resnick, North American concerns, most developed 1997). Flexitime is a system that allows the countries are dealing with similar issues. employee to choose either their arrival and The common thread holding society departure times or their days of work. This together is the family. The other common system has been shown to increase produc- denominator is work. Although tradition- tivity, decrease absenteeism, decrease ally these two social forces have been turnover and reduce employee stress (Dal- treated separately by both the public and ton and Mesch, 1990; Mogelonsky, 1995; private sectors, the trends indicate that we Solomon, 1996). In Canada, a recent study have been in the midst of a paradigm showed that almost two-thirds of the change. employees surveyed combined their job The change is most readily evidenced by responsibilities with caring for a child, an the economic necessity of both parents older relative, or both. These employees rec- working. Time at work is time away from ognized that greater flexibility in their work home. This creates stress on the family and schedules such as flexitime, compressed on the marriage. Based on the accepted work weeks, part-time hours, job sharing notion that recreation benefits the individ- and leave options helped them to coordinate ual, the family and society, we ask the their jobs and family responsibilities (Bar- following questions: How do family and ham et al., 1998). work influence the fields of outdoor recrea- While flexitime has been a solution for tion and tourism? What role can recreation employee satisfaction, nonstandard work and tourism play in helping families cope? arrangements (NSWAs) are other solutions to which businesses and governments have Family change: implications for outdoor turned. NSWAs refer to independent con- recreation and tourism tractors (e.g. freelancers or consultants); Single-parent families may find it more diffi- contract workers (e.g. janitors or computer cult to take time to enjoy the out-of-doors specialists employed at janitorial or com- regularly. In addition, since many one-adult puter service firms that contract to provide households have lower income levels, their services to other firms); the self-employed ability to travel to national parks, wilderness who own and run their own business; and areas and the like could be limited. With the workers employed in a regular employer– majority of single parents being female and employee relationship who work fewer than many fathers absent from their children’s 35 h per week (Rasell and Appelbaum, lives, the male influence for sports and out- 1998). By 1995, at least 29% of workers in door activities will not be available. Changes in Family and Work 35

Ultimately, the US will see fewer children more outdoor adventures, probably more so growing up to learn fishing, hunting, hiking than most families. and other outdoor activities. People who work at home are generally Women opting for college and a career self-employed or telecommuters. This life- first rather than marriage have the opportu- style choice can free up time (no nity, desire and time to explore the outdoors commuting) for daily outdoor activities and to travel. The positive correlation such as walking or hiking. Many who between education and travel will lead to choose this lifestyle live in rural areas with more young, single women experiencing the easy access to the outdoors and are thus out-of-doors and worldwide travel excur- more likely to partake in outdoor activities sions which were unheard of in the previous just beyond their backyard. century. While some stepfamilies are cohesive Implications for public policy units blending together for recreation and Work policies will need to change to be travel experiences; some are divided, with more family friendly. It may require govern- too many ‘parents’ for the children. One ment intervention (i.e. laws enacted in thing can be said about stepfamilies, their Congress directed at businesses and govern- lives are complicated. If the absent biolog- ment offices) to allow for guilt-free care of ical parent has an active part in the child’s children and elderly parents. Tax breaks life, spending quality time with that child could be provided to businesses with will probably take the form of long week- family-friendly policies such as on-site ends or a week’s holiday. Activities and childcare. Recreation opportunities and outdoor excursions by this subfamily group holidays are only one component of helping will therefore be headed by one parent to reduce family stress. The workplace rather than two. needs to step forward to assist in this issue. For example, the European model which Work change: implications for outdoor allows 4–6 weeks of paid holidays could be recreation and tourism adopted by North American employers. With the average working week increasing While many state and federal government to slightly more than 47 h and both parents employers provide up to 4 weeks of holiday, working, people are finding their free time is most private sector employers do not. taken up with family and household chores. Some government agencies have already Recreation will be allocated to fewer hours been leading the way in terms of flexitime, per week. On the other hand, when holiday telecommuting and the use of contract work. time rolls around, these families are ready to These ideas need to be encouraged through- head out of town. Outdoor activities and out the workforce as these are generally travel provide people with the needed family-friendly policies, have been shown change from their daily routine. Escaping to increase profitability and can help reduce ‘home’ relieves their stress and outdoor air/noise pollution on our highways. recreation or travel provides this outlet. These opportunities, however, will only Implications for planning come during holidays and long weekends. Outdoor recreation planners will see more Regular monthly or weekly outings will be people living where they want to live (e.g. less likely to occur. next to scenic and recreational opportun- Individuals who choose flexitime or part- ities) since telecommuting and time work usually do so to provide self-employment are providing these themselves with more time for family or options. Rural areas will experience popula- other obligations. When a spouse has the tion growth without the typical growth in ‘extra’ time to perform the daily household visible job sites within a community. These chores, the family usually has more time for new and regular recreationists will become other types of activities. This provides them the users and spokespersons for manage- with the opportunity for weekend trips and ment of public lands. They will view these 36 Norma P. Nickerson and Rita J. Black

lands as their backyard and will fight to tomer and marketing to the customer is the protect the rights they feel are theirs. Man- primary means of business survival and, in agement plans for outdoor recreation lands general, tourism businesses have been suc- need to consider the interests and opinions cessful. On the other hand, public agencies of their neighbours. Public agency managers have typically not operated in this manner. will need to be in the forefront of conflict A fundamental operational change within resolution to be able to work through the public agencies is needed. One way to differences between local concerns and implement this philosophical change is to agency directives. Otherwise, implementing incorporate marketing classes into all the plan and gaining much-needed public recreation management curricula, not just support will be difficult. into commercial recreation programmes. Additionally, knowing the needs of the visi- Implications for marketing tor will help structure the recreation We no longer have masses of people who approach taken on public lands. Research can be stereotyped and placed into easy-to- and public input into management plans are programme recreational bins. The splitting marketing tools for land managers. To do apart of our mass culture will mean that this well, land managers need knowledge leisure is increasingly defined within and understanding of the social sciences. smaller and smaller subgroups of people. Not only will such groups define what is and is not acceptable behaviour during leisure, Conclusion but they will increasingly dictate the style of participation for those within the group As illustrated, there is no ‘everybody’ any (Godbey, 1997, pp. 76–77). more! What we are seeing is a dissolution of By not compartmentalizing people, mar- mass culture. Planning, policy making and ket niches are created. For example, while marketing to the masses are ill-advised. Tra- approximately 25% of all households in the ditionally, public agencies have tried to be US consist of people living alone, 15% of all things for all people which simply will these solo householders are elderly women not suffice in the 21st century. Given the and 10% are single men under 45 years of increased revenue-generation obligations of age. Clearly these two groups of people will public agencies, understanding and know- have differing recreation and travel needs. ing the customer/client/visitor/user is more Another market niche is the young single important today than ever before. Survey adult who has delayed marriage. On the research, focus group discussions, public surface, this group appears to have more meetings and written public comments pro- available time and less monetary responsi- vide the required knowledge of the visitor. bility than their married counterparts. The key to ‘listening’, ‘understanding’, and However, this excess time may be used to ‘providing’ the outdoor recreation and tour- advance careers (i.e. working long hours) ism experiences desired by people is and the cost of higher education may have reaching all the audiences, not just one significantly increased debt load. Clearly, ‘clumped together’ group of people. The we cannot look at young singles as one changing family and work situation requires homogeneous market with the same needs. planners, policy makers and marketers to Tourism is business. Knowing the cus- know their users’ various needs. 4 The Effects on Travel and Tourism Demand from Three Mega-trends: Democratization, Market Ideology and Post-materialism as Cultural Wave

Jon Teigland

A trend is a trend is a trend But the question is, will it bend? Will it alter its course, Through some unforeseen force And come close to a premature end? (Cairncross, 1969)

Introduction trends’ may be a term for more fundamental but stable long-term changes in travel and It is a common phenomenon that the recreation behaviour. ‘Mega-trends’ refer to demands for recreation and travel do not major changes in society in general (Smeral, always develop as investors or policy 1994), which can cause new heavy trends in makers expect. But when investments or travelling to emerge. policies are failures, it is rarely a coinci- This chapter focuses on social forces and dence. Misjudgements are most usually ideas shaping three mega-trends in Western based on a lack of understanding of the for- societies and the effects on travel and tour- ces shaping consumer behaviour in time and ism behaviour of space. One reason for failures is a tendency to ● long-term democratization of tourism believe that earlier trends will continue and travel consumption, unchanged. But technological or organiza- ● the recent dominant inﬂuence of market tional change can shift demand to new system ideology, and levels, up or down. Trends may also turn if ● post-materialistic trends and moderni- travel habits change more fundamentally. A zation of value systems. problem for investors and policy makers, therefore, is to foresee major shifts or turn- In the past, leisure travel and recreation ing points in the demand and especially activities were only available to the few, but long-term changes in direction. ‘Heavy today are a reality for many inhabitants in © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 37 38 Jon Teigland

industrial societies. It has been a social evo- demand for holidays abroad. This interac- lution that has ‘democratized’ travel tion effect forced a new Swiss hotel to close consumption. Western Europe has in many down every 62 h on average for 5 years ways led this development and become a (Kaspar, 1995, p. 140). ‘leisure continent’ with a higher degree of Stability in recreation and travel behav- democratization and different leisure sys- iour, rather than change, may be the most tems than other continents (Clark, 1999). prominent feature in many industrialized Industrialized countries in other parts of the countries. However, few comparative longi- world have focused more on other ideas and tudinal studies are available. The US and led the way toward the growing importance Sweden are the only countries having com- of market system ideology. That mega-trend prehensive and longitudinal travel studies has influenced economic systems. One covering both day and overnight trips. These effect is polarized consumer behaviour with studies show that several of the main struc- growth in demand for luxury goods and tures of travel behaviour have been cheap bargains simultaneously. The third remarkably stable in the 1990s. Leisure- mega-trend in post-modern society is major oriented travel has been the main changes in value systems, especially in the component (60–80%) of total travel volume interest in material belongings and conspic- in both countries (NTS, 1995; Nyberg, 1995). uous consumption. All three mega-trends Most trips (80–90%) were domestic and have major implications for recent and 85–95% of total volume was overnight trips, future trends in travel and tourism. if volume is measured in travel-days. The majority of overnight leisure trips (55–65%) in both countries represented visits to rela- Basic Concepts: Stability, Change tives and friends or were based on the use of and Interaction Effects private second homes, recreation boats, caravans or trailers. Longer leisure trips, or Effects of mega-trends can emerge gradually holidays, tend to be concentrated in a few or be hidden for a long period if short-term summer months. In addition, 75–80% of or preliminary processes affect demand in overnight trips abroad were leisure trips the opposite direction at the same time. A both in Western Europe and the US. cause and its visible effect also can be sepa- This structural stability is most probably rated and by substantial time lags. Heavy no coincidence, but indicates established trends and major turning points are, there- consumer habits and mature markets in fore, not always easy to identify. many industrialized countries, if Sweden Interactions between short and long-term and the US can be used as examples. The changes cause interpretation problems, too. similarity in major structural elements also The tourist industry in northeastern USA indicates that important forces forming realized, for example, a misinterpretation travel behaviour are not very different. some years ago. A declining tourist demand Among the stabilizing factors are the institu- at the beginning of the 1990s was not prelim- tionalized (legal) rights to leisure, including inary and caused by a business cycle, as the 4–7 weeks of paid holidays in western Euro- industry believed, but was a long-term effect pean countries, but less on other continents. of reduced relative attractiveness (Kuentzel A substantial volume of private leisure capi- et al., 1996). tal that is ‘locked up’ in second homes, A substantial change in tourism demand caravans, leisure boats, etc., and different may come quickly if short-term processes kinds of skills (such as foreign languages or start to move demand in the same direction skiing), also stabilize the volume and struc- as long-term heavy trends. In Switzerland ture of leisure behaviour. The large volume during the first half of the 1990s, short-term of visits within social networks, reflecting economic problems reduced demand for the continuing importance of relatives, tourism in general and this interacted with a friends, and work colleagues also acts to long-term trend towards a greater domestic stabilize the structure of leisure behaviour. The Effects on Travel and Tourism Demand 39

The travel market in the US between down of the Soviet Union (a lagged effect) 1985 and 1997 was characterized by a 44% and a major change in taxation system inter- growth in total travel volume (NTS, 1997). acted during a relatively short period with Business travel increased, however, less large cumulative effects on travel demand than pleasure and holiday travel (47%). Vis- among Swedish citizens. its to relatives and friends were the fastest Some events are not unexpected, but growing segment in the US (up 87%). Travel planned and well-known years ahead. A volume in Sweden showed a very different major policy change such as the deregula- pattern during the same period, going from tion of the air transport market in the US and substantial growth to a strong decline, with Europe, a new tax system, or a mega-event a partial recovery later. Leisure visits to rela- such as the Olympic Games, should not tives, friends and to second homes were come as a totally unexpected happening. stabilizing elements during the most turbu- But if investors and policy makers do not lent years in Sweden at the beginning of the understand what is going on, or have a poor 1990s (Nyberg, 1995; Sahlberg, 1996). A theory of the effects from the planned event variety of substitution processes took place, itself and their interactions, they may find with effects both in time and space. Among themselves in major trouble. The 1994 Win- the most important were shifts between ter Olympic Games in Norway was one domestic and foreign destinations (external example. Instead of the expected boom in substitution) and between domestic types of tourism and recreation demand afterwards, travel (internal substitution). the reality was different. The divergence One reason for turbulence in general, or between high growth predictions based on major shifts and turning points, is unex- poor impact theory and the lower reality pected events that partly or totally change explain why 40% of the full-service hotels the assumptions on which a project or pol- in the Norwegian host town (Lillehammer) icy are based. Such events include have now gone bankrupt (as measured at the unexpected and rapid changes in macro- end of 1997). economic conditions (as in the Swedish and The Olympic failure relates partly to a Swiss cases), natural disasters (e.g. earth- lack of understanding of long-term mega- quakes or hurricanes) and major shifts in a trends in many high-income countries and political system (such as the break-up of the especially in Germany, the most important Soviet Union). A major war or terrorist tourist-generating country in the world. action also can give an unexpected and Concepts such as democratization processes strong shock to recreation and travel and roof effects increase our understand- demand, with short- and long-term effects ing. throughout a large influence zone. The effects from such impulse-processes can be especially strong if several events Democratization Processes occur at the same time. That was the case when the Gulf War reduced air traffic in At the beginning of the 20th century, travel- most parts of the world for a short period. ling for pleasure was something that only But the main problem then for the travel the very rich did. Today the majority of trade was that the Gulf War came during a people in many industrialized countries slowdown in the North American economy. take holidays each year. That process has Many bankruptcies were, therefore, an inter- ‘democratized’ the possibility of travelling action effect between a war going on far as a consumption phenomenon. However, away and a relatively small downturn in the democratization as a concept can also be business cycle, which changed demand in used about processes that in general tend to the same direction. The drastic changes in reduce differences in society; politically, Sweden in 1991 and 1992 were interaction economically and socially. According to effects, too. A major devaluation, a business Minogue (1985), democracy, in classical cycle influenced partly by the earlier break- Greek, was the name of a constitution in 40 Jon Teigland

which the poorer people exercised power in to other countries for holidays (lasting at their own interests as against the interests of least 5 days) almost doubled (Aderhold, the rich and aristocratic. The struggle for 1996), making Germany the most important racial and sexual equality is also a democra- source of international tourists. tization process, which is treated in other The strong growth of German tourists to chapters in this book. most parts of the world was an interaction French scientists claim that the lower effect between internal democratization of classes of society copy the consumption of consumption and a major external political the upper classes and also their recreation event in the Soviet Union. The political and travel patterns (Monteiro and Rowenc- democratization of East Germany and the zyk, 1992). Social diffusion and lag reunion with West Germany in 1989 added, mechanisms affect development among rich in 1994, at least 3 million to the many Ger- and poor countries alike. The rich countries man tourists travelling abroad on holidays. in Europe have, for example, in many ways But more important for other countries was led the democratization of travel behaviour. democratization of travel behaviour in West A large majority of the inhabitants (70–80%) Germany during the same period. Only 57% of rich countries like Sweden and Switzer- of West Germans went on holiday in 1986 land travelled on holidays abroad as early as compared with 78% in 1994. The number of in the 1970s. Many other countries, espe- West Germans on holiday increased, there- cially in southern Europe were far behind fore, by nearly 12 million during those 8 with much lower participation rates years. As the majority (64–71%) of them (30–40%) at that time. travelled abroad, the effect was nearly a In Europe ‘holiday’ is often defined as a 100% increase internationally in German leisure trip away from home lasting at least 5 holidaymakers (Aderhold, 1996). The days or 4 nights. Leisure trips that last 1–3 growth measured in travel days on holidays nights are referred to as ‘short holidays’ to foreign countries was probably more than (Schmidhauser, 1992). Travel surveys from 100 million days, as Germany introduced a the US do not define trips in the same way, 6-week holiday with pay early in that period but measure journeys according to distance (Nahrstedt, 1993). Only 4% of West Ger- travelled (NTS, 1995). A ‘holiday trip’ in the mans had 6-weeks holiday in 1980 US can, therefore, be different from a Euro- compared with 70% in 1990 (Grümer, pean ‘holiday’. In fact, most ‘holiday trips’ 1993). (approximately 50–60%) in the US last only In theory, the upper limit to holiday mak- 1–4 days, indicating that half the total lei- ing is that 100% of the inhabitants in a sure travel volume consists of day-trips or country will participate. But some inhab- short holidays according to European defini- itants will lack the money, free time, be too tions. It is important to be aware of sick or too old to travel away from home on conceptual and methodological differences holidays. In practice, therefore, the upper when transferring information on trends limit for participation rates is perhaps between the two continents. around a level of 75–85% in many countries An important trend in the US and parts of (Edwards, 1985, 1992). If participation Europe during the last 10–15 years has been approaches such levels, then growth in holi- a substantial growth in the demand for short day volume may level off. The strong holidays, mostly having effects at the local democratization of holiday making recently and regional level. On the international in Germany and other European countries, level, however, the most important process with participation rates above 70–75%, has recently been the democratization of indicate that holiday making is approaching holiday habits in the largest country in an upper limit or roof. In such countries, Europe, Germany. One effect of this process increased holiday participation will not be a was a huge increase in German tourists major driving force behind growth in travel abroad between 1986 and 1994. During demand. The roof-effect in itself reduces those 8 years the number of German visitors growth rates and stabilizes demand more The Effects on Travel and Tourism Demand 41

and more the closer participation approa- weeks, lower retirement ages and longer ches 100%. holidays. The struggle for more free time The growth in travel demand in a country was based on the view that work is a burden, does, however, not depend only on partici- which workers would like to reduce (in pation rates. Travel volume measured in combination with higher pay). days (or in monetary terms) can grow even One effect of this century-long social with stable participation rates, if the volume struggle is a significant reduction in the of free time (or money) increases by the number of paid work hours, both on a yearly introduction of an extra week of holidays or and on a (theoretical) lifetime basis. A ‘nor- higher incomes, for example. Volume also mal work-year’ in a rich country such as can grow if the inhabitants use more of their Norway has been reduced from 3000 h in available free time (or money) on travelling. 1900 to 1750 h in 1997. Reduced retirement That will be the case if nearly 100% of paid ages and more years spent in the education holidays are used for travelling (as in Aus- system have reduced the ‘theoretical life- tria and Switzerland), instead of the 50% time work’ by 55%, from 165,000 h in 1900 that is a more normal upper limit or roof, to 75,000 h in 1997 (Landsorganisasjonen, according to Edwards (1992). Limits on the 1998). volume of free time, and the degree that free The volume of organized free time has time is used for travel can, therefore, act as increased slowly, although steadily in many two other types of upper limits influencing European countries. The introduction of 1–2 the volume of travel demand. weeks holidays with pay before World War Leisure systems are very different among II was followed up with demands for 3 industrial countries. The European Union weeks during the 1950s. When that became introduced a common minimum 4-week a reality, the labour unions asked for a 5-day paid holiday from 1999 in all member coun- working week (and longer weekends). A tries, although some European countries 4-week holiday was introduced in several have more. The average volume per year of countries during the 1960s, with a strong holidays with pay among industrial workers increase in travel demand in the following is much higher in Europe (4–7 weeks) than years. Countries with good economies and for example in the US and Japan (2.5 weeks). strong labour unions led the way, with a Available leisure time creates a ‘ceiling’ for diffusion of ideas and demands to labour the volume of holiday travel at a much unions in other European countries the fol- higher level in Europe than in the two big- lowing years. If one union got a 5-week gest industrial countries in the world. The holiday or lower retirement ages, then other different leisure systems and free time vol- unions wanted the same (and quickly, to ume are not a coincidence, but reflect keep up with the ‘neighbours’). different history, cultures and ways of A major shift in thinking came during the thinking. 1970s, as high unemployment in many west- Leisure systems in western Europe are ern European countries became a long-term linked to the history of organized labour phenomenon. Labour unions reasoned that unions. The sociodemocratic unions if it is not possible to increase the number of decided in the 1920s that a revolution as in jobs by increasing the economic activity, Russia should not be their strategy in the and in that way reducing unemployment, struggle for a fair share of economic devel- then alternative solutions should be found. opment. The organized workers in western One alternative would be to reduce the num- Europe decided instead to negotiate com- ber of people looking for a job, by reducing mon (collective) wage agreements with the the retirement age or keeping young people owners of productive means. The negotia- longer in the education system. Another tions focused on more pay and improved way would be to share the available jobs by working conditions. More time free from increasing the number of paid holidays or work obligations was also an important reducing the number of weekly work hours. requirement, with shorter working days and The changed thinking reflects that jobs are 42 Jon Teigland

Table 4.1. Days per year with paid holidays for industrial workers according to wage agreement, 1995.

Country Paid holidays (days) Holiday weeks (5 days 1 week)

Japan 11 2.2 USA 12 2.4 Europe Finland 37 7.4 Italy 35 7 Netherlands 32 6.4 West Germany 30 6 Austria 26 5.2 Denmark 25 5 Sweden 25 5 France 25 5 Great Britain 25 5 Spain 24 4.8 Switzerland 24 4.8 Greek 22 4.4 Portugal 22 4.4 Ireland 21 4.2 Norway 21 4.2 Belgium 20 4

Source: Opaschowski (1996).

not only a necessary burden, but also a good tries such as the UK and Germany who have (having variable quality) which should be worked for some years in the same organiza- shared according to sociodemocratic ideol- tion, or are at a high level, may be given ogies. (much) more than the minimum. Non- During the last 10–15 years, European egalitarian systems are also common on labour unions have implemented such other continents (as in the US). ideas. One effect is that 5-, 6-, and even One effect in Europe of the many new, 7-week paid holidays have been introduced but different collective agreements is that in some countries according to laws or wage the volume of institutionalized free time has agreements for industrial workers (Table increased during the past decades. Leisure 4.1). Other countries have reduced retire- time limits that have restricted leisure trav- ment ages and hours worked per week. It is, elling in the past have, therefore, been lifted however, a fundamental difference inside to higher levels. But there is a question Europe as countries emphasize equality in whether the forces behind this social evolu- the way that all (or most) workers have a tion can sustain an upward trend for much right to the same volume of free time (even longer. Some governments seem to think so, farmers have 3 weeks holiday paid by the and France has recently introduced a 35-h state in Norway). Egalitarian conscious working week (with no reduction in sala- countries like France and the Nordic coun- ries). Italy has reduced the working week as tries have, therefore, the same number of well. paid holidays for ‘everyone,’ reﬂecting Europe has, however, also signed world inspiration from the French revolution and trade agreements recently that are opening its concept of equality. European Union their economies to global competition. Most members today have a ‘minimum rule’ of at European countries also have a growing least 4 weeks holiday for nonindustrial imbalance between people in work and employees. However, employees in coun- those out of the work markets. A strongly The Effects on Travel and Tourism Demand 43

growing number of elderly people makes it bility and support for travel policy issues, necessary to reverse the reduced pension and a trend toward privatization, for exam- age (OECD, 1998a) and restrict growth in ple, of the budgets for national tourist leisure in general. It may not be possible for organizations. Europe to increase or even keep the existing Few studies have clarified the direct and free time volumes, if competition increases indirect effects of market ideology trends on with countries that have much less free consumer behaviour and travel demand, but time. Increasing global competition and eco- European research shows a polarization of nomic problems may reduce some consumption in general. The affluent mem- ‘time-roofs’ again, and stabilize or reduce bers of society have generally increased leisure travel, too. A new study published their incomes substantially during the last by the World Tourism Organization 10–15 years, while low-income families revealed a reduction in free time in devel- have had relatively small or almost no pay oped countries worldwide (Clark, 1999). In increases. One effect in Europe is strong all the leading outbound countries, in growth in the demand for expensive goods Europe, the US and Japan, there was little and luxury holidays; such as trips to other hope of an increase in paid holidays in the continents and expensive special events, near future. The reason is that the com- high cost adventure travelling and the pur- petitiveness of the world economy will act chase of high quality second homes and as a brake against more leisure time. yachts. At the same time there has been a strong increase in demand for cheap bargains, such as ‘mass-produced’ charter Polarization Trends as an Effect of flights, as consumers increasingly seek Market System Ideology value for money. The simultaneous growth in demand for both high- and low-priced A driving force behind stronger competition products on the poles (or at each end) of the globally is the increased faith in market price scale is a polarized consumption phe- economies and free trade. This constitutes nomena (Nilsson and Solgaard, 1995). another recent mega-trend in many coun- Similar changes in consumption patterns tries. have most probably taken place in the US, as The end of the Soviet Union was a turn- income differences have increased there, ing point for market theory as an too. The 20% most affluent Americans international guideline for the organization increased their real incomes by 20% from of society. But the trends towards commer- 1984 to 1994, while the 20% poorest inhab- cialization and the privatization of public itants had only achieved a 0.1% increase services had started earlier. The core idea is during the same period (Kacapyr, 1996). that more competition would make the pri- More uneven income distribution is, accord- vate and public sectors more efficient and ing to Kacapyr, a characteristic of market reduce the wasteful use of resources. The economies, because markets will mostly resources available for other use should, reward resourceful inhabitants who make therefore, increase. Reduced costs and pri- use of new opportunities. ces should also contribute to higher living A more skewed income distribution in standards generally. the UK has influenced travel demand in sev- Use of ‘market fundamentalist’ guide- eral ways during the last 10–15 years lines is a controversial ideological issue. (Prentice, 1993). The UK experience indi- The fact is, however, that several countries cates that higher incomes among low and are increasingly organizing their public and middle-income groups should increase private sectors according to market theories. travel demand volume in general by democ- Countries such as the UK, New Zealand and ratizing the participation in travelling. the US have led this process, which affects Increased income for the affluent increases many sectors in society. One effect for the demand, too, but mainly in the form of addi- travel industry is reduced public responsi- tional trips to the main holiday destination 44 Jon Teigland

or by selecting more expensive trips. If inter- mobile in the same way. Short- and long- national trends toward the use of market term external substitution processes theory continue, with increased affluence as combined with the immobility of most tour- the expected effect, then trends in the most ist supply contributed to many bankruptcies affluent European countries such as Swit- both among Swiss hotels during the 1990s, zerland and Norway may indicate future and after the 1994 Winter Olympics in the travel trends for other countries as well. A Norwegian host region. major long-term trend both in Switzerland Affluence is only a partial cause of the and Norway has been increased travel external substitution from domestic to for- abroad, especially long distance travel. eign destinations. A comparative study from Comparative studies show that trips several continents shows that the demand abroad are a luxury with an average income- for travel to foreign countries followed a elasticity above one in general and strongly growing trend, independent of 1.76–1.86 in western countries (Crouch other factors such as increased economic 1994, 1995; Crouch and Shaw, 1994). Which growth. This independently growing time- means that if incomes increase by 1% in trend or ‘trend of our times’ was 4.5% per western countries, trips abroad will increase year for travel abroad in general and 7% for by 1.76–1.86%. The more advanced coun- long distance trips (Crouch, 1994). The time- tries in Asia, such as Japan, have very high trend for travel to Europe from other but ,(2%מ) elasticities for travel abroad. However, the continents was negative income level in developing countries has to strongly positive (14% per year) for trips to reach a certain threshold before trips to for- countries in the Pacific Rim. eign countries become commonplace. If the Interactions between ‘time-trends’ and income level is high, as among the affluent, growing incomes, especially among the then higher income will not increase the affluent, may explain the increased demand number of trips abroad but instead more for high quality and especially ‘luxury’ expensive travel options will be chosen travel. Luxury is, however, a dynamic con- (Crouch, 1994). cept that varies over time, and between Such trips are partly a substitution for countries and cultures. ‘inferior’ domestic holidays to more attrac- Germans make a distinction between tive ones abroad. One effect in European ‘old’ and ‘new’ forms of luxury. Enzensber- countries, where relatively short distances ger (1996) claims that the new luxury for the to go abroad are common, is a decline in privileged 10 million Germans who have domestic demand for holidays in the home- more than they need of material luxury land, especially during the summer. objects, is represented by life qualities, such Extended trips to other continents increased as: among Swiss inhabitants by 178% from 1980 to 1992 at the same time as the number ● time to do what you choose yourself, of Swiss holidays in Switzerland declined ● privacy, including enough space and 4% (Schmidhauser, 1995). The reduction in escape from unwanted attention, Swiss demand for domestic holidays would ● security from violence and crime, have been even greater if a growing number ● high environmental qualities; such as of winter holidays in Switzerland had not pleasant surroundings, quietness and been a compensating factor. The flow of hol- clean air and water. idaymakers abroad from (oil)-rich Norway increased so much during the same years Such ‘post-materialistic’ changes in that Norwegian demand for domestic holi- value orientation have been predicted in days decreased by 30% measured in days industrial countries in general (Ingelhart, (Teigland, 1990). Such changes create prob- 1977, 1990). Basic value systems that oscil- lems for the tourist industry as the late over time can be viewed as cultural consumers can change spatial travel pat- waves that create new trends also in travel terns quickly, but the tourist supply is not behaviour. The Effects on Travel and Tourism Demand 45

Post-materialistic Trends material belongings, conspicuous consumption and economic development has grown Post-materialistic theories focus on a differ- in countries like Norway, especially among ence in value systems among the old and the young (Hellevik, 1996). High material young generations in the Western world. living standards does, therefore, not neces- The older generations that grew up with sarily reduce the interest for more material high unemployment in the 1930s and the belongings. It is still important among ‘mate- hardships during World War II have been rialistic’ oriented inhabitants to get more, or marked by those experiences for most of the right, brands, as they do not ‘have their life. A core value for them is security enough’ (Hellevik, 1996). This trend is prob- and material prosperity. Such values are ably not only a phenomenon in northern more taken for granted among later genera- parts of Europe, but helps explain why tions. The new generations are, therefore, ‘shopping tourism’ is the top activity among more interested in ‘post-materialistic’ domestic travellers in the US (NTS, 1997) values and life qualities like personal devel- and is strongly growing also in Asia. opment, co-determination and environmental issues, according to post-materialist Implications theory (Inglehart, 1977). Inglehart predicted that generation replacement would create a Democratization of free time, polarization of clear trend from materialistic to post- consumption patterns and post-materialism materialistic value systems. This process, as a cultural wave are the three mega-trends which was to take place gradually and discussed in this chapter. They have impli- almost unnoticed, was called the silent rev- cations both for public policy and for olution. planning and investment in the private sec- Longitudinal studies have confirmed a tor. Consumer behaviour also depends, trend toward post-materialism in 18 of 20 however, on other types of mega-trends. societies on five continents for which we Women’s struggles worldwide for equality have comparable data from 1981 and represent another important democratiza- 1990/91 (Becker, 1995). The European/ tion process taking place that has effects both World Values Surveys covering 70% of the on leisure and business travel. The polariza- world’s population indicate that this value tion of the population into physically active shift has occurred in societies that have and passive groups is a mega-trend, too, experienced sufficient economic growth in showing effects such as increased over- recent decades so that the pre-adult experi- weight problems and increased passive ences of younger generations were more recreational use of nature. The percentage of secure than those of the older ones. A study adults who are obese increased, for example, of work values indicates at the same time in the US from 24% in the 1960s to 35% in that evaluations of North Americans and 1994 (Dortch, 1997). Physical fitness is Europeans became more similar during the declining in Europe too. This partly explains 1980s (Zanders and Harding, 1995). Con- why the trend among tourists in the Euro- vergence is also the overall pattern of change pean Alps is that everybody wants to in a comparison of Canadian and US values, experience nature – but not on foot. but in many domains Canadian values Our understanding of the dynamic pro- appear to ‘lead’ the American ones (Nevitte cesses shaping demand is, alas, limited. But and Inglehart, 1995). The value systems at we do know that mega-trends will interact the individual level have, however, became also with other short-term processes to more pluralistic or fragmented and less sim- shape travel demand. Unexpected events, ilar according to a study of four Europe and such as the economic crisis in Asia or the North American regions (Halman and Pet- war in Jugoslavia, in combination with tersson, 1995). major changes in international policies such Post-materialistic values have so far not as the introduction of the new European become a dominant force and interest in money system or world trade agreements, 46 Jon Teigland

make tourism and recreation trends less pre- surprise then that the European and North dictable. Decision-makers should, therefore, American markets show a growing interest plan for a more dynamic world and more in organized holidays and short breaks (Frei- uncertainty. It is increasingly important to tag, 1999) as these are a way for producers to be flexible and to invest accordingly. To standardize and deliver quality and lower keep options open may be one of the most prices to a higher volume of consumers. important strategies for long-term survival Roof effects will continue to restrict for tourist investments or policies. growth potentials in the total volume of holi- If the trend toward more international day travel, especially in north and central competition continues, and the effect is Europe where the volume of leisure travel higher economic growth globally and will probably stabilize during the coming regionally (as predicted by market theory), years. However, the introduction of a mini- then travel demand will increase. In this mum 4 weeks holiday with pay in all of the case, it is probable that travel demand European Community from January 1999 will among the affluent parts of society will grow increase travel demand especially in the most strongly. Higher incomes, but not southern parts of Europe, in the years to much more free time, may change demand come. It may need a long period of strong and toward products costing more per time-unit stable economic growth, perhaps 30–40 years, such as short and expensive breaks, or before the inhabitants of eastern Europe in toward other forms of luxury or high quality general reach the same level of holiday experiences. Substantially higher income demand as that found in the West today. among the affluent may explain why a The European and Japanese experience strong demand exists on several continents indicate that higher incomes will particu- for very expensive leisure capital such as larly increase the volume of trips abroad and deluxe yachts or second homes at high qual- to long-haul destinations. When incomes ity destinations or resorts. reach the same high level as in Norway and A development toward higher incomes, Switzerland, then the demand for some of in general, but not more free time or even the traditional domestic holidays may less, would change the way in which holi- decline. Substitution effects can reduce days are taken (Clark, 1999). Holidays demand on a regional level but also in large would tend to be shorter, more frequent and countries, if domestic supply is of a com- more intense forms of recreation. To stay at mon or ‘inferior’ type. The flexibility of the home will then be an increasingly important cruise industry in delivering new experi- alternative for consumers, especially if they ences to consumers, combined with a continue to buy more and more leisure predictable travel quality, make cruise prod- equipment for home-based recreation. Des- ucts an increasingly attractive and tinations that want to compete on the market affordable luxury. for the more frequent, shorter and more In this paper, many examples have been intense holidays will most probably need to provided of recent developments showing supply more diversity and higher quality that tourism and recreation are influenced than before. One reason is that improved by mega-trends. Democratization, polariza- home-based recreation possibilities will be a tion and changes in value systems are cheap alternative, making the consumers among them. How they affect travel for spe- more price sensitive towards tourism sup- cific destinations is not easily understood. ply close to home. One important However, a number of global examples have implication is that there will be a growing been provided so that some understanding of demand for quality at a lower price. where we are headed can be gained. Against If globalization is a brake not only against the backdrop of the above-mentioned mega- more leisure time, but also against higher trends, destination areas will be able to incomes for large population groups, that analyse their own situation and make sig- mega-trend will contribute to increased nificant adjustments. Travel will increase but demand for quality at a lower price. No travel patterns will also change. 5 Trends in Information Technology and Tourism

Dimitrios Buhalis

Introduction the entire range of functions promised in their specifications. Technological deficien- Information is the lifeblood of the travel cies are often coupled with organizational industry, and therefore the effective use of inefficiencies and incompetencies, fre- Information Technology (IT) is crucial to its quently due to the inability of top competitiveness and prosperity. Tourism is management to appreciate the emerging inevitably influenced by the business proc- capabilities of IT and the unparalleled ess re-engineering experienced due to the opportunities emerging for the tourism technological revolution. industry. As a result, the usage of IT in A whole system of ITs is being rapidly tourism is often less than satisfactory and diffused throughout the tourism industry cost effective. However, by analysing the and no player will escape its impacts emerging trends it is quite evident that over (Poon, 1993) 5 years (1995–2000) IT has enabled the tour- Timely and accurate information, rele- ism industry to advance its offering and vant to consumers’ needs, is increasingly the delivery mechanisms more than in the pre- key to satisfaction of tourist demand and to vious three decades. The re-engineering of the ability of tourism enterprises to offer business processes in tourism has generated suitable products. Therefore, IT provides a paradigm shift, altering the structure of the the information backbone that facilitates entire industry and developing a whole tourism. Effectively, IT empowers the range of opportunities and threats for all emerging globalization of tourism demand stakeholders. Therefore, developments in IT and supply experienced worldwide, and at represent a revolution for the tourism indus- the same time propels it by providing effec- try, comparable only to the introduction of tive tools both to consumers for identifying the jet engine. This chapter illustrates the and purchasing suitable products and to progress of the tourism industry in the last suppliers for developing, managing and dis- few years due to IT and also develops a tributing their offerings on a global scale. IT framework for future developments. therefore becomes an essential partner which increasingly determines the interface Factors of Change: Synergies between consumers and suppliers globally between IT and Tourism (Vlitos-Rowe, 1995; Sheldon, 1997a; Buha- lis, 1998a,b; O’Connor, 1999). To understand IT’s impacts, it is critical to However, IT is currently far from provid- demonstrate the changes it has brought. To ing perfect, reliable tools which can deliver do so requires examining the factors of © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 47 48 Dimitrios Buhalis

change, which illustrate the major trends. conduct of business. Integrated networks As these developments are closely interre- were developed in order to: achieve organi- lated, it is often difficult to identify whether zations’ strategic objectives; enhance IT generates or simply facilitates changes in performance and efficiency; coordinate tourism demand and supply. Perhaps the activities of functions and business units; reality is somewhere in between. IT pro- facilitate interaction with external entities; vides the tools and enables the evolution of and ultimately achieve a competitive advan- tourism demand and supply by facilitating tage. The proliferation of personal existing needs and business prospects. Sim- computers and the development of suitable ilarly, the tourism industry increases its software, which supported decision making requirements from IT by expanding its and managerial activity, facilitated this era. needs and users’ requirements and by spon- Since the early 1990s a fourth and more soring technological developments which profound era has been emerging: the net- facilitate its functions. work era. Intra- and inter-organizational The continuous development of informa- networking is proliferating by using local tion and communication technologies and wide area networks. The development during the last decade has profound impli- of the Internet, Intranets and Extranets revo- cations for the whole tourism industry. IT lutionized this era and the way that incorporates not only software and hard- communication and business function. This ware, but also information, management enables efficient communication and multi- and telecommunication systems to enable level integration. More importantly, this era the processing and flow of information alters the competitiveness of both firms and within and between organizations, as well governments in the global marketplace and as all the equipment utilized for the produc- reduces the significance of location and size tion of commodities and the provision of in the product delivery processes. The con- services. IT should be regarded, therefore, as sequences are therefore paramount for both a synthesis of electronics, computing and the private and public sectors globally (Pep- telecommunications technologies (Poon, pard, 1993; Lord, 1997; Robson, 1997). 1993). The evolution of hardware, software and The eras of IT development networking The major developments in new informa- Several technologies are already available tion technologies can be classified into four while others are expected to come on to the main eras. In the first, data processing, the market in the future. Technological devel- main objective was to improve operational opment in terms of hardware, software and efficiency by automating information-based networking has enhanced the capabilities of processes. This era happened from the organizations by providing robust tools for 1960s onwards and mainly used main- management and marketing. As far as hard- frames and mini-computers. The second era ware is concerned, faster and more reliable was that of management information sys- computers and other equipment enable the tems (MIS), where the aim was to increase performance of processes at a fraction of the management effectiveness by satisfying time and cost required in the past. Increas- organizational requirements. This era com- ingly computers are becoming smaller, menced in the 1970s. Information systems faster and less expensive, providing afford- were used primarily to address the needs of able tools to larger segments of society. In internal management and coordination. addition, the development of other devices Emphasis was placed on administrative and (such as advanced portable computers, clerical functions, especially accounting or mobile phones, intelligent work stations, inventory. In the early 1980s, the strategic palmtops) make it possible to have access information systems (SIS) era aimed to and function in conjunction with powerful improve competitiveness. This can be ach- databases and networks. Software develop- ieved mainly by changing the nature or ments enable a much more integrated Trends in Information Technology and Tourism 49

management of data as they enable the inte- efficiency and effectiveness of networks are gration of all enterprise functions. In revolutionized. particular, they support the automation of The Internet uses the World Wide Web both front and back office operations and (WWW) as a distribution multimedia proto- thus empower the decision-making process. col to enable the instant dissemination of Increasingly software applications use media-rich documents (such as textual data, embedded artificial intelligence and learn- graphics, pictures, video and sounds). The ing facilities to predict users’ behaviour and Internet effectively revolutionizes the inter- desires and to provide suitable solutions activity between computer users and and services. Through knowledge manage- servers. As a result, an innovative and user- ment, enterprises can enhance their friendly platform for the efficient, live and organizational understanding of issues. Data timely exchange of ideas and products was warehousing and data mining enable enter- established. It also provided unique oppor- prises also to understand their market tunities for interactive marketing to all segments and support the development of service providers. Similarly, Intranets oper- suitable marketing and management strate- ate as closed or secured networks within gies. The development of user-friendly organizations, using standard protocols to interfaces and multimedia provide data and harness the needs of internal business users. media-rich applications. Organizations can By using a single controlled, user-friendly therefore distribute a greater wealth of infor- interface to provide relevant data to all mation at a fraction of the cost and at the employees in the organization, this empow- same time enhance their efficiency and per- ers their function and supports the formance. As a result, they can develop formulation of close partnerships with other suitable opportunities to interact with their members of the value-chain for the produc- customers and partner organizations. They tion of goods and services. More recently, can also reduce their training costs, as Extranets use the same principles and com- employees are guided by software applica- puter networks to enhance the interactivity tions and do not need to memorize and transparency between organizations complicated procedures (O’Connor, 1995; and their trusted partners. By linking and Buhalis et al., 1998; Buhalis and Schertler, sharing data and processes, they formulate 1999). low-cost and user-friendly electronic com- Perhaps networking is the most impor- merce arrangements. Automation of tant element of the contemporary standard procedures supports the effective- information technology revolution. Syner- ness of business networks and empowers gies and interoperability between processes, closer collaboration. departments and functions enable enterprises to reduce their labour costs, to increase Applications of information technology in efficiency and to make better informed deci- tourism sions. Developments in software and The tourism industry already uses a wide integration of entire processes reduce work range of IT systems as illustrated in Box 5.1. duplication, while enhancing transparency Several tailor-made, internal-management of information and decisions within organi- applications facilitate the management and zations, empowering employees to improve marketing of tourism organizations. These their performance. Networking is experi- systems use databases as well as office auto- enced within organizations, between mation software for inventory control and organizations and their partners as well as generic administration purposes. Knowl- between the entire world of individuals and edge management systems enable organizations. The proliferation of the Inter- organizations to gain information about net, Intranets and Extranets supports their functions and to build knowledge communications between employees, units, about approaches to resolve problems and organizations, as well as with external part- emerging issues. Increasingly Intranets and ners and consumers. As a result, the Extranets are used to offer user-friendly 50 Dimitrios Buhalis

Box 5.1. Information technology (IT) applications used currently.

Internal management and ad hoc relationships with external partners ● Tailor-made internal management applications ● Databases ● Office automation ● Knowledge management systems ● Intranets/Extranets Networking and open distribution ● Dedicated internal management and distribution systems ● Computer Reservation Systems (CRSs) ● Global Distribution Systems (GDSs) ● Switch applications for hospitality organizations (e.g. THISCO and WIZCOM) ● Destination Management Systems (DMSs) ● Internet in general ● New Internet-based travel intermediaries (e.g. Expedia, Travelocity, Preview Travel, Internet Travel Network, Priceline.com, etc.) ● Mobile devices (PDA, WAP, GPRS, etc.) Traditional distribution technologies supporting automated systems ● Calling centres ● CD-ROMs ● Kiosks access to employees of organizations as well 1991; WTO, 1994a, 1995c,d; Kärcher, 1996; as their authorized partners to use company French, 1998). Switch companies such as data to perform their tasks. THISCO and WIZCOM emerged also to facil- The World Tourism Organization (WTO) itate interconnectivity between dedicated or acknowledges that computerized networks, internal hotel systems and GDSs (Emmer et and in particularly airline Computer Reser- al., 1993; O’Connor, 1995, 1999). In addi- vation Systems (CRSs) have been leading tion, Destination Management Systems dramatic structural changes since the early emerged to provide integrated solutions for 1970s (WTO, 1994a, 1995d). Tourism prin- destinations and small and medium tourism cipals realized that their presentation on enterprises which were excluded from the travel agencies’ desktop screens was critical major systems, as well as to amalgamate all for their ability to attract bookings. Hence, local systems and providers under one they developed interfaces to enable them to brand name (Buhalis, 1994, 1997). communicate directly with intermediaries through CRSs. Principals use CRSs to man- New wave of technological evolution age their inventory and distribute their The International Federation on Informa- capacity as well as to manage their expan- tion Technology and Tourism has identified sion of tourism globally (Emmer et al., the most significant technological develop- 1993). The evolution of CRSs to Global Dis- ments forcing a new wave of technological tribution Systems (GDSs) in the early 1980s evolution, as demonstrated in Fig. 5.1 effectively allowed them to become elec- (Werthner and Klein, 1999). The underlying tronic travel supermarkets. GDSs gradually trend of all this development is integration expanded their geographical and opera- of hardware, software and intelligent appli- tional coverage by integrating both cations through networking and advanced horizontally, with other airline systems, and user interfaces. Interestingly, most of the vertically by incorporating the entire range technological tools required by the industry of principals, such as accommodation, car already exist. However, they may need rentals, train and ferry ticketing, entertain- improvement to enhance their speed, inter- ment and other provisions (Truitt et al., operability, reliability and adaptation to the

Trends in Information Technology and Tourism 51

Network(ing) Information management Artificial applications User interface ISO/OSI Databases relational, Artificial intelligence What You See Internet object-oriented Logics is What You SGML Optimization Get World Wide Web Simulation Multimedia Hypertext Markup Language Statistics Windowing XML Multimedia User modelling Data modelling Natural language ATM IPv6 Unified modelling language processing System architectures Programming languages Client–Server Java Knowledge discovery Metaphors Distributed and CSCW (Computer Supported and data mining Visualization mobile computing Cooperative Work) Learning systems Cryptography Authoring tools Agents Participatory design Artificial life Architecture Object-orientation Agents-Ontologies Adaptive Corba Interfaces Integration Metadata Mediated architectures Facilitators Wrappers – Legacy systems Added services – e-payment and e-commerce

Fig. 5.1. Lines of technological evolution. (Adapted from Werthner and Klein, 1999, p. 132.) industry and consumer needs. Fast and reli- take advantage of a wide range of equipment able networks are emerging to support such as on-line kiosks, in-ﬂight or room media-rich applications and on-line video entertainment systems, portable computers presentations required by both consumers and palmtops, digital television as well as and suppliers. Distributed and mobile com- the Internet, Intranets and Extranets, in munication as well as network architectures order to network all users and suppliers. and protocols effectively support mobile The above developments will support a computing and facilitate access to informa- more effective information management and tion from a wide range of media and will enable both organizations and consu- geographical coverage. This will enable mers to take advantage of the information mobile users to access bases of information they gain. The development of object- and purchase products and interact regard- oriented, relational databases will less of location. Development of essentially enable interlinking between all client–server interfaces will empower end- information kept by organizations in order users and will reduce the training required to generate synergies. Data modelling and and the reluctance of new users. Advanced knowledge management enhances the usage cryptography will improve on-line security of operational data in the decision-making and provide trusted and robust ﬁnancial sys- processes and will enable better informed tems for electronic commerce. The operational and strategic choices. Automa- development of electronic commerce, espe- tion of procedures by using smart cards and cially through the introduction of digital expert systems to reduce manual working television, will force re-engineering of the procedures while Computer Supported tourism industry and propel new practices Cooperative Work (CSCW) will facilitate the such as electronic ticketing, commission development of organizational knowledge capping etc. Eventually, networking will management and enable employees to share 52 Dimitrios Buhalis

experiences and solutions to established interfaces enabled partner organizations to problems. Hence, intelligent applications share resources, empowered interaction and incorporate knowledge from organizations maximized the outcome of value chains. to inform decision making at the level The most challenging task for technological required. Finally, authoring tools will be development is the integration of all appli- used for facilitating information manage- cations and systems to enhance the ment end-user programming to support the management and marketing functions of the customization of software to user require- industry. The applications of the new wave ments. of IT developments in tourism should Software development is driven by the empower tourism organizations and desti- development of intelligent applications nations to revolutionize electronic using artificial intelligence and complex commerce opportunities. This will enable algorithms to provide customized informa- them to develop and sustain competitive tion and services. Office automation and full advantage and avoid competitive disadvan- integration of front and back offices will tage. enhance efficiency and effectiveness. In addition, the use of simulation and the processing of statistics will enhance the quality Empowering Consumers and of the information used for decision making Suppliers through IT: Demand and and will enable organizations to adopt more Supply proactive approaches to management and marketing problems. Optimization and sim- The development of new IT, and particu- ulation applications will also enable larly the Internet, facilitated the rise of the organizations to develop alternative scenar- ‘new’ tourist who is becoming knowledge- ios and to predict situations and potential able and is seeking exceptional value for outcomes based on previous experience. money and time, and participation in spe- Knowledge discovery and data mining will cial interest activities. Thus, the relative support management and marketing func- importance of package tours, which are tions by sharing experiences throughout often based on low quality–low prices, is organizations and by enabling proactive expected to decline in favour of independ- marketing based on personalized records of ently organized tourism. A relatively new previous preferences. Learning systems and movement towards environmental preserva- agents will increasingly accumulate and use tion and appreciation for the local society is knowledge productively to support employ- also evident. Tourists tend to participate in ees and organizations. the experience by being active and spending Perhaps the most significant develop- their time on their special interests. Leisure ment during the last decade was the time will increasingly be used for ‘edutain- development of user-friendly interfaces ment’ (i.e. the exploration of personal which enabled nonspecialists to use com- interests for both personal and professional puters without extensive training on each development). Flexibility in both consumer particular program or interface. The devel- choice and service delivery processes is opment of multimedia interfaces and becoming a key element. Every tourist is particular interfaces based on the ‘What You different, carrying a unique blend of experi- See Is What You Get’ (WYSIWYG) and Win- ences, motivations and desires. Tourists dows protocols enabled most systems and from the major generating regions of the applications to become accessible to most world have become frequent travellers, are people in organizations and to consumers, linguistically and technologically skilled, saving time and enhancing efficiency. Adap- and can function in multicultural and tive interfaces and the visualization of demanding environments overseas. computing functions simplify processes and The usage of IT in the industry is driven empower users to take advantage of systems both by the development of the size and and applications. In addition, user-friendly complexity of tourism demand, as well as by Trends in Information Technology and Tourism 53

Box 5.2. IT-empowered developments enhancing customer satisfaction.

● User-friendly and customized interfaces ● Consumers have more information and enjoy greater choice ● Better understanding of consumer needs based on research interaction and data mining ● Differentiated and customized services according to personal preferences and attitudes, rather than sociodemographic segmentation ● Consumers feel empowered to get information on products and services they are interested in ● Pricing becomes more flexible as organizations are willing to provide great discounts for last- minute, targeted offered and special promotions ● A reduction in bureaucracy and paperwork frees time for better customer service ● Customizing the product and establishing ‘one-to-one’ marketing by using intelligence collected by loyalty schemes (e.g. dietary requirements, product preferences) ● New value added services (e.g. in-flight or in-room entertainment and information channels) ● Automation of tedious operational tasks through IT (e.g. in-room TV checkout) ● Personalized services (e.g. a telephone operator acknowledges a guest by name or waiter knows dietary preferences or requirements) ● Better integration of departments and functions of organizations toward better service ● Language barriers are increasingly reduced through development of interfaces to serve all target markets and also through automatic translation ● Accurate and much richer marketing research by collecting data from all transactions and enquiries the rapid expansion and sophistication of to access reliable and accurate information new tourism products, which address mini- as well as to undertake reservations at a frac- market segments. Increasingly, new, tion of time, cost and inconvenience experienced, sophisticated, demanding required by conventional methods. IT travellers seek information about more improves the service quality and contributes exotic destinations and authentic experien- to higher guest/traveller satisfaction. A wide ces, as well as requiring to interact with range of development empowers consumers, suppliers to satisfy their specific needs and as indicated in Box 5.2. wishes. The contemporary/connected con- There are several success stories on the sumer is far less willing to wait or to put up Internet: Preview Travel (www.previewtra- with delays, to the point where patience is a vel.com) reached 6.4 million subscribers on disappearing virtue. The World Tourism 31 December, 1988, up 145% from the pre- Organization argues that vious year. Expedia (expedia.com) (the Microsoft on-line travel agency) has the key to success lies in the quick emerged in the top 25 travel agencies in the identification of consumer needs and in US in less than 3 years. Some of the Expedia reaching potential clients with figures clearly illustrate the trends: US$8.5 comprehensive, personalized and up-to- date information million per week in travel-related sales; (WTO, 1988) more than US$430 million in sales in Octo- ber 1998; 1 million airline tickets sold Customer satisfaction depends greatly on already; 3 million visitors per month, and 3 the accuracy and comprehensiveness of spe- million registered users. TravelWeb cific information on the accessibility, (www.travelweb.com) represents 18,000 facilities, attractions and activities of each hotels belonging to 90 chains. About 17,000 destination. Consumers not only require are bookable on-line and TravelWeb attracts value for money, but also value for time for 6.5 million page accesses per month. At the the entire range of their dealings with organi- end of 1996 TravelWeb generated US$6.5 zations. This reflects people’s perceived million, as annual net reservation revenue, shortage of time, which is evident in Western while their predicted on-line travel sales societies. Increasingly, IT enables travellers by the year 2000 are expected to reach 54 Dimitrios Buhalis

Table 5.1. Global Internet Market in 1998.

Country or continent Internet users Population Percentage of population

USA 164,081,940 264,648,291 62.00 Norway 900,000 4,348,410 20.70 Sweden 1,400,000 8,839,000 15.80 Finland 700,000 5,098,754 13.70 UK 4,100,000 58,394,600 7.00 Australia 1,100,000 17,657,400 6.20 Germany 4,300,000 81,338,093 5.30 Netherlands 800,000 15,385,000 5.20 Japan 5,200,000 125,200,000 4.20 Taiwan 800,000 21,125,792 3.80 France 1,200,000 57,903,000 2.10 Spain 700,000 39,188,194 1.80 Latin America 2,000,000 474,000,000 0.40 Africa 500,000 708,000,000 0.07

Source: Adapted from Rosen (1999).

US$4.7 billion. Marriott Hotels (marriott. travel planning and arrangements in a frac- com) already enjoys 13,000 visits per day and tion of the time required by conventional is now conducting well over US$1.5 million distribution channels through efficient of business every month over the net. interfaces will increase their market share It is increasingly evident that a large per- and gain competitive advantages. Thus, des- centage of consumers have access to the tinations and principals need new methods Internet and are able to find information for to serve the new types of demand. It is their leisure and tourism interests. Although becoming increasingly evident that in order there is no accurate number of the people to satisfy tourism demand and survive in the who are currently on-line, there are several long term there is no choice but to incorpo- indications (Table 5.1) illustrating that the rate new technology and enhance the number of on-line consumers is increasing interactivity with the marketplace (Buhalis, rapidly, which justifies massive invest- 1998a). ments by organizations to develop their electronic presence. Most Internet users are well-educated professionals who travel fre- The Future: Developing Electronic quently (KPMG, 1998; Smith and Jenner, Commerce for Tourism 1998). It is anticipated that the development of The commercial viability of the Internet digital television will effectively bring the presence for tourism enterprises will Internet to the living rooms of most families. depend on their success in receiving book- User-friendly interfaces based on a televi- ings through the Internet. A great number of sion set and easily operated through a hotels worldwide (51%) surveyed in 1998 simplified keyboard will enable the vast already receive bookings through the Inter- majority of the population to have direct net and the majority of the remaining access to organizations electronically. This properties are developing their facilities in will revolutionize electronic commerce and order to be able to receive Internet bookings enable the development of a mass digital in the near future. market. Organizations which provide cus- There are also several forecasts for the tomized products and services and future of on-line tourism and travel shop- empower consumers to undertake their ping especially for the US where the Trends in Information Technology and Tourism 55

Table 5.2. Tourism electronic intermediaries emerging in the electronic marketplace.

Expedia.com ITN Preview Travel Travelocity

Registered users 2 million 4 million 3.4 million 2.5 million Page views per month n/a 15 million n/a 40 million Unique visitors per month 2,341,000 n/a 1,608,000 2,441,000 Visits per month n/a 7.5 million 6.3 million n/a Estimated gross (bookings US$12 million US$10 million US$12 million US$16 million per month)

Source: Adapted from Sileo (1988). penetration of the Internet is much higher predicts that by the year 2002 the proportion than in other places. This is attributed not of airline tickets purchased on-line is going only to the high standard of living and the to drop to 73% of all on-line travel sales, fairly low price for electronic equipment in accounting for US$6.5 billion. Non-airline the US, but also the fact that, unlike Euro- sales (hotel and car rental) will grow from pean countries, local telephone calls are US$31 million in 1996 to US$2.2 billion in effectively free of charge. Forrester Research 2002. On-line advertising on travel web sites predicted that travel and tourism would be will grow from US$2 million in 1996 to second only to computer products as it US$282 million in 2002, and will be the anticipated the total on-line turnover on third highest source of revenue for travel- tourism and travel products to reach almost related web sites. A signiﬁcant increase in US$1.6 billion by the year 2000. direct bookings by on-line users for airlines, It is evident, therefore, that only tourism hotels and other travel business is also antic- organizations and destinations that prepare ipated. Direct sales by suppliers are their presence in the emerging electronic expected to grow from 22% in 1997 to 30% marketplace will be able to gain some of the of on-line sales in 2002. The leading incen- projected beneﬁts and achieve competitive tive for the direct sale transformation is to advantages. In addition, several new elec- reduce commissions paid to travel interme- tronic intermediaries are emerging to take diaries by establishing direct links with advantage of the revolution occurring in the consumers. Although in 1996 less than 1% tourism marketplace (TIA, 1997; Wardell, of all airline ticket revenue came from on- 1998). They often use CRSs and GDSs and line sources, it is anticipated by that by the provide suitable interfaces to consumers year 2002 this will increase to 8.2% and will who would like to book tourism products be the leading travel purchase on the Inter- on-line. Table 5.2 illustrates the develop- net (TIA, 1997). ment of the major travel intermediaries’ sites and their essential statistics. It is worth mentioning that only Travelocity emerged from Framework of Change and the existing tourism industry (i.e. SABRE). Implications for Tourism All other intermediaries emerged and grew Management and Marketing independently. The structure of the on-line expenditure Information technology provides the tools to is also changing rapidly to include a much revolutionize the tourism industry, as illus- broader variety of tourism products. Airline trated in Box 5.3. However, the reliability tickets accounted for 90% of all on-line and functionality of the tools, as well as travel sales, generating US$243 million in their cost, needs to be improved while their revenue in 1996. However, the Travel Indus- use is advanced. This will enable the devel- try Association of America (TIA, 1997) opment of all the direct links required and 56 Dimitrios Buhalis

Box 5.3. IT tools required to be developed further to be used by tourism organizations.

Web tools for e-commerce ● Object oriented ● Multimedia ● Modular construction tools ● Harmonization of existing systems ● Development of applications speciﬁc to tourism Integration of distribution mechanism ● ATM-e-ticketing ● Computer Supported Cooperative Working (knowledge sharing/management, structured collaborative tools, control of contribution) ● Interaction between suppliers ● Virtual cooperation Intelligent applications ● Learning environment → interface for customers ● Adaptive methods (user proﬁle) → interface for customers ● Loyalty programme – customer tracking and marketing research Quantitative tools and decision systems ● Geographical information systems for marketing and marketing research ● Navigation technology planning ● Marketing research tools collecting date on- and off-line Interactive multimedia ● Stand-alone/CD-ROM ● Internet

the establishment of close partnerships introduce cheaper prices and on-line bar- between stakeholders in the industry, as gaining which will enable suppliers to sell illustrated in Fig. 5.2. The forecast develop- their distressed capacity and maximize their ments will effectively bring a whole range of profit, while offering competitive pricing for new benefits for the consumer as well as for the leisure/flexible traveller. Although the tourism suppliers. These developments are English language dominates both the Inter- expected to have major implications for the net and international tourism, new tools are management and marketing of tourism emerging to assist non-English speakers, enterprises. such as automatic translation or regional sites in the local language. Implications for the tourism consumer of the Security of transactions and quality future assurance of both services and information Consumer benefits will include more will be critical for the satisfaction of con- information/knowledge about products, ser- sumers. Although consumers are still vices and destinations. This will enable concerned about giving their credit card consumers to have a greater involvement in details on the Internet, advanced encryption planning their travel and building their own techniques pioneered by credit card com- itineraries and, as a result, niche markets panies will increase consumer confidence. will grow rapidly. Consumers will seek per- However, it needs to be emphasized that sonalized experiences and authenticity and transaction security over the Internet is also they will be empowered through the new a perceptual issue. In most cases, consumers tools as well as their previous experiences. trust unknown waiters or shop assistants to More information and competition will disappear with their credit card while set- Trends in Information Technology and Tourism 57

Destinations Consumer trends and needs Strategic tool for planning, Specialized demand and niche markets management, coordination Specialized events/activities Standardization of products Empowerment tools for information and and IT presentation reservations Enhance competitive Cheaper prices for leisure travellers advantage through Last minute offers and auctions – DMS/marketing High involvement/self development – Niche products New generation – Efficiency/cost advantage Experience and authenticity Branding the destination Reliable information and friendly process Smaller and medium-sized to eliminate chaotic/not organized/ tourism enterprises (SMTEs) unreliable/uneven information – Virtual size Security of transaction – Local cooperation – Virtual enterprises Management marketing – Training and education It enables and empowers Returns on investment Integrated technologies for integrated Sustainability and impacts tourism and integrated regional optimization development Consumer satisfaction Profitability of enterprises Inter- and intra-organizational management and marketing Relationship and niche marketing Suppliers/principals Complete tourism solutions for Profitability and maximization of demand and supply through – Price/yield value-added chain – Occupancy/load factors Rationalization of tourism facilities Seasonability management and destinations SMTEs enhancement Visitor management and impacts – Standards and quality control optimization through planning – Management Sustainability of tourism resources – Marketing – Training Attract new market segments Evolution of offering through niche products and theming Intermediaries Yield management Evolution of products: new added value – realistic pricing Realistic pricing – last minute offers Niche markets Franchising Disintermediation versus re-intermediation Virtual cooperation with local New intermediaries emerging enterprises Internet-based Disintermediation reduces Destination Management Systems (DMSs) commissions and dependency

Fig. 5.2. User requirements for the rationalization of tourism based on information technology (IT). tling their accounts or will happily give It is reported that electronic intermediaries their credit card details to strangers over the such as Expedia and Travelocity had not phone or on a fax in order to purchase prod- experienced any security problems despite ucts and services. However, they are often selling more than one million tickets on- reluctant to provide credit card details in a line. To the degree that credit card much more secure, encrypted electronic companies improve the security of transac- transaction which is often fully automated. tions and to the degree that consumers will 58 Dimitrios Buhalis

start purchasing goods on the Internet, the distributing customized products also ena- security concerns will decrease rapidly. ble tourism organizations to differentiate their offerings and provide suitable prod- Implications for tourism suppliers and small ucts for niche markets at premium prices. IT and medium-sized tourism enterprises tools are therefore instrumental in enabling A wide range of opportunities and challen- tourism organizations to achieve compet- ges emerge for smaller and medium-sized itive advantages. Failure to take advantage tourism enterprises (SMTEs) and destina- of the emerging technology may equally lead tions. Traditionally the vast majority of to competitive disadvantages, when organi- tourism suppliers are small, and hence can zations fail to adapt to change and to provide have enormous difficulties in marketing facilities and services offered by competi- their products globally and competing with tors. Only organizations which offer their larger counterparts (Buhalis, 1994; instantaneous, flexible and customized WTO, 1995d; Buhalis and Cooper, 1998; tourism products will be able to succeed in Buhalis and Main, 1998). The development the global marketplace. Hence, IT changes of the Internet also empowers even tiny the best operational practices in the industry tourism organizations and destinations to be rapidly and enables innovative operators to represented in the electronic marketplace take advantage of the emerging tools. and to network with consumers and partners alike. IT facilitates the amalgamation of Implications for tourism destinations and the independently produced products and public sector enables the delivery of seamless tourism Destinations emerge as umbrella brands, experiences. Hence, innovative entrepre- which will incorporate all local suppliers in neurs who appreciate the power of the new the region (Buhalis, 2000). The public sector media and design and support a suitable has traditionally played an instrumental presence in the electronic marketplace will role in planning, coordinating and market- be able to compete on an equal footing with ing the destination and is expected to take some of their larger competitors. At the advantage of the emerging IT tools and micro-level, tourism suppliers/principals enhance the competitiveness of destinations will maximize their long-term profitability as a whole. IT will also need to re-engineer through yield management, networking and the planning, management and marketing of developing value-added chains and by destinations by operating a decision support enhancing virtual cooperations locally. mechanism which will focus on existing They may also be able to achieve com- issues, legislation and markets and at the petitive advantages if they manage to same time use complex forecasting mecha- position niche products as unique and nisms to assess future scenarios and authentic. Enhancing the professionalism of demonstrate the best alternative decision for SMTEs by marketing and management train- all stakeholders. IT should also provide ing will enable smaller companies to essential ‘info-structure’ for the networking cooperate and compete by developing their of all local enterprises and enhancing knowledge as well as virtual size. Increas- regional development. This can only be ach- ingly, the quality of service and the ability to ieved by using IT to integrate regional differentiate tourism products depend on economies in order to support the maxi- the level IT usage, as enterprises which take mization of economic multipliers as well as advantage of the emerging IT tools are able the optimization of tourism impacts. Sus- to interact closely with their consumers and tainability and redevelopment of resources adapt to new demands by constantly updat- will also need to be monitored and rein- ing their tourism products. Using IT, the forced through IT applications. Destination industry can create seamless experiences marketing needs to focus on SMTEs and to through developing ad hoc partnerships ensure that they are well represented in the with local suppliers. Identifying niche mar- electronic marketplace (Buhalis, 1993, kets through IT and packaging and 1994). Trends in Information Technology and Tourism 59

One of the latest IT developments in the sumers enhancing their intrachannel power tourism industry is the proliferation of and their ability to negotiate with intermedi- destination-oriented systems (Archdale et aries. Being able to think strategically and al., 1992; Buhalis, 1993, 1997; Sheldon, take advantage of the opportunities emerg- 1993). Destinations are recognized as ‘the ing through the technological revolution is a raison d’être’ for tourism and as amalgams of prerequisite for achieving the described resources, products, facilities and services strategic benefits for both destinations and comprising the ‘total tourism product’ or the SMTEs. Education and training on strategic ‘travel experience’. Destination Manage- marketing and information technology in ment Systems (DMSs) score heavily over combination with development of vision for CRSs for remote, insular and less developed destinations will effectively determine the destinations which attract a large number of degree of benefits a destination will achieve. independent tourists. In addition, DMSs can DICIRMSs emerge as a complementary dis- be suitable for destinations which cannot tribution channel and as strategic tool to achieve adequate prices due to the domina- re-establish equity in the allocation of power tion of inclusive tour visitors and the and profit margins between distribution purchasing power of tour operators. channel members. They also enable a host The DMS concept can be taken a step population to maximize positive tourism forward to formulate an ideal and perhaps impacts (Buhalis, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997). near utopian system, which could revolutionize all aspects of destination Implications for travel intermediaries: travel management as well as integrate all tourism agencies and tour operators actors at the local level. Destination Inte- The Internet is also expected to change the grated Computerized Information Reserva- role of tourism intermediaries; travel agen- tion Management Systems (DICIRMSs) cies and tour operators in particular address the entire range of needs and ser- (Kärcher, 1997; Wardell, 1998). Travel agen- vices required by both tourism enterprises cies have been the major brokers of tourism and consumers for specific destinations. services and the interface of the industry Although various elements proposed for with consumers. However, to the degree that these systems already exist in some DMSs, the Internet empowers consumers to currently no operational DMS provides such develop and purchase their own itineraries, a comprehensive and integrated service to the future of travel agencies becomes ques- its users. As far as economic benefits are tionable, unless they take advantage of the concerned, DICIRMSs are instrumental in new tools and re-engineer their processes. promoting diagonal integration at the desti- The recent commission capping by airlines nation level while they play a pivotal role to around the world reinforces this statement the disintermediation of the industry and and demonstrates clearly that unless inter- the empowerment of principals in their mediaries add value to the tourism product intra-channel negotiations with intermedi- they will gradually lose market share as aries. Increasingly, however, it becomes more consumers begin purchasing tourism evident that DICIRMSs will be unable to products directly from suppliers. provide long-term competitive advantages Travel intermediaries will need to for destinations unless constant innovation enhance their core competencies and con- accompanies their development and opera- centrate on their travel advisers’ role, tion, because most destinations will providing expertise and saving time for con- eventually utilize these systems. Instead sumers. In addition, they will be able to use DICIRMSs would be instrumental in assist- sophisticated IT tools both to enhance the ing destinations and SMTEs to avoid value of the tourism product and also to competitive disadvantages by rival regions reduce the cost for their clientele. These which utilize similar systems. In addition, trends are already evident in the business DICIRMSs would enable destinations and travel section, where the majority of agen- SMTEs to bridge their distance with con- cies offer their counselling service for a fee 60 Dimitrios Buhalis

rather than commissions on bookings. They strengths and weaknesses and develop their should also concentrate on the human ele- offerings to take advantage of the emerging ment, providing customized advice and IT opportunities. assistance. For leisure tourism, travel agencies will also be able to enhance their competitiveness by offering cost reductions Conclusions – IT Trends and through vertical integration and buying in Implications for Tourism bulk from tour operators and suppliers. Traditional travel agencies, therefore, The above analysis clearly demonstrates will need to re-assess the situation and that tourism marketing is constantly evolv- decide which market segment to concen- ing, taking advantage of emerging IT tools to trate on. Adequate equipment, training and empower tourism marketing and manage- service will be of paramount importance in ment by providing cost effective tools for order to maintain their competitiveness in organizations and destinations to target the long term. Travel agencies will need to appropriate market segments and to develop transform from booking offices to travel strategic tools. They also support the inter- managers and advisers, as well as to add activity between tourism enterprises and value to the travelling experience. Two stra- consumers and as a result they re-engineer tegic directions can therefore be followed: the entire process of developing, managing Travel agencies can either offer differentia- and marketing tourism products and desti- tion value, by designing high quality nations. It needs to be recognized that IT can personalized travel arrangements which contribute to both sides of the balance sheet consumers will be willing to pay a premium as both opportunities and threats emerge for, or they can offer cost value by delivering from their use. Therefore, a thorough and less expensive products than their competi- realistic cost and benefit analysis is required tors, through standardization, high volume by all tourism organizations in order to and consolidators. These two strategies will appreciate their position and the best action probably dominate travel agency offerings to take in order to enhance their compet- in the future. In addition, intermediaries can itiveness. develop their Internet interfaces and Several key trends drive the utilization of enhance their presence in the electronic IT in tourism. The availability of new and market. This is evident for a few companies more powerful IT tools empowers both sup- such as Thomas Cook or TUI who are re- pliers and destinations to improve their engineering their interfaces to enhance efficiency and re-engineer their communica- efficiency, maintain their clientele and tion strategies. Increasingly IT will provide enlarge their target markets internationally. the ‘info-structure’ for the entire industry Different market segments will use differ- and will take over all the mechanistic ent distribution channels for selecting and aspects of tourism transactions. As a result, purchasing their tourism products. For innovative tourism enterprises will have the example, people of an older generation and ability to divert their resources and expert- those who travel infrequently will probably ise into servicing their consumers and continue purchasing tourism products from providing higher value added in the transac- traditional travel agencies. However, busi- tions. Consumers will be much more ness and frequent travellers may use on-line sophisticated and experienced and there- providers to arrange their itineraries and fore they will be much more difficult to eventually purchase their tickets. This will please. However, the emerging new technol- depend on the security of Internet transac- ogies also pose threats for tourism tions; the reliability and quality of the enterprises. To the degree that location information available on the Internet; and becomes much less important, global com- the convenience of the entire process. It is petition will expand rapidly and only therefore critical for each travel intermedi- innovative and flexible organizations will ary to undertake a thorough analysis of their survive. In particular, SMTEs will need to Trends in Information Technology and Tourism 61

enhance their understanding of IT in order develop commitment in using these innova- to design and promote niche products, tive methods for communicating and increase their virtual size and compete with interacting. IT applications will generate a large and powerful competitors and partners paradigm shift in the tourism industry in the distribution channel. Travel interme- which will transform the best business prac- diaries, and in particular travel agencies and tices and redefine the role and the tour operators, are already threatened by competitiveness of all tourism enterprises disintermediation as principals develop and destinations. Hence, a thorough re- direct relationships with consumers and engineering of all business processes needs bypass them. This has led to commission to ensure that tourism organizations do not capping and the introduction of special simply automate, but that they redesign all offers being available directly to the public interfaces and interactions with stakehold- only by electronic means. Intermediaries ers. The emerging IT-based tools require will increasingly need to refocus their constant innovation, investment in human operations on the added value offered to resources and the development of a strategic consumers rather than the mechanistic provision and commitment. Intellect will be cedures of product searches and critical for the success of tourism enterprises reservations. and destinations and for their ability to Certain prerequisites are applicable for develop their competitiveness using IT in achieving success. Long-term planning and the new millennium. strategy as well as top management commitment will be needed to ensure that IT Acknowledgement developments are dealt with at the strategic planning and management level of tourism Several issues and ideas reported were dis- enterprises. A rational management and cussed during the IFITT workshop: Open marketing strategy needs to ensure that up to issues and challenges in tourism and IT, date IT tools are used, while investment in Workshop toward a White Paper in Tourism capable human resources should be a prior- and IT, Innsbruck, 21–22 September 1998 ity. Training throughout the business and during the ENTER conferences. For hierarchy will need to ensure not only that more information, access: all employees are competent users of the http://www.ifitt.org/ and emerging IT systems but that they can also http://www.ifitt.org/enter/

6 Race and Ethnicity in Leisure Studies

Ray Hutchison

Introduction trend reflected in research in leisure and recreation studies? There has been some The US population is more diverse now recognition of the significance of this change, than at any time in its history. Almost every- especially in studies commenting upon the one is aware of census projections changing demands for the management of suggesting that some time in the next two leisure and recreation in public parks and decades the number of people of African- recreation programmes and, to a lesser American, Hispanic/Latino-American, Asian- degree, in the management of other leisure American and Native American descent will and recreation programmes (museums, arbo- surpass the white population in the US. retums and the like). Just as managers of Despite widespread public concern and leisure and recreation facilities have focused often inflammatory political rhetoric, the on the potential impacts of a changing ethnic Bush administration twice passed legisla- and racial composition of their client pop- tion increasing the number of people ulation, it is reasonable to expect scholarship admitted as legal immigrants to the US each in leisure studies to stay abreast of current year – an important victory for the US Cham- important changes not only in the broader ber of Commerce and other business population groups that we study, but also interests. But it is important to note that with developments in complementary fields changes in racial and ethnic composition are which study these groups. affected more by demographic forces such as In this chapter, we examine how the family size and rate of natural population growing diversity of the US population is increases than by public policy. Even if reflected in current research. But this poses immigration from Mexico were halted another perhaps equally important ques- tomorrow, the Mexican-origin population in tion: How does research in leisure studies the US would still double in size over the reflect changes which have taken place in next two decades, easily surpassing the the field of race and ethnicity? This field has African-American population as the largest seen substantial growth over the last decade, minority group. Although numerically spurred by the development of new para- much smaller, the same demographic trends digms in response to the growing diversity would result in a doubling of the Asian- of American society. Two trends are evident American population as well. from even a cursory look at recent scholar- This surely is one of the most profound ship in the major journals: little attention demographic transitions in the nation’s his- has been given to changes in the ethnic com- tory. It is reasonable to ask, then, how is this position of the population, and current © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 63 64 Ray Hutchison

research has overlooked emerging theoret- major journals in the field (Journal of Leisure ical perspectives in race and ethnic relations Research, Journal of Park and Recreation (often described as a paradigm shift; see Omi Administration, Leisure Science and Society and Winant, 1994). and Natural Resources) over the last 10 years include fewer than 30 studies with a specific focus on race and ethnicity. This Recent Trends in Leisure and presents us with an average of less than one Recreation Studies study per year in each journal. In many of these studies, race and ethnicity is simply a Over the last decade there has been wide- residual category – an independent variable spread acknowledgement of the important that appears on a survey instrument without changes in the ethnic and racial composi- specific definition or discussion (as dis- tion of the US population, and of various cussed below, the ways in which ethnic and programmes to incorporate diversity into racial categories are created and the assign- academic programmes, scholarly research, ment of population groups to these the workplace and various public arenas categories is a major area of discussion in (such as participation in public recreation race and ethnic relations, but this topic is activities). But these changes have found given little attention in our research stud- only modest reflection in published studies. ies). Even with these studies included in the A review of studies of race and ethnicity in total, research trends cannot be said to leisure and recreation studies published in reflect the broader population changes tak- 1988 noted that: (i) there were few studies of ing place in society at large. This is not the leisure and recreation activities of differ- simply a matter of political correctness, as ent groups; (ii) most studies focused on some might presuppose, nor is there a magic differences between blacks and whites and number to signify that the research has mat- overlooked other (rapidly growing) ethnic ched population totals. Indeed, these sorts groups in the US population; and (iii) pub- of considerations serve only to trivialize the lished research did not reflect current importance of race and ethnicity within a scholarship in the field of race and ethnic multiracial society such as the US. More relations. In that review, Hutchison (1988, p. than any other area of study in the social 11) wrote that sciences, it is imperative that leisure and recreation studies recognize the meaning Problems of producing a coherent body of and significance of race and ethnicity in research are compounded by the lack of a everyday life, and in the everyday activities unified theoretical framework for of the many different ethnic and racial interpreting differences between whites, groups within our increasingly diverse blacks, and other ethnic minority groups. society. Most published studies utilize the marginality and ethnicity perspectives Most studies focus on differences between developed by Washburne [1978] which blacks and whites in the US population questions whether differences in participation are due to the cultural The emphasis on difference among ethnic characteristics of particular minority groups and racial groups may be traced back to the or to the social position they occupy in the assimilationist theory of Robert Park and the dominant society. Chicago School (Omi and Winant, 1994), which suggests that differences between What has changed over the last decade? ethnic groups and the dominant (white) culture will disappear as these groups are There continues to be little research on race assimilated into mainstream culture. and ethnicity within leisure studies Although this perspective has been thor- While the US population has become more oughly dismissed in race and ethnic studies diverse, this is not reflected in scholarship (as noted more than a decade ago; Hutch- in the field. The tables of contents for four ison, 1988), research studies continue to Race and Ethnicity in Leisure Studies 65

look for differences between the leisure and influence individual experiences with and recreation activities and preferences of attitudes toward various leisure and recrea- white and black groups. I recently reviewed tion activities. a manuscript which examined the meanings given to and preferences for the natural Studies continue to overlook other (rapidly environment, with multivariate analyses of growing) ethnic groups in the US variance among two sets of semantic differ- There is a small but growing body of ential measures for forest environment and research on Hispanic/Latino groups (see environmental setting preferences – in other Irwin et al., 1990; Carr and Williams, 1993), words, a typical study utilizing race as an but these remain few, and by and large they independent variable to explain differences suffer from many of the same problems iden- on various dependent measures. Across tified with studies of African Americans: twelve different measures, there were statis- ethnicity is usually simply a categorical des- tically significant differences among white, ignation which may not be related to the black and Hispanic respondents on only two outcomes being studied, and the basic measures. Still, the original title of the man- parameters of the research follow an assim- uscript was ‘Ethnic/racial differences ilationist model long discredited in race and among meanings and preferences . . . ’ (my ethnic relations. Research on other groups emphasis). I have reviewed many manu- such as Asian Americans is, for all practical scripts which retain similar titles despite the purposes, nonexistent. Ethnic differences authors’ research findings that there are few may in fact be greatest between these new differences in the activities of the groups immigrant populations and other groups, they compared. It is striking that contempor- and so we have missed an opportunity to ary research continues to emphasize examine important ethnic, racial and cul- differences among ethnic and racial groups tural influences on leisure and recreation even when the research suggests how few activity. differences exist among these groups (see Arnold and Shinew, 1998; Johnson and Published research does not reflect current Bowker, 1999). scholarship in race and ethnic relations Some studies have sought to apply a race/ Class-based theories following the work of class analysis of white–black behaviour, Wilson (1980) and others represent an based upon the work of William J. Wilson. In important advance over earlier studies The Declining Significance of Race, Wilson which seemed to assume that differences (1980) suggests that social class is a more should exist among individuals occupying important determinant of economic and different ethnic or racial categories. As social opportunity than is racial status per noted earlier, few leisure and recreation se. Because of common experiences in the studies have adopted this approach; many educational system and work environment, continue to assume that whites and blacks middle-class blacks (or Hispanics) are more (for example) occupy homogeneous social like middle-class whites (or Asians) than positions and any differences between they are like lower-class blacks. There is an groups can be explained by ethnic/racial/ analogy to the statistical theory that under- cultural differences among these groups. lies analysis of variance: the amount of But even this class-based theory does not variation within any particular ethnic/racial reflect current research in the field. As group is greater than the variance between described in Omi and Winant’s seminal groups. Race matters, but it is not the sole work, Racial Formation in the United determinant of attitudes or behaviour. States, theories of race and ethnicity have While there are important implications of gone through several paradigm shifts in the this class-based theory for leisure and last century, including the assimilationist recreation studies, few studies look at the paradigm of Robert Park and the Chicago intersections of race, ethnicity and social School and the class-based theory of W.J. class as these background variables might Wilson (Omi and Winant, 1994). Omi and 66 Ray Hutchison

Winant introduced a new theoretical para- are represented within the scholarly jour- digm based upon the process of racial nals is useful. Ironically, because of the formation, or the ways in which government paucity of attention given to this important policies and institutions serve to develop topic, it is possible to note virtually all such and then implement racial classifications. studies in just a few short pages. More recent work has introduced other As noted above, most leisure studies of paradigms, the most important of which is race and ethnicity include race simply as an variously labelled as ethnic identity, ethnic independent variable, in conceptual terms politics or ethnic representation. In this no different from other variables such as view, subordinated groups must resist their class, gender or place of residence. Race or positioning as ‘others’ or ‘minorities’ and ethnicity is determined by the respondents’ construct alternative identities as part of a self-identification or reported category. politics of position or opposition (M. Cruz, There is no effort to discover an intervening personal communication, 1999). This causal variable which might link this back- requires a theoretical base which challenges ground status with the preference or the hegemonic world view of the dominant behaviour being studied and there is no dis- society based upon an understanding of cussion of how the preference or behaviour shared social and cultural spaces and identi- might serve to reinforce the beliefs or values ties. The dominant culture, for example, of the ethnic subculture. Among the studies may portray minority communities as dis- that offer this sort of comparison between organized, and minority families as unable blacks and whites are Johnson and Bowker to provide the appropriate cultural tools for (1999), Bowker and Leeworthy (1998) and their children. The ethnic or racial commu- Murdock et al. (1991). Other studies extend nity needs to oppose these identities and this comparison to include Hispanics, and forge new identities which recognize the in these studies there is at least some effort role of local community structures and the to provide a measure of ‘cultural assimila- importance of family and kinship structures tion’ which might be linked the behaviour or within the community. Oboler’s (1995) preference being studied. Carr and Williams excellent study, Ethnic Labels, Latino Lives: (1993) and Shaull and Graham (1998) use a Identity and the Politics of (Re)Presentation measure of English language familiarity to in the United States, presents these issues in determine the level of cultural assimilation her study of the construction of Hispanic among their respondents. While this might ethnicity, including a discussion of the rise appear to be the intervening causal variable of the Chicano and Puerto Rican movements missing from studies of other populations, it in the 1960s (an effort to establish an ethnic takes the basic assumptions from the now identity different from that given by main- discredited assimilation model, which stream society), ethnic and class differences assumes that ethnic or racial minority pop- within the Latino community, and the ways ulations will change their beliefs, in which personal and social identities are preferences and behaviours as they become affected by the myth of Hispanic homoge- more like whites. Floyd et al. (1994, 1995) neity. The emergent racial theories form a use both race and ethnicity to explore lei- significant challenge to scholars who wish sure preferences. While this is presented to bring the importance of ethnic/racial dif- within the familiar ‘ethnicity versus margin- ferences into the study of everyday life. ality’ model, there is no measure of ethnic identification or discussion of how this would influence leisure preferences (in An Overview of Recent Research other words, if differences exist between Studies whites and blacks that are not explained by social class or marginality, then these differ- While the basic trends found in recent stud- ences must be due to ethnicity or race). ies have been noted above, looking at A number of studies examine attitudinal individual studies to see how these trends and preference structures of various ethnic Race and Ethnicity in Leisure Studies 67

communities, such as Jones’ (1998) discus- the respective country. While one could sion of African-American concern for the imagine a set of complementary studies here environment, Toth and Brown’s (1997) in the US (with studies of ecosystem man- study of racial differences in the meaning agement issues involving Native people give to recreational fishing, and Phil- Americans), many researchers seem to think lip’s (1998b) study of race, gender and such issues are relevant only when they leisure benefits. Although these studies deal involve aboriginal groups. In reality, we with a particular ethnic population and need to expand our current research by rec- often provide contrasts with other (usually ognizing the great diversity of ethnic and white) groups, they do little to explain how racial populations, and by identifying eth- race or ethnicity may be related to specific nic subcultures and values which are related attitudes or beliefs. There are no measures of to leisure and recreation preferences, activ- ethnic or racial identity to link attitude or ities, and the like. preference with ethnic background. One Most studies published over the last dec- group of studies which has produced a con- ade have assumed that the ethnic and racial sistent research finding involved groups studied will have different behav- environmental preferences for wilderness or iours (or preferences or beliefs) from the developed recreation settings. Dwyer and larger white population. It should be of Hutchison (1990) reported that African some importance, then, to note that rela- Americans prefer developed facilities while tively few studies have discovered whites preferred wilderness settings. Phillip systematic differences among groups: John- (1993) reported that whites ranked wilder- son et al. (1998) and Arnold and Shinew ness scenes as more attractive than blacks. (1998) found no differences between their Floyd et al. (1995) found that whites rated black and white respondents; Floyd et al. wildland activities higher than blacks. Irwin (1994) found no differences between et al. (1990) and Bass et al. (1993) reported middle-class white and black respondents; that Mexican Americans rated characteris- and Dargitz (1988) found no differences in tics of developed recreation settings (such as fishing activity between whites and blacks. parking spaces, picnic tables and toilets) While Busser et al. (1996) report differences more highly than did whites. While some in outdoor activity participation for black logical theoretical explanations have been and white adolescents, they do not discover advanced for these differences (members of differences for five other activity groupings, particular minority groups have not been including personal growth, arts, nontradi- socialized into wilderness activities in the tional sports/games, community activities same way as whites, for example), it is not at or sports activities. Phillip (1998b) does find all clear that these research findings are differences in the peer group approval for 10 related to specific ethnic or racial character- of 20 leisure activities by black and white istics, as opposed to the consequence of adolescents, but, even in what appears to be urban residence, lower rates of participation an unambiguous research finding, for half in wilderness programmes as adolescents, the activities studied there were no differ- or lack of opportunity due to work sched- ences. ules, holiday benefits and lower levels of Johnson and Bowker (1999) show no dif- family income. ferences in black–white consumption A limited number of studies have exam- activities (such as fishing and hunting), but ined the cultural values and beliefs of do discover differences in nonconsumption specific minority populations, such as Hill activities such as camping and hiking. et al.’s (1999) study of ecosystem manage- Apparently believing that all groups should ment issues involving aboriginal groups in be identical in their recreational pursuits, Queensland, and Langholz’ (1998) study of they conclude that managers need to attract rainforest use by Mayan Indians in Guate- more African Americans for forest-based mala. In each instance, the studies deal with outdoor recreation. Gobster (1998) provides ethnic or racial minority populations within a very different conclusion in his study of 68 Ray Hutchison

minority golfing. Indeed, this is one of the away from the earlier assimilation approach very few studies which breaks with the which suggested that minority groups dominant assimilationist paradigm which would, over time, take on the attitudes and views any differences between whites and behaviours of the dominant group. Wilson’s blacks (or other groups), with the obvious (1978) work suggested that many of the dif- policy implication that ethnic or racial ferences between white and black groups minorities should behave the same as may be due to social class rather than to race whites. Gobster’s interviews with 35 focus per se, and for much of the 1980s and 1990s groups in Chicago revealed that few African this interpretive framework was used in lei- Americans had ever participated in golf sure and recreation research (as in other (although the city has several black golf areas of the social sciences). At the begin- courses). He wisely suggests that the con- ning of the 21st century, however, the field cept of equity be explored by managers: that is confronted with another paradigm shift is, it may not be necessary to expect that which challenges earlier notions of the basic blacks (or Hispanics) will participate in the definitions of race and ethnicity. Identity same activities at the same level as whites. theory or identity politics argues that these Instead, managers should achieve an opti- are simply socially constructed categories mal mix of park and recreation programmes which reflect the interests of various groups and services; these programmes and servi- and dominant social institutions. ces will be likely to be different depending Although often presented as an opposi- on the group served. tional approach to the study of race and ethnic relations, there is a great deal of overlap among competing theories. Anthro- Implications pologists and sociologists have long argued that racial categories are not biologically In an earlier review of leisure–recreation determined, but instead are defined research on race, ethnicity and social class, in specific ways by different cultures. Hutchison (1988, p. 10) presented three rec- Clearly, various ethnic or racial groups ommendations for future research: (i) may accept or reject the definitions placed definitions of basic concepts such as race upon them by the dominant group. These and ethnicity must conform to their actions establish the basis for furthering accepted meanings in race and ethnic rela- group identity, organizing political power tions; (ii) ethnic differences must be and demanding recognition of group inter- demonstrated by intervening measures of ests. It may make more sense to view ethnic subculture; and (iii) future research theoretical developments in the field on a must be expanded to consider the activities continuum which expands our understand- of other (white and nonwhite) ethnic sub- ing of the various meanings of race and groups. Given the increasing diversity of ethnicity in contemporary society, rather ethnic and racial populations within the US than necessarily competing or oppositional and the continuing paradigm shift in the theories. study of race and ethnic relations, these Having said this, these theoretical devel- seem reasonable and useful recommenda- opments clearly create a serious challenge tions even with the hindsight of some for applied areas of study such as leisure and 10 years. How can our continuing research recreation research. How are we to define on race and ethnicity meet these goals? and operationalize race and ethnicity in our research if these are categories which are Definitions of basic concepts such as race simply constructed by government agencies and ethnicity must conform to their accepted or utilized by the groups themselves for eth- meanings in race and ethnic relations nic mobilization – neither of which As described above, there has been an necessarily reflects the way in which ethnic important paradigm shift in the study of race and racial identities and subcultural values and ethnic relations. This shift has been and beliefs might actually influence behav- Race and Ethnicity in Leisure Studies 69

iour? Our research cannot simply ignore the other hand, includes a variety of studies these important theoretical developments; which look at the ethnic/racial identity of whether we use government data which has groups and individuals, asking the degree to defined ethnic/racial categories in certain which groups in fact have identifiable differ- racialized ways (Omi and Winant, 1994) or ences and whether individuals identify with use survey data where we have asked res- the larger group identity. These studies pondents to indicate their ethnic or racial would suggest that ethnic and racial identity background, we have placed ourselves in exists more on a continuum than as a dis- the midst of a fascinating and continuing crete category; some African Americans, for debate. Leisure and recreation studies example, identify strongly with an African which use race or ethnic background as cultural heritage while others do not. independent variables to explain differen- (Although identification with a particular ces among groups must include a discussion ethnic heritage may not in fact mean these of this new paradigm. Studies which utilize individuals would behave any differently census definitions and census data must from someone who rejects this ethnic herit- acknowledge that the results are limited by age.) In other words, observed differences racial formulations constructed by domi- among ethnic or racial groups should not be nant social institutions (government attributed to their ethnic background unless agencies such as the census bureau, state we have first identified an intervening meas- and federal courts which are called upon to ure of ethnic subculture. authenticate racial identities, schools which While measures of assimilation have assign students to specific racial categories, been used in several studies comparing the and park managers who design programmes activity of Hispanic groups (Shaull and Gra- around the assumed preferences of different mann, 1998), even these are at odds with ethnic or racial groups). Most importantly, broader developments in race and ethnic there is no reason to believe prima facia that relations, where references to ‘assimilation’ these racial categories have any direct asso- were replaced by ‘acculturation’ more than ciation with individual preferences or with two decades ago. Once again, this is not leisure or recreation behaviour. simply a matter of meaningless semantics or political correctness. Assimilation privile- Ethnic differences must be demonstrated by ges the position of the dominant group by intervening measures of ethnic subculture assuming that other (minority) groups wish The typical study compares the leisure and to and eventually will become indistin- recreation activities of different ethnic and guishable from the white population, while racial groups, and then controls for social acculturation assumes that ethnic popula- class and other background variables before tions may adapt and change some aspects of pronouncing whether the observed differ- the dominant culture while rejecting others. ences are due to marginality (social class), It is important to note that these intervening ethnicity (racial or ethnic background) or measures of acculturation have been used in some combination of the two. We must rec- studies of Hispanics, but not for African ognize that, in most instances, this is a Americans and other groups, where scholars reductionist approach, and probably a dang- still seem to assume that membership in a erous one at that. If observed differences particular ethnic or racial group determines between groups cannot be explained by vari- one’s behaviour and values. ous background differences, we then These examples also demonstrate the assume the differences are due to the racial truncated understanding of race and differ- or ethnic backgrounds reflected in the categ- ence in the US. As noted above, studies of ories to which groups have been assigned leisure behaviour in Great Britain have (these are the categories which have been looked at how leisure and recreation define constructed by the racial formulations of the and structure racial identities and racial dominant culture). interaction – a very different understanding Research in race and ethnic relations, on of race from that found in studies in the US. 70 Ray Hutchison

One of the few studies published in the US matter of political correctness, but instead a which makes use of this broader construc- powerful recognition of the diversity of tion of the ways in which leisure activities American society. The current research interact with and reinforce ethnic and racial agenda in leisure and recreation studies identity is Bialeschki and Walbert’s (1998) reinforces the mistaken idea that the US is a historical study of Southern women textile society of white and black, and that African workers in the pre-war years. There is con- Americans and other ethnic and racial siderable room for considering the ways that minorities must identify with and partici- leisure and recreation activities may define pate in the same activities as whites to or reinforce ethnic identities: urban parks in achieve cultural assimilation. Seen in this many cities include bocce ball courts, a light, our research remains decades behind common recreational activity among first the paradigm shift and cultural understand- and second generation Italian immigrants; ing of the parent field. soccer leagues are often organized around specific ethnic groups (such as the Central and South American [CASA] soccer league A Concluding Note in Chicago); and participation in dance classes and competitions allows individuals to The Kemer Commission Report highlighted lay claim to and reinforce ethnic identities the lack of recreational opportunities for (whether Irish clogging and folk dancing or young adults in central cities as a contribut- African dance and drumming). ing factor in the race riots that swept across the urban landscape in 1964 and again in Future research must be expanded to 1968. It is probably fortunate that our schol- consider the activities of other (white and arly work does not have the same effect on nonwhite) ethnic subgroups individual or group behaviour, because the Within the broad field of leisure and recrea- lack of research on this topic is just as glar- tion studies, the attitudes and behaviours of ing as the (continued) lack of opportunity various ethnic and race groups is barely a for inner city youth. Just as in the broader blip on the radar screen. As noted above, society, our discipline requires a new com- over the last decade there has been an aver- mitment to better describe and understand age of one study each year published in the the leisure worlds and recreation activities major journals – a very disappointing com- of the many different groups that now are mentary on the field given the increased part of the American mosaic. diversity of American society. This diversity For people interested in the broader suggests the need for studies of leisure and meaning of race and ethnicity for leisure recreation activity among new ethnic com- studies, one of the more fascinating areas of munities – such as the 250,000 Filipinos study within the burgeoning (or bursting) living in the Chicago metropolitan commu- area of cultural studies is that of museum nity, the 300,000 Salvadorans living in the studies and tourism – particularly the crit- Los Angeles area and the 250,000 persons ical analysis of how race and ethnicity may from the Dominican Republic living in the be used to market particular groups for con- New York metropolitan area. Each of these sumption as museum or tourist oddities. groups have very different ethnic heritages This often requires the sanitization of the and, one might believe, very different lei- actual lived experiences of the ethnic or sure and recreation activities. Perhaps these racial minority. In Hawaii, former sugar activities have comparable meanings and plantations – the site of labour exploitation outcomes for each group – that in itself of Japanese workers paralleling the slave would be a major research finding – or it may plantations of the Old South – have been be that these activities serve very different converted to luxury resort theme parks for purposes within their local cultures. Again, Japanese tourists; and at Charleston, South expanding our research agenda to include Carolina, the old slave auction house has new immigrant populations is not simply a been restored and has become a focal point Race and Ethnicity in Leisure Studies 71

for both white and black tourists. Hollins- tourists, who are used to thinking of Native head (1998) notes that because tourism is Americans and American Indian culture in based upon constructions of ‘difference’ and the past tense, ‘traditional’ arts and crafts are ‘the other,’ and is important for scholars to revived and marketed. Tourists are encour- discover the ethnocentric views of people, aged to participate and help fund this ethnic places and historical pasts which are pre- revival by purchasing objects to display in sented in everyday performative activities. their homes. This process also acts to rein- Waitt (1999) studies how Australia’s indige- force the ethnic culture (Native American nous people have been marketed as artists and craftspeople can continue to pro- ‘hunter-gatherers’ for the tourist industry, duce these cultural objects) and may also reinforcing the racial stereotypes of Euro- help Indian tribes to preserve their culture pean as well as Asian tourists. A similar (the proceeds may be used to fund tribal analysis could be carried out in the Twelve schools which teach the native language to Pueblos area of New Mexico as well as other younger members). In such ways leisure and Indian reservations in the US. Such a study recreation behaviours are inﬂuenced by, and of tourism (a common leisure behaviour) is reinforce, ethnic and racial difference. It is relevant to the study of race and ethnic rela- to this broader understanding of the inter- tions in several respects, and here we can action and inﬂuence of race and ethnicity in see how cultural analysis moves beyond the everyday life experience – not simply as simple categorization of respondents within categories for multivariate analysis – that racial categories: in order to attract white leisure studies must aspire.

Part II Resources: What Exists and How Did We Reach This Point

7 Trends in Outdoor Recreation Supply on Public and Private Lands in the US

H. Ken Cordell and Carter J. Betz

The vast majority of the research pertaining country, land and water were exploited for to outdoor recreation trends in the US whatever profit or power they would yield. addresses the demand or use side of the They were not viewed as aesthetic resources picture. This makes it very difficult to track or recreation opportunities. They were supply trends when planning for future pro- viewed as commercial and industrial oppor- grammes or investments. This chapter tunities, as a direct means for subsistence, attempts to bring a little balance to this often and sometimes even as obstacles to growth, one-sided picture of the outdoor recreation development and progress. At the turn of the situation in the US. Provided here is an up- 20th century, however, this exploitive view to-date national summary of the current of natural resources began to change. Those status and recent trends in outdoor recrea- among the rising leisure class began to see tion supply. It is based primarily on the just natural land and water as amenities. Cities released Renewable Resources Planning Act began to provide playgrounds, parks and (RPA) Assessment in which the US Depart- limited leisure services. Train and automo- ment of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service bile tours of ‘wilderness’ areas were provided a comprehensive national assess- privately provided for the wealthy (Dou- ment of outdoor recreation demand and glass, 1999). Resorts and private summer or supply trends. This recent assessment was ski retreats for the very wealthy were being published under the title, Outdoor Recrea- developed at a rapid pace. But in the first tion in American Life (Cordell, 1999). A half of the 20th century, America was still number of other sources were also consulted mostly rural and agrarian. Many among its to meet specific needs for information and working class had little interest in recreating these will be referenced where they are used in the same out-of-doors where they had just in this chapter. been labouring. Many early federal and state initiatives to establish systems of public lands were not A Brief History of Recreation Supply motivated by causes or concerns about pro- in the US viding sufficient outdoor recreation opportunities for their citizenry. For exam- The US has been blessed with abundant ple, the establishment of the National Park land and water, and generally a richness of System was motivated mostly by a desire to natural resources. In the early years of this protect the resources of these areas, not by a © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 75 76 H. Ken Cordell and Carter J. Betz

perception that people needed a place for 1980s, legislation at the federal level and hiking and taking photographs. National for- expansion of park and recreation systems at ests were established mostly to assure a the state and local levels fed growth of the future reserve of timber, not by a need for public outdoor recreation supply system of scenic drives and places to camp. And so it the US (see Siehl, Chapter 8 for more was with most public land initiatives in the details). In addition to the establishment of first half of the century. It was at the local systems of protected and multiple-use and state government levels that a move- lands, new legislation covering the man- ment emerged to establish a system of parks dates of federal agencies, such as the USDA and recreation areas to meet people’s needs Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Man- for recreation space and facilities. It also agement (BLM), included language took the post-World War II economic boom explicitly adding to these agencies’ man- and a cadre of enlightened parks and recrea- dates responsibilities for providing public tion champions to move the country firmly recreation opportunities. into an era in which supplying outdoor As all this was happening in the public recreation opportunities was seen as one of sector, the private sector was undergoing an the legitimate and important uses for the undreamed of expansion along a broad array country’s natural resources, urban and of venues in response to the ever-expanding rural. US economy. From an early emphasis on The importance of outdoor recreation in resorts and tours, private sector services, the American lifestyle grew tremendously facilities and areas for outdoor recreation throughout the 1950s. Noting this rapid have expanded to include water parks, guid- increase in importance and the growing ing and outfitting services, cruises into strains on the nation’s outdoor spaces and waters previously considered wilderness, facilities, the 85th Congress established the scenic overflights and a vast array of outdoor Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Com- equipment and clothing. mission (ORRRC) in 1958 to assess the In the limited space afforded, this chapter upsurge in interest in outdoor recreation will attempt to examine briefly recent trends and report back its observations and recom- in outdoor recreation supply, i.e. since the mendations. This first national, landmark late 1980s, when the previous national RPA assessment of outdoor recreation triggered assessment was done. Federal, state, local unparalleled expansions in both public and and private sector trends will be covered. private recreation resources. Among the fed- This examination will show that tremen- eral expansions that occurred throughout dous advances in the US supply of outdoor the 1960s and 1970s were the establishment recreation have occurred. The momentum of the National Wilderness Preservation begun in the 1950s, and accelerated by the System, the National Trails System, the ORRRC in 1960, is shown to be continuing, National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, although also changing. National Recreation Areas and other national systems. As well, a highly significant piece of legislation was passed to Methods and Data provide funding for outdoor recreation, the Land and Water Conservation Fund Describing the supply situation in the US, (LWCF). Most of the funds authorized under and doing justice to its vastness and diver- the LWCF were targeted to become matching sity, requires large amounts of data from grants to state and local governments. The innumerable sources, public and private. To effects of these grants were tremendous and accomplish this description for the RPA can never be fully measured because the Assessment demanded of the USDA Forest ‘seed-funding’ effect provided by the LWCF Service, the acquisition of data and informa- reached far beyond the direct recipients of tion from identifiable private and public grants. sources must be ongoing. We have devel- Throughout the 1960s, 1970s and into the oped such an ongoing data system called the Trends in Outdoor Recreation Supply 77

National Outdoor Recreation Supply Infor- section to this chapter, we report the results mation System (NORSIS). NORSIS is of an analysis of trends in supply indices primarily a secondary source data system that represents a composite of both public that includes enumeration of more than 400 and private supply measures. These compo- supply elements from a large number of sec- site supply indices were developed by ondary sources (Betz and Cordell, 1998). running principal components factor analy- County-scale data were the target for NOR- sis across the 400 NORSIS variables to SIS, but where county-scale data were not identify the individual NORSIS variables available, credible sources at any available which loaded most heavily on each factor level (e.g. state, regional or national) were (Betz et al., 1999). used. NORSIS includes federal, state, local and private sector data. Federal land and water All data were cross-referenced to other First, we describe the supply situation in the sources for validation wherever possible. federal sector. Historically, nearly all federal Most errors in secondary sources are unde- land and water have been open for public tectable, however, and the data must be outdoor recreation. Accessibility, however, accepted as acquired. As well, some pre- varies through the presence of roads or other viously available sources covering specific access facilities, the permissibility of cross- supply elements are no longer maintained ing adjacent private lands to get to the public by the source organizations or governmental properties, availability of information for agencies. This will no doubt be an increas- the potential public user and proximity to ing problem in future supply assessments population centres. As noted by ORRRC, where funding typically limits the assess- there is a significant spatial disparity ment effort to the use of secondary sources. between the regional location of federal land The one exception to relying on second- and the regional residence of most of the US ary supply data sources in the RPA population (Fig. 7.1). Although the popula- assessment is the National Private Land tion in the West is projected to grow faster Owners Survey (NPLOS). NPLOS is an origi- than in the East, most federal land will still nal data source in that it is extracted from a be remote for most of the US population. mail survey conducted by the authors coop- There are seven primary federal resource eratively with the University of Georgia of a managing agencies that either directly pro- national sample of private owners of land in vide outdoor recreation opportunities or tracts of 4 or more ha. These data describe indirectly offer them through lease arrange- owner and nonowner recreational access to ments with state, local or nongovernmental private rural lands across the country (Teas- providers. Among these, the two with the ley et al., 1999). largest total surface area are the USDA For- est Service (Department of Agriculture, 77.5 million ha) and the BLM (Department of the Supply Trends Interior, 108.3 million ha). Together these agencies manage more than two-thirds of the In this section on current supply and supply 263.9 million ha of federal land and water. trends, we include both rural and urban Both agencies operate under a philosophy of outdoor recreation supply and all three lev- multiple-use management and both have els of government – federal, state and local. vast tracts of undeveloped land, some very As well, up to the limits of secondary data remote from population or access. In addi- availability, we also cover the private sector, tion, these agencies provide thousands of with focused coverage of private rural lands developed recreation sites, with the USDA in a separate subsection. The general Forest Service providing by far the most approach is to first describe the overall cur- such sites. The next largest agencies are the rent supply for each of the public and National Park Service (NPS) (33.7 million private sectors we cover, and then identify ha) and Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) salient trends in these sectors. In the final (36.6 million ha, both in the Department of 78 H. Ken Cordell and Carter J. Betz

Fig. 7.1. Proportion of US county land area in Federal ownership. Source: 1992 National Resources Inventory, USDA-NRCS. the Interior). These Interior agencies seek to entirely in the South along the Tennessee balance resource protection with public River and its tributaries. recreation use. For both of them, resource Two other federal recreation providers protection is the overriding priority. Visitor are the Department of Defense (with land ‘enjoyment’ is an explicit part of the NPS area estimated at 10.1 million ha) and native mission at the 375 managed units and afﬁli- Indian lands (estimated at about 22.3 mil- ated areas. The FWS manages more than 500 lion ha). Military base lands are managed for National Wildlife Refuges, many of which recreation by base residents for the most are not open for public use. Public use at part, but numbers of them offer broader pub- refuges must meet a standard of ‘compatibil- lic access. Tribal lands are administered and ity’ with habitat and wildlife conservation managed for recreation and other uses with management. assistance from the Bureau of Indian Affairs The US Army Corps of Engineers (Depart- (Department of the Interior). Public access ment of the Army, 4.7 million ha), Bureau of and opportunities vary with each individual Reclamation (BoR) (Department of the Inte- military installation and tribal reserve rior, 2.6 million ha), and Tennessee Valley depending on the primary uses and govern- Authority (TVA) (Independent, 476,835 ha) ance of those areas. are commonly referred to as the big three A highly signiﬁcant aspect of the federal federal water-resource agencies. Each pri- supply of outdoor recreation is the systems marily manages reservoirs and other water of designated areas managed by several fed- development projects (such as lock and dam eral agencies. The Congress has constantly systems) on which water-based recreation is been adding hectares and kilometres to allowed. For the most part, these projects are these systems of designated federal recrea- nearer population centres than many other tion areas. Below are shown the existing federal properties. The projects of the BoR total hectares or kilometres in these systems are in western states and TVA projects are and the percentage increases since 1987: Trends in Outdoor Recreation Supply 79

● National Wilderness System 41.9 mil- growing number and magnitude of federal, lion ha (15.5%) state, local and private coalitions as a new ● National Recreation Areas 2.8 million and refreshing way of addressing important ha (10.7%) outdoor recreation supply issues. Budget ● National Recreation Trails 16.1 thou- trends in federal agencies indicate clearly sand km (14.0%) that appreciable growth in appropriated ● National Wild and Scenic Rivers 17.4 funds for agency-only management of the thousand km (40.5%) federal estate is highly unlikely. The recent implementation of fee programmes for Two important new programmes that administration to visitors at federal sites is illustrate a trend towards improving the way never likely to produce enough revenue to the federal system provides opportunities address the ever rising number of issues and for outdoor recreation are the Scenic needs on the 263.8 million ha of federal Byways and Watchable Wildlife pro- land. In the authors’ opinion, collaboration grammes. Undertaken as partnerships, these with each partner contributing whatever it schemes involve a variety of federal, state, can in the best way it can for the ‘larger local and private collaborators and are cause’ will be one of the most effective strat- essentially umbrella programmes that egies for continuing a sustainable supply of embrace numerous scenic driving and wild- recreation opportunities on federal lands. life viewing opportunities. The genesis of Overall, trends in the federal system of both programmes was heavily influenced by recreation supply have been mixed over the recommendations from the President’s last 10–12 years. Most of the agencies have Commission on Americans Outdoors in the experienced constant to slightly decreasing mid-1980s. Since the late 1980s when the current dollar budgets appropriated by Con- National Scenic Byway programme was gress for recreation acquisition and started by the Federal Highway Administra- management. Even for those experiencing tion, more than two dozen states have either increases, more funding has not turned begun or enhanced their scenic roads pro- around the shrinking amounts of funding grammes. Federal agencies have designated ending up at the lowest-level administrative many scenic byways involving roads pass- units where the actual resource and ing at least partly through their lands. recreation-use management occurs. For the A 1990 memorandum of understanding, USDA Forest Service, for example, that coordinated by Defenders of Wildlife and would be at the ranger district level. These involving 15 federal, state and nongovern- lower levels of ‘on-the-ground’ funding have mental groups, identified a coalition of been the result of higher costs and higher organizations for engagement in the national administrative assessments at the Washing- watchable wildlife movement. The goal of ton and regional levels of most agencies. watchable wildlife programmes is to Accompanying level-to-decreasing budg- increase public awareness, appreciation and ets have been reductions in professional support for wildlife. The principal elements staffing for recreation, some closures of field for making the scheme work include estab- offices and an increase in the number of lishment of: (i) a network of nature (wildlife, ‘hats’ worn by a reduced number of staff. To bird, fisheries and wildflower) viewing sites; compensate, agencies are increasingly rely- (ii) a universal viewing site signing system ing on volunteers to carry out day-to-day site (with the ‘binocular’ logo); and (iii) a series maintenance and customer interface activ- of watchable wildlife viewing guide books. ities. As well, agencies are rapidly Central to this programme is education expanding the application of various fee through interpretive signing, guide books, structures in an attempt to generate greater festivals, walks, ranger talks and other revenues as one way of addressing rising approaches. management and maintenance costs. Cur- The Scenic Byway and Watchable Wild- rently, most of the federal land management life programmes are representative of the agencies are piloting much expanded fee 80 H. Ken Cordell and Carter J. Betz

structures under special authorization from State government land and water the Congress. This movement into expanded States provide important components of the fees for federal recreation sites had been overall supply of outdoor recreation oppor- strongly resisted by the Congress for many tunities in this country. States provide state years. And, as noted in the discussion above parks, state forests, recreation areas, natural regarding the Scenic Byway and Watchable areas, scenic drives, historic areas and envi- Wildlife programmes, federal agencies are ronmental education sites. Nationwide, increasingly seeking more partnerships state government ownership includes a total with state and local governments and with of about 4.8 million ha and includes 5543 private organizations and corporations in an areas, 90% of which are typically open for attempt to share the costs and responsibili- public recreation use at any one time. ties associated with recreation and other Two-thirds of the overall area in state resource management mandates. A look at ownership is in state park systems (3.2 mil- budget actions on the parts of both the lion ha). Although there are relatively large administration and the Congress show that undeveloped areas within some of these unchanging or shrinking budgets are likely state parks, most of them are no more than to continue for the federal recreation man- 40–80 ha in size and are much more devel- agement agencies over the next few years. oped than are federal lands. State parks are Coping strategies are emerging and some are also typically much closer to populated very encouraging. However, the future with- areas than are the federal lands. The state out sound financial backing is an uncertain parks are distributed much like the coun- one. try’s population, except for states in the Great Plains Region. Adjacent private land as a barrier to access to State forests are also significant contribu- federal land tors to the overall state recreation resource Increasingly, changing ownership and (around 20.2 million ha). State forests are owner objectives for private land adjacent to usually managed by a state forest agency, federal lands is becoming an access issue typically a forestry commission, and have a (Peterson and Williams, 1999). More and politically appointed administrative head more, landowners are closing historic access referred to as a state forester. State forests roads and sites at federal boundaries. usually have more undeveloped area within Around the beginning of the 1990s, approx- their boundaries and by definition, the most imately 14% of the 186.2 million ha of prominent type of land cover is forest. The forests, grasslands and deserts administered National Association of State Foresters by the USDA Forest Service and the BLM report that only 23 of the 50 state forest lacked adequate public access as a direct systems nationwide are in states with an result of adjacent private land access clo- officially recognized recreation programme sures. Many previously maintained county within the state forest agency. In these 23 roads and open private back roads have been states, the state forests are managed for gated or obliterated making them impassa- recreation use as well as for other uses such ble. It appears that the percentage of federal as tree seed production and plantation for- land having inadequate access is likely to estry. increase as land ownership goes from tradi- State fish and wildlife areas are a third tional ranching uses to private residence, major type of state-managed natural resour- resort or commercial uses. Recent data ces. Like state forests, these areas are usually reported by the General Accounting Office managed by a separate fish and game confirm that this trend toward loss of access agency, typically with a commission admin- to federal properties across private lands is istrative structure. Fish and game areas indeed continuing. Agency programmes to provide mostly primitive facilities and dis- purchase or lease access rights across pri- persed forms of recreation, usually with an vate properties are having only limited emphasis on hunting and fishing opportun- beneficial effects. ities. A current national inventory of fish Trends in Outdoor Recreation Supply 81

and game land does not exist, but the 1980 variety of services and access. From 1975 to RPA Assessment estimated 3.6 million ha 1995, for example, state park system reven- and the 1989 RPA Assessment estimated 5.7 ues nationwide increased 364% and the million ha (Cordell et al., 1990). This total proportion of their operating costs covered area has no doubt increased since 1989. A by on-site revenues increased from 35 to recent article in the Los Angeles Times 43%. During this same period, legislatively noted that fish and wildlife land in Cal- appropriated funding for state parks has ifornia had tripled since 1970, and the risen only 286%. A concern among pro- current amount in that state alone is around fessionals within the state systems is 334,000 ha. Thirty-two states also have river whether or not lower-income people are protection programmes, protecting a being priced out by rising fees and thus may national total of about 21.7 thousand km of stop using state parks and other state lands. rivers from development or other exploita- In addition to a much expanded emphasis tion. on increasing revenues, state systems are The distribution of state recreation land also looking at peripheral commercial and water much more closely matches the opportunities external to the parks, partner- distribution of population than do federal ships for cost sharing and marketing to recreation properties. In this way, the fed- increase visits as ways to raise more revenue eral and state systems are highly and reduce costs. complementary. Like the federal system, the trends for state recreation land and water Local have mostly shown growth. All categories of Outdoor recreation sites and local parks are state recreation land and water have been major components of the leisure opportun- growing in total area throughout the 1990s. ities provided by municipal, county and There has been a 32% increase totalling special district local governments. At the 1267 new state areas available for recreation local level, outdoor opportunities tend to be and adding almost 344,000 ha across the 50 much more developed and management states. With this expansion in areas, states more user oriented, as contrasted with fed- generally are moving toward more year- eral or state lands which tend to be more round operation of their areas for day use, undeveloped and nature oriented. Typical camping, cabin rentals and resort holidays. local outdoor sites include parks, trails, ath- Lodges associated with the resorts and the letic fields, golf courses, tennis courts, revenue potential they offer have been exercise areas and playgrounds. Often, local expanding faster than most other compo- sites and facilities are within the neighbour- nents of state systems. Most of this hoods whose citizens they serve, thus being expansion has occurred in state parks. In the far more accessible to a wider range of users 1990s there has been a 31% expansion in than state or federal lands. state lodges, bringing the number to more Many local parks are known for their than 110 in 26 of the 50 states. A conse- passive areas and open space which provide quence of the movement of state systems to opportunities for a variety of recreational more year-round operating seasons and an activities. Local areas often focus on features elevation of the number and quality of facili- such as lakes, jogging/cycling trails, hiking/ ties and services provided is likely to have a equestrian trails, beach areas, cross country substantial impact on the make-up of state skiing/snowmobiling trails and sometimes park clientele in the next few years. amusement rides or athletic tracks. A 1993 Also like their federal cousins, state land study identified more than 4500 local gov- and water systems are increasingly facing ernment recreation agencies, about funding crises (Landrum, 1999). Unlike the three-quarters of which were municipal federal systems, however, there was little departments, 19% of which were county reluctance on the part of legislative bodies to agencies and about 7% were Special Recrea- permit and even encourage greater self- tion Districts (Beeler, 1999). sufficiency by charging more for a wider Greenways are a highly significant con- 82 H. Ken Cordell and Carter J. Betz

tribution that local government makes, Private sector especially in urban areas where green space By all indications, the private sector is is often scarce. Greenways are typically lin- rapidly expanding in many ways its role as a ear parks, often following stream courses, supplier of outdoor recreation goods, ser- that provide a variety of recreation oppor- vices, travel and sites in the US. However, tunities, while at the same time serving data describing the private sector are diffi- resource conservation purposes. Greenways cult to obtain, making this sector the one are often the result of collaborative initia- about which we know the least. Proprietary tives that have widespread grassroots data, unkept data about small businesses support among citizens, local government and the absence of systematic database and local organizations. A 1995 estimate development are among the factors making showed more than 500 ‘current’ developing it is so difficult to paint a comprehensive greenway projects in the US and more than national picture of trends in private supply. 5000 existing greenways (Searns, 1995). From the variety of sources available, how- Like federal and state systems, municipal ever, we have pieced together a reasonably and county systems are experiencing finan- sound description of some trends in private cial pressures. Finances for both capital supply. improvements and operations are increas- First, we examine trends in privately sup- ingly difficult to obtain. Many local systems plied camping grounds in the US. The are inadequately funded to acquire land, source is Woodall’s national campground develop new facilities and renovate existing directory. In 1987, there were 8062 private facilities. Many local systems face inade- campgrounds in Woodall’s listing. In 1996, quate funding for administrative and this same directory with apparently no programme staffing and for operating and change in the criteria for listing showed only maintaining areas and facilities, especially 6900 private campgrounds, a decrease of the newer ones. Often local governing bod- 15%. Individual campsites decreased from ies provide capital improvement funding for approximately 984,000 to 812,000 during new projects without sufficient ongoing this period. In contrast, downhill ski areas funding to care for these new projects. More increased between 1987 and 1996. From 384 immediately than the federal or state sys- in 1987 there was a rise of 65 new areas with tems, local recreation systems directly accompanying increases in lift capacity of experience the outcomes of changes of 38%. Cross country skiing areas increased social conditions and behaviours. Crime 51% from 421 to 636 in this same period. and violence are among these changes and Other trends are shown below and illus- are increasingly a characteristic of urban trate a mixed trend pattern: life. Often, local parks are places where deviant acts are carried out, including van- ● dalism and assault. Marinas 15.2% מ ● Generally, local government park and Boat rentals 0.6% ● recreation system expansions have been Bicycle rentals and retail outlets favouring athletic fields, ball courts, passive 69.3% מ ● recreation spaces and parks. Much less Organized camps 22.1% ● emphasis in this expansion has been put on Golf courses 39.2% ● recreation centres and water sites. The Outfitters and guide services 48.0% expansions in the parks ‘half’ of the local park and recreation systems have specifi- Another indication of activity and cally emphasized the addition of trails, growth by the private sector is trends in conservation areas, open space, play- sales. Based on Consumer Expenditure Sur- grounds and more green space (Beeler, veys done by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1999). US consumer spending between 1985 and 1997 increased strongly (see below). The heaviest growth was in women’s active Trends in Outdoor Recreation Supply 83

wear, girl’s active wear, fees for recreational est Service and the Agricultural and lessons, out of town trips, athletic gear and Applied Economics Department of the Uni- camping equipment. versity of Georgia was undertaken to assess outdoor recreation trends on private rural ● 1985 US$27.4 billion lands (Teasley et al., 1999). The focus of the ● 1987 US$28.2 billion NPLOS was on landowner preferences and ● 1990 US$34.1 billion attitudes related to permitting public access. ● 1993 US$36.3 billion The range of tract sizes studied in the ● 1997 US$48.4 billion NPLOS was from 4000 to over 16,000 ha. Rural landowners use a variety of ways to Based on the household survey conduc- earn income from their land, including graz- ted for the National Sporting Goods ing cattle, sharecropping and leasing to Association (NSGA, 1999), the following outside interests. Protecting their land is of trends in spending for recreational equip- great importance and one way of doing this ment, footwear, clothing and transportation is through posting (a legal statement printed (bicycles, boats, recreational vehicles and on signs ‘No Trespassing’). Approximately snowmobiles) have occurred since 1989: 40% of landowners post their property, and ● 1989 US$50.9 billion on tracts where posting occurs, the average ● 1991 US$49.8 billion area enclosed is 80.9 ha. Among the prob- ● 1993 US$51.9 billion lems landowners have experienced and ● 1995 US$59.8 billion which may have led them to institute post- ● 1997 US$67.3 billion ing were destruction of property, littering, ● 1999 US$71.3 billion (projected) poaching and disruption of privacy. Land- owners said they began posting so they These estimates are larger than those would know who was on their property and reported above by the Bureau of Labor Sta- when, to prevent damage to property and tistics because they include all sports livestock, and to be safe. Close to 80% of the equipment, indoor and outdoor. The land leased to clubs or individuals for Bureau’s trends show an average annual recreation was posted, either by the club or growth rate of 6.4% while the household by the landowner. Ninety-eight percent of survey for the NSGA shows an average rate landowners said they would post the same of 4.0%. As the demand for outdoor or more of their land in the future. recreation experiences rises, mostly on pub- One-third of rural landowners said that lic lands and sites, so too do spending and portions of their tract were completely revenues in the private sector. Particularly closed to everyone outside their own house- strong has been spending for recreational hold or family. More than 70% reported that transport, which grew from US$16.4 billion they engage in recreational activities them- in 1989 to US$25.5 billion in 1999 (pro- selves on their land and almost 50% said jected). This is an average annual growth they had allowed access to people they rate of 5.5%. Driving this growth in the last knew, but who are outside their family. few years was sales of recreational vehicles. However, only 15% of rural landowners Other recent strong growth categories said that some of their land is open without included snowboards (up 21% from 1997 to restrictions for recreation uses by outside 1998), ﬁshing clothing (17%) and people, whether they know them or not. On camping/backpacking clothing (14%). average, the total number of different people landowners reported as having used their land was 14 per year. The types of recrea- Trends in Access to Privately Owned tional activities pursued on private land are Rural Lands varied. Hunting, ﬁshing, hiking and camping were the top activities listed by owners. In 1995/96, a cooperative study between the Most landowners reported that they have Southern Research Station of the USDA For- not changed their attitude or approach much 84 H. Ken Cordell and Carter J. Betz

on the issue of access in the past 5 years. But either special land features or conditions there does seem to be a trend towards limit- (e.g. caving, rock climbing, downhill skiing) ing public access even further in the future. or focused on developed facilities (e.g. visit- Comparing the 1996 NPLOS with the ing nature centres, team sports, camping) 1986 NPLOS we see several notable trends. (Cordell, 1999). For the most part, these Average reported tract size has decreased activities do not occur on private land. from about 74 ha in 1986 to nearly 56 ha in Recreation activities with the most potential 1996. Hunting remains the most popular on private lands seem to include hunting, recreational activity pursued on private fishing, wildlife observation, bird watching, lands, although a number of other activities primitive camping and hiking. Though are gaining in popularity. The percentage of trends show falling participation in hunting, landowners who post at least some part of it is expected that demand for quality lease their land has risen from 33% in 1986 to hunting on private land will remain high. 41% in 1996. The average number of ha that Trends also suggest there may be increased owners posted per tract has decreased opportunities for the leasing of private land slightly from 93.9 to 83.4 ha, perhaps reflect- for fishing and nonconsumptive recreation. ing in part the trend toward decreasing average tract size. Results from NPLOS surveys in 1986 and Trends in Supply Indices 1996 indicate that the percentage of private lands on which access for recreation to indi- To examine regional changes over the last 10 viduals a landowner does not know is years across all jurisdictions, public and pri- permitted decreased from 25 to 15% in the vate, indices were computed to show trends 10 years from 1986 to 1996. At the same in per capita availability of outdoor recrea- time, access to private land by individuals tion opportunities between 1987 and 1997. known by the landowner has remained more The 14 indices developed highlight areas in or less stable (47% in 1986 and 50% in the country where the rate of growth of 1996). Leasing of land by owners for recrea- recreation resource availability is either tion has also remained fairly stable, with keeping pace with, exceeding or falling slightly more than 3% of landowners report- behind the rate of population growth. Pop- ing they leased land in 1996 compared with ulation has been growing in most counties slightly less than 4% in 1986. in the US. Fourteen indices were computed. Liability issues are of increasing concern These were named Local Facilities, Open to rural landowners, but a substantial pro- Space, Great Outdoors, Wildlife Land, State portion do nothing to limit liability. An and Private Forests, Western Land, Camping exception is in the North, where the major- Areas, Federal Water, Large Water Bodies, ity of landowners have insurance. However, Whitewater, Flatwater, Lowland Rivers, given the prevalence of litigation in the US, Developed Winter Areas and Undeveloped the issue of granting access at the risk of a Winter Areas (Betz et al., 1999). lawsuit if an injury occurs is likely to In almost all regions of the country become a larger issue and influence on the (North, South, Rocky Mountains/Great availability of private land for public recrea- Plains and West Coast), there have been per tional use. This possibility is reinforced by capita increases in greenways and rail-trails landowner predictions that they will make (Open Space). Organizations promoting trail less land available in the future. and greenway development have become Because most urban dwellers do not par- much more numerous in the last 10 years. ticipate in the types of recreational activities Increased government funding for projects typically occurring on rural private lands, to develop these types of resources has been the trend toward more limited access may partly responsible for these increases. There not have very much of an effect on overall also has been increased availability of State supply. Participation growth has been and Private Forests and of Developed Winter occurring mainly in activities focused on resources. These trends reflect in part Trends in Outdoor Recreation Supply 85

increases in state park land reported earlier Because of relative stability in the federal and increases in capacity of downhill ski resource base and increasing population, areas. More than two-thirds of the people in there was a decline in this region for three the North region live in counties that had resource types: Great Outdoors, Western stable or increased availability of land pro- Land and Federal Water (federal water protected for wildlife habitat (Wildlife Land). In jects). In addition, more than 90% of contrast, more than 90% of the population residents experienced reduced per capita in the North region live in areas that had availability for Flatwater and wetland declining per capita availability for five of resources. the resource types: (i) Great Outdoors, The West Coast region was the only resources that include national forests, region where most people lived in areas that national parks and wilderness areas; (ii) had increases in per capita availability of campgrounds and campsites (Camping Flatwater and wetland recreation opportun- Areas); (iii) recreation opportunities on fed- ities. Other resource types for which a eral water projects (Federal Water); (iv) majority of the regional population had coastal resources and associated private availability increases included Open Space businesses (Large Water Bodies); and (v) (greenway and trail opportunities), Wildlife Flatwater and other wetland resources. Land (habitat preservation land) and Low- Despite relatively larger than national land River resources. On the other hand, this average population increases in the last 10 region was the only one in which less than years, resource availability growth was more half the population had per capita increases consistent in the South region than in any in the availability of Developed Winter other region. More than 90% of the popula- opportunities. Five resource types had tion lived in areas with stable or increasing declining availability in Local Facilities recreation supply for three of the resource (developed urban resources), Western Land types, including both types of urban resour- (BLM and agricultural land), Camping Areas ces (Local Facilities and Open Space) and (camping opportunities), Federal Water Lowland River opportunities. For all of the (BoR and Corps of Engineers) and White- land resource types, at least 36% of the water and wild river opportunities. South region’s population lived in areas that In general, developed recreation oppor- had stable or increasing per capita resource tunities are increasing or at least keeping availability. The South region was the only pace with population growth in most region where more than half the population regions of the country. Developed camping lived in areas with increases in the Great opportunities are the lone exception. For Outdoors resources – USDA Forest Service, this traditional overnight resource, popula- NPS and Wilderness. The only resource fac- tion growth has exceeded camping capacity tor for which a large percentage of the South growth, especially in the Northeast and region’s population had declining per capita along the West Coast. Resources centred on availability was Flatwater and wetland land, water and river resources protected by resources, reflecting increases in population conservation groups, state park systems, or near these resources and development and the federal government also have shown sta- conversions of these to other uses. ble or growing levels of availability for many Most of the population in the Rocky Americans. Mountain region live in areas with increas- Per capita availability of several types of ing or stable per capita resource availability resources is declining. For some of these, for six of the 14 resource types. The six types reductions stem from a fixed resource base are Open Space (greenways/trails), Wildlife in areas where there is increasing popula- Land (land set aside for habitat preservation. Examples include beaches and coastal tion), Large Water Bodies and associated areas and opportunities provided by federal boating opportunities, Whitewater and wild water management agencies, such as the river resources, Lowland River resources, BoR or the Corps of Engineers. For other and Developed Winter skiing resources. resource types, the cause of decline is actual 86 H. Ken Cordell and Carter J. Betz

shrinkage in the resource base. Examples resource and recreation use management here include recreational access to private occur. Higher costs and higher administra- agricultural lands, fee areas for hunting and tive assessments at the Washington and fishing, and wetlands. regional levels of administration without overall budget increases to account for increased costs have resulted in lower levels Summary of the Dominant Trends of funding reaching ‘on-the-ground’ man- and Their Implications agement units. Level-to-decreasing federal budgets have Beginning and continuing throughout the meant fewer professional staff to fill vital 1960s and 1970s, in part sparked by ORRRC, recreation management positions, closures there was accelerated, large-scale growth of of some field offices and the donning of more both the public and private sector systems of ‘hats’ by the professional staff left after the outdoor recreation supply in the US. Pro- cuts. To compensate, federal agencies have tected and multiple-use federal lands were increasingly had to rely on volunteers and a added and legislation was revised to man- variety of human resource programmes (e.g. date management of most of the existing senior programmes) to carry out day-to-day federal lands for outdoor recreation. States site maintenance and customer service, use and local governments greatly expanded a wider variety and higher levels of fees in their parks, forests, playgrounds, sports an attempt to generate greater revenues, and fields and a host of other outdoor facilities seek more cost-sharing partnerships with and services. On the private sector side, state and local governments and with pri- growth in the provision of goods, services vate organizations and corporations. and facilities accelerated rapidly to respond A look at federal budget plans for the next to growing and changing demand. Overall, 2–3 fiscal years offers little hope that the this was a bull market period for outdoor trend of shrinking to flat budgets will not recreation in America. ORRRC did its work continue as the norm for federal recreation and did it well. The interest ignited by management agencies. Even in the face of ORRRC, a truly landmark event in the his- the huge projected federal budget surpluses, tory of outdoor recreation in this country, fed by the nation’s remarkably strong econ- has had such impact that the impetus it omy, it looks like federal outdoor recreation created is obviously continuing into the 21st funding will at best remain stable. This is century. But, there are some clouds on the not because the agencies fail to request horizon of which we all need to be aware. increases; it is the erosion that occurs as Since the early surges of the 1960s and agency budget requests make their way 1970s, supply trends in the federal sector through the federal budgeting system. have been mostly up, but not across the Inadequate funding makes the nature of board and at a decreasing rate. Facing flat to future federal recreation supply an uncer- slightly declining real-dollar budgets during tain one at best. Reliance on human resource most of the 1980s and 1990s, most federal programmes and on volunteers is not a reli- resource management agencies have had to able, long-term solution to inadequate curtail land acquisition and new develop- appropriated budgets. These schemes flutter ment, although there has been rising high in the political winds of this country demand. A backlog of site maintenance and and can disappear as quickly as they facility upgrade needs of such large magni- appeared. tude developed that much of it persists only Clearly, a federal system will survive. Its partially addressed at this time. Even for survival in some form is not really a pressing those agencies which experienced increases concern. Its ranks are filled with managers in real funding there have been serious fiscal and administrators who are innovative and problems. Problems with ‘making ends dedicated to finding ways to keep things meet’ are especially acute at the lowest- working. What is of concern is inadequate, levels of administration where ‘hands on’ and uncertain, public financial backing Trends in Outdoor Recreation Supply 87

which is pushing agencies to focus on poli- from the state level of government. Along cies and programmes that will maximize with more sites for recreation, states are also revenues, spread the costs of operation and providing access to sites and services for maintenance with other organizations, and longer periods throughout the year, includ- rely more on ‘free’ labour. Such a shift in the ing day use, camping, cabin rental and resort way ‘business’ is conducted must surely holiday areas. A potential downside con- have consequences. sequence of the movement of state systems One potentially serious consequence of a toward more year-round, higher-service lev- rising focus on revenues is the strong possi- els of operation is the possibility that bility that some segments of the American associated higher fees may also exclude people, who traditionally had been among some people who cannot afford the added the ‘served’, may become the unserved or costs, just as might be happening in the under-served. Without solid public sector federal system. investment in staffing, facility maintenance Still, even after acknowledging the con- and land stewardship, will or can the federal siderable progress states have made with system optimally meet the needs of a diver- their systems of parks, forests and recreation sifying American society? Access to all areas, dilemmas mirroring the federal sys- Americans must be a primary goal in the tem loom in their future. State land and management of public lands. water systems are increasingly facing fund- Access is affected in many ways and a ing crises that will contribute greatly to good example of access issues that are likely shaping their future. To combat funding to rise in significance is the increasing inci- shortfalls, states have moved rapidly toward dence of the closure of private land that is greater self sufficiency through programmes adjacent land to federal lands. Shutting off aimed at dramatically increasing revenues. public access to cross private properties From 1975 to 1995, state park system reven- which traditionally had been available is ues increased 364% while legislatively likely to become a crisis unless solutions are appropriated funding rose only 286%. fast in coming. Such closure effectively Based on an assumed average annual makes these private lands a barrier to public increase of 1.4%, visits to state parks access to federal recreation lands. Have we increased only 30–35%. Obviously, the adequately stepped back to examine and level of fees per visitor has risen dramat- plan for the likely consequences of continu- ically. Greater fees across a wider range of ing to fund inadequately public access to services raises the same question that is federal lands? being raised about more fees at federal sites At the state level of government, a niche and about the movement toward higher not being filled by the federal government is priced resort and lodge facilities at state being very effectively addressed. Like the sites, ‘Will lower-income people be priced federal system, states have continued to out and thus stop using state parks?’. expand their parks and other recreation Local municipal and county systems, by opportunities. Because the distribution of far the most conveniently located of public state recreation land and water much more sites, are also experiencing financial pres- closely matches the geographic distribution sures. Many local systems are inadequately of population, needs for conveniently funded to acquire land, develop new facili- located, nature-based, outdoor recreation, ties and renovate existing facilities rapidly close to where people live, are being filled enough to answer rising demands. Gener- by state parks, forests and other state proper- ally, the expansion of local government ties. State systems are in this way highly outdoor recreation systems that has occur- complementary to the federal system. In the red has emphasized athletic fields, ball 1990s there was a greater than 30% expan- courts, passive recreation spaces and parks. sion, more than 1267 new state areas, added Much less emphasis has been placed on new to state park systems nationwide. This is a recreation centres and water sites. In local solid contribution to the nation’s supply parks specifically, expansions of supply 88 H. Ken Cordell and Carter J. Betz

have emphasized new trails, conservation recreation system. From the spectacular sce- areas, open space, playgrounds and green nery of federal lands to protected old mill space. Ironically, too many local system sites in state parks to the transformed expansions are not sufficiently funded for vacant-lot urban playgrounds, this country’s adequate operation and maintenance after outdoor recreation resources over the past their development. This lack of funding puts five decades have produced unparalleled local systems in exactly the same predica- opportunities for its citizens to recreate and ment as federal and state systems, making for the private sector to profit. Complemen- them more dependent on instituting and tarity across the three levels of government, raising the levels of fees to make up defi- enhanced by private sector-provided goods cits. and services, has evolved over time into a In highly complementary ways, but not very effective and seemingly resilient sys- as independently as some would have us tem that meets a variety of leisure tastes. think, the private sector has also greatly But we must ask the question, ‘How resil- expanded its role as a supplier of outdoor ient can our recreation supply system be if recreation goods, services, travel, informa- uncertainties about base funding persist?’. tion, sites and virtuality in the US. The Much of the 1980s and all of the 1990s have solvency of private sector recreation busi- been marked by substantial uncertainties nesses is highly dependent on adequate about funding for outdoor recreation, and federal, state and local budgets for outdoor leisure services in general, at all levels of recreation. Without the sites, facilities, sce- government. At this point, there is little evi- nery, and the many other natural and built dence that this uncertainty will not continue features provided by and under the care of well into the future. Collectively, we who the public sector, the private sector would have chosen professionally to devote our be hard pressed to make their outdoor busi- careers to the study and care of this coun- nesses successful, except in virtuality. How try’s outdoor recreation supply system must long would the numerous and lucrative understand the implications of current and fixed-wing or helicopter scenic flight busi- likely future budget trends and must envi- nesses in the Denali National Park area in sion strategies for ensuring the Alaska survive without Mt McKinley and sustainability of our outdoor resources in the National Park? On the private sector light of those trends. In the words of one side, one particular issue needing to be former president, there must be ‘No net addressed is public access to private rural loss’. While he was referring to wetlands, lands. This access has been declining for these words apply equally well to outdoor more than 20 years and will ultimately leave recreation supply. We must not lose any of an appreciable void in supply if this trend the capacity of this country’s outdoor recrea- continues. tion legacy to development, harmful exploitation or neglect because of inadequate funds, staffing or authority. Where Conclusion open spaces and favourite places are lost to the inevitability of urban sprawl, we must Federal, state, and local supply systems con- find ways to replace our losses. However, tinue to function as highly complementary the ability to take care of what we have and components of our larger national system to make up losses will always depend on the provide a wide range of recreation oppor- availability of an ongoing, stable base of tunities from natural settings in remote rural funding. areas to highly humanized playgrounds in Our interpretation of the most salient urban neighbourhoods. This complementar- trends in the US supply system leads us to ity across the three levels of government and conclude that its sustainability is stressed gradual growth in their capacity to provide and in many ways threatened. Continuing recreation services and experiences has but slowing growth in the land and water been the sinew of the American outdoor area managed by federal, state and local gov- Trends in Outdoor Recreation Supply 89

ernments; flat budgets at all three levels to to-be-denied champions of the ‘great take care of existent and added land and out-of-doors’. Champions just as engaged as water area and greater reliance on nonappro- their predecessors of earlier decades who priated sources for funding and staffing the will work tirelessly to examine access and system’s operation and maintenance are not other issues and who will provide enlight- characteristics of a vigorous and healthy sys- ened guidance as we move into and through tem. In the face of continuing and, in some the 21st century. Many among the earlier places, very rapid population expansion, champions in the US worked with or served these trends quickly translate into substan- on the ORRRC. They recognized that with- tial decreases in the per capita capacity of out quality outdoor environments and the American outdoor recreation supply access to those environments, there cannot system. be quality outdoor recreation experiences. Slowed growth in per capita capacity Without quality outdoor experiences, the pushes the issue of access ever so steadily growth potential for private industry that out in front of other outdoor recreation has existed to date will be seriously damp- issues. Of all the many issues in outdoor ened. This future cadre of visionary recreation, access is clearly the most pivotal champions must come not only from the one when we ask the question, ‘Access for politico, monied altruists, and monied cor- whom?’. A key to sustaining the capacity of porate leaders of this country, they must our supply system is to do all that is neces- come also from local birdwatching groups, sary to assure everyone has access to some small commercial interests, local conserva- outdoor spaces, facilities and service-access tion leaders, local government, resource which is barrier and hassle-free. There are professional associations, retiree associa- many ways access can be lost. We pointed tions, and all other outdoor stakeholder out some of these in earlier sections of this interests. It seems outdoor recreation is paper. For example, access and capacity are again at a transition time and its champions lost when private ownerships adjacent to are needed. federal lands close their land to the public’s Our emerging champions and leaders crossing it to reach public land. But perhaps need to collaborate in the most effective way the most serious threat to access for some possible and speak in unison for better fed- people in American society is the trend eral, state, and local recreation budgets and toward more and higher fees. We need to ask for the protection and care of our priceless, and seriously reflect on the question, ‘Who irreplaceable outdoor resources, both local will be affected and in what ways will they and national. We sense that it may be time be affected by the trend toward much expan- again for those champions to assemble and ded and elevated fees for access to public take a close look at the trends and issues lands?’. This is a trend driven by inadequate surrounding our nation’s outdoor heritage. base funding. ORRRC 2000 has a good ring to it. Hopefully In our opinion, the future of outdoor this and other chapters in this book will go a recreation in this or in any country will long way toward informing that next out- depend on the emergence of a new cadre of door recreation commission. 21st century visionaries. High-energy, not-

8 US Recreation Policies Since World War II

George H. Siehl

Introduction The Post-war Context: 1945–1957

The dictionary defines policy as ‘a definite The middle third of the 20th century was an course of action adopted for the sake of era that transformed the US: an economic expediency’, or ‘a course of action adopted depression, a globe-altering war, rapid eco- and pursued by a government’. Many insti- nomic recovery and an unprecedented tutions, public and private develop policies. population explosion between 1946 and Principally, this review addresses the devel- 1964 contributed to the changes. opment of federal policy affecting recreation Outdoor recreation changed along with and associated natural resources issues in many other aspects of life. Personal mobil- the US since World War II. ity, children at home and disposable income One characteristic of policy is that it does – elements that research shows contribute to not exist in a vacuum; action and reaction recreation participation – all grew in the continue among and between public and post-war years and continued upwards until private players. Another characteristic is the present. The strength of these societal competition, both within government and changes would cause the participation in with outside interests. At the federal level, and variety of recreation to virtually explode differences between legislative and execu- in the post-war years. tive branches offer obvious conflicts, Among the activities to grow rapidly after particularly when opposing political parties the war was skiing. Returning ski troops control the two branches. were instrumental in opening new ski areas Legislation seems the most obvious that grew into some of America’s most pop- expression of policy, but administrative and ular resorts, including Vail, Colorado; programmatic initiatives within a depart- Sugarbush, Vermont; and Crystal Mountain, ment can create significant policy shifts as Washington (Burton, 1971). Burton credits well. Competition may occur between exec- the growth of skiing (and mountain climb- utive branch departments over policy, ing) after the war to the men trained by the where the president may serve as final arbi- Army as part of the 10th Mountain Division ter. Such competition may arise because the and to the availability of surplus equip- agencies operate under different missions ment. and legislative authorities, and may be com- The white water rafting industry of today pounded by differences in the agencies’ also grew from World War II roots, tracing ‘corporate cultures’. back to the use of surplus life rafts. Wand- less (1943) anticipated the conversion of the © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 91 92 George H. Siehl inflatable rubber life raft to recreational uses The ORRRC Era: 1958–1968 after the war. He wrote, Public Law (PL) 85–470, signed on 28 June, When small pleasure craft resume cruising 1958, authorized the Outdoor Recreation the seas and lakes and rivers of the world, Resources Review Commission, to consist of the rubber boat will undoubtedly become seven members (including the chairman) an indispensable part of necessary appointed by President Eisenhower and equipment. eight members from Congress, equally divided between the parties and the two Another wartime innovation, the jeep, chambers. The ORRRC had slightly more helped to diversify recreation activities and than three years to complete its work and set the stage for a wide range of off-road report to the President and Congress. Within vehicles (and the recreation conflicts they this time, its duties included: engendered). Such technology transfers, then and now, are not policy innovations, ● . . . to set in motion a nationwide inven- but shape requirements for new policy deci- tory and evaluation of outdoor sions to integrate the technology into the recreation resources and opportunities; spectrum of recreation activities. ● . . . compile such data and in the light of Visitors streamed into federal recreation the data so compiled and of information areas in ever increasing numbers during the available concerning trends in popula- late 1940s and early 1950s. Appropriations tion, leisure, transportation, and other did not increase to cover the higher manage- factors shall determine the amount, ment costs; indeed, with the outbreak of the kind, quality and location of such out- Korean War in 1950, agency budgets were door recreation resources and cut and facilities fell into disrepair (Ever- opportunities as will be required by the hart, 1972). This condition, following year 1976 and the year 2000, and shall increasing public criticism, caused the recommend what policies should best National Park Service to propose a policy be adopted and what programmes be initiative, ‘Mission 66’, a 10-year pro- initiated, at each level of government gramme to rebuild and expand and by private organizations and other infrastructure within the parks. President citizen groups and interests, to meet Eisenhower agreed to the budget proposal such future requirements. and Congress accepted and supported the initiative over the following decade. The comprehensiveness and foresight of Congress made most major structural pol- the charge was met by the competence and icy decisions impacting recreation – the diligence of the Commission. Central to the allocation of federal land for conservation work – and ultimate legislative success – of purposes and the establishment of the the group was the active involvement of its National Park Service and the USDA Forest congressional members. Service – long before the post-war era. Con- ORRRC drew upon a 25-member advis- gress continued this conservation policy ory council, governors, cabinet members with the establishment of the Bureau of and agency heads for information and Land Management in 1946, melding some insights. It did not conduct public hearings, functions of the Grazing Service with those although it was authorized to do so by PL of the General Land Office (Clawson, 1983). 85–470. The Commission contracted with Modern Congresses’ greatest contribu- federal agencies and nonprofit organizations tion to recreation policy stemmed from the for preparation of 27 studies of various 1958 establishment of the Outdoor Recrea- recreation topics as supplements to the final tion Resources Review Commission report, Outdoor Recreation for America (ORRRC). This was a bipartisan response to (Outdoor Recreation Resources Review the growing pressures on the existing recrea- Commission, 1962). tion infrastructure. ORRRC clearly falls within the descrip- US Recreation Policies Since World War II 93

tion of applied policy research given by primitive areas, historic sites and Kash and Ballard (1987), as do the recreation recreation areas of national signifi- policy assessments of the 1980s that are dis- cance; cussed later in this review. These studies ● the management of federal lands for the ‘focus on the substantive conditions that broadest possible recreation benefit have created issues or problems’, and they consistent with other essential uses; deal with government policies ‘to influence, ● the management and improvement of manipulate, or control substantive activities fish and wildlife resources for recrea- or circumstances’ (p. 601). ORRRC and the tional purposes; later President’s Commission on Americans ● cooperation with and assistance to the Outdoors (PCAO) also meet the criteria of states and local governments; being requested by decision makers and by ● interstate arrangements, including fed- involving the ‘clients’ throughout the proc- eral participation where authorized and ess. necessary; and The first implementation responses to the ● vigorous and cooperative leadership in report and recommendations from ORRRC a nationwide recreation effort. came from President Kennedy. In March 1962 he announced that a Bureau of Out- Over 3 years, the RAC published seven door Recreation (BOR) would be established circulars addressing such recreation topics in the Department of the Interior. Interior as executive branch policy on national Secretary Udall subsequently created the recreation areas, policy on water pollution bureau by secretarial order. Congress, in PL and public health aspects of outdoor recrea- 88–29, later provided tasks to the Secretary, tion, and scenic roads and parkways. It which he delegated to the BOR. These contributed to the overall coordination of included the responsibilities for nationwide recreation efforts among the agencies, but it recreation planning and assistance to the was expanded and converted to other duties states, and a directive to ‘encourage inter- under Presidents Johnson and Nixon. Even- departmental cooperation, and promote tually, RAC evolved into the Council on coordination of Federal plans and activities Environmental Quality, where the recrea- generally relating to outdoor recreation . . . ’ tion component disappeared from the office Although the BOR dealt effectively with name. the states, it missed the deadline for the first The ORRRC recommendations adopted nationwide outdoor recreation plan. It never through legislation lasted longer than the fully achieved the ‘interdepartmental coop- administrative initiatives. Among the most eration’ or ‘coordination of Federal plans important laws were those establishing the and activities’ set out in PL 88–29. Land and Water Conservation Fund (PL The Recreation Advisory Council (RAC) 88–578, 1964) the National Trails System was established under Executive Order (PL 90–543, 1968), the Wild and Scenic Riv- 11017 by President Kennedy in April 1962. ers System (PL 90–542, 1968) and the RAC comprised the Secretaries of Agricul- Wilderness Preservation System (PL ture, Interior, Defence, Health Education 88–577, 1964). and Welfare and the Administrator of the Later, Congress also passed numerous Housing and Home Finance Agency. Its bills designating individual areas as compo- functions included providing broad policy nents of these systems, and authorized many advice to federal agencies on outdoor recrea- new and expanded areas of the National tion matters, and facilitating coordinated Park System. Congress earlier made a policy efforts among these agencies. The Executive innovation in this regard when it first pur- Order listed these areas of concentration for chased private property to add to the the Recreation Advisory Council: National Park System in 1958. Before then, all parklands had been withdrawn from the ● the protection and appropriate manage- public domain or transferred from other fed- ment of scenic areas, natural wonders, eral ownership such as US Department of 94 George H. Siehl

Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service or War the three original sources and the amount Department. The Land and Water Conserva- authorized for appropriation. tion Fund (LWCF) fuelled additional Congress recognized recreation as a com- purchases of private lands for addition to ponent of federal land management the National Park System and to the other agencies’ prime mission in 1960 when it land managing agencies for recreation pur- passed the Multiple Use Sustained Yield poses. These additions included national Act, PL 86–517. It stated, ‘It is the policy of seashores, lakeshores and national recrea- the Congress that the National Forests are tion areas. established and shall be administered for The LWCF is arguably the most signifi- outdoor recreation, range, timber, water- cant legislative enactment from the shed, and wildlife purposes’. As a result of recommendations of the Outdoor Recrea- that action, recreation assumed a more tion Resources Review Commission. In prominent role among federal resource pro- making the recommendation, the Commis- viders and made it easier, due to sion recognized the broad nature of Congressional action, to designate tracts of recreation and its many public providers. land, within the federal estate, for recreation The LWCF provided financial backing to priority uses. governments to meet the growing demand Congress approved wilderness legisla- for recreation. tion in 1964 after resolving a number of The LWCF Act implicitly recognized the issues. Congress, rather than the agencies, various kinds of recreation opportunities was given sole authority to designate new provided by different levels of government. areas as wilderness, for instance. The Wil- Federal agencies could use LWCF funds derness Act included all existing USDA only for land acquisition. States, however Forest Service wild and wilderness areas, (and local governments where a state gov- some 9.1 million acres, as legislatively des- ernment shared its LWCF allocation), could ignated wilderness. Over 10 years, the 5.4 use their share for planning, land acquisi- million national forest acres being admin- tion or facility development. The istered as primitive areas were to be distribution of money to the states was reviewed to determine if they were suitable based on a formula in which population for wilderness designation by Congress. played a key role, and required state prepa- Also, the Interior Secretary was to review ration of a satisfactory statewide outdoor within 10 years all roadless areas more than recreation plan. All LWCF money required a 5000 acres in national parks and wildlife dollar-for-dollar match by state govern- refuges to determine their suitability for wil- ment. derness classification by Congress. In the decade following its passage, Con- Section 3(d) of the Wilderness Act gress often amended the LWCF. The changes opened the process of wilderness recom- included increasing the annual funding mendations to the public. That clause from US$60 million to US$900 million; requires the resource agencies to give public making federal agencies, not the states, the notice and hold public hearings on each principal recipients of annual funding; and wilderness proposal before recommenda- ensuring that state funds were not used for tions are submitted to the President and the indoor recreation facilities. Congress. Allin (1982, p. 156) wrote: Congress also changed the LWCF funding mechanism. Originally, federal recreation From the point of view of the administering agencies, the impact of the Wilderness act’s area entrance fees, motorboat fuel taxes and public participation requirement was to revenues from sale of surplus federal real turn loose a horde of amateur land property were to provide the needed mon- managers with an interest in preservation. ies. These soon proved inadequate, so Congress approved the use of outer con- This ‘horde’ would have a profound tinental shelf oil and gas leasing revenues to impact on federal (especially USDA Forest make up any shortfall between income from Service) land management decisions in the US Recreation Policies Since World War II 95

following years. The role of public participa- considered in the planning and operation of tion in federal land management would federal water projects. expand under later enactments, as dis- The National Trails System Act (NTSA) cussed below. engendered less opposition than the wild ORRRC recommended, and Congress rivers bill, except in cases where private enacted, programmes to establish national land was acquired to extend trails from fed- systems of wild and scenic rivers, and trails. eral lands. Then, local landowners often Passage of the enabling laws, PL 90–542 for objected to the perceived loss of privacy and rivers, and PL 90–543 for trails, came in possible vandalism they thought would be 1968. associated with public trails. The concept of wild and scenic rivers The NTSA initially established two trail was to preserve selected river segments in categories: recreation and scenic. Two sce- their wild, free-flowing condition. As more nic components, the Appalachian and dams were built upon rivers to provide Pacific Crest trails, were approved in the energy and irrigation, there was concern that Act. Recreation trails could be established the natural qualities of rivers were being on federal or other government lands, but destroyed. The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act scenic trails were confined to lands admin- (WSRA) slowed the loss of natural stream istered by the Departments of Agriculture corridors. It designated eight initial compo- and Interior. Subsequent amendments nents of the national system. Twenty-seven established historic trails as a third category more corridors were designated for study by and continued the designation of additional the Secretaries of Agriculture and Interior to system components and new candidates for determine if these rivers should be recom- study. mended for designation by Congress. This The decade from 1958 to 1968 probably paralleled the mechanism established in the stands as recreation’s golden era. From the Wilderness Act, and was applied in the enactment of the ORRRC authorization until Trails Act as well. Congress approved the the passage of the rivers and trails bills, addition of numerous stream corridors to recreation was high on the national agenda. the system and listed more rivers for study The following 10 years constituted a pleas- in later years. ant afterglow, continuing the expansion of River corridor protection saw a produc- the new systems established by legislation tive interplay between legislative and in the 1960s. The peak spending on the Land oversight activity in Congress and the ongo- and Water Conservation Fund in 1978 marks ing work of the ORRRC. In 1961, the Senate the symbolic, if not the real, ending of the Select Committee on National Water golden era of recreation. Resources recommended the protection of The golden era expanded the recreation some rivers in their natural condition. estate through more lands, more staff and ORRRC noted this action and, in turn, rec- more money. It also showed the policy proc- ommended preservation of certain rivers ‘in ess at work. Circumstances of the moment their free flowing condition and in their nat- and the issue were singular, perhaps, as ural setting’ (ORRRC, 1962, p. 177). political frictions of the time were merely This interplay illustrates the important partisan, not poisonous, and a degree of role played by the congressional members of comity prevailed in Washington. The ORRRC; by their awareness of current events involved interest groups operated with on the Hill, these members could inform and somewhat less sophistication and far less infuse the work of the commission. The cul- money than is the norm today. Also, the mination of this interaction, perhaps, came beneficiaries included a broad swath of the in 1965 when Congress passed the Federal American people. Why did the model not Water Project Recreation Act, PL 89–72. survive? In large part, the answer is found in This fulfilled the ORRRC recommendation a new perception of the world and our rela- that outdoor recreation and fish and wildlife tionship to it: the new perception produced conservation should be among the purposes an array of new public policy issues that 96 George H. Siehl

continue to evolve – and stir debate – even recreation opportunities, and recommended today. state efforts to ‘preserve present water recreation resources and to regain those lost to public recreation because of pollution’. The Environmental Era: 1969–1979 Conservation groups supported the air and water pollution control bills of the 1960s. The end of the 1960s introduced both more The link to recreation emerged in the theme complicated issues and more specialized of ‘fishable, swimmable waters’ as these interests. President Johnson’s wife, Lady groups supported clean water legislation. Bird, catalysed one part of the change, that What recreation gained in improved dealing with natural resources. She cru- recreation settings, it would lose in dedi- saded on behalf of natural beauty in cated support in Washington, DC. America, in an effort that sensitized millions Conservation groups, which had initiated to the quality of the world around us. While and supported much of the recreation and her campaign initially focused upon elim- wildlife legislation of the past, took a new inating billboards and junkyards, it grew to focus: environmental issues. Their new mis- encompass polluted air and water. Within a sion was part altruism and part financial few years this broadened concern evolved pragmatism; citizens were concerned about into today’s environmental movement. highly publicized issues of environmental Natural beauty, however, was featured as contamination. By developing an active the topic of a 1965 White House conference, environmental protection agenda, the con- a report by the then current reincarnation of servation groups could increase the Recreation Advisory Council (Presi- membership and funding from the con- dent’s Council 1968) and a presidential cerned public. Soon, these issues took message. Darling (1967) noted the signifi- precedence over recreation and conserva- cance of this period, writing that the White tion. House conference on Natural Beauty ‘was As the issues changed, so did the staffing perhaps a turning point, because it clarified of these organizations. Once drawn largely an enlarged concept of public responsibility from natural resource disciplines such as and administrative innovation . . . ’. He forestry and wildlife, the staffs now quoted from President Johnson’s message on included lawyers and specialists in pollu- natural beauty, as follows, to characterize tion control, public relations and fund the change: raising. Interactions between interest groups and the resource agencies quickly shifted Our conservation must not be just the from the agency head’s office or the commit- classic conservation of protection and tee hearing room to the courtroom. This development, but a creative conservation of transition was hastened with passage of the restoration and innovation. Its concern is National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), not with nature alone but with the total relation between man and the world around PL 91–190. This process-oriented law him. requires agencies to examine the nature and magnitude of environmental impacts gen- President Johnson submitted and sup- erated by federal projects or legislation they ported many bills to bring his vision of this would initiate, and seek to minimize any ‘total relation’ to reality. His noted powers of adverse impacts. persuasion among his former congressional Apart from the time and money that agen- colleagues, and the growing public support cies would expend in complying with for these initiatives, resulted in an impres- NEPA, they had to change the way they did sive legislative record for the protection of business. NEPA required public involve- cultural and historic resources and reduc- ment early in the agency decision-making tion of air and water pollution. process. This greatly broadened public par- The ORRRC report (1962, pp. 140–141) ticipation beyond what had been required described how polluted water reduced by the Wilderness Act in 1964. Later enact- US Recreation Policies Since World War II 97

ments in the 1970s would make public als, food, fibre and timber are similarly involvement even more explicit, thereby included in management programmes. This reducing the internal decision making authority parallels that contained in the authority of federal agency ‘experts’. USDA Forest Service’s Multiple Use and Legislation during the decade of the Sustained Yield Act, incorporating service 1970s brought considerable change to the programmes along with commodity pro- way in which the multiple use agencies, duction. BLM and the USDA Forest Service, managed Recreation is further recognized in Sec- their lands. Recreation would be affected by tion 202(c)(9) which requires the Secretary these changes. of the Interior to The public domain lands were not considered part of a recreation estate until the coordinate the land use inventory, BLM was created in 1946. Before this, out- planning, and management activities of or standing natural, scenic and archaeological for BLM lands with the land use planning and management programs of other federal sites on the public domain were transferred departments and agencies and of the States to the National Park Service, and many for- and local governments . . . including, but ested areas were transferred to forest not limited to, the statewide outdoor reserves around the turn of the century and recreation plans . . . eventually to the USDA Forest Service. Even after BLM was formed, recreation manage- Public involvement in the planning pro- ment held lower priority than mining and cess is required by Section 202(f), allowing grazing uses. participation by citizens, and federal, state ORRRC indirectly influenced this man- and local governments. FLPMA also agement regime. As Congress began required an inventory and assessment of implementing the legislative recommenda- potential wilderness areas of 5000 acres or tions of ORRRC, it also established a second more in BLM roadless areas over 15 years. important bipartisan body, the Public Land Two laws in the 1970s, stemming from Law Review Commission (PLLRC), to concern over clearcutting on national for- review comprehensively the laws, rules and ests, significantly affected USDA Forest regulations controlling the use and disposal Service planning and management. They of the public domain. were the Forest and Rangeland Renewable PLLRC was authorized in 1964 by PL Planning Act of 1974, PL 93–378, now gen- 88–606, and extended in 1967 by PL 90–213. erally referred to as the Resources Planning Its report, One Third of the Nation’s Land, Act (RPA) and the 1976 National Forest issued in June 1970, included chapters on Management Act (NFMA). The RPA, later recreation, fish and wildlife, and environ- amended by the NFMA, called for the devel- mental concerns. The PLLRC report cited opment of a detailed knowledge base of the work and recommendations of ORRRC, forest resources and services as well as and recommended that several ideas, such trends affecting the resources and services. as the system of recreation land classifica- The information supports building a com- tion, be applied to BLM lands as well. prehensive plan for the operation of the Many PLLRC recommendations were USDA Forest Service and, ultimately, the enacted in the 1976 Federal Land Policy and plans for individual national forests. Public Management Act (FLPMA), PL 94–579. The participation is mandated as part of this principal policy formulation in the law is process. that, in general, the public lands should be The Endangered Species Act of 1973, PL kept in federal ownership, not transferred 93–205, had wide ranging impacts. Its away. FLPMA recognizes recreation, fish- emphasis on habitat preservation for affec- eries and wildlife, archaeological values and ted species can interfere with agency preservation of natural areas as authorized missions and private land use decisions, components of the multiple use regime on delay or halt actions, and impose additional public domain lands. Production of miner- costs to projects. The law also altered the 98 George H. Siehl

role of the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) sparks throughout his tenure. He abolished from refuge and hatchery managers to the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, which he national wildlife police officer. The law also had headed during the Nixon years, and affected recreation, as it made Land and moved to abolish stateside funding for the Water Conservation dollars available for LWCF, which had peaked midway in Presi- acquiring endangered species habitat. dent Carter’s preceding administration. Implementation of some of the new legis- The new administration philosophy pro- lative authorities could cause problems. vided an opportunity to review and analyse Each special area designation, for instance, options for recreation and federal land man- reduced the options for goods and services agement. Siehl (1988) details recreation that federal land managers might provide policy initiatives at the time. These include other users. Allin (1982, p. 159) writes of the twisting path that led to creation of the one of these specialized uses, wilderness: President’s Commission on Americans Out- doors (PCAO), and two workshops held by The Forest Service is not uninterested in the Senate Committee on Energy and Natu- wilderness preservation, but it has a ral Resources in 1981 and 1982. These multitude of competing interests to balance, committee efforts were key building blocks and every legislative enactment that restricts its management options increases leading to the PCAO, as they brought the pressure under which it must operate together key individuals who later sold the . . . It is no wonder then that supporters of administration on the idea of a new the agency’s policy worried about ORRRC. mortgaging the forests’ multiple-use Other key steps in obtaining a new potential. national look at recreation were the recommendation of the National Conference on Controversy grew over what some saw as Renewable Natural Resources in 1980, and an exclusionary agenda by the environmen- that of the seven-person 1982/83 Outdoor tal community throughout the 1970s, Recreation Policy Review Group organized particularly in the West. One result was the by Laurance Rockefeller (Resources for the rise of the ‘sagebrush rebellion’, a reaction Future, 1983). by western commodity and property rights The conference recommendation called groups. for the incoming administration and Con- gress to ‘mandate and participate in’ a review of recreation supply, demand and The Era of Reinventing Recreation: trends, to ‘set priorities for the future’. The 1980–1992 recommendation added, ‘The structure of the body and the mission might be patterned The sagebrush rebellion helped the Repub- after the Outdoor Recreation Resources licans gain both the White House and Review Commission of the 1960s’ (Amer- control of the Senate in the 1980 elections. ican Forestry Association, 1980). Federal land management policies and envi- Similarly, the Rockefeller group called ronmental regulations were high on the list for legislation to establish a new ORRRC for change in the new administration. embodying the principles of the first. The Appointments to key policy positions in Rockefeller study group called for a broad- resource and environmental agencies ened scope of the new commission, worked toward those changes. Among the however, noting: most controversial of these appointees was It cannot ignore the interrelationships and James Watt, Secretary of the Interior. overlaps of outdoor recreation with many The new directions brought by the Rea- indoor activities associated with physical gan team engendered hostility in the House fitness. A new study also must recognize of Representatives where the Democrats that outdoor recreation is linked, in ways remained in firm control. Watt, who enjoyed that have not been adequately researched, the political and ideological combat, struck to such factors as job satisfaction and US Recreation Policies Since World War II 99

productivity, and family and social some might consider a limiting condition, cohesion. Urban recreation also requires but certainly not inconsistent with the over- further attention (p. 2). all administration philosophy. The EO also gave recreation a more contemporary image, The report added that the focus of the reflecting the language of the Rockefeller new commission should be ‘on the inter- policy review group report. action of people and outdoor resources’, but Although the PCAO would touch on the above recognition of recreation’s con- pieces of the broadened concept of recrea- ceptual breadth is noteworthy. tion, it decided early to concentrate on Senator Wallop introduced S.1090 on 19 outdoor recreation, a decision that disap- April, 1983 to establish a new ORRRC. After pointed many, including community- being considered in two Senate committees, oriented recreation providers. the bill passed the Senate on a unanimous The PCAO report (1987b) balanced fed- vote in November 1983. eral and nonfederal recommendations – and The House Committee on Interior and generated a position shift between suppor- Insular Affairs subcommittee handling the ters and opponents. It reflected an ‘outside measure held 3 days of hearings in 1984, the beltway’ view in calling for a ‘prairie fire’ received considerable supporting testi- of local action to establish recreation goals mony, but killed the bill by inaction. The and build partnerships to achieve them. But subcommittee chairman later told a conser- the report also recommended increasing the vation gathering that he did not want to give LWCF authorization level from US$900 mil- President Reagan a chance to sign a con- lion to US$1 billion per year and converting servation bill in an election year, and that he it to a ‘true trust fund’ with money shared was suspicious of the kind of people Reagan among all government levels. The report might name with his share of the appoint- also called for a nationwide system of green- ments under the bill. ways created by all units of government; the President Reagan had the last laugh; he vision was for a green lacework across authorized a recreation commission and America, never more than a few minutes appointed all the members. On 25 January, away from any citizen. 1985, by Executive Order 12503, he author- PCAO had an energizing effect at the state ized the Presidential Commission on and local levels as a number of states and Outdoor Recreation Resource Review. Com- many localities passed recreation bond missioner appointment was not completed issues and forged lasting partnerships to until August 1985, when President Reagan achieve recreation goals. Greenways sprang named Tennessee Governor, Lamar Alex- into being, and are still being created or ander, chairman and appointed a bipartisan expanded. congressional group of four members and PCAO’s key federal recommendation, for ten private citizens. a billion-dollar trust fund, was considered The group, the PCAO, held public hear- by Congress, but never enacted. Congress ings and strategic planning sessions with did approve a 25-year extension of the extensive public input around the country. LWCF, although support for state and local Unlike ORRRC, PCAO also drew upon the recreation programmes remained minimal academic community and resource agency in annual LWCF appropriations. professionals for research and analysis, in In the 1990s, Congress enacted a pro- particular a comprehensive literature sur- gramme for scenic byways, increased vey and trend data. entrance fees at national parks, and more President Reagan’s charge to his commis- recently established a fee demonstration sion was generally as broad as that given to programme on federal lands, all in line with ORRRC. The Executive Order (EO) noted PCAO recommendations. Republican loss of that the commission’s recommendations the Senate in 1986 limited chances for more should be ‘consistent with the need for fiscal accomplishments. Had they retained con- economy at all levels of government’, which trol, they would have been in a position to 100 George H. Siehl

advance the recommendations from their How do we define recreation, to which all President’s Commission. Also, congres- this trend data applies? From a policy per- sional members were not as fully engaged in spective, there is merit in considering a the work of PCAO as their predecessors had simple definition. In this light, recreation is been in the work of ORRRC. This clearly a voluntary activity undertaken by an indi- contributed to the lack of follow-through to vidual for pleasure or other nonmonetary enact commission recommendations. The reward. What the individual does, singly or late 1990s offer a period of ferment, of new with others, indoors or outdoors, on public approaches to recreation as government, site or in private, is a variation on the basic industry, and nongovernmental organiza- theme of an individual activity. Surveys list tions reassess what they are to do, and how dozens of activities – from watching TV to they are to do it. It is unclear just what the sky diving – that fall under the umbrella, but footings for recreation’s Bridge to the 21st probably miss many more. Century will look like. That vision will Thus the individual is the building block become clearer in retrospect. of the recreation universe. Policy implications follow, for as the individual decisions, satisfactions and reactions aggregate, they Trends and Implications become the concern of the elected official, the marketer, the recreation manager, the policy analyst and the researcher. We apply Finding trends has been important to recrea- new conceptual labels to the aggregates and tion policy at least since the creation of associated elements: leisure, travel and tour- ORRRC in 1958. Section 6 (b) of PL 85–470, ism, supply and demand, public and private listing the duties of the commission, notes providers, market share, indoor and out- that ‘information available concerning door, costs and benefits, health and fitness, trends in population, leisure, transportation and an array of individual motivations such and other factors’ should be incorporated in as socialization, competition and self making recommendations concerning image. recreation requirements in the years 1976 In recreation, these aggregates generate and 2000. the need for public and private decisions Subsequent laws and executive docu- because they affect many people, involve ments have explicitly or implicitly called for many dollars, and require the apportion- the development and use of pertinent trend ment of financial or other resources. There information. Follow through, however, was are policies to guide these decisions but, too not always adequate. The Rockefeller policy often, there are competing policies, each review group report referenced ORRRC’s established because of the interests and recommendation for research. However, the actions of different aggregates working report stated: through the congressional committee structure of closely guarded areas of jurisdiction. Two decades later, the data base for outdoor recreation remains, at best, This is our policy-making process in a dem- primitive. There are few consistent data on ocratic system. participation trends over time. We are not We lack a policy for policies. No one tries sure what people would really like to do to make the pieces fit. Looking back at the during their free time (p. 28). history of legislative successes in recreation since World War II, it appears a most favour- The continuing series of trends sympo- able trend. Less obvious are the conflicts sia, established in 1980, is an important brought about by the successes of other, source of trend information. Although the sometimes related, interests: NEPA, the trends symposium itself has evolved with Endangered Species Act and the Americans each iteration, it has remained an important with Disabilities Act, for instance. Such tool in policy analysis and development overarching laws increase the responsibili- (O’Leary and Siehl, 1992). ties of federal recreation providers without

US Recreation Policies Since World War II 101

increasing funds or workforce to meet the industry’s role, may prove critically impor- new responsibilities. tant in the next century by shaping trends in In public policy, the challenge for recrea- demand through new activities, equipment, tion will be gaining a fair share of resources and venues; public policy may be faced with and just treatment against other interests on the task of keeping up with these changes if the national scene in an era of greater chal- a closer working relationship is not formed lenges. The private policy component, between all of recreation’s players.

9 Trends and Implications of Tourism Policy in Developing Countries

Salah E.A. Wahab

Introduction ments to develop tourism and enter the competitive world tourist market (Hall, Rightly described as the economic giant of 1994). Governments have started, in order to the 20th century (Wahab, 1974), tourism has achieve such an aim, to ask for technical and achieved unprecedented growth in the after- financial assistance from international orga- math of World War II: from 14.4 million nizations, realizing that tourism cannot be tourist arrivals and total receipts from inter- developed as it once was by simply building national tourism of US$1.4 billion in 1948, hotels and other lodging facilities. A pro- to 625 million tourist arrivals and tourist gramme of serious studies and sound receipts estimated at US$444 billion in investments should be mounted, tailoring 1998. It is, therefore, understood that meas- the country’s tourist supply to meet the ured in terms of arrivals and receipts, steadily expanding and constantly changing tourism has grown almost 43-fold over the tourist demands. This has brought about last 50 years. The annual rate of growth has, corresponding expansion and changes in of course, varied over these years, but on the type, range and structure of travel plans average it grew annually by about 4.8%. It and facilities in almost all parts of the world. has now become the world’s leading indus- The right type of accommodation, taking try employing more than 225 million people into account the number of expected visitors around the globe. and their spending patterns, must be pro- Tourism is not a clear-cut sector, but an vided at the right place, at the right time, and all-embracing and pervasive domain of serv- within a predetermined carrying capacity ice and industrial activities. It touches upon for the whole country and its potential tour- almost all spheres of national life within the ist destinations. country. That is especially the reason why a sound state policy of tourism development should be formulated before any significant Lack of Sufficient State Support to tourism investment projects are launched Tourism (Edgell, 1990). The manifold economic, sociocultural, The general lack of a comprehensive political and environmental advantages that approach to the priority attached to tourism tourism brings to a developing country, and its development limits in many devel- underpins the growing concern of govern- oping countries, is perhaps the most striking © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 103 104 Salah E.A. Wahab

factor that makes tourism still a trial and advanced transport and handling compa- error sector in these countries. As a mainly nies. Such criticism is answered by the fact service industry, tourism has generally that such dependency is not a characteristic taken third place in economic planning or in confined to tourism, as it is a transcending state priorities after productive sectors such concept in international trade (Jenkins, as agriculture and manufacturing. Moreo- 1992). Thirdly, tourism is particularly criti- ver, there has generally been little cized in that it involves many imports in coordination between the various tourist developing countries which leads to narrow components that provide goods and services profit margins. Moreover, very limited tour- to tourists and the actions of the public and ist receipts generally remain at the private sectors (Elliot, 1997). developing destination in view of the wide array of foreign currency leakages. Another aspect of the lack of public interest Despite these critical views, tourism con- was the controlled use of natural resources tinues to attract increasing government within a general physical planning attention across the globe, which would framework. The growth of tourism, when seem to necessitate greater emphasis on pol- uncontrolled or insufficiently controlled, icy determinants. has resulted in harmful effects on the general physical environment. Through the pollution of beaches and the spoiling of many other natural assets, the future of Tourism in a Global Policy Context tourism cannot be entirely left to the sole desires and interests of a private sector Tourism policy can have various contexts which is only governed by profit making according to what different countries wish it dictates. It should, even in a clear-cut to be. However, by and large, it embraces the market economy orientation, be adequately normative and strategic goals of tourism in a and ably supervised by an impartial country. It may also include the main meas- National Tourist Administration (NTA), otherwise tourism development would ures by which organized communities contain the seeds of its own destruction attempt to reach those goals, thus influenc- (United Nations, 1973) ing socioeconomic development through tourism. The influence, whether aiming at growth or limitation, must be a conscious Tourism is a Controversial Sector action on tourism development justified by the prevailing socioeconomic and political systems. However, tourism has been and still is subject to many controversial views about its Government function in tourism: a role in economic development. First, tour- redefinition ism development, in the eyes of some The multidimensional nature of the tourism writers, is not without a price. The price it industry gives rise to multiple variables act- exacts resides not only in its investment ing jointly and/or separately to produce a costs, but in the preservation costs of its wide range of areas for government policy cultural and natural heritage against wear making. Referring to the ‘diversity of the and tear and misuse by tourists, the under- activities which collectively constitute the mining of social standards and traditions, tourism industry’, Wheatcraft (1989) the pollution of the natural environment describes governments relationships with and undesirable changes in the natural land- tourism in the following terms: scape (Hamilton, 1972; Lea, 1988). Secondly, tourism is viewed as an activ- All corporate planning must start from a ity which is highly dependent on economic precise definition of the purpose of the conditions prevailing in the niche markets business or the mission role . . . In a normal as well as on the whims of the main tour business organisation, this is something on operators and other technologically which the board of directors and the Trends and Implications of Tourism Policy 105

owners can and must agree. The basic Main Trends in Tourism Policy purpose of the tourism industry is, however, something on which only governments can agree. And, if they do not, As indicated by Lickorich (1991), policy the tourist industry is likely to be left with goals such as the actual or potential impor- some impossibly difficult decisions about tance of tourism, economic growth, its future course of development. employment creation and balance of trade are the main parameters within which the Fayos-Sola (1996) rightly stressed that state wants to see tourism develop, guiding with regard to the changing nature of the the private sector by clearly indicating what tourism industry, and especially in the con- types and volume of tourism are acceptable, text of the establishment of a new and in which locations. development paradigm, the so-called ‘new Governments have long exercised con- tourism era’, which is gradually replacing trols in some countries and areas, most the old model of mass tourism: particularly in respect of exchange rates and hotel service prices. Governments can influ- the governments of particular countries are ence the development of tourism in certain forced to redefine the very essence of their areas by setting the conditions and the scope respective tourism policies and seek new of financial concessions, and regulating con- forms of cooperation with both the private ditions of access to land, for example by sector and society as a whole. allowing only long-term leases or rights of usufruct on land for foreign investors. Government policy making is the most State involvement in the orientation, reg- important government function as it is the ulation and reasonable control of the indispensable prerequisite for sound tour- tourism industry might be deemed neces- ism development strategic planning. It sary to attain a growth rate which is regarded embodies the government’s general polit- by governments as desirable and sometimes ical, economic, social and environmental necessary. Such a growth rate would be goals that are necessary landmarks at the higher than the market-driven rate (Wahab national and regional levels. This would be and Pigram, 1997). true in developing countries as well as in After stating the broad tourism goals with developed countries (Richter, 1989). due consideration of external and internal National tourism policy in some devel- constraints, more specific objectives should oped countries are usually confined to be articulated. Examples of these are socio- embodying the most important tourism cultural, environmental and organizational goals, which reflect overall national needs objectives that derive from the broad tour- constrained by the existing market and ism goals such as those clearly set out in the resource factors. Typical examples would be recent Egyptian tourism policy statement the US Tourism Policy of 1981, embodying laid down by the National Council on Pro- 17 goals, and the Canadian Federal Tourism ductivity and Economic Affairs of the Policy of 1990, which includes eight major Presidency, which was prepared by its tour- goals. The constraints of market and resour- ism committee chaired by the author (Egypt ces are affected as a result of feedback National Council on Productivity and Eco- resulting from the generated policy (Wahab, nomic Affairs, 1997). 1993). It is essential that tourism goals are set in Determinants of national and regional concert with the broader economic, socio- tourism policies cultural and environmental objectives of the Davidson and Maitland (1997) refer to destination (Mowforth and Munt, 1998). Baum’s (1994) research survey into the They must support broad national, regional determinants of national tourism policies, and local interests (see OECD, 1992). where he categorized various National Tour- ism Organizations’ (NTOs) replies to his 106 Salah E.A. Wahab

survey by national economic criteria, divid- fiscal framework allowing the tourism ing responses into three categories: industry to develop efficiently, NTAs in developing countries differ in their man- Group A Countries with a per capita dates and jurisdictions. Some would assume income of less than US$1000 minimum functions such as assistance in (39% of total responses). facilitation, coordination, industry control Group B Countries with a per capita and promotion, both domestically and over- income between US$1000 and seas. Others would have much broader US$8000 (18% of total respon- functions such as those in Egypt, Jordan, ses). Tunisia and Turkey. These functions are Group C Countries with a per capita investment incentives, dissemination of income greater than US$8000, tourism information, ensuring the balanced which includes the UK (41% of and sustainable growth of tourism, offset- total responses). ting market failures and seasonality, diversifying the tourist product, planning The survey resulted in average ratings for and supervising tourism education and eight key objectives of national tourism poli- training, and so on. Such diversity would cies in the following order: (i) to generate derive in the main from differences in the foreign revenue; (ii) to provide employment socioeconomic and juridicopolitical sys- nationally; (iii) to improve regional/local tems prevailing, as well as from the priority economy; (iv) to create awareness; (v) to attached to tourism and its historical devel- provide employment regionally/locally; (vi) opment at the destination. to support the environment; (vii) to contribute to infrastructure development; and (viii) Shift to market mechanism policy trends to create goodwill. In many countries there is a gradual but These determinants of tourism policy marked shift to a market economy. This does cannot be left entirely to the sole discretion not mean the state’s withdrawal from policy and action of the National Tourism Admin- making but a more subtle change from entre- istrations (NTAs) but should be the concern preneurial action to positively paving the of a coherent state mechanism to be mon- way for private enterprise to assume its role itored by the NTAs. Pearce (1989) argues as the main tourism actor. This is usually that ‘while the activities of the NTAs may done through the gradual privatization proc- influence the path of tourist development ess of public sector concerns, business directly, other more general or more indirect guidance through legal and regulatory con- powers exercised by other central govern- trol of the industry, planning, and leading ment agencies also may have a significant but not monopolizing overseas promotion and perhaps greater impact’. and marketing, coordinating and facilitating It is, therefore, necessary that the tourism tourist development, assisting in ensuring policy, or perhaps its more detailed strate- quality services through several tools, gies, should indicate the various roles including planning quality education and played by NTAs and other central and training. This has to be spelled out in the regional government departments and agen- policy objectives, which are subject to cies and develop enough coherence between change in time and space. these roles. The most important factor, however, should be the binding effect of tourism Globalization as a new mega-trend in state policy and detailed tourism strategies upon tourism policy all government agencies. This can only be It is now accepted fact that the world is achieved through legislation. moving toward globalization as a fundamental mega-trend of world development. This Diversity of the mandates of NTAs should result in dramatic changes in the While the main task of the state in tourism is nature of the tourism industry and conse- to provide a suitable legal, regulatory and quently in tourism policy in various Trends and Implications of Tourism Policy 107

countries, particularly in the developing empirically, important commitments of the world. NTAs nationally and of authorities at the The global trends in the tourism industry regional and local levels. Example of these should firmly focus on the consumers’ pref- are: erences, which normally change rapidly due to technological advances and concomitant ● General scientific and applied research changes in economic and sociocultural vari- and studies relating to tourism supply ables. These variables cause diversification and demand including the collection of lifestyles, the emergence of new market and analysis of statistics indispensable communication systems, new information both for research and for policy formu- and distribution systems, a thorough inves- lation. tigation and research into global tourist ● Conducting or sponsoring studies of markets, the development and adjustment of tourism generating markets in view of corporate structures and the consolidation establishing, where possible, specific of competitive strategies and creation of models for each of those markets which competitive tourism advantages. The pres- should form part of marketing intelli- ervation of cultural identity within the gence strategies. global context where ‘complete uniformity ● Surveying the country’s tourist attrac- in cultural terms is remote and reflects inter- tions and facilities with an objective connectedness rather than unity’ (Robinson assessment of their comparative advan- and Boniface, 1999) would require special tages. attention in the tourism policy of develop- ● Mounting a general tourism developing countries. ment strategy for the whole country in the light of the three points shown above, Technical assistance in tourism policy making which should encompass important issues such as land use and general phys- As tourism policy formulation, implementa- ical planning, determination of tourist tion and management require a high level of priority developmental areas based on expertise, this could present an obstacle in pre-established criteria including avail- some developing countries particularly ability of resources, competition, and those newly emerging as tourist destina- opportunity costs, and the provision of tions. Such obstacles could be overcome or guidance as to the type of tourism which, at least mitigated through World Tourism based on economic, sociocultural, and Organization (WTO) technical assistance environmental grounds, is deemed desir- programmes and/or bilateral aid that would able. This would contribute to the require the creation of able government creation of permanent new jobs. agencies that escape the onerous procedures ● Suggesting plans of the required tourist and constraints often found in public supply components, including accom- administration. modation of various types, which the To ensure success in tourism policy mak- private sector could invest in, and pro- ing, a developing country would need to viding guidelines for reducing the apply flexible internal management meth- saturation of traditional destination ods and rules in addition to maintaining regions and localities by redistributing consistency with the national development the movement of visitors. policy as a whole. ● Jointly planning marketing campaigns with the private sector and leading their implementation in various niche mar- Implications of Tourism Policy kets. ● Providing support for quality education Apart from the aforementioned main state and training programmes along WTOs functions in the tourism field, other supple- TEDQUAL (manual on quality educa- mentary activities are, conceptually or tion and training in tourism) studies. 108 Salah E.A. Wahab

● Protection of the environment and created Jordanian Tourist Board. Kenya, national heritage. Chile, Columbia and Costa Rica are other ● Providing the necessary guidelines for examples of countries with a separate struc- the tourism business sector to act in ture for tourism promotion and marketing accordance with the prevailing and (WTO, 1995b). potential globalization trends to protect In other countries, in view of the chang- the national interests within the frame- ing patterns, structures and trends of work of the 1994 treaty on the free trade tourism in the world, a new trend toward in services (General Agreement on Tar- semi-public NTAs involving a partnership iffs and Trade). between the private sector and local authorities could be expected along the lines of Maison de France. The Necessity of the Right Government Machinery Conclusions Thus, all the above activities should necessitate the existence of a suitable machinery Formulating a national tourism policy in that fits properly into the government hier- developing countries has become impera- archy as previously mentioned. tive. Governments in many developing An autonomous NTA would be either countries have changed their roles due to sufficient or insufficient depending upon the shift to the market economy system, the internal structure of the respective orga- fierce competition between tourist destina- nizations apart from the NTA, whatever its tions, the emergence of what could rightly status government. Normally, apart from the be called ‘New Tourism’, and the influence NTA, whatever its status is, there would be of globalization trends. The primary trends an inter-ministerial council or committee to in tourism policy are manifested in the state ensure policy formulation, its amendment, priority attached to tourism, facilitating implementation, and coordination at the frontier formalities, promoting socioeco- highest level. The composition of this inter- nomic development, efficient utilization of ministerial body varies from one country to resources, enhancing employment, creating another, but in this author’s view, it should a stable and effective business environment, be chaired by at least the Prime Minister if and partnership between the public and pri- not the Head of State. Apart from ministers vate sectors (WTO, 1997). of the various departments involved, lead- Implications of the tourism policy would ing figures representing the tourism private be various strategies aiming at achieving sector and recognized scientific experts pre-established goals and objectives. Exam- should also be members. This inter- ples of these strategies are tourism overseas ministerial body should have its own promotion strategy, the strategy for safe- full-time professional secretariat to prepare guarding quality standards, domestic the necessary working papers and studies, tourism strategy, matching tourist supply or cause them to be ready, to facilitate the and demand strategy, tourist education and work of this inter-ministerial body and to training strategy and so on. ensure the execution of its decisions. Within these various strategies, there In some countries, apart from such com- should be some safeguards against misman- posite tourism machinery, a separate image agement of tourism. These safeguards would building and tourist overseas promotion lead to sustainability and avoidance or at organization is also created. Examples of least mitigation of various detriments to such organizations are found in France tourism (Wahab and Pigram, 1997). (Maison de France) and in Spain (Turis- The implementation of Agenda 21 by the pagna). In developing countries, fewer United Nations, prepared after the Earth examples exist, such as the Egyptian Tourist Summit at Rio de Janeiro in 1992, requires a Promotion Authority (ETA) and the newly major shift in priorities, involving a full Trends and Implications of Tourism Policy 109

integration of sustainable development con- cost through global computer networks and siderations into economic and social satellite-linked telephone and televised policies and a major redeployment of systems human and financial resources both at (United Nations, International Commission on Peace and Food, 1994) national and international levels (WTO, 1995a). Furthermore: Such recent developments should result in more pressing needs for tourism policy determinants to become more sophisticated innovations brought about by the marriage of computers and telecommunications and scientifically oriented in developing creating information superhighways makes countries. Tourism’s rapid changes require possible, faster and better communication more flexible and responsive government and information dissemination in organizations to deal with the consequences developing countries at substantially lower of development.

10 Trends in Recreation, Tourism and Protected Area Planning

Stephen F. McCool and Michael E. Patterson

Planning may be defined as ‘linking knowl- ing the technically most preferred edge to action’ (Friedmann, 1987). In the alternative. This planning paradigm makes a times of turbulence and change that typify number of implicit assumptions about the the late 20th and early 21st centuries, con- planning situation (such as the problem necting knowledge to action not only being well defined, unlimited time and becomes more important but more of a resources, a single actor, decision-making necessity. It is more important because the power held by the actor) that are usually futures that we implicitly design with plan- invalid in the real world. While this model’s ning activities are more contentious, and greatest strength is its apparent rationality, thus greater interaction among affected pub- there is growing recognition that such lics to come to agreement on a desired future rationality is bounded by a number of sig- is needed. It is more of a necessity because nificant variables. And in the contentious the way to achieving the desired future is and, as some would maintain, chaotic times tied to identifying actions that will inter- of today, this model has been subject to vene in the ongoing social context. Planning increasing criticism (e.g. McCool and Stan- is thus not only a way of identifying a key, 1986; Forester, 1989). desired future, but it is a process that helps Planning for recreation, tourism and pro- us identify what road to take to this desti- tected areas occurs within a context nation. characterized by uncertainty, where goals of How we go about planning for recreation, development and protection are frequently tourism and protected areas is greatly affec- contested, and multiple interests compete ted by how we, as planners, perceive the not only for scarce resources but also for the planning situation1. Protected area, recrea- political power influencing their disposi- tion and tourism planning has been guided tion. Planning can no longer be viewed as by almost universal attention to the rational- simply a technical process where one fol- comprehensive model, which focuses lows a manual detailing a prescribed series principally on identifying goals, searching of steps. Protected area, recreation and tour- for alternatives, evaluating them and choos- ism planning is being influenced by a

1 We recognize that a host of factors may inﬂuence the planning procedure, including legal mandates, the political context, budget and so on. Nevertheless, within this larger context, how planners perceive the situation will greatly affect how they go about implementing planning. © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 111 112 Stephen F. McCool and Michael E. Patterson

variety of growing global changes in percep- tected area should pursue, what recreation tions of democracy, preferences for more activities are appropriate in a park, or what intimate public participation, concerns social functions tourism development about distributional effects of management, should serve. For example, the practice of and accelerating concerns about the sustain- recreation, tourism and protected area plan- ability of natural resource management ning has moved from a site and facility actions. orientation at small scales to larger scale In this chapter, we detail seven signifi- policy and management issues, such as cant trends developing in the practice of management of snowmobiles and bison in recreation, tourism and protected area plan- Yellowstone National Park. Tourism planning informed by the above changes. We ners are confronted with growing public hold that these trends form the foundation sentiment that tourism not only provides for planning in the 21st century. employment, but should also meet quality of life goals and help conserve scarce resources. Trend 1 In these situations, scientific and technical information may play a role, but one The types of planning settings confronted by which informs not dictates; problems are recreation, tourism and protected area dealt with successfully only through nego- planners have moved from tame problems to tiation because the problem is one of wicked problems and messes conflicting values, not necessarily lack of As chaos and change have continued to buf- credible science. These types of problems fet recreation, tourism and protected area are termed ‘wicked’ (Allen and Gould, planning, there has been increased conflict 1986). Other planning settings are confron- over the goals and objectives to be attained ted not only with contested goals but a lack (see Trend 2). At the same time, there has of scientific information as well. For exam- been a trend, based in the ecosystem science ple, the impact of snowmobiling on the and conservation biology disciplines, to mobility of the bison population in Yellow- consider human and natural processes stone National Park is a subject of great occurring at larger spatial and longer tempo- conjecture, but limited scientific data. These ral scales. The scientific knowledge situations may be termed ‘messes’ because available that deals with these larger scales they often entail a set of linked problems. In is limited, thus increasing the degree of messy situations, problems are resolved (not uncertainty and risk associated with plan- solved) only temporarily because the con- ning decisions (Dovers and Handmer, 1993). text is continually changing (Ackoff, 1974). The problems that occur where there is As Thompson and Tuden (1987) have agreement on goals and scientific agreement argued, the planning process is significantly on cause–effect relationships may be termed different in each situation. For wicked prob- ‘tame’ ones. Technocracies, such as tradi- lems and messy situations, the legal power tional recreation, park and tourism planning and responsibility to plan has been sepa- organizations, are ideally suited to solving rated from the political power needed to tame problems because such solutions are marshal resources for implementation. generally well developed and are performed Thus, planning processes must account for routinely through the use of rational- the pluralistic nature of the planning envi- comprehensive planning models. Such ronment. In this environment, technical models have as their greatest strength a sys- planning processes operating outside a pub- tematic process for evaluating how well lic dialogue tend to create more in the way of specific alternatives technically perform in disagreement than agreement. achieving agreed-upon goals. However, planners are increasingly con- Implications fronted with situations characterized by Planning has been based on the rational- disagreement on what goals a particular pro- comprehensive model, but changes in Trends in Recreation, Tourism and Protected Area Planning 113

society, a universal desire for effective family cohesiveness, reduced crime, greater plans, and new ways of looking at knowl- educational opportunity. Tourism develop- edge suggest significant, structural changes ment is increasingly viewed as a means to in planning processes in the future. Messy generate funding for the management of pro- situations and wicked problems call for tected areas, through fees, charges and planning processes based on dialogue and revenue sharing, and as a way of helping social learning (Friedmann, 1987; Stankey communities cope with economic restruc- et al., 1999) that explicitly deal with poli- turing that has accompanied the declining tics. For recreation, protected area and economic importance of natural resource tourism planning agencies, these trends sug- commodities. For example, tourism devel- gest that new ways of approaching issues, opment in the Flathead Valley in Montana emphasizing learning, collaborative action has helped the community deal with the and consensus-building, take precedence significant decline in forest products pro- over model building and scientific analysis cessing that occurred there in the 1980s. in identifying potential futures and suggest- To some extent, tourism development ing interventions to arrive at a desired has provided alternative employment condition. opportunities, and has encouraged the development of the community’s social cap- Trend 2 ital, thereby enhancing the area’s ability to cope with economic and political change. There is a growing linkage between However, as goals for recreation, tourism recreation, tourism and protected area and protected areas have expanded, so has planning and broader social policy goals the conflict over these goals. Goals represent The reason for protected areas has changed a desired future, and with an increasingly dramatically since 1872 when Yellowstone pluralistic society, there are many desired National Park was legislatively established. and potentially conflicting desired futures. Recreation areas have always provided set- Planning therefore becomes a conflict reso- tings that not only satisfy leisure time needs lution strategy, where planners help of citizens but also serve other socially sig- communities confront and resolve their nificant functions, such as reducing competing visions. Recreation, tourism and vandalism, providing open space, protect- protected areas can be viewed as some of the ing wildlife habitat, and so on. Tourism choices in resolving these conflicts. development traditionally has focused on increasing revenues and economic opportu- Implications nity for businesses and their employees. Linking planning for recreation, protected These traditional functions of recreation, areas, and tourism requires fundamental tourism and protected areas form the foun- consideration of quality of life goals, the dational rationale for engaging in these purposes of economic development, and activities. functions of protected area preservation. For Yet, there is growing recognition that pro- example, publically funded tourism promo- tecting natural areas, enhancing tourism tion is conducted not to increase visitor opportunities or providing recreational set- attendance, but rather to achieve goals with tings are actions tightly entwined with respect to increasing labour income, quality of life goals that are distinct from, enhancing educational opportunity and and often in conflict with, economic devel- protecting the resident quality of life. opment goals. These quality of life objectives include preserving our cultural Trend 3 and natural heritage, enhancing economic opportunity (which contains more than jobs Planning is becoming more inclusive of the or labour income, such as opportunities for values incorporated into the planning process vertical advancement), and a host of other Planning for recreation and protected areas socially desirable values such as increased increasingly recognizes that such reserves 114 Stephen F. McCool and Michael E. Patterson

serve a multitude of important ecological the realization that parks serve important functions other than providing opportun- functions in protecting habitats and popula- ities for recreation. These include tions of threatened and endangered species. preserving biodiversity, protecting habitat The restoration of wolf populations in the for endangered species and allowing natural mid-1990s further served to identify the processes to operate with a minimum of value of parks as places for recovery. Recrea- human intrusion. Such planning has thus tion is now viewed not as the dominant use moved away from a functional to a more to be accommodated but as one of several integrative orientation. For example, devel- overlapping, and frequently conflicting, oping a winter recreational use management values of national parks. plan for Yellowstone National Park cannot The second dimension of this change has be done without consideration of bison pop- occurred because of shifting ways in how we ulation dynamics, which in turn may affect think about what is being managed. Instru- grizzly bear populations. While these link- mental and narrow definitions of protected ages and multiple values may appear to area resources (for example, trees, animals, make planning more complex, the appear- mountains, streams) are giving way to more ance is only an illusion: planning was holistic definitions. Margaret Shannon has always complex, it is just that reductionistic argued: models failed to recognize this complexity and often led to surprises (Lee, 1993). . . . many of our resource conflicts hold us This more inclusive consideration of captive because of our myopic focus on things (a log, a tree, a deer, scenic beauty) broader values has two distinctive dimen- as if they were ‘resources’, . . . (we need) to sions. First, the types of values included in move our focus away from tangible ‘things’ protected area, recreation and tourism plan- that are part of the resource relationship ning have diversified. Yellowstone National and toward the resource relationship itself Park serves as an outstanding example. (Shannon, 1991) Established in 1872 as a ‘park or pleasuring ground’, Yellowstone remains an attraction Nature itself is tightly associated with our for the annual American pilgrimage to spiritual dimension; it may be impossible to nature. Stephen T. Mather, the first director clearly, and in a quantitative way, specify of the National Park Service, envisioned a what is nature and what is natural – obvi- park where the accoutrements of civiliza- ously questions at the heart of protected area tion in the form of fine villas and high art planning. Likewise, we may start asking dotted the islands of Yellowstone Lake – one ‘whose nature do we protect?’ and, more can almost envision young women with importantly, we should ask ‘who gets to ask their parasols and young men with their the questions and who gets to make the beaver hats strolling on these islands. While decisions’. conserving scenery and natural ‘objects’ was a focus of the first century of the park’s Implications management, much of the planning energy Clearly, more inclusive and more holistic went into accommodating recreational uses thinking – what is the resource: soils or and eliminating wildlife species, predators, solitude? – challenge existing paradigms of that killed the ‘good’ nature. protected area planning as they will in the In the 1960s, this attitude began to tourism area. Tourism planning is domi- change, stimulated in part by the Leopold nated by ‘happy talk’ and building ‘better report that suggested that parks represent a brochures’, with little discussion of the ‘vignette of primitive America’ while pro- powerful and positive recreational experi- viding the initial recognition of complex ences that can occur if we appropriately ecological dynamics. A series of controver- market a destination area, consider quality sies over wildlife, particularly elk and of life issues for residents of destination grizzly bears, forced a greater recognition areas, and deal with frequent structural dis- not only of the complexities of planning, but tortions of power in decision making. The Trends in Recreation, Tourism and Protected Area Planning 115

narrow functional promotional emphasis in promotion on protected areas. Tourism pro- tourism planning has not been challenged motion activities tend to increase demand yet on the same scale as the ‘pleasuring for the recreational opportunities and resour- ground’ concept of national parks. But this ces within protected areas. Promotion is only a matter of time. Furthermore, plan- content may influence the image visitors will ners will need to be increasingly more have of the area and assist in the develop- cognizant of the systemic linkages when ment of on-site expectations. Park planners planning. For example, recruiting a new and managers will then need to have in place minor league baseball team and providing it the management systems to deal with with a park in which to play, may signifi- increased visitation and potentially unrealis- cantly negatively impact the quality of life of tic or inappropriate expectations. a local neighbourhood as they pay the traffic congestion and noise costs. Implications This higher level of integration has not only enhanced the quality of the resulting plans, Trend 4 thus increasing the probability that the plan will be implemented, but it has also brought There is more integration of tourism new challenges, such as how local and considerations in national park planning and national stakeholders are integrated into the vice versa planning process. While many of the inter- National parks exist within a context of ests that local and national stakeholders communities economically dependent on retain may be shared, others will be compet- them. Likewise, many state or regional level ing. Integration of different values in tourism industries have increasingly recog- planning requires the planner to actively nized that the sustainability of their seek out and involve different interests both industries is linked to the careful manage- early and continuously in the planning ment of parks and other wildland areas. For process. A planner, in an increasingly example, 40–50% of Montana’s tourism diverse American society, cannot hope to industry economic impact is directly asso- adequately represent all these interests, a ciated with wildland recreation settings responsibility implicitly assumed by plan- (Yuan and Moisey, 1992). Given the linkages ners. developing between communities and protected areas, specific management actions within the protected area may bring signifi- Trend 5 cant economic impact to the community. For example, proposals to reconstruct the Planning has moved away from simplistic, Going-to-the-Sun highway in Glacier carrying-capacity-based paradigms to those National Park, Montana, will result in an more focused on management of desired estimated loss of between US$81 and social and biophysical conditions US$161 million in gross expenditures from Carrying-capacity-based planning processes nonresidents in the state of Montana, tended to define protected area and tourism because the road will be closed (Nickerson planning problems as those of too many and Nickerson, 1998). While this points out people. While such processes spawned a the importance of economic linkages, there great deal of useful research attempting to are others, including ecological, aesthetic link the number of people or visitors with and cultural ones as well. Actions which social and biophysical impacts, they did lit- impact on these linkages will affect com- tle to protect the social and biophysical munities. conditions desired or determined appropri- Thus, increasingly, there has been ate for the area. broader recognition of the effects of national Approaches emphasizing establishing park planning options on tourism, and con- use limits carry the appearance of ‘scientific versely, the effects of investments in tourism objectivity’ but in reality conceal a variety of 116 Stephen F. McCool and Michael E. Patterson

value judgments (Krumpe and McCool, reational settings or tourism-dependent 1997). They fail to explicitly address the communities. Systems that focus on under- question of what conditions are standing what conditions are desired, what appropriate/acceptable and the question of impacts are acceptable and what is unac- how to manage an area to achieve those ceptable, and what actions will lead to conditions; instead they emphasize imple- accepted goals, are increasingly used to find menting limits on recreational use without resolutions to planning problems. Several consideration of other more effective, yet such systems exist, most notably the Limits less intrusive, measures. Establishing a of Acceptable change and the Visitor Experi- recreation carrying capacity requires that a ence and Resource Protection processes number of conceptual and practical condi- developed by the US Department of Agri- tions be met (Shelby and Heberlein, 1986; culture (USDA) Forest Service and US Lindberg et al., 1997; Borrie et al., 1998). In Department of the Interior (USDI) National most cases, these conditions (such as agree- Park Service (Stankey et al., 1986; Denver ment on goals, a specifically identified Service Center, 1993; McCool and Cole, relationship between use levels and 1997). Others such as Visitor Impact Man- impacts, control over access) cannot be agement developed to address visitor use met. issues in National Parks (Graefe et al., 1990) The fundamental rationale for establish- and the Tourism Optimisation Management ing a carrying capacity is to balance a goal of Model (Manidis Roberts Consultants, 1997) allowing recreational use, while still pro- developed in South Australia have also been tecting the pristine qualities of the protected initiated to respond to similar problems. area. Carrying capacity does not do a good When combined with a public involvement job of addressing this goal because it fails to strategy that emphasizes dialogue and social recognize that allowing recreational use learning, these processes make for a power- inevitably leads to some degradation; there- ful tool in resolving conflict, developing fore, the ultimate question is one of how management resolutions and protecting the much impact will be socially or politically qualities that make parks special places. acceptable. Resolving the conflict between goals of providing access and preserving Implications pristine qualities requires that one be identi- Managing for desired resource and social fied as ultimately constraining, but can be conditions, both in protected areas and as a initially compromised (Cole and Stankey, goal of tourism development, will require 1997). This goal is compromised until fur- not only additional research to understand ther change is no longer acceptable. Then linkages between use and conditions, but the other goal is compromised as much as also increased interactive and deliberative necessary to prevent the changes in the ini- public involvement processes (see Trend 6). tial goal from becoming unacceptable. In These processes will help to identify and protected areas, pristine conditions gener- then integrate public desires for future con- ally represent the ultimately constraining ditions, suggest scientifically efficient ways goal, but are initially compromised until fur- of achieving those conditions and determine ther change is socially unacceptable. From the social acceptability of actions and con- that point, recreational use is managed to ditions. prevent any further impacts. Research has shown that the relationship between use levels and impacts is anything Trend 6 but simple and linear: a variety of variables affect this relationship. Research and plan- Changes in philosophy and tactics of public ning have both advanced to the point that involvement in recreation, tourism and recognizes that carrying capacity is a reduc- protected area planning tionistic, naive and inappropriate paradigm One consequence of the move from tame to upon which to base actions that protect rec- wicked problems and messes (Trend 1) has Trends in Recreation, Tourism and Protected Area Planning 117

been a paradigm shift in philosophy and and must be repeatedly created through tactics of public involvement. Most resource public dialogue (Williams and Matheny, agencies were founded under a Progressive 1995). Public relations efforts have moved Era philosophy in which the public was away from the intermediation model and seen as the beneficiary and user of the public education toward a focus on commu- resource, but was accorded little role in the nication, building trust and establishing decision making process (Hays, 1997). long-term relationships. These shifts have Within this model, the public interest was led agencies to experiment with more col- seen as something that could be discovered laborative decision making processes in by neutral, scientific experts. And, in fact, which members of the public are not just only experts were thought to have both the another source of input for decision makers, technical qualifications necessary to under- but active participants. Examples of recent stand the problems and the ability to collaborative efforts in recreation and pro- transcend petty political squabbles of self- tected area planning include development interested groups to serve the general public of a controversial wilderness management interest (Williams and Matheny, 1995). This plan for the Charles C. Deam Wilderness in philosophy was embodied by the rational- Indiana (Slover, 1995), resolution of a con- comprehensive planning process and flict between ORV use and an endangered during the period following World War II, shorebird on Cape Cod National Seashore planning increasingly became the domain of (Barry, 1998), development of the recreation experts who claimed their knowledge about management direction for the Bob Marshall the future and how to get there was superior Wilderness (McCool and Ashor, 1984), and to the user/beneficiary. the Inimin Forest Management Plan (Duane, The nature of public relations efforts 1997). under this model followed two routes. The first may be described as an intermediation Implications model in which public input was seen as In general, collaborative, learning, just another source of data or input which consensus-building models of recreation, expert planners used to make the decision tourism, and protected area planning have (Sirmon, 1993). The second emphasis of been resisted by planners. However, to move public relations efforts reflected a belief that forward in ensuring that the public interest interactions with the public should focus on is represented in tourism promotion, for education that increases public faith in sci- example, those potentially affected but not ence, and served primarily as a means to the included will effectively ‘veto’ such plans if end of letting experts make the decisions not involved. Tourism promotion agencies (Williams and Matheny, 1995). thus must shift their emphasis, narrowly Beginning in the 1970s, the public revol- defined as advertising and promotion, to a ted both against the idea of being excluded more inclusive notion of economic develop- from planning processes concerning the ment. Such a shift means greater public future, and being treated in a condescending involvement simply because development way as implied by the above two routes. requires public consent about means and Ultimately this reaction by the pubic has goals. forced planners to make fundamental shifts in how they view the public, the concept of public interest and the nature of public rela- Trend 7 tions. Increasingly, the public is seen not just as the beneficiary and user of resources, Planning is moving away from standards- but as the arbiters of the public interest. That based decisions and cookie cutter solutions is, the public interest is not seen as some- to needs-based resolutions tailored to the thing that can be objectively discovered and needs of individual situations defined once and for all through science but How many recreation facilities of what type as something that is continually evolving are needed to adequately serve a commu- 118 Stephen F. McCool and Michael E. Patterson

nity? This apparently relatively on an individual level analysis exploring straightforward (but exceedingly complex) attitudes and preferences or economic anal- question had formerly been answered by ysis of proposed benefits without attention turning to national level handbooks that to the characteristics of the specific commu- indicated that so many facilities were nee- nity in which those benefits were to accrue ded per unit population. This standards- or who would bear the costs. However, there based system failed for the same reason that is growing recognition that feasibility must it was popular: it was simple. It implicitly be considered at a community level scale as assumed that technically trained recreation well, which is not simply an aggregation of planners adequately represented the public individual preference curves. Analysis at interest and needs. However, as someone this scale deals with questions such as once noted ‘to every complex question there whether or not the community has the is a simple answer, and it is wrong’. The capacity to resolve conflicts, has the infra- move away from generic standards-based structure to take advantage of the predicted solutions to needs-based resolutions is potential benefits of a plan, and whether the occurring as a response to trends noted pre- anticipated changes are consistent with the viously. Of primary importance are the existing community’s goals (Enck, 1998). recognition of problems as wicked, of the For example, Duane (1997) suggests that the importance of viewing problems at a differ- ability of a community to resolve conflicts ent scale and that the public interest is depends on the existing status of a commu- continually evolving and created through nity’s ‘social capital’ (power relationships, public dialogue. norms of reciprocity, trust and networks for Recognizing problems as wicked in civic engagement). A planning process that nature highlights the importance of paying works in one community may fail in another careful attention to the particular context of due to differences in context at the commu- the specific planning problem being nity scale. The uniform application of addressed. For example, conflicts over plans facility and recreation standards fails to can arise from a variety of sources including: account for these dimensions. (i) disagreements about the data or facts that A final problem with standardized solu- serve as the basis for the plan; (ii) disputes tions is that they fail to recognize that the about goals or values used to interpret the public interest is something that is continu- desirability or appropriateness of alterna- ally evolving and created through public tives; (iii) concerns regarding equity or dialogue. In a sense, standards-based plan- distributional issues; or (iv) issues related to ning is anything but adaptive. This denies what decision making processes communi- the local community voice, increasing the cate about relationships (e.g. how much a likelihood of conflict stemming from particular group is valued or who has power relationship/power issues even when the and how it is exercised) (Duane, 1997). In goals, values and interests might otherwise any given situation, opposition to plans may be palatable to the community. reflect any one or some combination of these sources of conflict. Standardized solutions Implications are inadequate, in part due to their failure to Agencies need to move away from simplistic recognize that as the context changes, the notions of solutions and answers. These are nature and source of the opposition may no longer adequate to address the growing also change and therefore a solution accept- complexity and diversity of demands on able in one place may fail to address issues natural resources. New approaches to deal- relevant to a different time and place. ing with planning, such as transactive Another aspect of planning problems that planning theory or soft systems methodol- makes standardized solutions inadequate is ogy (Checkland and Scholes, 1990) may be associated with the concept of scale. Often more appropriate planning paradigms. previous attempts to incorporate public Coordination, a chief goal of centralized, input into planning processes have focused top-down planning that is often character- Trends in Recreation, Tourism and Protected Area Planning 119

ized by ‘cookie-cutter’ solutions can be works, not only in urban situations, where achieved through incentives at lower scales. the challenges of planning have spurned innovation, but also for protected areas, recreation and tourism agencies. We would Conclusion expect that movement to new ways of doing business – towards Freidmann’s ‘non- We maintain that recreation, protected area Euclidean’ approaches – to be challenged, and tourism planning is beginning a new era not so much by the public, but by the – one that increasingly involves the public planning profession itself, because such in meaningful dialogue and roles, recogni- approaches threaten the ‘culture of techni- zes the pluralistic nature of American cal control’ (Yankelovich, 1991) character- politics and society, understands the ‘messi- izing planning in natural resource and tour- ness’ of problems, and is more inclusive not ism settings. only of those for whom the planning is done, Planning is not the sole domain of tech- but of the values at stake as well. Much of nocrats, nor do planners have exclusive this change has not been brought about by claims to representing the public interest. the planning profession, unfortunately, but While such assertions developed out of has been forced upon it by a public reso- ‘New Deal’ models of public agencies, an lutely dissatisﬁed with the results and increasingly diverse American public has process of rational-comprehensive plan- grown suspicious of agency motivations and ning. New paradigms of planning, where actions. Only through changes in planning public participation may be indistinguish- paradigms will greater agreement on means able from the planning process, are in the and ends, rather than disagreement, occur.

11 Coming of Age: History and Trends in Outdoor Recreation Research

Robert E. Manning

Introduction: From Diversity to cult to integrate with a more recent study of Direction wilderness use in the West. Outdoor recreation has also been subject to wide One of the most distinctive characteristics of methodological diversity. Even though the outdoor recreation research is its inherent dominant research approach has been to diversity (Manning, 1999). First and fore- survey on-site visitors, there has been sub- most, outdoor recreation itself is diverse by stantial variation in sampling techniques, definition, as it addresses both people and the scope of such studies, and the way in the natural environment. Issues in outdoor which important variables have been con- recreation are conventionally dichotomized ceptualized and measured. into environmental science concerns (e.g. Finally, substantive findings from out- ecological impacts) and social science con- door recreation are also diverse. Visitors to cerns (e.g. crowding and conflicting uses). parks and related areas participate in a vari- This paper deals only with social science ety of outdoor recreation activities, research in outdoor recreation. But even represent a broad spectrum of socioeco- within the social science domain, outdoor nomic and cultural characteristics, and recreation research may be approached from often report varying attitudes and prefer- a variety of disciplinary perspectives, ences regarding a host of recreation including sociology, psychology, geogra- management issues. phy, political science and economics. However, within this broad diversity, Finding commonality and trends within several theoretical, methodological and sub- these discipline-based studies can be com- stantive directions or trends can be plex. Indeed, simply finding the research in observed. Dominant trends include: (i) evo- the variety of journals and other publication lution of recreation research from primarily sources in which it is reported can be diffi- empirically based studies of visitor charac- cult. teristics and use patterns to more Outdoor recreation research also tends to theoretically based studies of visitor behav- be isolated in space and time; studies are iour; (ii) development of conceptual widely scattered geographically and are frameworks that allow integration of multi- conducted over varying periods. At least on ple studies; (iii) development of theoretical the surface, an early study of developed models of important recreation issues; and campgrounds in an Eastern park can be diffi- (iv) continuing evolution of recreation © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 121 122 Robert E. Manning

research to address emerging societal prob- The outline prepared as a guide for the lems and issues. These trends are briefly bibliographic search assumed the existence described and illustrated in this chapter. of a substantial body of material relating These trends have substantial implications rather directly to outdoor recreation. As the actual hunt progressed, the true situation – for both outdoor recreation research and that the field (if it is yet that) of outdoor management. recreation has been but sketchily treated – became more and more evident (Librarian of Congress, 1962, p. 2) A History of Outdoor Recreation Research: Epistemological and The bibliographical catalogue of the Library Methodological Evolution of Congress had no subject heading, ‘outdoor recreation’. Fewer than ten entries Outdoor recreation is not a discipline in the were found in this study that referred to conventional academic sense. That is, it is outdoor recreation in their titles. not a basic branch of knowledge like Most of the early research in outdoor biology, mathematics or sociology. It is an recreation was ecologically oriented. This applied field of study focused on an issue or was, at least in part, because most outdoor problem that has attracted the attention of a recreation managers were professionally broad segment of society. Though research trained in the traditional biological disci- in outdoor recreation can be traced back 50 plines or fields of study, including forestry years or more (e.g. Meinecke, 1928; Bates, and wildlife biology (Lime, 1972; Hendee 1935), sufficient attention was not focused and Stankey, 1973). An early observation on outdoor recreation for it to emerge as a noted that social scientists traditionally field of study until after World War II. Dur- paid little attention to the broad issue of ing the 1950s, rapid gains in economic leisure and recreation. The multidiscipli- prosperity, ease of transportation, increas- nary nature of outdoor recreation, however, ing leisure time and other social forces gained recognition in the post-World War II converged to produce dramatic and sus- period. Social problems such as crowding tained increases in the use of outdoor began to supplement traditional concerns recreation areas. Problems in the form of for environmental impacts, and participants environmental impacts and crowding began in outdoor recreation activities were recog- to attract the attention of both professionals nized as having socioeconomic charac- and the public as manifested in articles in teristics, attitudes and preferences that national magazines and professional jour- might be of interest to park and outdoor nals (e.g. DeVoto, 1953; Clawson, 1959a). recreation managers. Emphasis on the social Outdoor recreation as a field of study had its aspects of outdoor recreation was furthered genesis in this period. in the 1960s and early 1970s by a series of The beginning of serious social scientific calls for research on outdoor recreation in study in this field in the US, and perhaps several major social science disciplines, worldwide, began with the Outdoor Recrea- including sociology (Catton, 1971; Hendee, tion Resources Review Commission 1971), economics (Clawson and Knetsch, (ORRRC) reports. ORRRC was a presidential 1963), psychology (Driver, 1972), geography commission established in 1958 to assess (Mitchell, 1969), and a general multidisci- the status of outdoor recreation in America plinary approach (Lucas, 1966). (Siehl, Chapter 8). It published its widely Early social science research in outdoor read summary report, Outdoor Recreation recreation and leisure in general was prima- for America, in 1962 along with 29 special rily descriptive, focusing on the activities studies (ORRRC, 1962). The paucity of out- and social characteristics of the partici- door recreation research before that time is pants. The ORRRC studies noted earlier are evident in one of the special studies which examples of this type of research. Early surveyed the outdoor recreation literature. observers criticized this work as ‘little else The introduction of the report stated: than a reporting of survey data’ (Berger, Coming of Age 123

1962) and ‘sheer empiricism’ (Meyersohn, 1993). The study concluded that ‘recreation 1969). Absence of a strong theoretical foun- resource management research . . . is con- dation, along with an overemphasis on sidered important and successful by applied problem solving, has been a con- managers and researchers’. A second USDA tinuing criticism of outdoor recreation Forest Service study assessed the value of research (Moncrief, 1970; Hendricks and social science more broadly and concluded Burdge, 1972; Crandall and Lewko, 1976; that: Burdge et al., 1981; Riddick et al., 1984; Iso- Ahola, 1986a). For example, an analysis of social science research can help managers papers published in the Journal of Leisure work more effectively with their clients and Research from 1978 to 1982 concluded that partners to increase ‘customer satisfaction’, two-thirds ‘lacked an explicit statement increase support for resource management programs and policies, reduce controversy about the theoretical basis of the study’ (Rid- and conflict, reduce the need for restrictive dick et al., 1984). rules, laws, and regulations relating to However, evidence suggests this has resource management and use, and reduce changed over time as outdoor recreation management costs research has developed and matured. As (Jakes et al., 1998) early as 1970, it was noted that the field of outdoor recreation was beginning to move The effectiveness of recreation research beyond the descriptive phase and into more in the National Park Service also has been explanatory studies (Moncrief, 1970). More- documented (Machlis and Harvey, 1993). over, synergistic effects of outdoor Finally, an economic study suggests that, recreation and leisure research were begin- based on efficiency, we may be under- ning to materialize. A study of participation investing in outdoor recreation-related in water-based recreation published in research (Bengston and Xu, 1993). 1974, for example, noted that ‘in the inves- Evidence suggests that recreation tigation of any problem area there must be a research also has become multidisciplinary, systematic and rigorous effort by many so even interdisciplinary. Early analyses of that studies are progressive and research outdoor recreation noted its inherent multi- findings are accumulative, if a critical mass disciplinary nature, and that research of theoretical and substantive knowledge is should span the traditional social science to emerge’ (Field and Cheek, 1974). The disciplines (National Academy of Sciences, authors concluded that, ‘In the study of lei- 1969; Van Doren and Heit, 1973; Crandall sure, we are coming of age’. The same year, and Lewko, 1976). A study of scholarly jour- an assessment of research published in the nals in recreation suggests that research is Journal of Leisure Research reached a sim- moving in this direction (Burdge, 1983). ilar conclusion: ‘The study of leisure is Authors and editors of these journals reveal approaching the threshold of real accom- a trend away from a disciplinary approach plishment’ (Burdge, 1974). to outdoor recreation to a more multidisci- Progress in recreation research is evident plinary treatment. Contributions from the in more recent analyses. An examination of traditional social science disciplines of papers published in four recreation-related sociology, psychology and economics have journals from 1981 to 1990 found that most declined relative to contributions from included a theoretical or conceptual frame- researchers in the broader park, recreation work (Henderson, 1994b). Moreover, there and related departments, whose studies are is evidence that recreation research has broader in nature and more appropriate to proved effective and efficient. A study of the problem solving in an inherently interdisci- US Department of Agriculture (USDA) For- plinary field. est Service found that most important If the quality of outdoor recreation innovations in outdoor recreation manage- research is debatable, the quantity is not. ment were derived from research (Anderson Just 11 years after the scant literature base and Schneider, 1993; Schneider et al., uncovered by the ORRRC studies, a biblio-

124 Robert E. Manning

graphy on outdoor recreation carrying works that provide a more holistic or capacity was developed, containing 208 integrated structure from which to under- citations (Stankey and Lime, 1973). A 1978 stand and ultimately manage outdoor bibliography on the subject of river recrea- recreation. A long-standing example of such tion contained 335 citations (Anderson et a conceptual framework is carrying capac- al., 1978). One of the bibliographies ity. included in this citation has nearly a thou- Rapidly expanding recreation in the sand citations, while the others have more 1950s and 1960s gave rise to concerns over than a thousand (Echelberger et al., 1983; appropriate use levels of outdoor recreation Kuss et al., 1990; Daigle, 1993). Despite this areas. While interest in the impacts of apparent increase in outdoor recreation recreation on the natural resource base pre- research, basic information on use and users dominated, attention was beginning to shift of parks and related areas remains patchy at to the effects of increased use on the quality best. A recent survey of areas managed by of the recreation experience. Early studies the National Park Service found that most prompted theorists to search for a concep- parks lacked basic visitor-related informa- tual framework to help formulate outdoor tion, including socioeconomic character- recreation policy. A resulting paradigm was istics, residence and satisfaction (Manning carrying capacity. and Wang, 1998). Carrying capacity has a rich history in the Research in outdoor recreation has, then, natural resource professions, substantially evolved in the classic manner of most emerg- predating its serious adoption in the field of ing fields of study. Most early studies were outdoor recreation. In particular, the term descriptive and exploratory, substituting has received wide use in wildlife and range data for theory, and were disciplinary-based. management, where it refers to the number An expanding data base allowed more con- of animals of any one species that can be ceptual and analytical development, and accommodated over time in a given habitat. ultimately a more multidisciplinary and Perhaps the first suggestion for applying the interdisciplinary approach. These trends concept of carrying capacity to outdoor are evident in the scholarly journals in recreation was recorded in the mid-1930s. A which recreation research is reported. The National Park Service report on policy rec- early studies of the 1950s and 1960s are ommendations for parks in the California found in journals of sociology, psychology, Sierras posed the question, ‘How large a economics and forestry. As research activity crowd can be turned loose in a wilderness expanded, the developing field of outdoor without destroying its essential qualities?’ recreation created its own multidisciplinary (Sumner, 1936). Later in the report, it was scholarly publication outlets, including the suggested that recreation use of wilderness Journal of Leisure Research in 1969, Leisure be kept ‘within the carrying capacity’. The Sciences in 1977, and the Journal of Park concept of carrying capacity became a more and Recreation Administration in 1983. formal part of the outdoor recreation field when it was listed as a major issue by Dana (1957) in his problem analysis of outdoor Development of Conceptual recreation, and as a result of its prominence in the deliberations and writings of the Frameworks: Carrying Capacity and ORRRC (ORRRC, 1962). Other Paradigms The first rigorous application of carrying capacity to outdoor recreation came in the The preceding section suggests several early 1960s with a conceptual monograph trends in outdoor recreation research, all of by Wagar (1964). Perhaps the major con- which are methodological and epistemolog- tribution of Wagar’s conceptual analysis ical. However, there have been a number of was the expansion of carrying capacity from substantive advances as well, including the its dominant emphasis on environmental development of several conceptual frame- effects to a dual focus including social or Coming of Age 125

experiential considerations. Wagar’s point extent and direction of management was that as more people visit an outdoor actions. recreation area, not only the environmental The growing research base on outdoor resources of the area are affected, but also recreation indicates that increasing recrea- the quality of the recreation experience. tion use often causes impact or change to the Thus, carrying capacity was expanded to environmental, experiential or managerial include consideration of the social environ- components of carrying capacity. However, ment as well as the biophysical despite increasing knowledge about recrea- environment. tion use and resulting impacts, the critical Wagar’s original conceptual analysis hin- question remains: how much impact or ted at a third element of carrying capacity, change should be allowed? This issue is and this was described more explicitly in a often referred to as the ‘limits of acceptable subsequent paper (Wagar, 1968). Noting a change’ (Frissell and Stankey, 1972). Some number of misconceptions about carrying change in the recreation environment is capacity, it was suggested that carrying inevitable, but sooner or later the amount, capacity might vary according to the amount nature or type of change may become unac- and type of management activity. For exam- ceptable. But what determines the limits of ple, the durability of biophysical resources acceptable change? might be increased through practices such Recent experience with carrying capacity as fertilizing and irrigating vegetation, and suggests that answers to the above question periodic rest and rotation of impact sites. can be found through formulation of man- Similarly, the quality of the recreation agement objectives and associated experience might be maintained or even indicators and standards of quality (e.g. enhanced in the face of increasing use by Lime and Stankey, 1971; Stankey et al., means of a more even distribution of visi- 1986; Stankey and Manning, 1986; Shelby et tors, appropriate rules and regulations, al., 1992; Manning and Lime, 1996; National provision of additional visitor facilities and Park Service, 1997b). This approach to car- educational programmes designed to rying capacity focuses on defining the type encourage desirable user behaviour. Thus of visitor experience to be provided. Man- carrying capacity, as applied to outdoor agement objectives are broad, narrative recreation, was expanded to a three- statements defining the type of visitor dimensional concept: environmental, social experience to be provided. Indicators of and managerial considerations. quality are more specific, measurable vari- Carrying capacity has attracted intensive ables reflecting the essence or meaning of focus as a research and management concept management objectives; they are quantifi- or paradigm in outdoor recreation. Several able proxies or measures of management bibliographies, books and review papers objectives. Indicators of quality may include have been published on carrying capacity elements of the biophysical, social and man- and related issues, and these publications agement environments that are important in contain hundreds of citations (e.g. Stankey determining the quality of the visitor experi- and Lime, 1973; Graefe et al., 1984; Shelby ence. Standards of quality define the and Heberlein, 1986; Stankey and Manning, minimum acceptable condition of each indi- 1986; Kuss et al., 1990). Yet despite this cator variable. impressive literature base, efforts to apply Research has given rise to several frame- carrying capacity to recreation areas has works for determining and applying often resulted in frustration. The principal carrying capacity to outdoor recreation. difficulty lies in determining how much These frameworks include Limits of Accept- impact or change should be allowed within able Change (LAC) (Stankey et al., 1986; each of the three components that make up McCool and Cole, 1997), Visitor Impact the carrying capacity framework: the natur- Management (VIM) (Graefe et al., 1990) and alness of environmental resources, the Visitor Experience and Resource Protection quality of the recreation experience, and the (VERP) (Manning et al., 1996a; Hof and 126 Robert E. Manning

Lime, 1997; National Park Service, 1997b). component, provided a convenient founda- All these frameworks incorporate the ideas tion on which to base theoretical and about carrying capacity described above and empirical crowding research. Wagar’s provide a rational, structured process for (1964) conceptual analysis of carrying making carrying capacity decisions. capacity is an appropriate place to begin Several applications and evaluations of discussion. This analysis suggested that, carrying capacity frameworks and related ‘When too many people use the same area, processes have been developed and descri- some traditional wildland values are lost’. bed in the literature (e.g. Ashor et al., 1986; This was illustrated with a series of hypo- Shelby and Heberlein, 1986; Graefe et al., thetical relationships between crowding 1990; Vaske et al., 1992; Manning et al., and a number of human motivations inher- 1995a,b,c, 1996a,b; National Park Service, ent in outdoor recreation participation. 1995b; Manning and Lime, 1996; Manning, Early empirical studies of crowding (e.g. 1997; McCool and Cole, 1997). Lucas, 1964; Stankey, 1973) were followed Other conceptual frameworks developed by theoretical development. Several theo- in the recreation literature include the rists developed a quantitative model of the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (Brown effects of increasing use on the recreation et al., 1978; Clark and Stankey, 1979; Driver experience, based on the economic concept et al., 1987), indicators and standards of of marginal utility (Clawson and Knetch, quality (Stankey et al., 1985; Manning et al., 1966; Alldredge, 1973). Substituting recrea- 1998) and several classification systems of tion visits for input and satisfaction for recreation management practices and output, the theoretical constructs of produc- related management processes or hand- tion economics suggest that as visitors are books (Lime, 1977; Manning, 1979; Cole et added to a recreation area, the marginal sat- al., 1987; Anderson et al., 1998). isfaction of each individual visitor will progressively decline due to crowding, but total or aggregate satisfaction will increase. Development of Theoretical Models: This process continues until the marginal Crowding and Other Issues satisfaction of the nth visitor no longer exceeds the drop in satisfaction of previous Substantive advances in outdoor recreation visitors. At this point, aggregate satisfaction research have also focused on a growing begins to decline and social carrying capac- number of issues or topical areas. These ity has been reached. issues have been the subject of many studies The driving force behind this model is an whose findings can be synthesized into the- assumed inverse relationship between use oretical models that guide further research level and satisfaction; for the individual, and management. Crowding is a prominent increased use causes decreased satisfaction. example of such an issue. This approach to crowding has been called There is a relatively long history of con- the ‘satisfaction model’ (Heberlein and cern over the effects of increasing use on the Shelby, 1977). However, subsequent theo- quality of the recreation experience, begin- retical and empirical studies have suggested ning even before the post-World War II that crowding is considerably more com- boom in recreation participation (e.g. plex. These studies have led to development Adams, 1930; Leopold, 1934). Shortly after of an expanded crowding model. the beginning of the period of rapidly An expanded model of crowding incor- expanding outdoor recreation in the 1950s porates findings from three broad areas of and 1960s, a number of popular articles research: (i) normative definitions of crowd- began to generate widespread interest in this ing; (ii) coping behaviours; and (iii) topic (e.g. DeVoto, 1953; Clawson, 1959a). methodological issues. The normative Adoption of the concept of carrying approach to crowding suggests that use level capacity, particularly the expansion of the is not interpreted negatively as crowding concept to include a social carrying capacity until it is perceived to interfere with or dis- Coming of Age 127

rupt one’s objectives or values. This Brunson and Shelby, 1993), and recreation approach has proved fertile for theory build- specialization (Bryan, 1977; Ditton et al., ing and testing in outdoor recreation 1992; Kuentzel and McDonald, 1992). (Gramann, 1982; Manning, 1985, 1986a; Stankey, 1989; Westover, 1989). A variety of factors have been found to influence norma- Evolving Issues: Race, Ethnicity and tive interpretations of crowding. These Other Concerns factors can be grouped into three basic categories: (i) personal characteristics of visitors Research in outdoor recreation continues to (e.g. motivations, preferences, expectations evolve to meet societal interests and needs. and experience); (ii) characteristics of other An important example of expanding visitors encountered (e.g. type and size of research interest is the relationship between group, behaviour and perceptions of alike- race/ethnicity and outdoor recreation. Inter- ness); and (iii) situational variables (e.g. type est in effects of race and ethnicity on of recreation area, location within an area, recreation have been evident since the very and environmental factors). early stages of outdoor recreation research. Coping behaviours also have been found Two of the ORRRC studies in the early to influence crowding in outdoor recreation. 1960s, for example, reported significant dif- It has been hypothesized that outdoor recre- ferences in outdoor recreation participation ationists utilize three primary forms of between blacks and whites (Hauser, 1962; coping behaviour: displacement, rational- Mueller and Gurin, 1962). Interest in this ization and product shift. Displacement is a issue expanded in the 1960s and early behavioural coping mechanism in that it 1970s, in part as a function of the civil rights involves spatial or temporal changes in use movement. Racial unrest in this period was patterns. Rationalization and product shift attributed, at least in part, to poor quality are cognitive coping mechanisms involving and inequitable distribution of recreation changes in the ways visitors think about opportunities (National Advisory Commis- recreation experiences and opportunities. sion on Civil Disorders, 1970; Washburne, Empirical research has helped document 1978). Contemporary concern over issues of the extent to which these coping behaviours equity and social and environmental justice are adopted by outdoor recreationists has focused additional research attention on (Anderson and Brown, 1984; Hammitt and this issue. Interest in this subject area is Patterson, 1991; Robertson and Regula, likely to continue to grow in intensity and 1994). importance as minority populations of sev- Finally, a number of methodological eral types continue to expand relative to the issues have been identified that help explain traditional white, European-American the sometimes complex relationship majority. Research tends to fall into one of between use level and crowding in outdoor two basic categories: (i) studies that explore recreation. These issues include a nonlinear differences in recreation patterns between relationship between use level and contacts or among racial and ethnic groups; and (ii) or encounters among recreationists, alter- studies that attempt to explain such differ- native measures of contacts or encounters, ences. and the multidimensional nature of visitor Research on recreation patterns associ- satisfaction. ated with subcultural groups has been Theoretical models have been developed conducted in a variety of contexts and has in the literature for a variety of other outdoor employed varying research methods. How- recreation issues, including recreation con- ever, study findings have been nearly flict (Jacob and Schreyer, 1980; Manning, universal in their conclusion that whites 1999), motivations and benefits in outdoor participate more often than minority pop- recreation (Haas et al., 1980; Driver, 1996; ulations (particularly blacks and Hispanics) Anderson et al., Chapter 18), substitutability in traditional outdoor recreation activities of recreation activities (Iso-Ahola, 1986b; (e.g. Washburne, 1978; Washburne and 128 Robert E. Manning

Wall, 1980; Stamps and Stamps, 1985; West, groups. Research in this area has been both 1989; Dwyer, 1993; Johnson et al., 1997b). theoretical and empirical. Three basic theo- The ORRRC studies noted above were the ries have been advanced to explain first to document this pattern, and it has differences in recreation behaviour among been found to persist over time. A national subcultural groups. The first two theories survey conducted in 1977, for example, were developed in a seminal study by Wash- found that blacks participated less than burne (1978). This study suggested what whites to a statistically significant degree in were perceived to be the competing theories several outdoor recreation activities, includ- of marginality and ethnicity. The theory of ing camping, boating, hiking/backpacking, marginality suggests that minority subcul- hunting, skiing and sightseeing at historical tural groups, particularly blacks, suffer from sites or natural wonders (Washburne and economic and related disadvantages as a Wall, 1980). Similarly, a more recent on-site result of historic discrimination. These dis- survey conducted at a nationwide sample of advantages act to inhibit participation in federal and state parks and outdoor recrea- outdoor recreation by means of cost, trans- tion areas found that blacks comprised only portation, information, location and other 2% of all visitors while representing 11.7% barriers. The theory of ethnicity, on the of the US population (Hartmann and Over- other hand, suggests that differences in devest, 1990). recreation behaviour are a function of sub- In addition to participation rates, studies cultural values; subcultural groups such as have also found a variety of differences in blacks and ethnic minorities reflect cultural recreation patterns and preferences among values different from the dominant white, subcultural groups (e.g. Kelly, 1980; Wash- European-American culture, and these burne and Wall, 1980; Dwyer and values manifest themselves in recreation Hutchison, 1990; Blahna, 1992; Gramann et behaviour. A third basic theory has been al., 1993; Pawelko et al., 1997). Most of these developed more recently and focuses on studies have addressed differences between racism or interracial relations (West, 1989). whites and minority subcultural groups, This theory suggests that minority subcul- particularly blacks and Hispanics. Findings tural groups may experience personal or suggest that, compared to whites, minority institutional forms of discrimination that subcultural groups tend to: inhibit their participation in selected recreation activities. ● Use and prefer ‘urban-oriented’ recrea- A number of studies have addressed and tion facilities and services. tested these three basic theories (e.g. Wash- ● Participate in larger groups that often burne, 1978; Washburne and Wall, 1980; include extended family and friends Klobus-Edwards, 1981; Stamps and Stamps, and consist of more diverse age groups. 1985; Floyd et al., 1993, 1994; Shinew et al., ● Use and prefer more highly developed 1995; Johnson et al., 1997a, 1998). Tests of facilities. the marginality and ethnicity theories are ● Participate in activities that are more often addressed in the same studies. The fitness and sports-oriented. most common research approach is to meas- ● Have a longer length of stay at recreation ure recreation behaviour across two or more sites. subcultural groups while statistically con- ● Use areas that are closer to home. trolling for a variety of socioeconomic ● Use land-based rather than water-based variables such as income and education. areas. This allows direct comparison of individ- ● Make more intensive use of facilities uals of similar socioeconomic status. If and services. differences in recreation behaviour are reduced or eliminated in such tests, then A second basic area of research has this suggests support for the theory of mar- focused on why there are differences in ginality. If differences persist, then this recreation behaviour among subcultural suggests support for the theory of ethnicity. Coming of Age 129

Several studies have also asked respondents more active uses. Finally, the racism or more directly about barriers to participation interracial relations theory suggests that in outdoor recreation as a means of testing managers should re-examine their agencies the marginality and ethnicity theories. Tests and programmes for evidence of institu- of the interracial relations theory generally tional discrimination (e.g. discriminatory rely on surveys to determine the extent to pricing policies) and should be proactive in which minority subcultural groups report furthering programmes to promote racial having been subject to personal or institu- harmony. tional discrimination, and the degree to Along with race and ethnicity, a number which this is a barrier to participation in of other contemporary issues are evolving in outdoor recreation. the outdoor recreation literature, including The research indicates some support for the relationship between gender and out- all of the three basic theories described door recreation (Henderson, 1990, 1997, above. This has led to a more contemporary Chapter 2; Shaw, 1994), the appropriate role view that the relationship between recrea- of user fees in outdoor recreation manage- tion behaviour and subcultural factors is ment (Reiling et al., 1992; Lundgren, 1996) complex and can be understood only and the characteristics and impacts of new through consideration of multiple and pos- forms of outdoor recreation such as moun- sibly interrelated influences (McDonald and tain biking (Watson et al., 1991; Chavez et Hutchison, 1986; West, 1989; Johnson et al., al., 1993; Chavez 1996a,b). 1997b, 1998). For example, clearly there are strong interrelationships between subcultural groups and socioeconomic status: Conclusions: Trends and their historic patterns of segregation and discrim- Implications ination are reflected in lower socioeconomic status of blacks and other minority subcul- Outdoor recreation research has clearly tural groups. It is reasonable to suggest, evolved and matured over the past several therefore, that subcultural values may be decades. The beginning of serious social sci- influenced by socioeconomic status and that ence research in outdoor recreation can be both the marginality and ethnicity theories traced to the ORRRC in the early 1960s. may influence recreation behaviour. Since then, the outdoor recreation research Research on race and ethnicity suggests literature has expanded dramatically. Even several potential management implications. though this literature is diverse in terms of To the extent to which the marginality the- theoretical approaches, research methodol- ory is valid, special efforts should be made ogies and issues addressed, several trends to ensure equal access to outdoor recreation. are evident. Potential actions within the scope of indi- First, recreation research has evolved vidual managers include provision of public from primarily empirically based studies of transportation, location of parks and out- visitor characteristics and use patterns to door recreation areas closer to minority more theoretically based studies of visitor populations, and development and market- behaviour and the underlying meanings of ing of recreation programmes more directly outdoor recreation. Thus, the literature has to minority subcultural groups. Manage- evolved from primarily descriptive studies ment implications of the ethnicity theory are to more analytical or explanatory studies. quite different. To the extent to which this The theoretical basis of outdoor recreation theory is valid, recreation facilities and ser- research has evolved from more vices should be designed to meet the disciplinary-based studies derived from recreation-related values of minority sub- sociology, psychology and economics, to cultural groups. The literature suggests such more interdisciplinary studies conducted adaptations might include an emphasis on by scientists educated and housed in park, more developed facilities closer to home outdoor recreation and related depart- and facilities designed for larger groups and ments. 130 Robert E. Manning

Second, the research-based literature in ments, scholarly journals and an established outdoor recreation has been synthesized to scientific literature. develop a number of conceptual frameworks Management of outdoor recreation has that are useful for integrating multiple stud- benefited directly from advances in the ies, and ultimately guiding further research research base. As noted earlier in this chap- and management. Examples include carry- ter, a recent study of the USDA Forest ing capacity, the Outdoor Recreation Service found that most important innova- Opportunity Spectrum, indicators and stan- tions in outdoor recreation were derived dards of quality, and several classification from research (Anderson and Schneider, systems of recreation management practices 1993; Schneider et al., 1993). Theoretical and related management processes or hand- models of crowding, conflict, motivations books. Third, the synergistic effects of an and benefits in recreation, substitutability of accumulating body of research have devel- recreation activities, and recreation special- oped a strong theoretical understanding of a ization have allowed for management of number of important issues in outdoor these issues on a more informed basis. More- recreation, including crowding, conflict, over, conceptual frameworks developed motivations and benefits, substitutability from the recreation literature have resulted and specialization. Fourth, issues addressed in a series of structured approaches in outdoor recreation research continue to designed to guide recreation management. evolve to meet societal interests and needs. Examples include Limits of Acceptable Examples of such issues include the rela- Change, Visitor Experience and Resource tionship between outdoor recreation and Protection, and the Recreation Opportunity race, ethnicity and gender, the appropriate Spectrum. Finally, outdoor recreation role of fees in outdoor recreation manage- research can evolve to address emerging ment, and the characteristics and impacts of management issues such as the relationship new forms of outdoor recreation such as between outdoor recreation and race, eth- mountain biking. nicity and gender, the appropriate role of These trends have had substantial impli- fees in outdoor recreation, and new forms of cations for both recreation research and outdoor recreation such as mountain bik- management. The evolving, multidiscipli- ing. nary, explanatory approach to outdoor The evolution of outdoor recreation recreation research has developed a stronger research has been instrumental in building a theoretical foundation for understanding foundation for outdoor recreation as a pro- outdoor recreation. Resulting theoretical fessional field of study. Research has models have provided an intellectual frame- resulted in a strong, multidisciplinary, theo- work within which to integrate multiple retical and empirical scientific literature. studies, and helped guide additional This body of knowledge can and should be research by isolating important variables used to guide future research, and to inform and relationships as well as suggesting a management action. Moreover, this scien- series of hypotheses for further empirical tific literature should be incorporated into testing. A stronger theoretical basis for professional education programmes aimed understanding outdoor recreation has con- at both students and practitioners. In these tributed, in turn, to recognition of outdoor ways, research can help the field of outdoor recreation as an important, applied field of recreation continue its professional evolu- study with concomitant academic depart- tion and its ‘coming of age’. Part III Participation: How We Are Using Resources

12 Trends in Americans’ Outdoor Recreation

H. Ken Cordell and Gregory R. Super

Most of the participation trends we report in However, until recent decades and except this chapter are from two recent sources. perhaps for the affluent, it probably was not The first is the 1995 National Survey on highly significant for very many people. Recreation and the Environment (NSRE Before World War II, there was little public 1995), a national participation survey led by call for government provided recreation H. Ken Cordell. The NSRE is the latest in the areas. Outdoor spaces were plentiful then, United States’ continuing series of National and because many people worked out of Recreation Surveys, the first of which was doors, they were not very inclined to seek done under the auspices of the Outdoor fun and relaxation in the setting where they Recreation Resources Review Commission had just spent a number of hours toiling to in 1960 (Cordell et al., 1996). Design of the earn a living (Douglass, 1999). Following activity participation questions in the 1995 World War II, however, vastly improved NSRE was kept consistent with previous transportation, the institution of time off for National Recreation Surveys to enable us to holidaying, indeed the growing popularity describe trends in participation across a of taking family holidays, dramatic changes variety of outdoor recreation activities. The in work venues, spreading affluence and a second source of participation trends is the host of other social changes, altered forever just completed federal assessment of out- the role and significance of outdoor recrea- door recreation and wilderness, done every tion in Americans’ lives. 10 years by the US Department of Agricul- The country’s first comprehensive ture (USDA) Forest Service, as required by national assessment of outdoor recreation the 1974 Renewable Resources Planning Act was done by the Outdoor Recreation Resour- (RPA) (Cordell, 1999). Other sources are ces Review Commission (ORRRC) between included as appropriate and needed to 1958 and 1960 (ORRRC, 1962). Among the describe that flourishing phenomenon in key findings of that assessment were: modern US society that we call outdoor recreation. ● The simple activities are the most popular – driving for pleasure, walking, swimming . . . A Brief History of Outdoor ● Outdoor opportunities are most Recreation in the US urgently needed near metropolitan areas . . . where three-quarters of the Outdoor recreation has always been an people will live . . . by the turn of the important part of the American lifestyle. century . . . © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 133 134 H. Ken Cordell and Gregory R. Super

● . . . Considerable land is now available ● . . . the rate of increase in some outdoor for outdoor recreation, but it does not recreation activities has slowed in effectively meet the need. recent years, . . . ● Outdoor recreation is a major leisure ● . . . New activities are appearing, how- time activity, and it is growing in impor- ever, and are being added . . . tance . . . by the year 2000 there will be a ● . . . long-distance holidays are being threefold increase. replaced by more frequent, close-to- home recreation trips . . . near urban In 1960, the ORRRC found that about areas. 90% of Americans participated in some ● . . . wilderness (and other backcountry) form of outdoor recreation. They speculated recreation visits slowed in the early that demand would rise dramatically from 1980s, but since 1986, reported wilder- that time onwards. A flurry of activities at ness recreation use has begun to federal, state and other levels responded to increase again. the ORRRC report and its recommendations. ● Downhill skiing, cross-country skiing, Systems of designated federal recreation swimming, backpacking, visiting pre- lands, newly available funding, enhanced historic sites, running and jogging, and state park systems, expanded roles beyond day hiking will grow faster than . . . sports and programmed recreation at the other activities (and most forms of out- local level, and an interest-sparked private door recreation will continue to grow). sector marked the country’s enormous push forward throughout the 1960s and 1970s to In this chapter, participation trends over be responsive to the ORRRC recommenda- the years, whether showing growth or not, tion that we expand the capacity and are identified and discussed as they occur- diversity of recreation opportunities in this red at the close of the 20th century. In the country. Undaunted by Vietnam, the 1972 final section, we attempt to identify the gasoline ‘crisis’, inflation, and a myriad of management and policy implications of other social and economic events and trends these trends. which could have curbed appetites for outdoor recreation, Americans have availed themselves of the resulting expansion of capacity in ever increasing numbers and Long-term Participation Trends across a growing variety of participation venues. The most recent USDA Forest Service In the mid-1980s, the President’s Com- national RPA assessment examined long- mission on Americans Outdoors (1986), term trends by comparing participation followed by the Reagan Administration’s estimates from the 1960, 1965, 1983 and Task Force on Outdoor Recreation (Domes- 1995 National Recreation Surveys (Cordell, tic Policy Council, 1988) found demand 1999). The trends reported in that assess- continuing to grow as it had been both ment were based primarily on the 1995 before and since ORRRC. Large percentages National Survey on Recreation and the Envi- of the fast growing American public con- ronment, which was the latest of the tinued to engage in outdoor activities. By the continuing national recreation surveys. In 1980s, the population and the styles of out- Table 12.1, indexed growth is reported in door recreation participation had begun to numbers of people indicating they had par- diversify well beyond the driving for pleas- ticipated in the nine outdoor activities ure, picnicking, walking and camping styles tracked across all of the previous national which were so highly popular in the 1950s recreation surveys relative to the population and 1960s. In its national assessment of out- growth which occurred during that 35-year door recreation and wilderness in the late period. 1980s, the USDA Forest Service summa- Numbers of people participating in six of rized the following (Cordell et al., 1990): the nine activities shown in Table 1 grew Trends in Americans’ Outdoor Recreation 135

Table 12.1. Indexed growth since 1960 in millions of US persons 12 years or older participating in outdoor recreation by activity relative to population growth since 1960 (1960 index 1.00).

Growth index by year Millions of persons in Activity 1965 1983 1995 1995 (12 or older)

Snow skiing 2.19 6.50 10.08 26.2 Canoeing/kayaking 1.65 5.77 6.73 17.5 Cycling 1.98 4.63 4.87 63.3 Camping 1.44 2.99 4.50 58.5 Sailing 1.46 2.90 2.72 10.6 Swimming 1.17 1.63 1.92 118.0 POPULATION 1.10 1.44 1.65 216.0 Fishing 1.13 1.48 1.47 63.3 Horse riding 1.47 1.44 1.38 16.2 Hunting 1.10 1.08 0.99 20.6

Sources: 1960, 1965, 1983, and 1995 Federal National Recreation Surveys (Cordell et al., 1996). faster than population in terms of per- Recent Participation Trends centage change from the base year, 1960. Fastest growth in participation was in snow Our recent studies have shown that 94.5% skiing (which in 1995 included snowboard- of Americans 16 years old or older partici- ing), canoeing/kayaking (which is mostly pated in some form of outdoor recreation whitewater), cycling (which now includes during the 1994/95 NSRE survey period. mountain and tour biking), and camping Among those activities included in both the (both developed and primitive). All activ- 1983 and 1995 National Recreation Surveys, ities, except hunting, grew at rates faster walking for pleasure, sightseeing, picnick- than population growth between 1960 and ing, swimming in natural waters, fishing, 1965. Similarly, all activities but hunting cycling and birdwatching were the most and horseback riding grew faster than the popular in 1995 (Table 12.2). Participation population between 1960 and 1983. Fishing levels for these seven activities exceeded was added as an activity not growing as fast 25% of the population for 15 of the 21 activ- as the population by the time the 1995 NSRE ities listed in Table 12.2. Growth from 1983 survey was conducted. Clearly, long-term to 1995 in percentages of the population trends point to fast-paced growth in participating exceeded the percentage technology-driven, adventure activities growth of population. The growth index (snow skiing, canoeing/kayaking and shown in column two of Table 12.2 shows cycling being examples); moderate growth that birdwatching, hiking, backpacking, in the more traditional, family-oriented downhill skiing and primitive camping activities (e.g. camping and swimming); and were the five fastest growing activities in slowing growth or declines in participation terms of percentage change in number of in consumptive activities (fishing and hunt- participants between 1983 and 1995. ing). Numbers of participants in sailing and In order of millions of people reporting horseback riding decreased somewhat participation, the eight most popular activ- between 1983 and 1995, probably because of ities in 1983 were: walking for pleasure rising expense and greater difficulty in find- (number one), picnicking, sightseeing, fishing suitable places for these activities. From ing, cycling and swimming in natural waters 1960 to 1995, the population of persons aged (these two tied for fifth most popular), 12 and older grew 65%, reaching a total of motor-boating, developed camping and day 216 million. hiking. In 1995, the order of activities by 136 H. Ken Cordell and Gregory R. Super

Table 12.2. Indexed participation growth between 1983 and 1995 and millions of persons participating in the US in 1995 who were 16 years or older by outdoor activity (1983 1.00).

Activity Growth index 1983–1995 Millions in 1995

Birdwatching 2.55 54.1 Hiking 1.94 47.8 Backpacking 1.73 15.2 Downhill skiing 1.59 16.8 Primitive camping 1.58 28.0 Off-road driving 1.44 27.9 Walking for pleasure 1.43 133.7 Sightseeing 1.40 113.4 Motor-boating 1.40 47.0 Developed camping 1.38 41.5 Swimming in rivers, lakes, ocean 1.38 78.1 Snowmobiling 1.34 7.1 Cross-country skiing 1.23 6.5 Picnicking 1.16 98.3 Sledding 1.16 20.5 POPULATION 1.15 200.1 Water skiing 1.13 17.9 Cycling 1.02 57.4 Fishing 0.96 57.8 Horse riding 0.90 14.3 Sailing 0.90 9.6 Hunting 0.88 18.6

Sources: 1983 and 1995 Federal National Recreation Surveys (Cordell et al., 1996).

levels of population-wide participation another indicator of shifts in activity pop- showed the greatest number of people were ularity. For most of the activities included in walking for pleasure (remaining at number both the 1983 and 1995 surveys, there were one as it had been in 1983), the next greatest only minor shifts in percentages of partici- number were sightseeing (moving up from pants among the three levels of participation third in 1983), next picnicking (falling from days per year (1–2, 3–10 and more than 10 second in 1983), swimming in natural days per year) (Table 12.3). The activities for waters (moving up from fifth), fishing (fall- which the percentages of participants across ing from fourth in 1983), cycling (falling the different levels of participation days per from fifth), birdwatching (not among the top year remained distributed about the same in eight in 1983), and day hiking (remaining at 1983 and 1995 included cycling (where number eight). Millions participating in more than half the participants participated developed camping and motor-boating both more than 10 days per year), horseback rid- dropped below the threshold which would ing (where almost half the participants have qualified them to be among the top engaged only 1–2 days per year), canoeing or eight activities in 1995. kayaking (where about half participated only 1–2 days per year) and developed camping (where more than half participated Shifts in Annual Days of Participation between 3 and 10 days per year). Other activities with minor shifts in participation Trends in the number of days participants days included motor-boating, swimming devote to specific recreational activities is outdoors in pools, swimming in natural

Trends in Americans’ Outdoor Recreation 137

Table 12.3. Shifts in percentage of people 16 years or older in the US participating by activity and number of days of participation per year, 1983–1995.

Participation days per year

1–2 3–10 More than 10

Activity 1983 1995 1983 1995 1983 1995

Cycling 12 14 32 32 56 54 Horse riding 48 48 27 26 25 26 Canoeing or kayaking 50 50 39 41 11 9 Sailing 56 49 30 33 14 18 Motor-boating 33 29 38 39 29 32 Swimming in outdoor pool 14 13 38 38 48 49 Swimming in lakes, streams or ocean 19 18 42 46 39 36 Fishing 21 8 43 30 36 62 Hunting 19 11 42 37 39 52 Backpacking 39 41 46 40 15 19 Camping in developed campgrounds 26 24 51 52 23 24 Camping in primitive campgrounds 36 30 46 48 18 22 Day hiking 28 29 46 40 26 31 Nature study including birdwatching 15 17 29 30 56 53 Off-road vehicle driving (includes motorcycles but not snowmobiles) 23 23 39 40 38 37 Downhill skiing 34 33 43 49 23 18 Cross-country skiing or ski touring 51 37 35 47 14 16 Snowmobiling 40 46 36 32 24 22

Source: 1982/83 and 1994/95 National Recreation Surveys (Cordell et al., 1996). waters (lakes/streams/ocean), nature study days per year. For cross-country skiing, the (including birdwatching) and off-road shift per participant was from 1–2 days to vehicle driving. 3–10 days per year. Cells in Table 12.3 showing a 5% or more shift in percentage of participants are highlighted. Activities with cells thus Shifts in the Demographic Make-up highlighted include sailing (a shift toward of Outdoor Participants more days per year), backpacking (more days per year), primitive camping (more Many significant changes in the socioeco- days), day hiking (more days), downhill ski- nomic make-up of outdoor recreation ing (fewer days) and snowmobiling (fewer participants have occurred since the 1983 days). Also in Table 12.3 are the highlighted national survey (Cordell, 1999). While some names of activities for which there were of these changes mirror shifts in the demo- major shifts of 10% or more among partici- graphic make-up of the US population, some pation levels. These highlighted activities other changes do not. included fishing, hunting and cross-country The most notable of changes, which seem skiing. The nature of the shifts for all three of mostly to mirror population-wide demo- these activities was toward more days per graphic shifts, are the substantial increases year. This was particularly true for fishing in proportions of participants who are col- and hunting for which the shifts were lege educated, who are of nonwhite races, strongly toward participation of 10 or more who live in households earning more than 138 H. Ken Cordell and Gregory R. Super

US$50,000 per year, who live in one- or two- Trends in Public Use at Federal and person households, and who are going to State Sites school or are retired. Also mirroring population demography trends are the substantial Federal decreases in proportions of participants In addition to participation trends in per- who have completed high school, but who centages among outdoor activities, trends in have not completed more than high school; visitation at public outdoor recreation sites who earn below US$25,000 per year in fam- is a good indicator of overall demand shifts. ily income; and who are from households Visitation at federal sites has typically been with five or more members. Percentages of reported in units of measure called visitor- participants who are female, who have less days and/or visits. A visitor day is a than a high school education, whites, those cumulative total of 12 h of recreation use by in households with incomes between one or by several different people at the US$25,000 and US$49,999, persons from same or at different times. A visit is a count three- or four-person households, the of single entry of one person into and their employed, those temporarily unemployed, use of a recreation area for any amount of and those keeping house, either changed time. A visitor day is an appropriate meas- only slightly or remained the same in 1995 ure of participation when the need is to as in 1983. estimate total site contact time and manage- There have been a number of changes in ment impact by visitors. A visit is the more the demographic profiles of outdoor partici- appropriate measure of participation when pants that have not kept pace with the customer service is the primary manage- changing profile of Americans in general. ment target, in that it measures a customer For example, increases in the proportion of encounter. The ratio of visits to visitor days participants who are college educated have is roughly estimated to be around 2.1 : 1 at been somewhat less than the increase in public sites. their proportion among the general popula- Since the Federal Annual Fee Report was tion, and increases in the proportion of discontinued in 1993, only some of the fed- participants who are black have been less eral agencies which manage or lease than the increase in their percentage of the recreation sites or services have continued general population. On the other hand, to report recreation visitation. The Ten- growth in proportions of participants from nessee Valley Authority (TVA) and the one- or two-person households exceeds gen- Bureau of Reclamation discontinued visita- erally the growth in their proportion of the tion reporting altogether due to shifting population, and the growth of retired partic- priorities. The other five federal agencies ipants exceeds overall their growth as a have continued to report visitation in some proportion of the population. Likewise, form. Using the former annual Federal increases in proportions of participants Recreation Fee Report (USDI, 1974–1992) earning more than US$50,000 per year and any other available recent tabulations exceed their growth as a proportion of the by individual agencies, the 10-year trends in population. Heath (1997) found that the visitor-days at recreation sites managed by ‘well to do’ are more likely to participate in the seven federal resource managing agen- more activities than those earning less cies (TVA, Fish and Wildlife Service, income per year. Heath also found that Bureau of Reclamation, Bureau of Land greater proportions of those in very high Management, National Park Service, Corps income categories participate in ‘presti- of Engineers and USDA Forest Service) are gious’ sports such as tennis, snow skiing and compared for the years 1986 and 1996 (Fig. sailing, more so than in hiking and camping. 12.1). Heath also pointed out that golf and motor- For some agencies, like the Bureau of boating are among the recreational pursuits Land Management, TVA and USDA Forest favoured by the ‘rich’. Service, trends show significant annual Trends in Americans’ Outdoor Recreation 139

Fig. 12.1. Trends in visitor-days at areas managed by seven federal agencies, 1986 and 1996. Source: Federal Recreation Fee Reports and the respective agencies (Cordell, forthcoming).

increases in visitor-days. For the National government. For example, the USDA Forest Park Service and the US Fish and Wildlife Service is currently completing a national Service, there were declines in visitor days pilot of sampling approaches for improving of use. Visitor days at Bureau of Reclamation estimates of recreation visits (Kocis, forth- reservoirs increased slightly. Overall, coming). Whether or not better statistics on visitor-days of use at federal sites and areas federal recreation visitation are forthcom- increased by more than 40% between 1986 ing, local managers are reporting that visitor and 1996. The bulk of this increase (some pressures are continuing to rise and are 222 million visitor-days) occurred on USDA manifesting themselves in a number of Forest Service, Corps of Engineers and ways. At some well known destinations, use Bureau of Land Management land and water is rising more rapidly than services, capacity areas. and budgets. At some of the more popular of Since the USDA Forest Service’s last these destinations, fees, mass transit and national assessment in 1987, the status of visitor load limits are being instituted to outdoor recreation on federal land has been accommodate these rises in use. At most uncertain. Limits on federal spending over- destinations, types of equipment, diversity all, shifting priorities for federal funding of users, seasonality of use, kinds of activ- and reductions of agency stafﬁng all are fac- ities sought, and in many other ways, the tors which have contributed to the difﬁculty demands on recreation sites and manage- of maintaining federal recreation use statis- ment are changing. tics. It appears, however, that recently there has been a resurgence of interest in and State commitment to outdoor recreation and State park visits, traditionally termed tracking recreation use on land and water attendance, are usually reported separately managed in the public interest by the federal for day use and overnight use, and by fee and 140 H. Ken Cordell and Gregory R. Super

nonfee area designation (McLean, 1999). of opportunities close to people’s homes is Indications are that visits to state parks are obviously important and attractive to many increasing. Between 1992 and 1996 there Americans. was a modest increase nationally in the number of visits to state parks that averaged 1.4% and represented 10 million new visits International Tourism in the US annually. Only the Pacific region experienced a decline in attendance between 1992 In addition to domestic demand for outdoor and 1996. The annual mean attendance recreation, millions of people from other between 1992 and 1996 was 730 million countries take trips to the US for pleasure, to visits, with the peak occurring in 1995. The visit friends and/or family, or for business. long-term trend, however, has been steady For a large percentage of these international growth in visits to state parks with occa- travellers, the vast network of forests, parks, sional short-term fluctuations caused by protected areas, refuges and recreation areas unusually hot or wet summers. in the US is an important part of their travel Day use is much greater than overnight itinerary. Traveller choices of outdoor use in the state parks of the US. The majority recreation destinations are typically influ- of these day visits are by individuals, famil- enced by the existence of public lands and ies, friends and groups on outings to parks natural resources. The more popular desti- reasonably close to their residence (McLean, nations are typically those with ample 1999). Of all visits in 1996, only 7.9% were natural attributes, developed recreation overnight. In 1992, the percentage of people areas, and accommodations and services staying overnight was 8%, suggesting a con- nearby. The US Department of Commerce sistency over time in the share of the has identified tourism as the third largest growing overall number of visitors to state industry in the US. parks who stay the night. The International Pleasure Travel Market Growth in visits to state park fee areas Studies, jointly sponsored by the Canadian was 8.2% between 1992 and 1996, while Tourism Commission, the US International visits to nonfee areas grew just 6.1% Trade Administration and tourism indus- (McLean, 1999). It appears that fee areas are tries, have been conducted through personal gaining somewhat in share of use, although interviews in 24 countries throughout the the reasons for these increases are elusive. world since 1986. This research is designed One estimate which is somewhat revealing to gather information on actual and planned is that in 1996 there were a reported 1998 long-distance travel, and includes questions areas with some type of entrance fee within that help reveal how travellers view forests, the overall total of 5091 areas operated by parks and recreation-related activities. state park agencies. If accurate, these totals Almost without regard to the origin of trav- indicate that about 40% of state parks charge ellers, outdoor-related activities and visits some type of fee. Day use at nonfee areas is to parks and forests are important motiva- approximately 32 times greater than over- tions for visitors in planning their trips to night use in nonfee areas. Overall there was the US (O’Leary and Lang, 1995). The rat- less than 1% growth in use of overnight ings of importance of forests and parks in facilities between 1992 and 1996. international travel decisions ranged from Whether the trend in use is up modestly 91% for Venezuelans to 70% for the Jap- or up strongly, it is apparent that recrea- anese. This intense interest in natural tional use of state parks is highly important environments and outdoor recreation activ- to Americans. The total number of visits to ities has persisted during the 10 years that state parks is three times the level of visita- the International Pleasure Travel Market tion at national parks, even though the Studies have been conducted. overall area in state parks is substantially In the last 10 years, international visits to less. The access to natural areas represented the US have grown about 66%, going from by most state parks with their wide variety about 27.8 million visits in 1987 to an esti- Trends in Americans’ Outdoor Recreation 141

mated 46.2 million in 1997 (O’Leary, 1999). anticipated high levels of use and con- Receipts from this travel also grew, expand- gestion will sometimes present ing from US$30.5 billion in 1987 to an demands and situations beyond the expected US$88.9 billion in 1997 (US experience and training background of Department of Commerce, International most outdoor recreation site and public Trade Administration, 1996). Canadians led land managers. Heavy pressures are the 1996 arrivals to this country with 15.3 especially likely to occur at popular million visits. Mexico (8.5 million), Japan water sites which have always been a (5.0 million), the UK (3.1 million) and Ger- major attraction for a wide variety of many (1.9 million) completed the ‘top five’ outdoor recreational activities. These inbound visitors from other countries. pressures will take on added signifi- Impacts from the economic downturn in cance with advances in motorized Asia are yet to be fully understood, but they technology which makes these water will surely change the distribution of arriv- sites more easily accessible. als among countries of origin. Arrivals are ● There will undoubtedly be many more distributed unevenly among US states with and many new types of conflicts the coastal and border states ranking highest between different recreation user inter- in numbers of international visitors. ests arising from anticipated congestion and sometimes from incompatible modes of participation among a growing Discussion and Implications diversity of recreation interests. This growing number and diversity of interests must ‘compete’ for access rights to Across communities and segments within the limited number of areas and sites for American society, outdoor recreation has a growing diversity of outdoor recrea- maintained its enormously popular status tion activities. Particularly challenging over the years. Although new forms of par- will be accommodation of access needs ticipation are appearing all the time, a for motorized and nonmotorized uses persistent underlying basic motivation for and for solitude and the more socially outdoor recreation is to have the opportu- oriented forms of participation. Orga- nity to experience nature by viewing it, nized groups representing motorized, travelling through it, and for brief periods at nonmotorized and other specific out- least, living in it. door recreation interests will grow in Both long-term and short-term trends number and in the size of the constitu- point to continued growth in outdoor recrea- ency they represent. As public agencies tion across all segments of the population, continue to open the planning and deci- some more so than others. If these trends sion processes to public involvement, continue (and there is every reason to these organized groups will have an believe they will), pressures for places to increasing voice in public land manage- recreate and for added recreation infrastruc- ment. Increasingly, organized groups ture to support growing numbers and will be integrated as partners in helping diversity of recreation seekers will continue to manage and protect public lands, to build. The more salient of the growing access rights and unique resources. pressures and challenges we anticipate ● New technologies and better modes of include: accessing remote countryside will continue to shift the nature of the demand ● The most popular beaches, forest sites, for outdoor recreation in the more iso- water sites, parks and special attractions lated areas. Most affected by these shifts are almost sure to face increasing use will be the more traditional, passive levels and more frequent periods of con- forms of rural outdoor recreation where gestion, especially during peak quiet, natural settings for learning, recreation seasons of the year. These reflection and nature appreciation are 142 H. Ken Cordell and Gregory R. Super

sought. Also impacted will be tradi- such as charging fees and disseminating tional forms of active participation information on opportunities continue where new technologies enable more to evolve, the equity of access implica- and different kinds of use onto the tions of such tools will increasingly be resource; for example, whitewater issues of contention among different canoeists experiencing personal water- social groups and different segments of craft use. The resource, and especially recreation interests. Continued increa- fragile sites and sensitive habitats for ses in visits to most federal and state animals and plants, will feel the impact forests and parks will put added pres- of increased wilderness recreation sures on public managers to adopt uses. different management policies and ● Because of persistent rises in the pop- styles. Fees and reservation systems ularity of outdoor recreation, public and will spread. Information dissemination private land management policies and programmes will and should expand. practices which are not directly aimed Greater attention must be paid to poten- at providing recreation opportunities, tially unequal effects of these policies such as timber and wildlife manage- on lower income, less well-educated, ment, will increasingly interact with and place-conﬁned segments of our and be of intense interest to larger num- population. bers of people across a broader spectrum ● Scenic quality will increasingly be an of society with increasingly diverse issue that managers of recreation areas interests and cultural backgrounds. and of natural lands in general must This will make resource management address as growth and interest in sight- many times more challenging and will seeing, viewing and learning activities, call for increasingly innovative, collab- and other scenery-dependent activities orative approaches backed by sound drives the demand for aesthetically research. We have observed in the last pleasing settings. few years that federal land management ● Markets for outdoor activities are not objectives have begun a major shift only expanding, they are also changing toward increasing recreation manage- as new forms of participation are ment relative to other resource uses. discovered; as the backgrounds, per- ● Public and private sector providers will spectives and tastes of recreationists need to continue to provide viewing and change; and as constraints and oppor- learning, social gathering, and swim- tunities shift. In that these changes are ming opportunities to meet rising in fact very much dependent on the demand by the majority of the American spectrum of opportunities made avail- public. Many of these types of oppor- able, public land management policies tunities can be provided near the urban will be under increasing scrutiny to conurbations where most of those seek- determine how well they are serving the ing such opportunities live. However, demands and needs of Americans rapid near-city development and con- across all social strata, while at the same version of natural lands such as forests time providing private sector business will make provision of near-city oppor- opportunities. tunities increasingly challenging. ● Rapid increases in the diversity of the ● Equitable access to developed sites and population in race, culture, age, income dispersed areas across all segments and and other factors will change the interests in our society will almost cer- demand for outdoor recreation, espe- tainly be an increasingly important and cially in regions and states where hard-to-resolve issue. A particular chal- immigration is occurring. The resulting lenge will be to assure universal increase in population diversity will accessibility, at least at most recreation result in different preferences, expecta- areas. As access management tools, tions, and ways of seeking and Trends in Americans’ Outdoor Recreation 143

participating in outdoor recreation. market shifts as or before they happen. Management policies and solutions of Improved data, monitoring systems and the past will only partially fit these better defined management objectives emerging shifts in demand and the new which are in touch with recreation forms of recreation which will be pur- demand shifts, which are constantly sued. occurring both domestically and inter- ● Because most forms of outdoor recrea- nationally, will be necessary to tion participation depend so heavily on successfully manage outdoor recreation natural settings, which differ between in the future. Over the past two decades, different regions of the country, and the loss of interest in recreation visita- because most of these forms continue to tion, customer satisfaction and grow in popularity, domestic tourism economic impact information has and associated recreation travel can be proved to be an obstacle to achieving expected to continue their growth as highly effective and timely management long as transportation remains as afford- and policy specification. able and as convenient as it is today. Outdoor recreation travel and tourism contributes substantially to the growth Conclusions and diversity (and thus stability) of rural economies. This contribution is likely Outdoor recreation continues to be a basic to grow not only in terms of local aspect of the American lifestyle most of us incomes and jobs, but also in the share have come to expect. The 1995 National of income and jobs among economic Survey on Recreation and the Environment sectors at any economic scale. has shown that most people in American ● International travel to the US for out- society participate at some level and in some door recreation will increase pressure way in outdoor recreation. Traditional land, on the US supply of outdoor opportun- water and snow/ice settings are very much ities, particularly at the most popular in demand to satisfy our growing appetite national parks and other well known both for traditional outdoor recreational tourist destinations. International activities, as well as for a growing list of new effects will be greater near border and activities which are driven by better access coastal states. Increasing domestic and and by rapidly evolving technology and international travel and tourism in the information availability. US will create opportunities for large- Over the years and still today, most in scale private businesses to provide demand are places for casual activities such services, accommodation and informa- as walking, family gatherings and sightsee- tion. As the interest in defining and ing, and for places to visit and learn, such as managing for sustainable communities beaches, historic sites and other sites of and natural systems grows, ecotourism interest. These activities and outdoor places is likely to become a popular and viable appeal to a wide spectrum of people from approach for simultaneously achieving inner cities, suburbs and the rural country- both. sides alike. Usually it is the combination of ● Research will become increasingly entertainment, fun, learning, and seeing important in helping us understand and which are basic motivations for pursuing better anticipate the many changes that these activities. will be occurring on many different Recreation participation across all types fronts. Ongoing national participation of settings, especially on our federal and surveys and on-site studies of various state lands are experiencing growth. Often user groups and interests will help this growth is across a number of different reveal the linkages between recreation activities which occur at the same sites and behaviours, preferences and social in the same settings, sometimes resulting in changes and should give some ‘feel’ for conflicts and needs for carefully considered 144 H. Ken Cordell and Gregory R. Super

management strategies which offer every- ticipation and for access to places with one opportunities. The increases in quality settings for participation. participation which are occurring are not An opportunity exists for expanding the just in the numbers of people participating scale and breadth of beneﬁts from our natu- occasionally, they also represent growth in ral lands and water. Realizing this the total number of days and trips annually opportunity can only occur with close col- that people take for their preferred recrea- laboration between providers in both the tion. Total days and numbers of trips for public and private sectors. Each has a crit- outdoor recreation by the US population ical role to play. Let that collaboration represent a huge market for the goods, always proceed in an environmentally equipment and services which facilitate par- responsible manner. 13 Trends in Hunting Participation and Implications for Management of Game Species

Tommy L. Brown, Daniel J. Decker, William F. Siemer and Jody W. Enck

Introduction reasons to some groups of residents within their state or province (Brown et al., 1995). Of all the recreation activities social scien- People are motivated to hunt for a variety tists have studied, hunting may be the most of reasons and hunters experience many sat- multifaceted in terms of its diverse implica- isfactions through their involvement. tions to society and the related dilemmas Studies across the US since 1968 have managers face in regulating it. Hunting is shown consistently that bagging game is not enjoyed by millions of people continent the strongest motivation for hunting (Duda, wide; by people in every state and province 1993). Being outdoors for relaxation, aes- in the US and Canada. Hunting is more than thetic aspects of the hunting experience, a form of recreation to many participants companionship and expression of skill have (and many nonparticipating acquaintances usually been of greater importance than (Stedman and Decker, 1996)); it is a way of expectations or desires for bagging game. life and a part of the culture of many North Decker et al. (1987) identified achievement, Americans. This attribute of hunting – affiliative and appreciative aspects as pro- involvement by people who do not go afield viding primary experience goals for New but who are a part of the larger hunting York hunters. culture, makes analysis of trends difficult Hunting differs from other recreation but adds to the importance of understanding activities in that it often involves the inten- hunting trends. tional killing of sentient wild animals, The cultural significance of hunting including popular, attractive mammals such extends not only to Native American groups as white-tailed deer anthropomorphized by and those who depend upon hunting for the entertainment media. In recent decades subsistence, but also to modern American major conflicts in values have been and Canadian cultures that, despite hunters expressed between groups of people who being predominantly male, otherwise believe animals have rights, including the encompass all demographic characteristics. right not to be harassed or killed (i.e. hun- In a 1993/94 survey, wildlife managers ted) by humans, and other people who may across the US and Canada identified more accord wildlife tremendous respect and than 60 different types of hunting traditions appreciation, but do not extend to these they believed to be important for cultural creatures the concept of rights. The vast © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 145 146 Tommy L. Brown et al.

majority of Americans still approve of hunt- activities) approximately every 5 years since ing. In a 1993 national survey, 73% of 1955. These data provide useful insights Americans approved of hunting (22% dis- about trends but they are not conclusive, for approved) and 81% believed hunting two reasons. First, the survey methodology should remain legal (Duda et al., 1998). The has changed over the years with respect to animal rights movement has had some minimum age of hunters included in the impacts on hunting, however, to the extent survey and the recall period of individual that at their instigation some states have surveys. In an effort to minimize recall bias, experienced citizen-initiated ballot refer- the 1991 and 1996 surveys have collected enda in which specific types of hunting have data from hunters periodically during the been banned. study year, whereas previous surveys were Hunting also has served as the primary implemented early in the calendar year and method for controlling many game popula- requested recollection of participation data tions. When some game populations grow for the entire past calendar year. Second, too large, vast numbers of the public may be hunting participation between any two adja- adversely affected. Deer, elk or moose pres- cent 5-year periods has been relatively ent real hazards to people from collisions stable. Although these national surveys use with motor vehicles; deer and elk damage large sample sizes, the combined standard crops and nurseries and retard regeneration errors between any two surveys have often of forests; beavers flood cropland and roads; been large enough that differences in partici- and ducks and geese foul lake shorelines, pation indicated by any two temporally ponds, golf courses and public parklands. In adjacent surveys could be attributable to addition, issues of public safety, pets and sampling (as well as methodological differ- livestock become more pronounced as pop- ences noted above) rather than actual ulations of large carnivores such as changes in participation. mountain lions increase. As many of these The annual licence sales data collected wildlife populations have increased in and reported to the FWS by the individual recent decades, the number of stakeholder states provide another measure of hunting groups with direct concerns about wildlife participation. States sell a variety of types of management has grown. Hunting has a hunting licences including resident and direct bearing on these myriad human– nonresident, big game and small game, and wildlife interaction issues. combination licences that may include all This chapter examines trends in hunting hunting or hunting and fishing combined. and the future of hunting as a recreation This makes accurate estimation of hunter activity, consistent with the theme of this numbers difficult (e.g. one hunter could buy book of exploring leisure, recreation and big game and small game licences sepa- tourism trends. However, the future of hunt- rately, whereas another might buy the ing has far broader implications than combined licence). Despite the possibility of characteristics of most recreation activities. double counting, each state wildlife agency These considerations and implications are director is required to estimate the number examined as part of the broader trends in of total paid hunting licence holders (people human dimensions of wildlife management. who are licenced to hunt, not licences sold) and to certify that number annually and report it to the FWS. This requires states to Hunting Participation Trends in the estimate proportions of people who are mul- US tiple licence holders in order to avoid inflation of hunter numbers. Three sources of information help us under- These annual licence sales data also are stand hunting trends in the US. First, the US not conclusive indicators of the number of Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) has con- participating hunters nationally or in a ducted a national survey of hunting (as well given state. Examples of limitations of as fishing and nonconsumptive wildlife licence holder data for trend analysis are: (i) Trends in Hunting Participation 147

some states have allowed hunters over a By major types of hunting, 11.3 million particular age to obtain a free senior licence Americans hunted big game, 6.9 million (some states have initiated and subse- hunted small game and 3.1 million hunted quently revoked this practice or changed the waterfowl. Estimates show an increase applicable age); and (ii) some states do not nationally in big game hunters from 10.7 require a landowner to purchase a licence to million in 1991 to 11.3 million in 1996, hunt exclusively on his own land. Never- although the difference is not statistically theless, licence sales data are useful in significant at the 95% confidence level. The analysing hunting participation trends number of small game hunters dropped from because, with the exceptions noted above, 7.6 million in 1991 to 6.9 million in 1996 they have been carried out consistently over (difference is statistically significant), while several decades and the total estimates of the number of migratory bird hunters paid licence holders are derived from direct remained relatively constant over the 5-year counts, not from sampling. period at about 3 million. The number of A third indicator of hunting participation days afield increased at least slightly for all that is useful in examining the direction of types of hunting between 1991 and 1996 hunting trends is annual registration data (8.9% overall); the largest increases occur- from hunter education courses. Almost all red in big game hunting (20%) and in (49) states require prospective hunters to waterfowl hunting (19%). complete a course of several hours dealing Moderate to large increases in hunting- with hunting safety, ethics and other topics related expenditure occurred between 1991 before they can purchase their first hunting and 1996 when compared in constant or licence. Registration data from hunter edu- inflation-adjusted dollars. Trip-related cation courses provide a useful estimate of expenditure increased by 30.3%, and annual recruitment into the hunter popula- expenditure per day increased by 19.5%. tion and provide valuable insights into Equipment-related expenditure increased likely hunting participation 15–30 years by 46.2%. Items with particularly high per- into the future. The age and other socio- centage increases included purchase of: demographic characteristics of hunter decoys and game calls (138.2%), muzzle- training recruits also offer insights through loaders and primitive weapons (77.3%), research into the sustainability of the hunt- hunting dogs and associated costs (75.9%), ing population by relating such character- telescopic sights (67.2%) and shotguns istics to long-term involvement. (58.9%). Other hunting-related purchases and expenses with large increases from 1991 US Fish and Wildlife Service survey results to 1996 included magazines and books The FWS (US Fish and Wildlife Service, (127.6%), binoculars and telescopes 1997) estimates that 14.0 million Americans (94.3%), processing and taxidermy costs 16 years of age and older hunted in 1996, (74.4%), special clothing (72.7%) and mem- compared to 14.1 million in 1991. Differ- bership dues and contributions (55.3%). ences in the two estimates are not Longer-term results from FWS surveys statistically significant, so we should infer suggest that hunting participation increased that nationally, the number of participants nationwide through 1975, when a peak of remained essentially constant over this 17.1 million hunters 12 years of age and over period. Regionally, participation rates in hunted at least 3 days. This figure dropped hunting also were very similar between to 16.3 million in 1985. More recent FWS 1991 and 1996, with two exceptions: (i) the surveys do not have comparable data number of hunters in the Pacific states (Brown, 1995). The number of hunters 6 increased by 9%; and (ii) the number of years of age and older (reported by an adult hunters in the Middle Atlantic states member of each household) remained essen- declined by nearly 17%. These differences tially constant from 1980 to 1990 (US Fish are statistically significant at the 95% con- and Wildlife Service, 1997). fidence level. 148 Tommy L. Brown et al.

Fig. 13.1. Paid hunting licence holders. Source: US Fish and Wildlife Service.

Paid hunting licence holders peaked in 1997, the northern tier of states Despite the possibility of some error in esti- from Wisconsin to Montana, plus South mating total paid licence holders from the Dakota, had very recent peak sales. On the totals of all individual licences that permit other hand, 13 states, in several parts of the hunting, these estimates are calculated con- US, had licence sales peak in the 1970s and sistently from year to year and have been sales in another 20 states peaked in the required by the FWS for several decades. 1980s. Sales in most of the Eastern and Mid- Thus, even if the totals contain some error in western states peaked by 1980. estimating individual licence holders, the Figure 13.3 illustrates the extent to which error should be consistent over time and the paid licence sales have declined from their estimated totals should reﬂect changes in peak across the US. The sharpest decline has hunting participation. occurred in California, which in 1997 was at The estimated national total of paid hunt- only 43% of its peak licence sales. A total of ing licence sales (Fig. 13.1) shows that 19 states, in many parts of the country, had licence sales peaked in 1983. Sales have sales in 1997 of less than 75% of their peak generally declined since then. In 1997, the sales. last year of record, sales were at their lowest point since 1970. While hunting licence Hunter education graduates sales in aggregate have been declining All states have hunter education pro- nationally, state trends vary considerably. In grammes for prospective hunters. These 1997, the states of South Carolina, North programmes have been in existence at least Dakota, Colorado and Alaska experienced since the 1970s (state-managed hunter edu- record sales (in Colorado this is due prima- cation started decades earlier in some rily to a high demand for big game licences states). Furthermore, completion of such a by nonresidents). Figure 13.2 shows the programme before one can obtain a hunting period in which peak sales were achieved by licence is now mandatory in all states except state. In addition to the states whose sales Alaska. This requirement gives those inter- Trends in Hunting Participation 149

Fig. 13.2. Peak year, paid hunting licence sales. Source: US Fish and Wildlife Service.

Fig. 13.3. 1997 licence sales as % of peak sales year. Source: US Fish and Wildlife Service. ested in hunting trends an early data point the activity over the period. The individual not available for any other recreation activ- states keep records of the number of hunter ity – a recruitment indicator. Trend data in training graduates each year. the recruitment of hunters over time pro- Nationally, the number of hunter educa- vides a good indicator of what we can expect tion graduates remained steady from 1985 to in the coming decades, with respect to hunt- 1997 (Table 13.1). Regional differences ing trends, if we can estimate attrition from exist, however, with trends varying widely 150 Tommy L. Brown et al.

Table 13.1. Hunter education graduates by region, 1985 and 1997, and percentage change.

Number of graduates (Thousands) Percentage change

Region 1985 1991 1997 1985–1997 1991–1997

10.5מ New England 19.4 22.8 20.4 5.2 8.5מ 28.3מ Middle Atlantic 121.9 95.5 87.4 15.0מ 11.0מ South Atlantic 103.6 108.5 92.2 East North Central 94.7 100.3 106.8 12.8 6.5 7.4מ East South Central 51.1 60.9 56.4 10.4 West North Central 74.5 88.2 96.6 30.0 9.5 West South Central 73.5 75.2 81.0 10.2 7.7 Mountain 62.7 63.7 65.7 4.8 3.1 Paciﬁc 49.1 46.9 49.6 0.1 5.8 Total (US) 650.5 662.0 663.1 1.9 0.2

from one region of the US to another. In the effects will be examined briefly. We suspect east, the number of hunter education grad- that a number of social trends not carefully uates has declined about 10% since 1991, monitored (i.e. for which periodic data are and graduates in the south Atlantic states not available) affect hunting participation. (Bureau of the Census regions) declined by We will indicate factors for which there are 15% since 1991. The trend in the middle supportive data and those for which we Atlantic states has been declining over a must speculate. longer period, with a drop of 28% since 1985 and 8% just since 1991. Demographic factors The four central regions all experienced Most demographic factors that influence some growth in the number of graduates hunting have had a negative effect on parti- from 1985 to 1997, with strong growth of cipation for at least the past 20 years, and are 30% in the west North Central states. How- projected to continue to affect hunting par- ever, more recently, the east South Central ticipation negatively for the foreseeable region experienced a drop of about 7% future. Even the general increase in the pro- between 1991 and 1997. The Mountain jected US population may not result in an states have experienced slight growth and increase in new recruits – hunting participa- the Pacific states have remained steady, with tion in the US, as a percentage of the a growth of nearly 6% in the Pacific region population, has declined since 1980. between 1991 and 1997. Perhaps the single greatest demographic trend correlating with constraining hunting participation has been the gradual urbaniza- Factors Associated with Changes in tion of the population. Hunting has Participation traditionally drawn participants most heavily from rural areas and villages. Previous Typical of most recreation activities, several research has shown that those who grew up factors appear to affect hunting participa- in hunting families and went afield in their tion over time. Some factors generally have youth were most likely to continue the activ- had a positive influence on hunting, while ity, while those who took up hunting later, others have had a dampening affect on hunt- having been introduced to the activity in ing participation. These factors and their other ways, were more likely to discontinue

Trends in Hunting Participation 151

the activity (Purdy et al., 1989). Heberlein Kelly (1987) analysed National Recrea- and Thomson (1997), examining the possi- tion Surveys and commercial surveys ble effect of mandatory hunter education (Nielsen, Simmons) during the 1970s and courses on participation, concluded that through the mid-1980s, finding declines of any effect was small, but that effects of urba- about 30% nationally in the proportions of nization and changes in hunting culture (for younger age groups who were taking up which a good measure was not available) are hunting. In reference to the importance of large. fathers introducing their sons to hunting, A general negative correlation exists Kelly noted that as these younger males between the extent of urbanization of a state mature to the time when they have children and the proportion of people in it who hunt. of appropriate age to start hunting (which By ‘extent of urbanization’, the proportion of will occur within the next 5–10 years), sub- residents who live in urbanized areas stantially fewer will introduce their appears to be a more critical variable than children to hunting than was the case in the population density of the state. In Califor- previous generation. nia, America’s most populated state, less Other demographic variables also act as than 2.5% of residents 16 years of age or negative influences on future hunting par- older hunted in 1996 (US Fish and Wildlife ticipation. The highest rate of participation Service, 1997). Also, less than 5% of the in hunting is among white males, but minor- population 16 years of age and older hunt in ity populations (African Americans, Arizona, Connecticut, Florida, Hawaii, Illi- Hispanics) are increasing at a faster rate than nois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Nevada, the Caucasian population. Moreover, only New Jersey, New York and Rhode Island. 4% of the rapidly growing US population 55 Some of these states have large expanses years of age and older hunt, compared with with low population density, but the vast 8% of younger adult age groups. It is note- majority of residents live in highly urba- worthy that the mean age of hunters has nized areas. At the other extreme, at least increased somewhat in the past decade, and 20% of the population 16 years of age and that hunting participation among adults is older hunted in Idaho, Montana and South relatively constant up to age 54. Between Dakota in 1996. It seems that many people 7% and 9% of each age group from 16 up to who grew up in less populated areas have 54 hunted in 1996 (US Fish and Wildlife moved to urban and suburban areas to live Service, 1977). and work, and many of these people do not continue to hunt or do not teach their chil- Social factors dren to hunt. Hunting is deeply ingrained in the culture of A second force related to urbanization several million North Americans, both involves not movement of people to the sub- indigenous and nonindigenous (primarily urbs, but movement of the suburbs to them. Anglos and a limited number of African As an example, 17 of New York’s upstate Americans and other minorities). To many counties were classified as metropolitan of these people, hunting is far more than a areas by the Bureau of the Census in 1970. recreation activity; it is an integral part of By 1995, 30 upstate counties had received their culture. Moreover, a variety of cultural metropolitan designation. Brown and Con- traditions are expressed and are manifested nelly (1994) found that among demographic through hunting. Lamar and Donnell (1987) variables available annually, the variable and Marks (1991) indicate the cultural mani- most highly correlated with hunting (neg- festations of hunting in the South and how atively) over a 30-year period was nonfarm they have evolved in unique ways. Miller employment. We believe this variable acts (1992) documented some of the important as an indicator of a much broader change rituals and traditions associated with hunt- from a rural or small town to an urban or ing in deer camps in the Northeast. State suburban environment and associated life- wildlife directors identified regional types style. of hunting with strong cultural importance 152 Tommy L. Brown et al.

beyond variations in deer or elk hunting or A recent study of access to private lands rabbit and squirrel hunting that would be east of the Rockies found that roughly 40% familiar to many lay people. Examples of rural landowners posted (a legal state- include wild hog hunting in the South, prai- ment printed on signs ‘No Trespassing’) rie chicken hunting in the Plains states, their lands (Cordell et al., 1998). About half ptarmigan hunting in eastern Canada, and these owners allowed others to use their cougar hunting in the West (Brown et al., lands for recreation. Nationwide, most hunt- 1995). ing occurs on private lands, although 47% of However, cultural norms change. hunters make some use of public lands (US Because hunting is primarily a nonmetropo- Fish and Wildlife Service, 1997). Studies of litan activity passed down from fathers to posting and landowner attitudes have sons (only 1% of American women hunted occurred in various states since the late in 1996, compared to 13% of men), it is 1950s. It appears that more landowners post difficult to imagine hunting growing in pop- their lands now, primarily as a means of ularity. For the vast majority of children of actively controlling the use of their lands. preteen and early teen years, most of their However, no clear evidence exists of a shift peers will not hunt. Junior high and high in the number of owners who allow hunting school athletic activities, computer and tele- on their lands. vision activities (whether educational or Substantial acreage has been lost to hunt- strictly entertainment) and a host of other ing over the decades due to suburban leisure activities compete for young peo- development and the splitting up of rural ple’s time. Moreover, increasing work and areas into plots so small that the amount of other commitments compete for time and open space where hunting can occur legally opportunities adults have in order to pass has declined. The amount of hunting that hunting and other outdoor activities on to occurs on private lands where these obsta- young people. While good measures of these cles are not present probably has not factors are elusive, it is highly likely that changed substantially. However, many these sociocultural factors will on balance landowners are managing their lands with exert a negative influence on the future of tighter controls (e.g. posting). As a result, it hunting. is probably more difficult in recent years for new hunters or hunters who have recently Supply factors moved into an area to find a place to hunt. Supply factors include primarily game pop- As white-tailed deer populations have ulations, access to land for hunting and grown, many states have extended the sea- hunting regulations. Populations of many son for hunting deer, and offered special big game and waterfowl species have seasons for archery hunting and muzzle- increased substantially over the last quarter loader hunting. These longer seasons, plus century. East of the Rockies, white-tailed the increased supply of deer in much of the deer populations reached all-time highs at country, no doubt accounts for the fact that some point in the 1990s for all areas except the number of big game hunters has northern New England, Florida and Texas remained constant between 1991 and 1996 (state wildlife agency estimates as compiled while other types of hunting have declined, by Deer and Deer Hunting, 1998). Deer are and the average days afield per big game also plentiful in some areas of states where hunter have increased by more than 50% populations are now at record levels. With since 1980 (data from FWS 5-year surveys). fewer hunters in most states, seasons have been extended, allowable harvests have been gradually increased, and special sea- Implications for Management of sons for archery and muzzle-loader hunting Game Species have been implemented in many states. Pop- ulations of wild turkey also have increased If the trend of stable to decreasing numbers in much of the East. of hunters continues, achieving effective Trends in Hunting Participation 153

wildlife management for some economic- wildlife are created by entertainment media. ally important wildlife species will be These all point to greater social pressure to difficult in many places in North America. abate hunting and to deter recruitment of The high and growing numbers of problem- new hunters from the general population. causing game species such as deer, elk and With prospects mentioned earlier for devel- Canada geese managed primarily through oping alternatives to hunting that can hunting presents tremendous implications mitigate wildlife problems faced by urban for wildlife managers. The traditional tool of and suburban residents, arguments about management for such species – hunters – the ‘management tool’ status of hunting will may not adequately meet population control weaken. needs in some situations. Worsening mat- Despite the limitations the above trends ters, the factors that seem to be influencing pose for hunting, the increases in hunting hunting recruitment and retention are expenditures between 1991 and 1996 point resulting from social and economic mega- to a large number of current hunters whose trends. These are not forces that information involvement seems to be increasing. While and education (I&E) programmes, public hunter numbers are not growing, current informational meetings or press releases participants are spending more time afield from a state wildlife agency can curb. Essen- than in previous years. Moreover, their tially, they are outside the wildlife expenditure patterns suggest that as a group manager’s influence. they became more personally invested in What does this outlook mean for the hunting during this 5-year period. Increased future of hunting and wildlife management? expenditures for primitive weapons and Basically, we believe two developments bow-hunting may suggest a pattern of spe- might lie on the horizon, neither with a cialization for many hunters. More positive outcome vis-à-vis the growth or certainly, these expenses in combination even stability of hunting. First, managers with large increases in special gear, books will need to develop alternatives to recrea- and magazines about hunting, and member- tional hunting to achieve wildlife ship dues and contributions point to a management objectives – population con- hunter population with an increased trol for some species – in many situations involvement and commitment to hunting. where hunting is not feasible, such as cities A question facing the wildlife manage- and suburbs. Research and development of ment profession is whether traditional alternatives are already under way. Predict- hunting can remain a viable means of con- ing exactly where this activity will lead is trolling populations of some wildlife difficult, but with both the wildlife manage- populations in rural environments. For ment and humane treatment communities example, with deer populations increasing working on alternatives to hunting, though and hunter numbers remaining constant at for very different reasons, it seems likely best, deer constitute a serious threat to that extraordinary changes lie ahead. Recent human welfare. We suggest that some funda- breakthroughs in immunocontraception mental changes in wildlife management research and application, for example, sup- philosophy, hunter education, and hunter port this speculation. attitudes and behaviours are needed for con- Second, urbanization trends will erode tinued reliance on hunters to control social support for hunting. Conditions that overabundant game populations to be rea- will reinforce if not accelerate this erosion sonable, even in rural areas. include: (i) public repulsion with firearms; We postulate that the time is at hand for (ii) the physical, psychological and social two interrelated shifts to occur in the wild- distance of an increasingly greater propor- life management paradigm. First, the normal tion of citizens from rural traditions such as paradigm of game management over the past hunting; and (iii) the attractiveness of century has been one of managing to protect humane and animal rights arguments for a wildlife and to distribute benefits from citizenry whose anthropomorphic images of scarce wildlife resources fairly across users 154 Tommy L. Brown et al.

(i.e. hunters). We are now in a situation the lives of many people, a means of obtain- where many game species are locally over- ing food for some people, and the primary abundant; they exceed people’s tolerance of means used by wildlife management agen- risk for problems such as economic loss, cies for controlling game populations. health threats and safety hazards. The sum- Change in the rate of hunting participation mer 1997 issue of The Wildlife Society has occurred very slowly. Most measures Bulletin was devoted to problems related to indicate that hunting participation peaked overpopulation of white-tailed deer. Wild- between 1980 and 1985 and has gradually life management philosophy must shift to declined thereafter. Hunting has tradition- reflect this change. ally been most popular in rural areas with Management of recreational hunting farming families and others who live ‘close needs rethinking, too. Many studies of hunt- to the land’. Demographic projections indi- ing satisfaction have been used to guide cate that these populations will continue to development of hunting regulations for the decline. We expect hunting participation to management and harvest of game species, decline also, despite increases in many but these have largely reflected the prefer- types of game populations throughout much ences of hunters who have approached of the US. hunting as a recreation not a management Thanks in part to increased game popula- activity. For example, many hunters have tions and lengthened hunting seasons, little interest in shooting does, and as a hunters’ expenditures increased substan- group do not shoot as many does as they tially between 1991 and 1996. Increases in have the opportunity to take legally (Decker archery related expenditure and primitive and Connelly, 1990; Enck, 1996). With the weapons suggests the occurrence of some number of hunters dwindling and numbers increased specialization by hunters during of some game species growing out of control this 5-year period. Regardless of specializa- from a tolerance perspective, managers need tion, the increased mean number of days to take some novel, perhaps extreme, actions spent afield combined with increases in to achieve management in expansive rural many types of expenditures indicates that habitats. Generally, education about the role involvement in hunting and commitment to of hunting in game management and incen- the activity increased over this period. tives that lead to management-effective As we move into the 21st century, hunt- behaviours by hunters are needed to help ing opportunities appear to be good. Access ensure that hunters play a larger part in to private lands, where most hunting occurs, wildlife management than they have in the has been something of an obstacle in the past. Education programmes also need to past. However, as game populations highlight the community-service aspect of increase and landowners suffer increased effective hunting/game management pro- damage to crops, landscape plantings and grammes. Hopefully the combination of woodlands, they may be more willing to actions will change the beliefs and attitudes grant hunting access than in previous times. of hunters, and of nonhunters in the com- In fact, we predict that controlling game munities where they live and hunt to help population will become a major problem for control problem species. wildlife agencies, that hunting seasons will need to be further liberalized, and that other means such as immunocontraception will Summary need to be perfected and used in conjunction with hunting to control game Hunting is many things: a recreation activ- populations. ity, an important sociocultural element in 14 Trends in Casinos and Tourism for the 21st Century

William R. Eadington

Introduction usually be classiﬁed as casinos. Casinos can range in size from quite The most important trends regarding casi- small (e.g. top end London casinos might nos in many countries over the past few have fewer than a dozen gaming tables and decades have been their increased legal no slot machines; cruise ship casinos might presence, substantial expansion in the size have only one or two blackjack tables and a of typical casino operations and of legal handful of slot machines) to enormous (e.g. gaming in aggregate, and the diversity of Foxwood’s Casino in Ledyard, Connecticut, nongaming offerings put forward by casino has approximately 300 table games, 4000 enterprises. These trends have emerged dur- slot machines, a poker room with 55 tables, ing a period of rapid and fundamental and a bingo hall that accommodates more change in casinos, in terms of ownership, than 1500 patrons at a time.) A casino is a management styles and strategy, and general speciﬁc site (i.e. a building, a boat), whereas public perceptions. casino-style gaming can be offered in non- It is generally understood that a casino is casino locations (i.e. slot machines or video a physical venue that offers table games poker machines in bars and taverns, poker (blackjack, roulette, craps, baccarat, poker, offered in bars and taverns or card clubs). etc.) and/or slot machines (reel-type slot In the middle of the 20th century, casinos machines, electronic gaming devices, video were largely considered dens of iniquity, poker machines, amusement with prize and could be found only in a few scattered machines, ‘pokies’, fruit machines, etc.) venues in faraway places. By the end of the Because of variations in laws from jurisdic- century, casino gaming had become a major tion to jurisdiction that permit or prohibit presence in the leisure economies of coun- certain types of gambling games or devices, tries all over the world. This transition has there can be some ambiguity in what should occurred for a variety of reasons, including: be considered a ‘casino’. For example, facilities that offer bingo along with paper ● A growing acceptance of gambling as a pull-tabs (similar to instant lottery tickets, recreational activity; sometimes called ‘paper slots’) would not be ● increased legitimacy of casino gaming considered casinos, whereas entertainment as a business; centres that include bingo and electronic ● a shift from entrepreneurial and closely gaming devices, but no table games, would held gaming companies to corporate © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 155 156 William R. Eadington

ownership; some of these trends. A general framework ● the increased professional competence for understanding the linkages between of gaming regulatory bodies; and casinos and tourism is presented. ● a desire of governments to exploit the economic spinoffs from casinos for fiscal, tourism or economic development A Brief Overview of the History and purposes. Status of Casinos and Casino-style Gambling in Selected Countries These factors have contributed to legalization of casinos and casino-style gaming in a Until the 1960s, casino gaming remained variety of forms in jurisdictions all over the largely prohibited in most countries of the world. world (Cabot et al., 1993) There were a few Historically, casinos have been closely exceptions, such as the small elite casinos associated with glamorous tourist destina- found in specific locales in Germany, tion resorts such as Monte Carlo, the French France, Austria and Monaco. Large mass- Riviera, Baden Baden, Lake Tahoe and Las market casinos were operating in Nevada Vegas. However, though there is a high cor- and parts of the Caribbean by mid-century, relation between casinos and tourism, not but not in very many other locations. all casinos cater to tourists, or cause expan- Because of a deserved reputation that linked sion of tourism markets. In recent years, casinos either to criminal activities or crimi- many casino jurisdictions were authorized nal elements, or to the damage that gambling for the explicit purpose of revitalizing a inflicted on people’s lives, they were pro- declining tourism industry, or acting as a hibited in most societies. catalyst that would cause substantial tour- Except for Nevada, access to legal casinos ism development. But the ability of a state, in these specific locations was typically city, province or country to use casinos as a quite limited. For the most part, casinos major stimulus for tourism development or were in destination resort areas or spas, expansion successfully is dependent on a away from major population centres. wide range of characteristics and consid- Almost by definition, their major clientele erations. was tourists. This geographic positioning The challenge for most governments pur- was undoubtedly due to a widespread belief suing a tourism strategy is – by definition – that casinos were inherently damaging to to develop a casino industry that brings in some proportion of the population, and more outsiders than locals. If this can be especially to those of limited means. Thus, if done, considerable ancillary benefits for the casinos were to be tolerated, they should local or regional economy can be captured. only be allowed if they were placed away However, more and more frequently, newly from urban areas. Thus, only those who authorized casino markets cater more to could afford to travel to casinos – or to linger local residents than to tourists. This is par- in resort areas – would have the opportunity ticularly true when casino gambling is not to gamble. prohibited elsewhere in the region. There The legal presence of casinos began to have been many instances in recent years change significantly after 1960. A number of where tourism development expectations countries, states and provinces authorized have not been met. In such cases, propo- casinos in the 1960s and 1970s, including nents of legal casinos have been the UK, Spain, Australia, Holland, New Jer- disappointed, or at least surprised, by the sey (USA), and Malaysia. Each is briefly actual impacts and development patterns discussed below. related to casinos. The UK accidentally legalized an unregu- This analysis looks at trends in casino lated casino industry in 1960, when gaming in various parts of the world in the Parliament tried to eliminate or modernize context of tourism, and makes some obser- 19th century laws prohibiting social gam- vations and projections on the importance of bling. The original legislation (which had Trends in Casinos and Tourism 157

various unforeseen consequences) gave way about an hour’s drive from the capital city of to the Gaming Act 1968 that established a Kuala Lumpur. The casino, commonly highly regulated casino industry made up of referred to as Genting Highlands, opened in membership clubs that would cater only to 1971. Catering primarily to ethnic Chinese ‘unstimulated demand’ for gambling. The populations in Malaysia and southeast Asia, law did so by de facto limitation of the this facility over time has become an impor- number of casino licences, prohibition of tant centre of regional international tourism marketing or promotion of the business in a from Thailand, Singapore and other regional variety of ways, and imposition of a variety Far Eastern countries. Interestingly, the of other social controls. Furthermore, casino is not highlighted very much as a because of a belief that slot machines posed tourism asset by Malaysian tourism officials, the most serious threat of social impacts and is given very little attention within from casino gaming, their presence was Malaysia because of the majority Muslim severely limited in British casinos. Initially, population’s fundamental opposition to casinos were permitted only two slot gambling (Cabot et al., 1993, pp. 441–442). machines per facility. This has recently been Australia authorized casinos in a number increased to six, with the possibility of fur- of small cities in various parts of the country ther moderate increases in the future in the 1970s. A private sector monopoly (Kent-Lemon, 1984; Miers, 1996). casino opened in Hobart, Tasmania, in 1972, The Gaming Act 1968 did not anticipate and another later opened in Launceston. tourist-based casino patronage; its concerns Other casinos then opened in Alice Springs centred on the consequences of prohibition and Darwin, in the Northern Territories. of gambling on the domestic population. These were small casinos that catered to a Thus, casinos were permitted in urban cen- mix of local and tourist markets. Only tres, as well as in some seaside resorts. The Hobart, which attracted fly-in customers London casinos did become important out- from Melbourne and Sydney, generated sig- lets for international patrons from the nificant tourism business (McMillen and mid-1970s onward, but the provincial casi- Eadington, 1986). nos have always catered to a local clientele. By the early 1980s, there was an increas- British casinos are physically quite small by ing presence of casino gaming in various American or Australian standards, and parts of the world. However, with few largely invisible to the general public exceptions, urban casinos – especially because of the various constraints of the American-style easily accessible casinos – law. were still prohibited. But, beginning in The British casino industry is quite small 1985, Australia led the way in introducing by comparative standards. In 1997–1998, true urban casinos. The Australian cities of 115 casinos were operating in the UK, which Perth and Adelaide, along with the smaller is approximately the same number that exis- city of Townsville and the resort area of the ted in 1970, when the current legislation Gold Coast, opened private sector monopoly came into effect. Gross gaming winnings casinos in 1985. These were subsequently were about £490 million (US$800 million), followed by urban casinos in the 1990s in of which about 65% came from London- Canberra, Brisbane, Melbourne and Sydney, based casinos (Gaming Board for Great along with a resort casino in Cairns and Britain, 1998). Gross gaming revenues from another on Christmas Island. New Zealand British casinos made up only about 7% of followed Australia’s lead by permitting the legal gaming revenues in the UK. In exclusive franchise privately owned casinos contrast, about 50% of all gaming revenues in the cities of Christchurch and Auckland in the US (a total of US$25 million) were in the early 1990s (Cabot et al., 1993). generated by casinos (Christiansen, 1998). After the death of Franco, Spain legalized In Malaysia, the government granted one casinos in the late 1970s. Casinos were company an exclusive licence to operate a intended to serve as a catalyst for interna- casino at Genting Sempah, in the mountains tional tourism, so they were for the most part 158 William R. Eadington

in destination resort areas along Spain’s casinos now cater predominantly to local coastlines. However, instead of attracting residents. More recently, PAGCOR has international tourists, most customers to established strategic partnerships with pri- Spanish casinos were Spaniards. More vate companies to run casinos in the country importantly, however, the Spanish govern- aimed primarily at international premium ment in the late 1970s also authorized slot players (Cabot et al., 1993). machines outside casinos, in arcades and in Greece authorized exclusive franchise bars and taverns. As a result, by the late private sector casinos in the early 1990s, the 1990s, more than 20 years after the estab- first European country to embrace the Amer- lishment of permitted casino-style gaming ican (easy access, mass market) model of in Spain, the Spanish casino industry gen- casinos. However, difficulties arose both in erates gaming revenues of about 50 billion the bid process to allocate the casino licen- pesetas (US$300 million), which is less than ces, and with regard to social impacts once one-tenth the revenues generated by Span- the casinos were operating. The bid for a ish slot machines found outside casinos. casino in Athens was cancelled in 1994 after Holland established a government com- it had been awarded because of a change in pany (Holland Casinos) to own and operate government and because of increased social legal casinos in that country in 1972. Their concerns. In 1996, the Greek government motivation was twofold: to establish casinos imposed a 5000 drachma (US$16) entrance in destination resort areas to attract domes- fee on casinos, purportedly to control exces- tic and international tourists, and to combat sive gambling by citizens of limited means. the illegal casinos that had emerged in many The view was expressed that casinos had led of Holland’s cities, the so-called ‘Golden to a substantial increase in bankruptcies Ten’ casinos. Initially, Holland Casinos among residents who lived close to the casi- opened casinos only in destination resort nos. None the less, in 1999, nine casinos areas. However, by the early 1980s, casinos were operating in Greece. were introduced into the major cities of Canada did not begin serious casino Amsterdam and Rotterdam. By the late development until the early 1990s. Before 1990s, there were ten operating casinos in that, only limited ‘charity’ casinos (which Holland (Polders, 1988; Thompson, 1988). would raise revenues for ‘good causes’, In the US, the first legal casino jurisdic- sponsored by nonprofit and charitable orga- tion outside Nevada was Atlantic City, New nizations) could be found in the country, Jersey, which authorized casinos by an initi- especially in the western provinces of ative process in 1976. This was a highly Alberta, Manitoba and British Columbia. regulated tourist-based casino industry in a However, beginning in 1990, government- declining destination resort area. Atlantic owned monopoly urban casinos opened in City has subsequently become the second Winnipeg, Halifax, Montreal, Windsor, Hull largest casino market in the world, after Las (near Ottawa) and Regina, as well as in desti- Vegas, with large casino–hotel complexes nation resort areas at Niagara Falls (Ontario), that cater to mass volume gaming and tour- Charlevoix (Québec) and Sydney (Nova ism. Gaming revenues from Atlantic City’s Scotia). 12 casino hotels were US$4 billion in 1998, Some Canadian casinos – such as Wind- compared to US$6 billion in gaming reven- sor and Niagara Falls – are clearly ues generated by more than 100 casinos in positioned to meet the demand for casino Las Vegas. gaming from Americans across the border. Other countries have also introduced However, most Canadian casinos cater pri- casinos, often with the hope or expectation marily and predominantly to their of stimulating tourism. In the Philippines, a immediate urban markets (Campbell, government-owned company, PAGCOR (the 1994). Philippine Amusement and Gaming Cor- The rapid spread of casinos in the US poration), established casinos in cities and began in 1988 and continued for the next in resort areas in that country, but these 5 years, with authorization of small stakes Trends in Casinos and Tourism 159

Table 14.1. US legislatively authorized non-Indian casinos, 1998.

State (date of enabling Number of casinos 1998 Gaming revenues legislation) (maximum allowed)a (US$million) Permitted location

Nevada (1931) 230 8065 Local zoning New Jersey (1976) 13 4045 Atlantic City only Iowa (1989) 5 n/a Navigable rivers Iowa (1994)b 12 496 Navigable rivers Illinois (1990) 10 (10) 1107 Navigable rivers Mississippi (1990) 29 2177 Designated waterways, dockside Louisiana (1991) 14 (15) 1323 Designated waterways Riverboat casinos Louisiana 0 (1) 0 Site of former Convention (1992) Centre New Orleans land-based casino Colorado (1990) 51 479 Three designated mining towns South Dakota (1988) 53 44 City of Deadwood only Missouri (1992) 12 853 Designated waterways Indiana (1993) 11 (11) 1339 Designated waterways Michigan (1996) 0 (3) 0 Detroit only a As of 1998. b Iowa relaxed restrictions on its riverboats in 1994.

mining town casinos in South Dakota and ‘new jurisdiction’ casinos are in small com- Colorado, and restricted riverboat casinos in munities or rural locations, some are in, or Iowa, Illinois, Mississippi, Louisiana, Mis- close to, major cities such as Kansas City, St. souri and Indiana. The number of casinos, Louis, New Orleans, Cincinnati, Memphis gross gaming revenues, and locational and Minneapolis. The only state to author- restrictions on US non-Indian casinos are ize casinos between 1994 and 1998 was given in Table 14.1. Michigan, which authorized three urban Most of these ‘new jurisdiction’ casinos casinos in Detroit in 1996. The state’s voters are different in character than the destina- were largely motivated by the presence of a tion resort casinos of Nevada and Atlantic Canadian casino in Windsor, directly across City. Most of their visitors come from within the river from Detroit, that was generating a 100-mile radius, and for the most part, they about 80% of its business from Americans. are ‘day tripper’ visitors rather than over- Temporary casinos were scheduled to open night tourists. Customers to these casinos in Detroit before the end of 1999, with the are for the most part single-purpose visitors, permanent casinos expected by 2003. and concentrate their efforts on gaming The urban casino experience in the US rather than on a variety of other tourist-style has so far been somewhat mixed. The activities. Because of this, the economic monopoly land-based casino in New impacts of casinos that cater to local markets Orleans, which opened at a temporary site are considerably different – and generally in 1995, closed within 5 months when the lower in magnitude – than true tourist- operating company declared bankruptcy. oriented destination resort casinos The company at the same time halted con- (Eadington, 1999). struction on its US$900 million permanent In the US, there has been a move toward casino. Part of the reason for this situation urban casinos as well. Though most of the resulted from the ﬁnancial and political 160 William R. Eadington

demands placed upon the private sector billion of gross gaming revenues in 1995 operator who had overestimated the size of (National Gambling Impact Study Commis- the market. The conditions imposed by the sion, 1999). Since that date, additional legislation on the operator turned out to be Indian gaming facilities have opened in Cal- so onerous that the casino was not econom- ifornia, Connecticut, New Mexico and ically viable (Rittvo, 1997). A reorganization elsewhere, and gaming revenues for Indian plan was adopted in 1998, and the land- gaming in general have grown considerably. based casino re-opened in the fall of 1999. In the last half of the 1990s, the prolifera- However, the financial difficulties contin- tion of casinos slowed considerably in most ued into 2000. parts of the world, with only a few jurisdic- Other states have also met with challen- tions authorizing casinos since the end of ges regarding urban casinos. There have the American legalization boom in 1993. been financial difficulties with some casinos South Africa authorized 40 casinos, allo- in Kansas City, Missouri, and one of the cated among the nine provinces, in 1996, original companies, Boyd Gaming, closed and was in the process of granting licences their operation in 1998. Another operator, in 1998 and 1999. A casino opened in Jer- Hilton, gave up their casino licence and sold icho, in the Palestinian territory of Israel, in their riverboat casino facility in 1999 rather 1998. However, the government of Turkey than go through a potentially embarrassing shut down that country’s casino industry in investigation involving questionable contri- early 1998 because of religious opposition butions to an official who was involved in and participation in the industry by mem- the original bidding process. Also in Mis- bers of organized crime. souri, continuing political opposition to casinos forced elections in 1994 and 1998 to Other trends: the spread of casino-style clarify constitutional issues dealing with gaming permitted games and with the definition of In spite of the recent slowdown in new legal- navigable rivers and where riverboat casinos ization of casinos, there has been a could be located. This kind of ongoing chal- continuing expansion of other forms of lenge has contributed to the instability of the casino-style gaming in various countries. Missouri casino industry’s long-term out- Slot route operations (the placement of slot look. machines and other gaming devices in bars, Indian tribal casinos operate in nearly 20 taverns or arcades) has occurred in a number states as of 1999, and owe their legal status of jurisdictions, including the states of Mon- either to favourable court interpretations of tana, Oregon, South Dakota, Louisiana and the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988, South Carolina, as well as in various Cana- or to negotiated compacts with states. dian provinces, most Australian states, and Though some Indian casinos are near urban New Zealand. Racetracks in some American population concentrations, most Indian states (Louisiana, Iowa, Delaware, Rhode casinos are some distance from city centres Island and West Virginia) successfully lob- on rural Indian reservation land (US General bied for the right to have slot machines or Accounting Office, 1997). By 1997, Indian other gaming devices at the tracks. The pri- gaming casinos in the US were generating mary argument put forward in these cases is revenues of nearly US$6 billion per year. the need for economic relief. Businesses of This is particularly impressive in light of the various types, especially those who are fact that, before 1990, there were no legally adversely affected by competition from sanctioned Indian casinos in operation in newly authorized casinos, argue that the the US (Christiansen, 1998). ‘playing field can be levelled’ only if they are According to the National Gambling permitted slot machines. Impact Study Commission, as of 1996, there An interesting insight into the effect of were approximately 109 Indian casinos in introducing such casino-style gaming in 14 states. Eight of these casino facilities competition with casinos can be seen by the accounted for more than 40% of the US$4.5 experience in Spain and in South Australia. Trends in Casinos and Tourism 161

As mentioned earlier, more casino-style gam- The future direction of casinos can per- ing takes place in Spain outside casinos – in haps best be seen by examining those bars and taverns – than in the 20 or so Span- markets with the greatest degree of internal ish casinos. In South Australia, a single competition. In the late 1990s, the most permitted casino, centrally located in the city competitive casino gaming markets are of Adelaide, began operations in 1985. Slot found in the US, in the jurisdictions of machines outside casinos were first permit- Nevada, Atlantic City and Mississippi. Each ted in 1994 in hotels and bars. In 1993/94, the of these can be described as a private sector fiscal year before the introduction, the Ade- destination resort tourist-based market, and laide Casino had gross gaming revenues of each has relatively limited legal restrictions approximately A$120 million (US$80 milon new entry, especially in comparison with lion). Only 3 years later, with the competition standards adopted elsewhere in the world. of noncasino slot machines, the Adelaide Las Vegas – the world’s largest casino Casino’s revenues had fallen by approxi- market – evolved in the 1990s with three mately 40% to A$70 million, whereas gaming waves of new mega-casino resorts offering a revenues for slot machines outside casinos variety of amenities and attractions beyond grew from nothing to A$360 million. traditional casino products. Beginning in From the Spanish and South Australian 1989 with the opening of The Mirage (and experience, two things seem clear. First, continuing into the 2000s with such proper- many customers prefer the convenience of ties as Excalibur, Luxor, Treasure Island, slot machines and electronic gaming devi- MGM Grand, Stratosphere, New York New ces close to their place of residence over York, Monte Carlo, Bellagio, Mandalay Bay, both destination resort casinos and urban The Venetian, Paris and the Aladdin) Las casinos. Second, the introduction of slot Vegas went through a major transformation. machines outside casinos considerably It began the period as a destination resort grows the market for casino-style gaming, area centred on casino gaming. By the new taking a portion of revenues from what oth- millennium, it had become a multifaceted erwise would accrue to the casino industry. entertainment and convention venue, still However, the placement of slot machines with gambling as a major theme and casinos outside casinos, though more popular in as major revenue generators, on a scale that terms of revenue generation, may trigger sig- put it beyond competing destinations vir- nificant negative social impacts and more tually anywhere else in the world. The political backlash than site-specific casinos. intensity of this transformation was reflec- This has been reflected in the late 1990s ted by the extent of corporate capital outlays with controversies over the presence and in Las Vegas. Between 1998 and 2000, for rapid spread of such gaming machines in example, six major investment projects (five various jurisdictions, including South Car- new and one existing mega-casino resort) on olina, Ontario, Victoria and Alberta. the Las Vegas Strip cost nearly US$8 billion. With most of the new developments in The Evolution of Gambling as Las Vegas in the 1990s, the dominant fea- Entertainment tures were the Disneyesque character of the architecture, heavy theming, entertainment Clearly, the casino industry has been one of attractions and thrill-based recreational the most dynamic segments of the leisure opportunities. This transformation was industry and of tourist industries for the last most dramatic for developments on the Las quarter of the 20th century. However, it is Vegas Strip. In that market, the proportion of not obvious where these trends are heading, revenues generated by nongaming activities especially with regard to tourism. Thus, it is in licenced casinos approached 50% of total useful to speculate on the implications of revenues by 1998, as a result of a concerted current trends in casinos and casino-style diversification of offerings. gaming into the 21st century. In the 1990s, Las Vegas Strip resorts – and 162 William R. Eadington

Las Vegas itself – became well known for tions were more vulnerable than Las Vegas spectacular entertainment productions, to the risks of competition arising from upscale retail shopping areas, substantial newly authorized casino industries or legal- convention facilities, unique animal attrac- ization of slot machines in nearby tions (dolphins, white tigers, etc.), various jurisdictions. The strategic concern was to simulation and thrill rides, museums and provide a broader base of attractions if world class restaurants. Though gaming was casino-style gaming was going to be more still an important part of the Las Vegas readily available in their traditional feeder experience for the majority of visitors, the markets. major casino companies decided that the One of the difficult challenges for these best way to compete against the widening areas was being able to attract substantial proliferation of casinos and casino-style financial capital for new investment into the gaming in other jurisdictions was to make smaller casino markets. After the Las Vegas Las Vegas compelling for many other rea- Strip, no other region in the US could attract sons (Christiansen and Brinkerhof-Jacobs, the kind of financial capital, or expected 1997). Thus, providing a variety of enter- return on investment, to justify billion dol- taining attractions, and identifying and lar resort projects. Without billion dollar targeting particular market niches, became projects, no one besides Las Vegas could the most observable strategies followed. insulate themselves from the growing com- With more than 120,000 hotel rooms by petition that proliferation of gaming in 2000, Las Vegas provided a variety of diver- America had brought about. In many sions for a clientele who were clearly there respects, this posed a ‘catch-22’ situation for to be entertained (O’Brien, 1998). US casino cities that will continue well into Other competitive casino markets adop- the 21st century. ted less grandiose but similar strategies for Outside the US, competition within the their own growth and evolution. Atlantic casino industry is difficult to find. Most City, which for much of its first two decades casino markets are franchised monopolies was the only casino centre in the north- or have significant legal barriers to entry. For eastern US, catered mainly to a ‘day tripper’ jurisdictions with such protected market market. Concerted efforts in the 1990s status, and for monopoly or oligopoly urban pushed Atlantic City more and more in the casinos in particular, it is far more difficult direction of becoming a true destination to justify strategic investments that broaden resort, with increased room capacity, the nongaming entertainment appeal of improved convention facilities and heavier casino facilities. Protected market status theming of its resorts. However, in spite of often undermines the rationale for diversify- its role as the second largest gaming market ing into nongaming areas. Thus, it is in the US, it remained far behind Las Vegas unlikely that such casinos will experience in the extent of its offerings. In dramatic the kind of entertainment and facility diver- comparison to Las Vegas, approximately sification that is taking place in Nevada, 80% of the 12 Atlantic City casinos’ total Atlantic City and Mississippi. revenues in 1998 came from gaming Sometimes protected market status can (O’Brien, 1998). create a dangerous complacency that leaves Smaller competitive casino markets, the casino industry vulnerable to legaliza- such as Reno/Tahoe in Nevada and Tunica tion of casinos in nearby jurisdictions, or in County and the Gulf Coast in Mississippi, an expanded presence of casino-style gam- also tried to diversify their resort offerings in ing. This certainly is the issue that confronts the 1990s in response to growing competi- casino industries as diverse as riverboats in tion, and in order to strengthen customer Illinois and Indiana, and urban casinos in loyalty and to broaden their customer base. Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Such efforts included construction of hotel towers, golf courses, entertainment venues and convention facilities. These jurisdic- Trends in Casinos and Tourism 163

Conclusions and Implications tination resort around its casino industry. This carries a strong message for jurisdic- There is little doubt that casino gaming will tions with casinos, or those planning to continue to be a growth industry into the develop casinos, with respect to their early part of the 21st century. The steady broader tourism strategies. Part of the mes- increase in positive public attitudes regard- sage is to avoid overestimating what casinos ing casino gaming as a legitimate form of might be able to accomplish. At best, casinos entertainment will bring that about. How- might complement existing tourism resour- ever, there is some question as to whether ces in attracting visitors to an area and casinos will be able to establish themselves therefore expand the tourist market. How- or remain as an important part of tourism ever, unless competing jurisdictions in the industries in many countries, states and region prohibit casinos and other forms of provinces. casino-style gaming, casino industries that In general, casino customers gravitate do not provide a wide array of nongaming toward casinos or gaming venues close to attractions will be vulnerable to more con- their residences unless there are substantial venient venues that can effectively offer the nongaming attractions that can entice them same gaming products. In markets with sig- to travel further to visit destination resort nificant competition, casinos will take on casino areas instead. Without such exciting more and more of a local character, attract- alternatives, much of the demand for casino ing much of their patronage from within a gaming will be captured in local or regional fairly small radius of the casinos them- markets, rather than in destination resort selves. casinos. In summary, the ability to replicate Las Las Vegas provides a useful model of a Vegas’ success, or to experience the excess casino resort area that has effectively posi- profitability that has characterized many tioned itself to compete effectively against new jurisdiction casino markets in the 1980s convenience casinos and casino-style gam- and 1990s, will diminish as competition for ing. Because of its leisure and entertainment the gaming and leisure dollar increase and diversification, it will continue to exhibit a the supply of casinos and outlets for casino- strong tourist character regardless of exter- style gaming expand. Policy makers who nal competition. However, it might turn out hope to use casinos as major catalysts for that Las Vegas is historically unique. It is tourism development need to be realistic in quite possible that no other resort area will assessing the likelihood that casinos will be able to amass the infrastructure, tourism have a major impact on their overall tourism amenities, and critical mass of private sector product. If not, they might end up sorely mega-casino properties to build a global des- disappointed.

15 Health Tourism Trends: Closing the Gap between Health Care and Tourism

Anna Pollock and Peter Williams

Introduction dimension of health tourism. In this context, health tourism is defined as: While tourism and the pursuit of health leisure, recreational and educational have long been connected, few North Amer- activities removed from the distractions of ican organizations have specifically linked work and home that use tourism products these two phenomena in a pragmatic sense. and services that are designed to promote This is not the case in Europe where many and enable customers to improve and segments of the tourism industry have had maintain their health and well-being. long-standing ties with health-related organizations and travellers. This chapter Health and wellness attitudes examines the emerging trend of health tour- Critical to an appreciation of the potential ism in North America; characterizes the strategic linkages between health and tour- management responses to the trend; ism is an understanding of changing describes the policy and planning barriers to attitudes concerning health and wellness. be overcome in building stronger linkages The view of health as merely an absence of between tourism and traditional health care disease was challenged as early as 1946 by professionals; and recommends policy and the World Health Organization (WHO). It planning shifts that are needed to create defined health as a state of complete phys- stronger synergistic connections among the ical, mental and social wellbeing, not tourism industry, health care and govern- merely the absence of disease or infirmity ment agencies. It does so as a contribution to (WHO, 1946). This larger, holistic vision of the growing but relatively undeveloped field health gave root to the wellness movement of health tourism in North America. of the 1970s in which individuals assumed a more participatory role in their health care. Health tourism concepts While the emphasis was initially placed on During its relatively short North American physical fitness and the body, there has been existence, the concept of health tourism has a subsequent recognition of the need to bal- evolved from being primarily medical care ance the needs of body, mind and spirit focused (Goodrich and Goodrich, 1991; through activities and experiences in Goodrich, 1994) to placing heavy emphasis healthy environments (Lalonde, 1974; Edlin on health promotion. This chapter centres and Golanty, 1985). its discussion on the health promotion As a consequence of this shift in percep- © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 165 166 Anna Pollock and Peter Williams

tion, health promotion programmes which tourism is deep rooted in the traditions of enable people to increase control over and many cultures (Andestad, 1994). In this con- improve their own health have developed. text, tourism as an enabler of physical, More than ever before, North Americans are mental and spiritual health is returning to now encouraged to participate in the main- its original roots. tenance of their health not only for their own benefit, but also as a means of controlling escalating health care costs. Over the past Contemporary Health Tourism decade, North Americans have witnessed Market Drivers substantive increases in the number and quality of fitness centres associated with pri- There are a number of important consumer vate gyms, public community centres and trends that suggest the market for various commercial hotels. Similarly, there has been forms of active, fitness or health-oriented a surge in the variety of tourism destinations holiday will grow substantially over the offering health resort facilities and services next few years. (e.g. spas, retreat programmes and wellness centres) which focus on helping clients ach- Shifting consumer values ieve higher levels of health, vitality and The 1990s have witnessed the beginning of a wellbeing (Burt, 1995). In this context, such shift in North American consumer behav- health tourism destinations have among iour from the acquisition of things to their underlying goals, the aim to have the experiences (Forbes, 1996). Research sug- guests go home ‘better’ than when they gests that travellers are becoming more arrived – more fit, healthy, relaxed and interested in improving themselves intellec- enlightened (Monteson and Singer, 1992; tually, emotionally and physically, than Horgan, 1995). they are in goals such as ‘making money, getting promoted at work, or acquiring Health and tourism: historical linkages clothes, houses and cars’ (Cardozo, 1992). In many ways the relationship between Similarly, as real incomes have not health and travel is an ancient one. In fact, increased substantially over the past dec- the roots of key words associated with tour- ade, consumers have demonstrated a greater ism point to a strong relationship between interest in attaining values such as meaning, the two concepts. Tourism is a generic term self-fulfilment and self-autonomy (Redekop, used to describe a range of primarily com- 1997). Seeking a higher quality of life mercial aspects of recreation and holidays. became a powerful motivator underlying All these terms have linkages to the concept most consumer behaviour at the close of the of healing and integration of body, mind and 20th century (Adams, 1997). Health tourism spirit. For instance, the term recreation is facilities like spas and wellness centres associated with renewal, rejuvenation, uniquely provide the ‘space and place’ that replenishing, recharging and revitalizing allow guests to seek harmony, balance and the physical body. As well, the term holiday permanent lifestyle changes. They also offer is derived from ‘holy days’ or special days of some people a healing atmosphere – one in celebration. These holy days were typically which they can ‘take stock’ and refocus in a linked to rituals and festivities associated supportive environment. with spiritual calendars, when people remembered a spiritual dimension of their Increased stress wholeness and intrinsic holiness. Similarly, Over the past 15 years the leisure time of the the term vacation comes from the Latin average adult has shrunk, while the duration vacare – to empty, to let go, to stop, to still of the working week has grown significantly. the mind and allow the subconscious mind For many working people, it now approa- and its creative processes a chance to work. ches the 50-h week once only associated Other descriptions of tourism’s history also with sweatshops (Burt, 1995). As a result suggest that the current interest in health there is a decreasing amount of nonwork Health Tourism Trends 167

time available for less stressful leisure and market which preceded them. More likely, other informal off the job activities. Conse- they will create a ‘mid-youth’ market that quently, holiday time has become an asset of indulges itself in a search for fun and self- appreciating value at least from a stress fulfilment, despite the responsibilities reduction perspective. To help counteract associated with being mature (Smith et al., the stresses associated with the increasing 1997). This trend will probably be most pro- demands of the workplace, more and more nounced among baby-boom women who, employees are saying that holidays are ‘vital after years of managing the responsibilities to health and wellbeing’ (Kooyman, 1990). of children and family, will finally be able to Coincidentally, the linkage between satisfy their personal pent-up demand for mini-holidays and stress reduction is also self fulfilment and betterment (Redekop, being recognized by some members of the 1997). health care profession. For instance, research suggests that mini-holidays pro- Retirees vide people with breaks, without totally The estimated size, wealth, and travel pref- removing them from their routine. These erences of the current and future ‘seniors’ shorter leisure periods tend to be even more market in North America is well documen- relaxing than long holidays – especially for ted (NTA, 1997; Redekop, 1997; Smith et al., those in high pressure jobs. They require 1997). Tomorrow’s senior market is likely to less planning, preparation, money and lead be attracted to travel destinations that offer time and hence may be more spontaneous active, healthy, sociable amenities, even (Kooyman, 1990). Similarly, it seems rea- though they may not regularly use them. sonable to assume that those health tourism The health and fitness patterns of these sen- destinations that offer ‘hassle-free’ holiday iors offer useful insights into their probable experiences will probably have a compet- future involvement in health tourism oppor- itive advantage in tomorrow’s emerging tunities. However, programmes may need to marketplace. be tailored toward an older, active but less physically demanding clientele (IHRA, Ageing boomers 1997). Research suggests that they will Between 1996 and the year 2000, some 78 demand a much richer range of social activ- million American baby boomers turned 50. ities and learning opportunities than their It is this generation that fuelled the fitness less educated, less well-travelled senior pre- boom of the 1980s and sustained a US$30 decessors (Lux and Migliaccio, 1994). Most billion industry including equipment, of these emerging seniors consider them- clothing, vitamins, sports gear and health selves younger and more active than they club memberships (Russel, 1995). It is also actually are in chronological terms (Sheehy, this generation that is very aware of the 1995). advantages of pursuing more healthy lifestyles (Morris, 1996). Rising health care costs and personal Businesses are already serving the wants health care and needs of baby boomers as they pass Health care costs in North America are through difficult transitions. Sales of skin rapidly escalating (Griffin, 1995). Recogniz- creams, suntan lotions, hair colouring, ing that these increases are unsustainable, cosmetics, vitamins and nutritional supple- many health and medical care providers are ments are surging as millions of boomers encouraging the public to take a more proac- join the battle against ageing. Self-help tive role in pursuing preventative personal books, dealing with everything from spiritu- health care strategies. As a consequence, ality to home decorating, have become so many North American consumers are popular that The New York Times publishes slowly moving away from the ‘quick fix’ a bestseller list for them (Russel, 1995). mentality and are attempting to make perso- It is highly unlikely that baby boomers nal changes, which will help them to ‘turn will act like the more traditional mature the clock back’. Health tourism facilities are 168 Anna Pollock and Peter Williams

potentially well positioned to assist these 1993). More mainstream travellers than ever people in their efforts to make these changes before are looking for destinations which in their lifestyles. Such destinations could provide a better balance between humans play significant roles in providing the loca- and nature. In recent years, a growing num- tions and facilities required to kick start ber of health tourism destinations in North and/or strengthen consumer resolve to America have been incorporating activities undertake healthy living programmes with- into their visitor programmes which focus out the distractions of daily life. They could on achieving health through integrating the also offer the professional staff needed to body, mind and spirit, with experiencing provoke, encourage and empathetically sup- healthy natural environments. They are port health tourism visitors at critical times doing this through strategic partnerships during their transition to healthier living with members of the rapidly expanding activities (Griffin, 1995). nature and outdoor adventure travel industry. Mind and spirit attention Attitudes toward health care are broadening. In 1992 more than one in three Health Resort Market Characteristics Americans used some type of alternative in North America therapy and spent US$13.7 billion on alternative treatments – more than half the The health tourism market can be subdi- out-of-pocket expenditure for all conven- vided into existing (current facility and tional physicians services in the US during programme users) and latent (high affinity that time (Eisenberg et al., 1993). Similar nonusers) demand groups. Surveys suggest figures were estimated for other countries. In that about 33% of US travellers consider the Canada, one in five Canadians were found to presence of health facilities in a destination be using alternative therapies (Richmond, as important to them when planning their 1991). holiday trips (Burt, 1995). Whereas a few years ago, activities such as yoga and meditation were considered ‘new age’, now they are mainstream (I-SPA, Existing demand 1995). As an extension, many North Amer- It is generally assumed that the health tour- icans are looking for more meditative, ism market is dominated (75%) by female creative and spiritual dimensions in their travellers. This estimate is based on their lives. While some customers want to use heavy use (up to 90%) of day and destina- their stay at a health tourism destination ‘to tion spa facilities. However, current markets empty and still the mind’ in order to reflect, for health tourism destinations are believed others are seeking creative outlets, which to be more evenly distributed between help them to rejuvenate and replenish (Mor- women (60%) and men (40%) (Griffin, gan, 1994). Those health tourism 1995). The current female market primarily destinations that focus their investments on consists of women working outside the such specialized programming will be well home and retired homemakers. positioned to contribute to the spiritual, psychological fulfilment and self worth Women working outside the home needs of their clientele (Griffin, 1995). Female baby boomers (35–55 years of age) have lifestyles characterized by the struggle Environmentalism to juggle professional, personal and family The past decade has witnessed the growing demands. Their primary motivation for importance of products and services which involvement with health tourism is to are designed to improve or sustain the phys- relieve stress. They are concerned about ical environment and enable participants to their health and their appearance and are better understand their relationship with willing to experiment with new physical, the natural world (Hawkes and Williams, psychological and spiritual therapeutic Health Tourism Trends 169

activities. They view health tourism experi- tourism destinations. These include corpo- ences as a necessity rather than an rate employees, leisure couples, senior indulgence because they understand how citizens and families. debilitating ill health might be for themselves and their family. They are affluent Corporate employees and frequent travellers and are willing to try Happy, healthy workers reduce turnover new types of health tourism packages in and increase productivity, leading to loyal varying travel destinations. However, they customers and increased revenues for cor- are constrained in their choice of destina- porate organizations. As companies tions by limited amounts of leisure time. increasingly recognize the importance of The more flexibility they have in their their intellectual assets, health tourism des- choice of health tourism products and ser- tinations will have increasing opportunities vices, the better. Generally, their health to attract corporation employees for ‘well- tourism experiences can be characterized as ness’ retreats, ‘lifestyle enhancement’ relatively short stays (e.g. an average of 2.5 activities, and team building and leadership nights) with a spouse, friend or female fam- programmes. ily member (Horgan, 1995). Increasingly, the presence of health As the baby boomer population ages, and facilities and innovative wellness program- the time and financial constraints associated ming in tourism destinations are becoming with raising families diminish, it is expected important factors in the site selection cri- that the female cohort of this group will teria for many meeting and incentive remain the mainstay of the health tourism planners. In many companies, health- market for the next 20 years. This group is related pampering is considered something also most likely to encourage men to attend that is better earned than purchased. While health tourism programmes. However, their there is currently much more of a response success in this regard will be related to how to health tourism marketing in the corporate well they are able to convince men that such US, there is also considerable evidence that pursuits are an investment in improved Canadian corporations are investing in their work performance, stress management and employees’ health through a combination of health (Orbeta-Heytens, 1995). programming and promotion activities Homemaker/retired women (CFLI, 1994a,b). In this regard, companies are increasingly recognizing that health is a Comprising older females (55 years of age), function of wholeness and balance as well this group has more time and disposable as physical fitness, and are encouraging income than their younger, professional, their employees to pursue health tourism counterparts. They perceive a health tour- opportunities. ism holiday as an indulgence. In this regard, they prefer beauty treatments to more physical (e.g. massage) and psychological (e.g. Leisure couples stress management) programmes. These As females encourage health tourism trials, females may resist attending a health tour- more couples will use such services. Time ism destination initially, but they tend to constrained couples are beginning to become loyal repeat visitors after experienc- exchange the indulgent holidays in which ing such locations. In fact, they often they return more overweight and sometimes become important health tourism ‘ambassa- more stressed after the event than before, for dors’, passing on important testimonials to stays at health tourism destinations. In such their friends. situations, it is quite likely that females will pursue spa-related activities, while their Latent markets male counterparts might golf in the morning Beyond existing markets, several national and then pursue a sports therapy treatment and international travel groups exhibit con- in the afternoon. Such couples might then siderable development potential for health dine out on gourmet health cuisine and 170 Anna Pollock and Peter Williams

attend seminars and workshops on lifestyle However, care would have to be taken to changes later in the day (Griffin, 1995). segregate the children from conventional spa-goers in order to reduce potential areas Senior citizens of conflict. Health tourism destinations in North Amer- ica have barely scratched the surface of the International travellers growing market of elderly, affluent consu- The long-haul pleasure travel market stud- mers. This segment of the population is ies conducted in several of North America’s living longer and, depending on lifestyle leading international markets indicate that choices, has the opportunity to enjoy their the level of interest in health tourism retirement years in good health. Through the destinations varies considerably among introduction of appropriately priced educa- geographical travel markets. In particular, tional programming combined with social the highest incidence levels are associated programmes that offer single participants with Mexico. For instance, about 43% of all the chance for camaraderie, fun and learn- past long-haul pleasure travellers from this ing, health tourism destinations could tap destination have actually visited a health an expanding market of consumers with the spa on previous international trips (Wil- time, money and motivation to maintain liams et al., 1996). The lowest health good health. At present, only a fraction of tourism affinity levels for this type of inter- health tourism facilities offer medically national travel product are associated with based programmes designed for more market generating countries that already mature travellers. These customized pro- have elaborate health tourism industries. In grammes might include diet and exercise to particular, Japan, France, Germany and Italy address specifically chronic diseases related all have had long histories of health tourism to cardiovascular problems, cancer, diabe- facilities and programmes available for their tes, hypertension, arthritis and osteoporosis citizens. Indeed, in most of these countries, (Griffin, 1995). visits to such facilities are subsidized by the state. Consequently, it would seem unlikely Families for large numbers of travellers from these Past research suggests that many potential market origins to be seeking similar, non- health tourism enthusiasts feel that their subsidized opportunities abroad. children would not be welcome at such destinations (Woods, 1992). In particular, these studies suggest that many females believe that the stereotyped reflective and tranquil Management Implications atmosphere associated with health tourism facilities is likely to be incompatible with Many tourism destinations and businesses the presence of active youngsters. However, have opportunities to adopt the strategic it should also be noted that family attend- position of being catalysts and partners in ance has strongly increased at such encouraging and supporting active, healthy destinations in recent years (Whitiam, lifestyles. However, such positioning carries 1993). with it many private sector and public insti- In this context, there may be an opportu- tution policy, planning and marketing nity for health resort destinations that offer a implications. From a private sector perspec- much wider range of programmes designed tive, specific initiatives should be to cater to families by offering activities for encouraged with respect to both product children that free the adults to participate in development and marketing. more health-related activities. In light of the lack of fitness among young people, the Private sector product development opportunity to introduce lifestyle changes to implications the entire family in a fun and playful setting Companies and tourism destinations inter- might also have appeal to younger families. ested in building their health tourism Health Tourism Trends 171

potential should respond to the foregoing health and balance through renewal, market forces by: recharging, recreating, rest and relaxation (Burt, 1995). ● positioning health tourism products Health tourism marketing efforts should and services within core health care be directed at consumers, the travel trade themes related to wellness and health community, as well as the health care care as it relates to body (fitness, well- community (i.e. general practitioners, ness, beauty), mind (relaxation, therapists, counsellors and practitioners of self-expression and learning) and soul alternative or complementary medicine, (meditation, spiritual development); personnel responsible for health promotion ● providing a broad and flexible range of in government and business). It should uti- programming which reflect the needs of lize the combined integrity and knowledge different market niches for various of qualified and respected practitioners of forms of personal care, on-site amenities complementary therapies as well as health and facilities (e.g. providing à la carte promotion agencies to deliver the message. services which respond to consumer time constraints and the need to ‘multi- Public sector policy implications task’ while on holiday); ● developing nature-based, indigenous, Ideally, health tourism should not be environmentally ‘pure’ products, that viewed in isolation, either from the issues place less emphasis on equipment, tech- affecting tourism in general, or more impor- nology and facilities and more on tantly the issues associated with health care, natural experiences and materials health promotion, and the delivery of ancil- derived from nature; lary leisure and recreation services. ● creating health treatment programmes However, the synergistic linkages that could which are capable of withstanding the exist between health care and tourism in tests of consumer confidence with North America are barely recognizable. respect to their overall integrity and Indeed, few tourism enterprises have suc- efficacy; cessfully connected their operations to the ● building more ‘low frill’ health tourism task of healing. This is a situation diamet- products that require less capital invest- rically opposite to the European experience ment and emphasize high levels of (Williams et al., 1996). Before the health personal service and innovative pro- tourism industry can move ahead in a con- gramming; certed fashion, there are a number of public ● working collaboratively with health policy issues that need to be addressed. care professionals to build more holistic health tourism products for discerning Curative rather than preventative consumers. treatment philosophies The North American medical system has Private sector marketing implications been characterized as a ‘sickness system’ There is a need for integrated and collective focusing more on curing disease, as opposed approaches to communicating information to a health promotion system dealing with about health tourism destinations and prod- preventing illness. Many North American ucts. Such communication initiatives public health institutions operate in a sys- should be sponsored by a combination of tem that attends to the infirm, with precious interested tourism businesses and related few moments offering holistic ways to health industries (cosmetics, equipment improve their health (Granger, 1996). For and health food suppliers, self-help health the most part, doctors are currently paid to media producers). Ideally, the messages treat the sick, not to prevent patients from communicated should centre on creating visiting their offices. Health tourism offers greater awareness concerning tourism’s medical practitioners an attractive way to potential role in creating opportunities for encourage improved patient health. 172 Anna Pollock and Peter Williams

Health institution structures even consumers who are not economically Traditional western medical philosophies disadvantaged can benefit from the support, have also helped shape the ways in which sanction, and encouragement of the health North America has structured many of its care and business community. Taking time health institutions. Typically, discrete insti- out for personal health care and investing in tutional departments have their separate one’s health is a goal suited to all members focus, budget and own sense of exclusivity of society. regarding the delivery of their services. As a At the same time, decision makers within consequence, health care professionals, for public tourism departments need to see example, have not considered that the tour- health as a significant motivator for tourist ism industry could convey a message about trip decisions. Health-related benefits are health, and tourism marketers rarely con- increasingly being cited as one important sider health care practitioners as possible factor in the holiday decisions of travellers channels of distribution to their consumers. (Williams et al., 1996). As such, health tour- While most medical health plans in North ism can represent an important element in America do not cover the cost of health strategies for community development and tourism programmes, this should not dimin- regional economic revitalization (Bywater, ish the opportunity, for those who do have 1990). the funds to participate in such programmes, to learn about such options Health versus sickness investment orientation through the health care practitioners. In many North American organizations, a greater focus on health investments is nee- Health promotion focus ded. Currently in many jurisdictions, legal Evidence has been available for some time statutes dictate that full time employees that shows that health status is powerfully receive a minimum number of days ‘paid associated with educational attainment and leave for sickness’. In such cases they are its corollary, economic status. A small rise actually paid to be sick. Ironically, there are in the educational or economic level of an no financial incentives for participating in individual or population often has a far programmes that prevent disease. greater health benefit than many other While many large companies may invest health programmes combined (Levin, 1987). in some form of wellness programming, this Consequently, many health promotion strat- is often beyond the resources of public insti- egies have tended to focus more on the tutions, small companies and self-employed socioeconomic determinants of health individuals. However, the escalating costs rather than on behavioural and other of health care to the public purse are also lifestyle-related determinants. well recognized. Indeed expectations that Since many leisure opportunities in these expenditures will increase as baby North America are often regarded as not boomers age are seen as a foregone conclu- being distributed in a socially equitable sion. Given the importance of tourism to the fashion, health promotion professionals economy of many North American regions, consider few leisure-based health interven- there is good reason for bridges to be built tions appropriate. Because tourist activities between the health care community and are typically associated with the more afflu- tourism providers (Gee et al., 1994). ent members of society (those with the disposable income to afford a holiday), its support by public health promoters might be Certification and standards perceived as pandering to the middle and Because of the wide range of therapies and upper classes of the population and smack- treatments offered by the health tourism ing of elitism. Unfortunately, the historical resorts and spas, there is a need for some association of health tourism in the western form of standardization and quality control. world with a wealthy pampered upper class An independent system of qualification and has tended to reinforce this view. However, certification for health tourism businesses is Health Tourism Trends 173

needed. This applies to both the program- fresh and powerful repositioning of ming and personnel associated with health some destination regions. tourism operations. ● Health Care Practitioners: Most health Personnel working at health tourism care practitioners are unaware of the facilities need a unique set of skills. In addi- variety of health tourism opportunities tion to being able to demonstrate above available and are unsure as to the integ- average levels of concern and interest in rity and quality of these programmes. their client’s welfare, they must adhere to The health tourism sector needs to the highest of ethical standards and prac- inform doctors of their existence and tices. To gain credibility in the marketplace, invite feedback on the products and ser- they also need the support of the medical vices available at health tourism profession in acknowledging the efficacy of destinations. Many patients may be the types of treatments to be delivered. Pub- more inclined to ‘take a break’ at their lic institutions should encourage health own expense if sanctioned by a medical tourism operations to develop and publish practitioner. This does not require the such standards for their operations, so as to doctor to make recommendations to protect consumers and operator/employers. patients concerning one destination over another but merely to pass on information about the options available. The key to success is to stress that health Conclusions tourism operations exist to support and not undermine the medical profession Health tourism shows every sign of ‘coming in its treatment practices. ● of age’ in North America. Indeed, there are a Complementary Therapy Practitio- number of market forces which are working ners: The number of individuals together synergistically to ensure that the offering a range of complementary ther- demand for health-related tourism (either apies, treatments and opportunities for directly or indirectly) is likely to grow sub- personal growth and learning has mush- stantially over the next decade. roomed in recent years. Most are in Opportunities exist to harness these market centres close to densely populated forces and make them work for the fledgling areas. Conversely, most health tourism health tourism industry. However, to capi- destinations are away from these con- talize on this opportunity several initiatives gested centres in order to offer their must be undertaken that all evolve around a clients a clean, unspoiled tranquil envi- more integrated approach to health promo- ronment. Health care practitioners need tion. In this context, the strategic tasks to be informed of the facilities and ser- require the support and commitment of vices available in such destinations, and tourism industry, health care, complemen- be invited to offer their programmes per- tary therapy and corporate stakeholders. iodically in such environments. ● They are as follows: Corporate Community: A focus on positioning health tourism destinations as desirable places for company meet- ● The Tourism Industry: There is a need ings would enable managers and to create an awareness of the importance employees to achieve two goals at once: of health as an underlying travel motiva- take care of their personal health needs tor with senior government and tourism while making a productive contribution industry decision makers. Health tour- to the company. By combining health- ism is currently perceived as of small related programmes with meeting- economic significance even though it related services, health tourism destina- can play an important role in helping tions can position themselves government achieve specific develop- competitively for emerging corporate ment objectives and also contribute to a travel markets.

16 Festivals and Special Events: Life Cycle and Saturation Issues

Donald Getz

Introduction golden age of permanent maturity? In this chapter the major forces shaping The new millennium was accompanied by growth and diversity in the events sector are massive, unparalleled global celebrations brieﬂy summarized. Then the product life that will be remembered long afterwards for cycle concept is explained and its potential their impact on the entire events sector. implications for events are discussed. Inher- Even before this outpouring of creativity ent in the model are the notions of (and brash commercialism), growth in the innovation and diffusion, of competition number, size and diversity of festivals and and market saturation. Implications are special events has been staggering, so this drawn for policy, planning and management trend will clearly continue well into the 21st of events and the events sector. century. It is entirely appropriate that the turn of a century is marked by the renewal of old and Forces Shaping Event Growth and creation of new events, as long as both hindsight and forethought accompany the revels. Diversity We look back over the past century so that we can more purposively move forward into Trends, and major forces shaping the events the next. Indeed, rapid expansion of the ﬁeld, have been discussed by several events sector raise serious concerns for all authors (Getz, 1991, 1997; Janiskee, 1994, stakeholders, encompassing culture, tour- 1996; Murray, 1995; Wicks and Schultz, ism, leisure, sport, the arts, and many 1995; Goldblatt, 1997; Ryan et al., 1998), corporations and agencies which sponsor and from their works it can be seen that no and participate in events. single causal factor explains the phenom- While this period of growth has been enon of growth. Given that festive, exciting and full of opportunities for an competitive, entertaining, business, politi- emerging profession, can it continue? What cal, recreational, social and educational are the implications of having so many, events are an integral part of culture, there is potentially competing, events in existence? certainly good reason to conclude that And as the majority of periodic events age – recent trends are largely a consequence of most of them are now relatively youthful – global growth in population, disposable will they enter a period of decline or a incomes, mobility, and increased leisure © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 175 176 Donald Getz

and travel. But more specific forces have are also more demanding of quality and con- also been identified. venience. With the entertainment industry becoming a major force in modern society, Strategic event development events have become more entertainment ori- One major force is the strategic emphasis ented, sometimes to the detriment of placed on events by numerous and diverse celebration or educational values. agencies with mandates to promote places, None of the major forces acting on the and tourism destinations in particular events sector shows signs of diminishing. (Kotler et al., 1993) and by those using What is worrying is that explosive growth events to further charitable or social causes has possibly generated too many events in (Graham et al., 1995). On the corporate side, some areas, or of certain types, or too many event marketing has emerged as an effective that are inadequately managed or financed. tool in fostering profitable relationships While the trend remains one of growth, it is (Schreiber, 1994; Morrow, 1997). Indeed, perhaps easy to discount talk of saturation there can be no doubt that without the sub- and decline. Nevertheless, policy makers stantial expansion of sponsorship in the last and event managers engaging in strategic two decades, many events would not exist planning to ensure future survival and suc- or would not have grown as they did (Inter- cess will be examining these risks. national Events Group, 1995; International Festivals Association, n.d.). While corporate sponsorship and public-sector grants cannot Product Life Cycle and Saturation be taken for granted, there is no reason to Concepts believe that this form of strategic event development will wane. Just as people grow, mature then die, so too might individual product brands (i.e. specific events), classes of product (e.g. festivals The baby-boomer influence based on a genre of music), or an entire The size and tastes of the ‘baby boom’ gen- category of product such as music festivals. eration have impacted heavily on events, as The product life cycle is a widely referenced the preferences and the family orientation of marketing concept that purports to explain ‘baby boomers’ have fuelled many commu- these changes and provide appropriate stra- nity festivals. This force will continue to tegic responses, although it is certainly not influence entertainment and sports well into accepted as ‘law’. Levitt (1965) first made the 21st century, after which much greater the concept popular, but it is described in attention will be focused on the needs and virtually all marketing texts and has been wants of ‘generation X’ (i.e. late boomers applied to recreation programmes, tourist born 1955–1964), ‘baby busters’ (1965– destinations and events. 1976) and the ‘echo boom’ (1977–1994) (see Four stages are included in the usual Dunn, 1993; Mitchell, 1995). Increased cul- product life cycle model: introduction; tural diversity is also a major force growth; maturity and decline. The concept (Rossman, 1994), leading to growth in both is usually applied to new product classes, multicultural and ethnic events. such as a new event genre, but can also be applied to a new firm or organization. How- Leisure forces ever, most new events are now entering a Within the leisure sphere, events have per- crowded field occupied by many similar formed an important and expanding role. events, and this fact can be very important – They animate attractions and other social particularly in that competition for resour- settings, as well as motivate travel – espe- ces and consumers must be a major cially for short getaway breaks. Consumers, consideration. mostly urban based, enjoy events in rural There is an intuitive appeal to this model, communities and resorts. They have tended largely because of our human experience to crave more excitement and variety, but with life and death, but also because every- Festivals and Special Events 177

one is likely to be familiar with products, have become icons or hallmarks for their including events, that have faded or failed. communities. Residents support and attend As events grow they can lose their commu- them in part because they are cultural tradi- nity identity: tions, but their success must also be attributed to constant adaptation. The Stam- Therefore, event organizers have to find pede, however, was found to have reached a ways to guide growth while still plateau in attendance, attributed by manage- maintaining the features of the event which ment to lack of space for physical made it popular in the first place expansion, and so efforts were being con- (Hall, 1992, p. 120) centrated on increasing the yield from prime tourist segments. Many of the events and festivals that do not Walle (1994), in examining the event stay fresh and modernize are likely to go out of existence . . . Competing for event genre (i.e. product class) called cowboy audiences whose expectations continue to poetry gatherings, argued that a shakeout rise will require new management strategies would likely occur as supply (the number of and an emphasis on service quality events) began to exceed demand. But this (Wicks, 1995) would have a beneficial outcome in that premier events would remain to better serve Janiskee (1994), based on his database of the market. Referring to the Elko Cowboy community festivals in the US, found there Poetry Gathering, Walle observed that its had been almost exponential growth in their organizers had found a distinct strategy to numbers between 1930 and 1991. There had differentiate itself from the others in its been annual increases averaging 4.6% and a class. doubling in number about every 15 years, The life cycle is also linked to the concept although five distinct spurts had been detec- of innovation diffusion, as put forward by ted. Almost 40% had been created in the Rogers (1962). When the product is new, it 1980s alone. Janiskee believed that such requires effort to get people to try it and growth cannot be continued indefinitely become repeat customers. Some people will and that a glut already exists in some areas. attend an event, for example, only after There are time-tested festivals which ‘ . . . are other, more adventuresome event-goers likely to survive and stabilize at some have reported on its attractiveness. Five acceptable level’ but also ‘ . . . the day may types of consumers have been identified in soon arrive when non-viable community this context, namely: innovator, early adop- festivals are discontinued at a rate approach- ter, early and late majority, and laggards. ing or exceeding the rate of new festival There is also likely to be a group who will establishment’. never try a genre of event, let alone specific Andersson (1987) believed that events events. able to plug into international information networks are more likely to succeed in Competition and saturation attracting visitors and commercial sponsor- Can there be too many events? Jones (1993, ship, while those events relying on p. 24) reported that there were an estimated subsidies are more likely to die out as public 900 festivals each year in the UK, and noted: funding dries up. In this scenario, life cycle ‘ . . . there is a danger that we may be reach- is related both to resources acquired and to ing saturation point.’ She observed that a possible overdependence on one source. In report by the Policy Studies Institute in 1992 addition, innovative managers are seen to be discovered that more than half the festivals better able to tap new resources and there- were running a loss and concluded that fore to succeed and survive. organizers would find increasing difficulty One long-standing event examined is the in competing for audiences. Further, many Calgary Exhibition and Stampede (Getz, lacked basic marketing skills and could not 1993a, 1997). Many traditional events like generate sponsorship revenue. Britton this can be found internationally, as they (1991) observed that the multiplication of 178 Donald Getz

events places growing emphasis on novelty functions within event organizations helps and spectacle as the basic motivator. explain why some will decline or fail (Getz, Based on analysis of his large database on 1998). American festivals, Janiskee argued: Destination life cycles The recreational day-tripper zones of many In the tourism literature a debate has raged cities are already glutted with festivals for many years over the applicability of the during the most popular weekends and life cycle concept to destinations. Postula- holidays, and with at least 1,000 new ted by Butler (1980), the notion is that festivals added to the national inventory resorts, communities and areas experience each year, the problem is sure to grow (Janiskee, 1996, p. 129) an evolution in their appeal to visitors, in part related to emerging capacity constraints which act as limits to growth. Some, like Richards (1996b), commenting on the sit- Atlantic City, have been observed to rise and uation in Europe, observed that there had fall, then be rejuvenated. Many single case been considerable growth in the number of studies and a smaller number of compar- cultural events, in part owing to their pop- ative studies have raised many questions ularity within tourism development about the model’s applicability to destina- strategies. But as he noted: tions. For example, through research on Niagara Falls, Getz (1992) concluded that There are some indicators, however, that the destination was in a permanent state of many festivals and special events may be maturity in which examples of product losing their novelty value as far as many introduction, growth, maturity and even visitors are concerned decline occurred simultaneously. Events (Richards, 1996b, p. 323) were being used to attract new and repeat visitors and to encourage longer stays. He also suggested that in the long run ‘ . . . If a destination declines in popularity, so events can suffer from a ‘‘waning effect’’, too will some of its attractions and events. If whereby increasing levels of investment are it is the events and attractions which required to generate similar visitor num- weaken first, the destination might suffer in bers’. turn. However, many events are not tourist attractions in the first place (most events Life cycle and organizational culture being dependent on local and regional demand) so a destination’s evolution will While the popularity of event themes and not necessarily vary directly with that of its programmes might be expected to rise and events or events sector. fall, depending on factors such as fad, fashion, publicity and competition, so too might the fortunes of the event organization. Indeed, the organizations running festivals Critique of the Life Cycle Concept (Getz and Frisby, 1988; Frisby and Getz, 1989) have been revealed to face multiple Lambkin and Day (1989) suggested that a challenges for their very survival. As dis- population ecology model might be more cussed by Getz (1993b) the concept of appropriate and useful than the life cycle corporate or organizational culture can help concept. Drawing on nature, this model sug- explain why some events grow and others gests exponential growth can occur when do not, and why some go through crises that firms enter a new ‘resource space’, but even- threaten their survival, quite apart from tually a carrying capacity is reached and an their position in the marketplace. And equilibrium is achieved, possibly through because ‘learning organizations’ (Senge, organizational deaths. Over time, the inevi- 1990) are more likely to be adaptable, the table scarcity of resources implies more absence of strategic planning and research intense competition, so organizations must Festivals and Special Events 179

adapt strategically. In this context ‘ . . . per- selecting competitive strategies, they formance is a consequence of the effects of argued, because everyone in business knows the prevailing competitive conditions in and uses the model! combination with the structures and strate- Because many events are of the non-profit gies of different firms’. nature, other measures of value or success But however appealing, it might be a mis- will be required. Usually attendance is taken take to apply an organic analogy to social as the best measure of demand, but it could organizations (Lambkin and Day, 1989). be more meaningful to specify paid versus After all, do cities and institutions normally free attendance, total expenditure of visi- fade away and die? Most do not, because tors, the proportion of tourists versus people invest heavily in them, and depend residents attracted, length of tourists’ stay, on them for continuity. In addition, weak or the ratio of repeat to first-time visitors. For and even failed events can be rejuvenated or many events a measure of service value will reborn if their backers want it to happen. be most appropriate (e.g. target segments The less an event is tied to purely commer- reached, charitable revenue generated) or of cial success factors, specifically profit, the communications effectiveness (e.g. public- less likely it is to succumb to competition or ity generated, changes caused in awareness old age. and attitude). Unlike permanent attractions, events can If intangible measures are to be used (e.g. be moved spatially and temporally in not demand, revenue, profits, attendance), response to environmental or internal prob- monitoring evolution of an event through lems, can be shut down for a year or more, the life cycle will be more difficult. How will and even reincarnated under a new name a manager know, for example, when a and management, without necessarily suf- service-oriented event begins to decline if fering permanent harm. The case of the the primary objective is to provide the com- Canadian Tulip Festival (noted in Getz, munity with a wholesome, family social 1991) is instructive, as this event was delib- experience or the goal is to foster a sense of erately renamed Festival of Spring, went community pride? Special research will bankrupt, then re-emerged as the Canadian obviously be required, measuring, for exam- Tulip Festival under new management. ple, public attitudes and preferences. Civic authorities played a pivotal role in this In fact, events are different from most evolution through funding decisions. consumer products in a number of impor- A case can certainly be made for deliber- tant ways (see Box 16.1). But while these ately terminating events that do not meet differences suggest events can exist inde- their objectives, fail on tests of efficiency or pendent of the forces affecting commercial can easily be substituted. From the perspec- products, this is true only to a degree. Events tive of a destination, community or policy can fail for many reasons (see Box 16.2), field (such as arts, culture or sport), the life regardless of attendance or any other meas- cycle of an individual event is not neces- ure of success being used. Market forces or sarily the major concern. It is the overall competition might or might not figure range or portfolio of events that is impor- prominently in event decline or failure, but tant. these factors should always be a concern to In a commercial context, which applies managers. to private events, the life cycle is measured A further complication with applying in terms of both sales and profits, with sales this model to events is the attitude of man- first growing quicker than profits, then prof- agers and organizers toward the issue of its declining as price competition competition. Many event organizers do not intensifies. Hart et al. (1984) said the life believe they have direct competitors (Getz, cycle model was, in fact, a sales curve. Its 1998), but it is obvious that competition value was in helping to assess market poten- exists at any of several levels: tial and market share, but it is definitely not a predictive model. Nor is it useful for ● for the total leisure/entertainment 180 Donald Getz

Box 16.1. How events are different from other consumer products.

Intangibility Events must be experienced and are inherently different every time owing to the blend of programme, management, environment and visitor interactions. Production and consumption of events are simultaneous, leaving no room for pre-inspection or recall (managers have only one chance to get it right). Flexibility and adaptability Despite their innate uniqueness, managers can change elements of events even as they are produced (i.e. ﬂexibility) and can certainly modify them over time in response to environmental forces (i.e. adaptability). Nonproﬁt status Success or value of these events must be evaluated differently; economic demand or revenues are not necessarily appropriate. Multiple stakeholders Event value varies among organizers, the community at large, sponsors, supporting agencies and participants. Success or failure might mean different things to each party. Tradition Many events have the status of institutions or are traditions within cultural groups, making them less sensitive to market forces (and perhaps to change). Noncompetitive environment Many event managers do not believe they have direct competitors for consumers, either because of their timing (none others offered) or genre (appeal to different segments). However, all events compete at a general level for consumer awareness, interest and commitment, and for resources.

Box 16.2. Possible reasons why events fail.

Supply factors ● Direct competition (numbers, types, locations, aggressiveness of other events) ● Indirect competition (consumers have too much choice for leisure and entertainment budget) Demand factors ● Population decline in market area ● Demographic shifts in population which reduce target segments (e.g. older population, fewer families) ● Decline in disposable income among target segments ● Shift in leisure time (lower demand for events) and preferences (e.g. away from events) Management factors ● Unattractive product, poor service ● No strategic planning (i.e. inability to learn and adapt) ● Ineffective marketing ● Incompetence or corruption Other external forces ● Political and regulatory changes which prejudice the event ● Lack of community support; negative attitudes toward event because of impacts ● Absence or decline in vital resources (human, monetary, venues)

budget of consumers (e.g. events versus genre (e.g. perceived substitutability cinema or travel); between touring musicals and music ● for other forms of the same or similar festivals); Festivals and Special Events 181

● with all other events in the same locality and Day, 1989). In this way the diagram also (i.e. consumers will not go to them all); reflects the population ecology model in ● with all other events held simultane- which resource limits and competition are ously (time conflicts). critical factors. The strategies shown in Table 16.1 are If events are free, the nature of competi- not exclusive to side A or B, and the most tion changes. Price is not the issue, but appropriate strategies cannot be prescribed. rather a combination of the total time They must emerge from the event’s own budget, interest levels, and knowledge of research, needs and goals. In general, new consumers about available choices that will events entering a resource-rich environment affect demand. Even if competition for con- (i.e. little direct competition and sufficient sumers is weak, events must still compete resources for all events to grow for some for venues, volunteers, monetary resources time) should aim to become more efficient in and political support. In smaller commu- their use of resources and more secure in nities it might be the competition for their resource base, because competition volunteers that leads to decline. will surely mount. For the majority of new Very little research has been conducted events entering a crowded marketplace, a on event failure and life cycles, so there is no choice of strategies is available: either body of evidence to support or challenge the develop a large-scale event that has the effi- concepts. A systematic examination of event ciencies of scale to weather most obstacles it failures is required, as well as comparisons will have to face, or find a small competitive with long-lived events. niche to exploit. Organizations entering a crowded field will have to be more innovative and adaptive from the onset, which forces established events to react or lose Implications market share. Rigorous feasibility studies are needed at For event managers and organizers the onset to examine the competitive envi- Even if there is no certainty involved with ronment, potential demand and market the life cycle concept, nor with the popula- share, and available resources. For all peri- tion ecology model, there are enough related odic events it is worth considering the issues to force organizers, managers and merits of constant innovation in programme other stakeholders to give serious thought to elements, combined with maintenance of how decline and failure can be prevented, or traditional elements that have broad appeal. how success (however defined) can be sus- In this approach, constancy and change are tained over time. mutually beneficial. The most basic advice to be offered Finally, Box 16.3 lists a set of critical (Lambkin and Day, 1989) is that event orga- success factors derived from the previous nizers must avoid complacency in relation discussion, including points made by Walle to their resource base and competitive posi- (1994). These factors can be used as a check- tion, and avoid the self-fulfilling prophecy list for performing a ‘survival audit’ on any of believing that decline or death is inevita- event and its organization. ble. Adaptation strategies are required, and these should be based on continuous Implications for policy makers (leisure, social research and evaluation to achieve a ‘learn- and cultural) ing organization’. Festivals and events play an important role Table 16.1 depicts the four hypothetical in the life of most communities and cultural life cycle stages with strategic implications groups. This is recognized through funding for a new event in a new class of events, in programmes and direct production of events column A (drawing from Berkowitz et al., by many agencies. Consequently, these pro- 1991), and for the new event in a crowded viders and partners can legitimately adopt field, in column B (adapted from Lambkin policies and programmes to ensure the sur- 182 Donald Getz

Table 16.1. Life cycle stages and implications for event management.

Stage New event, new genre New event, crowded ﬁeld

Introduction ● No direct competition, abundant ● Many existing competitors, no resources, risks exist because of guarantee that growth or unknown markets profitability can be achieved, ● Stress awareness and sell the new markets are established for the genre first genre (i.e. there is less market ● Foster trials by innovators uncertainty) ● Pricing may be high (skimming ● Must do feasibility study profits) or low (penetration of ● Develop large scale and cost markets) efficiencies or niche markets Growth ● Should experience rapid sales ● Constant innovation and growth (or attendance) and differentiation achieve maximum profitability (or ● Attempt to grow total event perceived value) demand through cooperative ● Must differentiate from growing marketing and expansion of market number of competitors or diversify (e.g. tourism) ● Must increase repeat visits (loyalty) ● Be a learning organization while still attracting first-timers Maturity ● Demand will increase, but growth ● Price competition might be rate slows for the total genre essential ● Profits decline if competition leads ● Constant attention to cost to price wars efficiencies is required ● Laggards are the last to try the ● Sustain traditional elements but genre regularly add new programme ● High costs to attract new elements customers, so focus on loyalty ● Reduce overall marketing costs Decline ● Demand and profits decline, ● A shorter life cycle can be possibly due completely to expected in a crowded field, environmental forces shakeouts occur as resources are ● Strategic options: delete the event, fully consumed and competition keep it going as long as possible intensifies with reduced costs, contract out to ● Plan rejuvenation or termination more efficient operators, change strategies right from the the product, reposition it, influence introductory stage the market

vival of important events, but perhaps more elevate events to the level of prominent importantly should ensure their goals are international touristic appeal. Realistically, being realized through the entire portfolio of destinations can expect to contain a large events in the community. Because many number of events with primarily local to events are substitutable, potentially yield- regional appeal, and only a few periodic or ing the same social or cultural beneﬁts to the one-time events that generate substantial population, the failure or decline of individ- tourist numbers. This ‘pyramid’ principle ual events is not necessarily a problem. applies to all sizes of community and destination, as each must concentrate resources Implications for policy makers (economic and marketing effort to achieve one or a few development, place marketing and tourism) major events. As competition increases, it From a tourism destination perspective, it becomes harder for a given event to reach will be increasingly difﬁcult to establish or the pinnacle of touristic appeal, and harder Festivals and Special Events 183

Box 16.3. Critical success factors for sustaining events.

● Purpose: know your core mandate or mission ● Vision: develop a clear vision to a desired future state ● Focus: on uniqueness and strengths; do not imitate others ● Strategic planning: anticipate the need for change and develop appropriate strategies, be a learning organization ● Strong community support: become an institution based on authenticity and cultural value ● Tradition: people can count on popular elements year after year ● Innovation: foster learning and creativity, be adaptable and ﬂexible ● Adequate resources: generate a surplus for re-investment ● Professionalism: strong, professional organizations and managers ● Quality: in programme and service ● Loyalty: foster loyal market segments, sustain loyal volunteers ● Image: become Hallmark events, giving identity to the host community, the image of event and destination are inseparable or mutually reinforcing in the minds of outsiders and residents alike ● Marketing: responsive to consumer needs and preferences but not driven solely by market forces, sustain the vision!

or more expensive for communities and des- life cycle of the event itself. Indeed, a spon- tinations to host events successfully at that sorship pull-out could be the trigger for level. event failure, in the case of overdependence Rather than overemphasize one or a few on one revenue source. This fact argues for a events, it makes more sense to cultivate a partnership arrangement between event diverse portfolio of events (see Getz, 1997) organizers and sponsors so that long-term in which occasional mega-events, perma- planning can take both perspectives into nent, and one-time regional and local events account. Sponsors can help event managers provide a hedge against organizational fail- monitor trends and stay ahead of the com- ures or turmoil in the environment. Forging petition. Stable, successful events will partnerships with other policy fields will appeal more to sponsors. also ensure that events with tourism value are sustained, as events meeting multiple The monitoring and evaluation of trends goals will have broader support. All strategic planning and management Greater seasonal and geographic spread depends on research, not the least of which of events should be a priority for place mar- is continuous monitoring and evaluation of keters, economic development officers and trends. This chapter has attempted to dem- destination planners, as research in several onstrate how essential the process is, and it countries reveals that events tend to concen- also reveals many of the difficulties: finding trate in peak tourist seasons and in major the most pertinent and current sources of population centres. This limits their tourism information; sorting out conflicting indica- and promotional value and exposes the port- tors; evaluating the quality and utility of folio to higher risks. For similar reasons, information; applying the analysis to plan- thematic differences should be cultivated ning and management decisions. and marketed. Event management and event tourism is a very broad subject area, involving data and Implications for event marketing analysis from many sources on demograph- (sponsorship) ics, economic conditions, societal values, Sponsorship of events will often be based on leisure preferences, marketing initiatives corporate decision making which considers and so on. No single source continuously first and foremost the expected life cycle of brings these together and draws implica- the pertinent marketing strategy, then the tions for the events sector, but membership

184 Donald Getz

in professional organizations (e.g. Interna- Social and Cultural Indicators tional Festivals and Events Association, ● measurable impacts of the event on the International Special Events Society) will community prove valuable. Many professionals go to ● fads and more permanent value shifts association conferences and seminars for the explicit reasons of learning from others’ How are indicators of forces and trends experiences and about trends. employed? Simple trend extrapolation can As each planning and management situa- be useful over the short term, as in predict- tion is somewhat unique, the establishment ing next year’s attendance, but is fraught of a targeted set of indicators will be useful. with perils in that underlying causal forces The planner or manager must determine are unknown. If research and analysis can what forces and trends are most important demonstrate that, for example, known pop- (and these shift over time), and how the ulation, demographic and economic information will be collected and used. changes are causing demand to rise, than Ideally, the indicators will cover economic, much more certainty can be made in fore- social, technological, cultural and political casting the future. This in turn leads to factors – some of which will be found to be better planning decisions. more important than others. Another strategic use of trend data is sce- Indicators must be valid in that they truly nario making. Scenarios can be written in impact on event planning and management, the form of descriptions of possible or reliably measurable (i.e. consistently accu- desired future states, enabling strategic rate) and the data must be in a form that can planners to plot the actions necessary to be analysed and evaluated by the user. Inter- stave off or achieve the future state. A hypo- nal indicators of trends will consist of those thetical ‘decline’ state is one such scenario. measures made by the organization includ- How can it be avoided? Under what circum- ing actual attendance, visitor character- stances might it occur? Do we have trend istics, quality of product and service, and data suggesting that a decline is likely, and quantitative performance measures such as by when? (For more detailed discussion of indicators of effectiveness (i.e. degree to research, trend analysis, indicators, fore- which goals are attained) and efﬁciency (at casting, and management information what cost). systems, see Ritchie and Goeldner, 1994.) The main types of environmental indicators (i.e. external to the organization) will be: Conclusion Demand Indicators ● population levels and demographics It is tempting to think that competent man- (especially for target market segments) agers should be able to understand forces, ● awareness and perception of the event monitor trends, anticipate the need for adap- leading to desire to attend tation, and implement effective change ● competition (direct and indirect) strategies, thereby ensuring permanent suc- ● impediments (such as disposable cess for the event, organization or income, accessibility, time pressures) destination. But some environmental trends Political Indicators are imperceptible, while others are abrupt ● grants and other support received and potentially catastrophic. The most that ● attitudes toward the event and its can be expected is that planning will, to a impacts degree, protect one from known and unan- Technological Indicators ticipated problems. ● technological developments affecting Consequently, strategic thinking and demand (such as marketing channels) planning, based on knowledge of the life and operations (such as reservations cycle and related concepts, will prove valua- and ticketing systems) ble. But it will not immunize events, Festivals and Special Events 185

organizations and destinations from the incompetence. Sometimes events will fail, sometimes damaging effects of external and others will have to be drastically altered forces such as intense competition. Nor will to avoid extinction. In other cases, managers it necessarily protect against internal fail- might want to anticipate ultimate decline ures due to organizational culture or and plan their own, timely demise.

17 Cultural Tourism: Challenges for Management and Marketing

Greg Richards

Introduction is perceived as a growth market which can deliver tourism’s holy grail of high quality, Cultural tourism is one of the largest and high spending visitors. In the rush to jump fastest growing segments of global tourism. on the cultural tourism bandwagon, how- According to the World Tourism Organiza- ever, the potential negative consequences of tion, some 37% of international trips are this type of tourism are often overlooked, connected with culture. In the US, 45% of and the needs of the cultural tourists pleasure trips planned in 1996 included vis- themselves are often ignored. The rapid its to historic sites. This broad market development of this market means that rela- indicates that cultural tourism is moving tively little is known about ‘cultural tourists’ away from its former association with a nar- or the phenomenon of ‘cultural tourism’. row cultural elite toward becoming a This chapter presents a review of recent significant global phenomenon. As the cul- market research conducted on cultural tural tourism market grows, the focus of tourism in Europe and identifies trends cultural tourism is also rapidly changing which will be significant in the develop- from a preoccupation with sites and monu- ment of cultural tourism in the coming ments into a much wider phenomenon, century. covering all aspects of ‘high’ and ‘popular’ culture. Cultural tourism consumption is no longer restricted to ‘serious’ and purposeful What is Cultural Tourism? visits to revered cultural sites, but has also become part of the ‘atmosphere’ of places, to Defining cultural tourism has proved be soaked up by tourists and residents extremely difficult, particularly because of alike. the definitional problems associated with The expanding cultural product is also the concept of culture. According to Littrell becoming increasingly popular with policy (1997), culture can be viewed as comprising makers and marketeers in all corners of the what people think (attitudes, beliefs, ideas globe. As the White House Conference on and values), what people do (normative Tourism in the US (1995, p. 2) notes ‘every behaviour patterns or way of life) and what place in America – rural area, small town, people make. Culture is therefore composed Native American reservation, big city – can of processes (the ideas and way of life of develop cultural tourism’. Cultural tourism people) and the products of those processes © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 187 188 Greg Richards

(buildings, artefacts, art, customs, atmos- An increasing cultural content of tourism phere). Looking at culture in this way, products has been one of the defining char- cultural tourism is not just about visiting acteristics of tourism consumption in the sites and monuments, which has tended to 20th century. As MacCannell (1976) and be the traditional view of cultural tourism other authors have pointed out, tourism has (Bonink, 1992), but also involves experienc- become a collection of signs or commod- ing the way of life of the areas visited. Both ities. This has created a culture of sign activities involve the collection of new creation, as well as a culture of sign con- knowledge and information. Cultural tour- sumption. Whereas modern forms of ism can therefore be defined as: tourism consumption were dominated by well-defined divisions between cultural The movement of persons to cultural tourism and other market segments, such as attractions away from their normal place of residence, with the intention to gather new beach tourism or winter sports, the dediffer- information and experiences to satisfy their entiation associated with postmodernity cultural needs. and the proliferation of cultural signs are (Richards, 1996a, p. 24) dissolving these clear-cut distinctions (Rojek and Urry, 1997). According to this conceptual definition, Research by ATLAS among cultural visi- cultural tourism covers not just the con- tors to Amsterdam has indicated that the sumption of the cultural products of the products that are today associated with cul- past, but also of contemporary culture or the tural tourism have a much broader scope way of life of a people or region. Cultural than the traditional ‘sites and monuments’ tourism can therefore be seen as covering definition often found in the literature both ‘heritage tourism’ and ‘arts tourism’. (Bonink, 1992). Consumers see not only major museums and monuments, such as The Development of the Cultural the Rijksmuseum and Anne Frank’s House Tourism Market as elements of the cultural tourism product, but also such diverse elements of popular The development of cultural tourism as a culture as boat trips along the canals or major market has paralleled the democra- walking tours through the Red Light District. tization of both culture and tourism during Only the Sex Museum was excluded by a the 20th century. In the past, tourism was majority of respondents from the cultural the preserve of a cultured elite, for whom tourism product (Goedhart, 1997). travel was a means of accessing the classical Within this overall shift from modern to culture essential to a well-rounded educa- postmodern forms of cultural tourism a tion (Towner, 1985). During the 20th number of important trends can be identi- century, however, cultural tourism began to fied: emerge as a market segment thanks to the growing number of people who could travel, Continued growth in demand, stimulated and the increasing education levels of those by higher levels of education and a thirst travelling. Culture became a part of the tour- for knowledge ism product, and cultural tourism became The basic motivation for cultural tourism is an established market segment, served by the search for new knowledge and experi- specialist tour operators and fuelled by local ences. This type of consumption is closely cultural development policies. In the 21st related to the increase in higher education century, however, the distinctions between participation in the developed world in culture and tourism are likely to become recent decades. Cultural tourists generally increasingly indistinct, as we find ourselves have a high level of cultural capital, usually enveloped in what Urry (1990) has termed developed through formal education. The the ‘culture of tourism’. Culture will cease to democratization of higher education has, for be a product packaged for tourist consump- example, expanded the proportion of tion – tourism will be culture. Europe’s population with a higher educa- Cultural Tourism 189

tion to 21%, but this source of growth in the (Richards, 1996a). This is causing the mar- cultural tourism market may wane in time ket of some attractions to shift away from the due to lessening government support for specialist visitor with a high level of cultural higher education in developed countries. competence, towards the mass market. This is also generating an increased demand for An explosion of supply of cultural more sophisticated and easily accessible attractions, which is rapidly outpacing the modes of interpretation. growth in demand Each place considers that it has a unique Divergence between large and small scale culture to market to tourists, and sees cul- attractions tural attractions as the primary means of The rapid increase in cultural attractions capturing the economic benefits which this which has taken place since the 1980s has can bring. In addition, a growing number of been marked by the emergence of a new events and festivals are being developed as a postmodern style of attraction (Richards, means of adding cultural content to public 1996c; Velazquez Cortes, 1996). These new spaces and adding to the attractiveness of attractions are generally characterized by cities and sites, particularly out of season smaller-scale facilities, a focus on specialist (see Getz, Chapter 16). markets rather than universal values, links with postmodern subjects such as architec- A blurring of the distinction between ‘high’ ture, design and heritage, more emphasis on and ‘popular’ culture, and between culture the appearance of the building and displays and economy, which have been fuelling the rather than their content, and increasing growing supply of attractions and events links with commercial forms of culture. The original heritage focus of many cultural Examples include heritage centres (such as tourism developments is now broadening to Jorvik, the Viking Centre in York) and include all aspects of culture, including museums such as the Coca Cola Museum in popular music, gastronomy and even whole Atlanta and the Design Museum in London. landscapes. In the 1980s there was a spec- At the other end of the scale there is a tend- tacular expansion in industrial heritage ency to try to cluster cultural attractions into attractions, and the 1990s are seeing a mega-projects or cultural districts, such as marked growth of popular culture attrac- the Cultural Quarter in Sheffield, Bunker tions, such as the childhood home of former Hill in Los Angeles or the Dallas Arts Dis- Beatle, Paul McCartney. This is also causing trict (Zuzanek, 1992). a spatial diffusion of cultural tourism development beyond the traditional centres of Globalization and localization of cultural high culture, such as the cultural capitals of tourism demand and supply Europe, to areas with less prominent histor- Cultural forms are becoming increasingly ical resources. The cultural capital idea, globalized through improved communica- which has increasingly been seen as a way of tions, the increased integration of the global promoting less popular cultural destina- economy and the influence of tourism. Cul- tions, is now being taken up in the US as tural institutions which used to be well (White House Conference on Tourism, inherently place-bound are now becoming 1995). increasingly footloose. Internationally famous museums are beginning to develop An extension of the cultural tourism subsidiaries in other regions or even on market toward mass tourism through the other continents. For example, one can now opening of new popularized cultural visit the Guggenheim Museum in its original attractions location on what has become Museum Mile The number of visitors with a general inter- opposite Central Park in New York, or in the est in culture seems to be growing faster than downtown Soho branch, or in Venice, and visitors with a specific cultural motive in most recently in Bilbao, Spain. Such devel- terms of the number of visitors to attractions opments are beginning to take on aspects of 190 Greg Richards

a ‘Macdonaldized’ franchise system (Ritzer, particularly in major urban centres (see 1993), as demonstrated by the US$25 mil- below). Cultural tourism has become part of lion paid by Bilbao for the right to use the a general cultural production system, where Guggenheim name and to fill the museum space is being developed for cultural pro- with borrowed artworks. At the same time, duction and consumption. The role of the however, there is a relocalization of global new producers as cultural intermediaries is culture through the appropriation of glob- therefore becoming crucial in expanding alized cultural themes by specific places. and shaping the supply of cultural tourism Specific artists and writers whose output products. was formerly considered part of a universal These trends are illustrated by recent cultural heritage are now being grounded in studies of cultural tourism undertaken by particular locations by using their work to the European Association for Tourism and identify places, regions or even whole coun- Leisure Education (ATLAS) in 15 European tries. Rojek (1993) provides numerous countries in 1992 and 1997. This analysis examples of the creation of ‘literary land- looks at the basic features of the cultural scapes’ in the UK, such as Shakespeare’s tourism market revealed by the research, County, Hardy Country and Catherine Cook- which covered more than 12,000 cultural son Country. visitors. The basic questions addressed by the research are the visitor profile, visitor A growing commercialization of cultural motivations and activities at the destina- tourism, through the creation of tion. commercial cultural tourism products and the provision, distribution and sale of information on cultural products A Profile of Cultural Tourists in Commercial cultural tourism products are Europe increasingly being offered through specialist and generalized tour operators, and by individual cities or regions, or by consortia. The ATLAS survey covered not just tourists, The world’s leading cultural tourism oper- but all visitors to a range of cultural attrac- ator, the German company Studiosus, for tions and events in Europe. More details of example, has seen business grow from the research programme and methodology 27,000 clients in 1985 to 96,000 clients in are contained in Richards (1996a,c). The 1997. In the future, more individualized or surveys indicated that tourists accounted for modularized cultural tourism products will about 60% of the visitor sample and local be offered through new media, and partic- residents made up the balance of 40%. Most ularly on the Internet. This should help to of the tourists interviewed were domestic solve the considerable distribution prob- tourists (58%). Of the foreign tourists, 11% lems which are experienced with cultural came from outside Europe, with the over- tourism products, particularly in the case of seas visitors being dominated by North cultural events. TUI, the leading German Americans and Australasian visitors. tour operator, currently has a special cultural events brochure and is now developing Education products for sale via the Internet. Most of the cultural visitors had a high level of education. More than 40% of respondents The emergence of a group of ‘new had a higher education, and 11% were still producers’ from the cultural field who have studying in further or higher education. The discovered tourism as a means of proportion of visitors with a higher educa- capitalizing their knowledge of culture to tion was therefore much greater than the create new forms of employment general level in the European Union (EU). This group is beginning to exert increasing Cultural tourists were in general even better influence over the products which are educated, but this is partly related to the brought onto the market (Goedhart, 1997), higher average age of the cultural tourists. Cultural Tourism 191

Occupation in culture, therefore make up the majority of A majority of the respondents were either cultural visitors. These general cultural employed (50%) or self-employed (11%). tourists, for whom a visit to a cultural attrac- Students formed an important element of tion is an incidental part of their holiday, the cultural visitors (11%), as did retired appear to have become a more significant people (11%). Of those currently working, part of the market in recent years. In the UK, many respondents had a professional occu- for example, national surveys of inbound pation, and managers and directors (12%) tourism show that the proportion of tourists were also well represented. This indicates with a specific cultural motive declined that cultural visitors are mainly employed in from 10% in 1989 to 6% in 1993, while the high status positions, which matches their share of general cultural tourists grew from high education level. 26 to 28% over the same period (Foley, 1996). Income When the cultural visitors were asked to The high occupational status also relates to evaluate a range of potential motivations for relatively high average incomes. Almost their visit, it became clear that the desire to 45% of the 1997 respondents came from experience new things and learning were households with a gross annual income of very important motivations for the majority 30,000 Euro or more. The average income of visitors. The 1997 research indicates, lay around 22,000 Euro, more than 25% however, that the concept of learning is higher than the EU average. interpreted fairly broadly. The drive to experience new things is particularly important (de Cauter, 1995). The research Age confirms that the distinction between cul- The cultural tourist often has a high degree ture and leisure is becoming more vague – of cultural capital in respect of the sights cultural tourism need not be taken seriously that they visit, but this does not always any more, but can also be seen as a form of mean that cultural tourists are old. Recent relaxation. There is also evidence that for increases in higher education participation many cultural tourism has become habitual has produced a large group of younger cul- – 60% of the respondents agreed with the tural consumers: up to 40% of the visitors to statement ‘When I go on holiday, I always some attractions in the ATLAS research visit a museum’. Social motivations were were under 30 years of age. Cultural tourists considered less important, although the were in general older than the local resi- influence of friends was more evident for dents interviewed, with 44% of the tourists respondents with a cultural occupation, being aged between 40 and 60 years old. because their social network is likely to revolve around culture. The split between Motivations ‘specific’ and ‘general’ cultural tourists is Research on cultural tourism in different even clearer in the responses to the state- countries has consistently indicated that not ment ‘I am visiting this attraction for my all visitors to cultural attractions are cultur- work’. A high proportion of respondents ally motivated. Bywater (1993), for example, with a cultural occupation indicated that makes a distinction between culturally their visit was connected with work. motivated, culturally inspired and cultur- The cultural tourist in Europe is first and ally attracted tourists, with the highest level foremost a skilled consumer, for whom the of cultural motivation being accorded to the pursuit of culture is a form of personal culturally motivated visitors. In the ATLAS development (Richards, 1996c). There is an research, it emerged that 13% of cultural increasing desire for novelty in contempo- visitors were culturally motivated, 30% rary society, and culture provides an were culturally inspired and 57% were cul- excellent source of novelty, allowing people turally attracted. The culturally attracted to discover new cultures and also providing tourists, who only have a secondary interest opportunities for people to learn for them- 192 Greg Richards

Fig. 17.1. Ranking of European cities as cultural destinations. Source: ATLAS Survey (1997). selves. The skilled consumer can create time visitors are far more likely to accept the their own novelty as a cultural tourist, traditional sites and monuments approach. through painting, languages, crafts, gastron- Second and third time visitors are more omy and other activities. As qualitative likely to seek out the living culture, as they research among cultural tourists in different have already done the ‘must-see sights’ on European countries shows, the search for the first visit. novelty and the desire to learn are at the top Museums are undoubtedly the most pop- of the agenda for most cultural tourists. One ular form of cultural attraction for cultural should not interpret the desire for ‘learning’ tourists. In 1997 more than 50% of the tour- as we might understand it in the narrow ists visited a museum during their stay in traditional sense of receiving and storing the research location. Monuments (40%) information, but in the more active sense of and galleries (30%) were also very popular, self-development. but the performing arts (23%) and festivals For many tourists, culture is very often a were less frequently visited. This supports general, rather than a specific, experience. the distinction made in the 1992 research You no longer have to visit museums to find between ‘heritage’ attractions, which have a culture. Culture is also to be found in the low visit threshold and ‘arts’ attractions, bars, restaurants and streets of European cit- which are often less accessible, because of ies. As the distinctions between traditional the limited time of performances, the diffi- high culture and popular culture begin to culty of obtaining information and tickets disappear, elements of high culture are also and the language barriers which are often increasingly being mixed with popular cul- involved. ture to produce new cultural forms. The new In 1997 a new question was posed about cultural tourist might visit a museum during the popularity of a number of major cultural the day, but the evening is more likely to be tourism destinations with cultural visitors. spent at a musical or a disco than at the The results show that Paris, Rome and Lon- opera. don are by far the favourite cultural tourism Different types of tourists require differ- destinations in Europe (Fig. 17.1). This is ent marketing approaches. Not only do related to the high concentration of real cul- motivations differ, but the role of holiday tural capital in these cities (Richards, experience is increasingly important. First 1996c). A second group of cities, which Cultural Tourism 193

includes Athens, Venice, Florence and market is also becoming evident in the trend Amsterdam also scores relatively well, par- toward ‘mega-events’ and ‘blockbuster ticularly with visitors with a cultural exhibitions’. Because of the increasing glo- occupation. These cities tend to be smaller, balization of cultural tourism demand, the and in addition to a rich historical past have cultural distance between host regions and a wide range of museums, monuments and their visitors is often increasing. This means also a great deal of ‘living culture’. Cities that markets associated with the highlights which fall outside the top ten usually have of a globalized culture are likely to attract less attractions, or are perceived as offering larger numbers of tourists than those asso- less atmosphere. The combination of a rich ciated with local or national culture. supply of real cultural capital and living Mega-events aimed at a global audience culture or atmosphere was often decisive in have therefore become an important part of the destination choice of specific cultural the tourism marketing strategies of many tourists (Goedhart, 1997). countries (e.g. Bos, 1994). The evidence is that events associated with cultural figures with a global profile are much more success- The Supply of Cultural Attractions ful in attracting international tourists than those attached to more localized culture. In An increasingly important aspect of cultural The Netherlands, for example, the numbers tourism is the role of cultural producers in of tourists visiting major exhibitions on assembling the cultural tourism product. artists such as Rembrandt, Vermeer and Van The demand for cultural tourism to a partic- Gogh have been increasing steadily since the ular city can be closely linked to the amount 1960s. Not only are the numbers of tourists and quality of real cultural capital (Britton, increasing, but the proportion of tourists 1991; Zukin, 1991, 1996) that it has. This from outside Europe has also grown, indi- real cultural capital provides the basic raw cating that these events are appealing to a material for the ‘new producers’ or ‘new truly global audience. In contrast, a major cultural intermediaries’ to develop products exhibition of the works of Mondriaan, a for cultural consumption (Richards, leading Dutch member of the ‘Stijl’ move- 1996c). ment had disappointing visitor numbers. The new producers occupy a key position Mondriaan is an abstract artist whose work in the cultural tourism system, determining is well known in The Netherlands, but the which products are fashionable, and which complexity of his work has prevented him products will be offered on the market. The from becoming an international cultural new producers are predominantly from a megastar. cultural background and have a cultural education, and therefore possess a great store of personal cultural capital, which Implications of Trends they convert into economic capital by designing products with a high symbolic Public policy value for consumption by the new bour- For public policy makers, the blurring of the geoisie. These relationships tend to distinctions between high and popular cul- strengthen existing hierarchies of cultural ture, and cultural and economic elements of consumption in Europe, which are reflected policy make the formation of cultural tour- in the ranking of European cities by new ism policy increasingly challenging. Efforts producers and consumers alike. This makes must be made to break down the often it very difficult for ‘new’ cultural destina- entrenched barriers between the different tions to break through and capture a cultures within government bodies and cul- significant share of the European cultural tural organizations themselves. Landry and tourism market. Bianchini (1995) have recently suggested The importance of real cultural capital in that this is one of the keys to creating the generating markers in the cultural tourism ‘creative city’ for the new millennium. 194 Greg Richards

Another important point which will need to other types of events blurs, cultural planners be addressed by policy makers is the need to will need to avoid losing market share to create great public spaces for the next cen- other events and fixed attractions. tury. As commercialization moves in to In order to develop cultural tourism translate the cultural needs of tourists into effectively, it is also vital to increase the consumption opportunities, there will be a level of dialogue between the tourism and growing need to create and preserve spaces cultural sectors. In Los Angeles moves are which facilitate the meeting of cultures, and being made in this direction by the recently therefore create opportunities for cultural created Cultural Tourism Department of the innovation. The ‘Cathedrals of Consump- city’s Visitor and Convention Bureau. The tion’ referred to by Ritzer (1998) will need to aim of the department is ‘to build lines of stimulate the same kind of public interac- communication between cultural and travel tion as their religious counterparts did in the industry professionals through educational past. and social programmes as well as to create a computerized resource for information Management about Los Angeles’ cultural community’ Attention must be paid to the visitor experi- (Real 1997, p. 182). ence, particularly as the cultural sector becomes more professional and the cultural Marketing tourist expects a better quality product. Effective marketing of cultural tourism Increasing attention must be paid to the requires a better understanding of motives needs of different groups of visitors, partic- and increased targeting of specific cultural ularly through better interpretation. In interests. One of the major problems in cul- interpreting culture to visitors, most authors tural tourism development in the recent past are agreed that authenticity and truthfulness has been the tendency toward supply- in presentation are crucial (Zuzanek, 1992). driven demand. As museums and heritage As authenticity and truth are relative con- centres have opened at an increasing rate, so cepts, however, the fact that perceptions of the initial surge in pent-up demand for cul- authenticity and truth vary among visitors, tural products has turned into a dilution of and that authenticity can emerge over time the market, with visitors being increasingly (Cohen, 1988) means that considerable skill thinly spread over a burgeoning number of will be needed in managing these messages. attractions. Falls in the average number of It is also becoming clear that in a postmo- visitors per attraction have been evident in dern landscape of relative truths, the most European countries in recent years. product which lays claim to the best story If cultural tourism is going to grow in the will usually be most successful. The stories 21st century, therefore, a more market- created in the future will probably need to oriented approach to cultural tourism be more sophisticated than the fairly stand- development is required. Although every ard ‘heritage tales’ which have been created location by definition has unique cultural over the past two decades. products to offer, visitors will only come if they are sufficiently motivated. Planning Because of the increased competition in the cultural tourism market, more account must be taken of competing events and attrac- Conclusions tions, and direct competition minimized through efficient planning and cooperation. In the future, cultural tourism will have to Even if direct competition from other cul- be approached in a far more systematic and tural events can be minimized, planners will professional manner than in the past, partic- still need to be aware of growing indirect ularly if the rapid market growth in recent competition from other events. As the years is to be exploited and controlled effec- boundaries between cultural events and tively. One of the major tools which will Cultural Tourism 195

become increasingly important in this proc- ucts. This applies particularly to cultural ess will be the development of new media, events, which at present have much higher and particularly distribution of the cultural accessibility barriers than ﬁxed attractions. tourism product via new media. A current To make such systems work effectively, weakness of the cultural tourism product is however, communications between the the fragmented nature of the product and the tourism sector and the cultural sector will lack of efﬁcient distribution systems. With need to be improved, so that the tourist the use of the Internet, for example, it will industry better understands the cultural become much easier to give easy access to a product, and the cultural sector better much wider range of cultural tourism prod- understands the needs of tourists.

18 Planning to Provide Community and Visitor Beneﬁts from Public Lands

Dorothy H. Anderson, Ron Nickerson, Taylor V. Stein and Martha E. Lee

Introduction One cumulative effect of these recreation research efforts and the evolving manage- This chapter explores the trend toward the ment climate is the way in which benefits-based management (BBM) frame- researchers, public recreation policy makers work of leisure and amenity goods and and administrators think about, plan and services for wildland recreation manage- manage wildland recreation areas. A comment. This chapter also suggests future plementary increase in the understanding of research and application needs to continue effective recreation planning and manage- BBM’s conceptual evolution and enhance ment strategies has allowed BBM implementation efforts. The BBM frame- researchers to develop a strong emphasis on work has evolved over a 25- to 30-year direct application of research results to man- period as researchers’ understanding of visi- agement planning, policy development and tor activities, desires and motivations has actions. In recent years, BBM’s emphasis on grown. Recreation researchers have sought identifying desired outcomes and managing to identify the types of experiences and ben- toward those outcomes has attracted a grow- efits realized by visitors who recreate in ing number of recreation researchers and wildland recreation areas. More recently, managers throughout the US and Canada. As researchers have begun to examine the range researchers and managers look forward to of benefits which recreation opportunities the future, BBM provides a rich framework in natural areas provide to nearby commu- for providing the types of recreation oppor- nities (Stein and Anderson, 1998; Stein et tunities that will satisfy visitor and al., 1999). At the same time, recreation man- community needs, protect the critical agers have moved towards more resources found within wildland recreation collaborative planning models, sought areas and ensure that quality experiences greater public participation in decision and benefits are attained within the current making, built more partnerships with other management environment of structural providers and interest groups, and better change and limited financial resources. recognized the need to understand visitor expectations.

Moving From Activity-based ing and visitor services (e.g. rest room Management to Benefits-based maintenance, rubbish collection and rule Management enforcement) (Bruns et al., 1994). This one- dimensional approach assumes that the setting is essentially unimportant to the BBM emerges from the belief that the kinds quality of a visitor’s experience. Conse- of outdoor recreation-related experiences quently, ABM believes the visitor will have and benefits visitors desire are extremely satisfying experiences in virtually any set- diverse, and from a belief that managers ting the manager provides as long as should provide recreation opportunities opportunities for desired activities exist that target the realization of the experiences (Bruns et al., 1994). Many agencies adopted and benefits desired by the public. Although ABM early on to guide their development, Wagar (1966) argued 30 years ago that planning and daily management activities. understanding the nature of recreation Even though early research testing of experiences and benefits was important to ABM showed relationships between activ- effective recreation management actions, ities and experience outcomes, it also recreation management is still evolving into revealed that protecting the resource and a BBM framework. Researchers and man- providing activity opportunities did not agers began the evolutionary process by automatically result in satisfying recrea- realizing that recreation resource manage- tional experiences for visitors (Manfredo et ment is partly activity oriented, with visitors al., 1983). This research effectively demon- having a set of favourite activities they strated that visitor behaviour and engage in and managers having some experience outcomes were a function of sev- responsibility to provide opportunities for eral psychological dimensions that are a those activities (Bruns et al., 1994). Some reaction to the setting in which an activity people like to hike, others like to cycle, takes place (Driver and Brown, 1975; Driver others wish to camp, while others simply and Tocher, 1983; Manfredo et al., 1983; enjoy picnicking or participating in an inter- Driver et al., 1991c). In addition, researchers pretive programme. Early recreation and managers began to realize attempts to research produced evidence to support the offer recreation opportunities without con- conclusion that individuals who participate sideration of the setting severely limited in different activities seek different sets of their efforts to conduct recreation resource experience outcomes (Manfredo et al., inventories and to identify effective man- 1983). agement alternatives for a particular site (Driver et al., 1991c). Activities-based management Supported by research results linking Experience-based management recreation activities and visitor satisfaction, Experience-based management (EBM) recreation managers sought to provide a emerged to explain the psychological and variety of activities for visitors to enjoy. This setting relationships associated with partici- early approach to meeting recreation pation in recreation activities. EBM extends demand is known as activity-based manage- ABM by describing a recreation opportunity ment (ABM). ABM views the provision of as the opportunity to engage in certain multiple activity opportunities as the prin- desired activities within preferred settings cipal end product of management actions to achieve satisfying experiences (Driver (Wagar, 1966; Brown and Haas, 1980; Stein and Brown, 1978; Manfredo et al., 1983; Lee and Lee, 1995). The result is a strong empha- and Driver, 1995; Bruns et al., 1994; Stein sis on facilities (Brown and Haas, 1980; and Lee, 1995). EBM entails both a shift in Stein and Lee, 1995). ABM was designed to research direction and management focus. provide quality recreation attractions (e.g. Research direction shifts from a focus on resources, facilities or both), information what people do when they recreate to under- and interpretation, controls against crowd- standing the relationships among how, why Planning to Provide Community and Visitor Benefits 199

and where they recreate. Management focus (Nickerson et al., 1997a,b,c, 1998a,b,c; Nick- in EBM shifts from providing activity oppor- erson, 1998). Managers need to be sensitive tunities as the primary output of recreation to these differences and similarities when engagement to providing a mix of recreation determining the appropriate mix of activ- opportunities that target realization of ities, recreation opportunities, and settings desired visitor experiences. These research for a given site. If they are not, some visitors and management shifts entail a correspond- may have negative experiences (Bruns et al., ing effort to understand the psychological 1994). outcomes of recreation participation (Man- Although EBM’s recognition of the fredo et al., 1983; Stein and Lee, 1995). importance of considering desired visitor These outcomes are conceptualized as experiences in recreation planning and desired experiences in EBM (Driver and management is an improvement on ABM, Brown, 1978; Bruns et al., 1994). EBM limits the descriptions of recreation At the federal level, National Park Serv- outcomes to on-site experiences. It does not ice, US Department of Agriculture (USDA) address the role that desired visitor experi- Forest Service, and Bureau of Land Manage- ences play in attaining a broader set of ment recreation planners and managers benefits that might be associated with a par- have adopted the EBM framework. Many ticular recreational site (Bruns et al., 1994; state agencies charged with providing wild- Stein and Lee, 1995; Driver and Bruns, land recreation opportunities operate at 1999). In addition, EBM focuses primarily least implicitly in the EBM framework. Even on the individual visitor and does not though they may not be developing EBM address the value of recreational sites objectives, some managers strive to control beyond personal visitor satisfaction (Bruns visitor activity and setting features in ways et al., 1994; Stein and Lee, 1995). Yet, that lead to production of satisfying visitor recreation managers’, as well as research- experiences (Bruns et al., 1994). EBM ers’, intuition tells them that the value researchers and managers realize that not all added to people’s lives extends beyond the activities produce similar experiences in all individual on-site recreational experiences settings. Natural resources, visitor expecta- (President’s Commission on Americans tions, activity opportunities and facilities Outdoors, 1987a; Driver et al., 1991b; Jor- differ between sites. The result of these dif- dan, 1991; Parks and Recreation Federation ferences is that elements in the set of desired of Ontario, 1992). For example, visitors may beneficial experiences from particular activ- see improved work performance as a result ities change somewhat according to the of participation in recreational activities. setting (Manfredo et al., 1983; Virden and Similarly, the value of recreation areas to Knopf, 1989; Yuan and McEwen, 1989). For communities is much broader than on-site example, campers in a primitive setting visitor experiences. Recreation sites are have been found to have less desire for shar- viewed by residents of nearby cities and ing and leading experiences than campers in towns as valuable amenities that strengthen more developed areas (Virden and Knopf, the economy and increase their sense of 1989). community pride and overall quality of life At the same time, some beneficial experi- (Stein and Anderson, 1998; Stein et al., ences may be common across sites (Knopf et 1999). al., 1983; Schreyer et al., 1984; Nickerson, 1998). For example, river floaters on 11 dif- Benefits-based management ferent rivers representing a range of settings Recognizing EBM’s limitations and building all reported similar desires for friendship, on the ABM and EBM frameworks, research- escape and exercise (Knopf et al., 1983); ers in the mid-1980s began to develop the visitors to six different Minnesota state BBM framework of leisure and amenity ser- parks representing a range of settings, repor- vices to explain the relationship between ted similar desires for learning about nature, desired experiences and broader benefits. being with friends and family, and exercise BBM seeks to understand not only individ- 200 Dorothy H. Anderson et al.

ual on-site beneficial experiences, but also long-term and can be attained both on-site the off-site benefits, which accrue to indi- and off-site (Driver et al., 1991b; Lee and viduals, society, the economy and the Driver, 1995; Bruns et al., 1994; Lime et al., environment from the provision of public 1994; Stein and Lee, 1995). The recognition recreation opportunities (Brown, 1984; that off-site and long-term benefits are Driver et al., 1991b; Lee and Driver, 1995; important outcomes of recreation is a major Bruns et al., 1994; Schleicher et al., 1994; advancement over EBM’s focus on on-site Stein and Lee, 1995; Nickerson, 1998). BBM, and short-term outcomes. which incorporates and expands upon both According to BBM, benefits can be asso- ABM and EBM, has opened a new field of ciated with one of four general categories: recreation management research and a new personal, societal, economic and environ- management paradigm for recreation mental. Personal benefits are those that resource managers (Lee and Driver, 1995; accrue to individual recreationists as a Bruns et al., 1994). result of their participation in some activity. Fundamental to BBM is the concept that Among the personal benefits are health and a benefit extends beyond the on-site experi- wellbeing, self-image and self-satisfaction ences that are EBM’s focus. A benefit may be (Driver et al., 1991c; Parks and Recreation defined as ‘a change that is viewed to be Federation of Ontario, 1992; Bruns et al., advantageous – an improvement in condi- 1994; Schleicher et al., 1994; Nickerson, tion or gain to an individual, to a group, to 1998). Social benefits are often aggregated society (community), or to another entity’ personal benefits and include social bond- (Driver et al., 1991b, p. 4). A benefit, there- ing, community satisfaction and cultural fore, can be viewed as the value-added identity (Allen, 1991; Parks and Recreation portion of an individual’s recreation experi- Federation of Ontario, 1992; Bruns et al., ence (Bruns et al., 1994; Driver and Bruns, 1994; Bruns, 1995). Economic benefits are 1999). This definition includes prevention tied to individual and societal productivity of a worse condition or maintenance of a and include the products of employment, desired condition (Driver, 1997). For exam- tourism, and recreational goods bought and ple, continued exercise contributes to sold (Brown, 1984; Parks and Recreation maintenance of good cardiovascular health. Federation of Ontario, 1992; Bruns et al., Similarly, a benefit can be looked at as the 1994; Stein and Anderson, 1998; Stein et al., value-added portion of a community’s role 1999). Environmental benefits result from as tourism provider for persons recreating environmental health and protection, on nearby wildland areas. In this case, the increased awareness of environmental value added might include such things as impacts of human actions, and investment increased tourism dollars and enhanced in wildland recreation areas (Rolston, 1991; community pride. In a recreation manage- Bruns et al., 1994). ment context, benefits can also be realized It is important to recognize that the visi- by the natural environment, plant or animal tor’s on-site beneficial experiences remain species, or cultural resources through a an important component of BBM. BBM sug- sense of stewardship (Rolston, 1991). For gests experiences and benefits are related to example, a recreation area might improve a one another in a ‘chain of causality’ (Lee and region’s environmental quality by protect- Driver, 1992; Bruns et al., 1994; Driver, ing important species and ecosystems. In 1994; Driver and Bruns, 1999). The causality this case, a value added to the environment chain describes the temporal nature of bene- might be protection of a region’s biodiver- fit accrual and helps explain the sity or improved water quality because relationships between short- and long-term nonpoint source pollution to a particular benefits and the corresponding connection river is reduced by the protected recreation between on-site beneficial experiences and area. off-site benefits. In its most fundamental Unlike experiences, which are short-term form, the causality chain explains how ben- and on-site, benefits are both short- and eficial experiences lead to the realization of

Planning to Provide Community and Visitor Beneﬁts 201

benefits. On-site beneficial experiences are research is difficult. However, such knowl- the initial outputs from the recreation edge improves understanding of human engagement and the initial inputs into the interactions with the natural environment; benefit attainment process. For example, a increases the number of management relaxing experience might lead to decreased options available to managers; and improves job stress. It is also believed that one benefit the quality of management actions. Most of can lead to a second benefit, which can lead the early BBM research focused on eco- to a third, and so on. For example, an indi- nomic benefits (Driver et al., 1991b; Parks vidual who benefits from decreased job and Recreation Federation of Ontario, 1992). stress might have improved work perform- In recent years, researchers have sought to ance, which could lead to a higher salary refine the conceptual framework and shift and so on. research attention to documentation of non- Although the majority of recreation economic benefits (Lime et al., 1994; Stein resource management research has focused and Lee, 1995; Stein and Anderson, 1998; on the individual, BBM extends wildland Stein et al., 1999). Previous EBM and moti- recreation’s impact outside park boundar- vation research work and the development ies. of conceptual models to explain the production of benefits has aided in crystallizing the Adoption of BBM has significant BBM framework and establishing a founda- ramifications . . . (M)anagers focus on their tion for this new research direction. At the customers to facilitate customer realization same time, an effort has been made to con- of sought benefits, including value added to households, local communities, and the nect research documenting specific benefits environment. This means that managerial with recreation management on public attention shifts from concentrating mostly lands (MN DNR, 1997, 1998; USDI BLM, on on-site customers to concentrating 1998). equally on both on- and off-site customers Beginning in the early 1970s, recreation (Driver and Bruns, 1999, pp. 38–39) researchers began developing motivation scales to explain why recreationists choose Incorporating all four types of benefits to participate in various recreation activities into recreation resource management corre- (Driver, 1977; Driver et al., 1991c). A great sponds well with the holistic approach deal of this work builds on research con- described within the ecosystem manage- ducted to test three critical social ment literature (Grumbine, 1994). Similar to psychology theories; reasoned action, plan- ecosystem management, BBM argues that ned behaviour and expectancy (Brown and recreation management impacts society Haas, 1980; Ajzen and Driver, 1991; Driver both temporally and spatially and managers et al., 1991c). Central to all three of these must not confine their planning and man- theories is the belief that human behaviour agement to just the people or resources has a strong volitional component guided by within their managerial units. Also, BBM an underlying set of beliefs and attitudes places noneconomic values on an equal (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1972; Ajzen and Mad- footing with economic values. It does not den, 1986; Ajzen, 1988, 1991). stress a particular type of benefit, but Research applying the theories of rea- acknowledges that different benefits are soned action and planned behaviour to related to the land and to each other. recreational settings has provided promising evidence that the theorized relationship between attitudes, beliefs, motivation and Trends in Benefits-based behaviour is present (Young and Kent, 1985; Management Research Ajzen and Driver, 1991). These findings support continued research into the Understanding the wide range of benefits relationship between visitor motives and their relationship to each other and to (desires) and recreation behaviour and ulti- beneficial experiences through empirical mately the outcomes from participation in 202 Dorothy H. Anderson et al.

recreation opportunities. This research has recreation opportunities by management; also aided in the development of measure- (ii) production of recreation experiences by ment scales that are being used to assess visitors; (iii) production of societal benefits visitor experience preferences. Driver’s from management actions to provide recrea- (1977) initial experience preference scales tion opportunities; (iv) production of have evolved to produce a set of individual individual and societal benefits from an desired psychological outcomes for recrea- individual’s recreational experiences; and tion participation (Driver et al., 1985, 1991c; (v) production of societal benefits from use Knopf et al., 1983). Much of the EBM of recreation resources. research used and tested these scales to This model was one of the first models assess visitor motivations, document which identified the key variables involved desired experiences, and improve upon the in producing both individual and societal measurement scales (Brown and Haas, 1980; benefits and the relationships among those McLaughlin and Paradice, 1980; Manfredo variables. It also better identified the role of et al., 1983; Schreyer et al., 1984; Virden and managers, recreation visitors, and commu- Knopf, 1989; Yuan and McEwen, 1989). nities in the creation and attainment of BBM researchers have sought to extend benefits. Brown’s (1984) production model the applicability of these scales to analyses has been adapted as a framework for much of the beneficial experiences accruing to of BBM’s conceptual and research work. individuals from recreation engagements The production model clearly depicts the (Driver et al., 1985, 1991b,c; Lee and Driver, value-added component of BBM and con- 1992; Bruns et al., 1994). Although results ceptualizes the importance of feedback from are encouraging that the theorized relation- visitors and society to managers to ensure ships exist, little research has been that the process continues to produce the conducted to date, and most of the research desired results. Brown (1984) also identifies has been confined to wilderness areas the need for continued research to test the (Brown, 1984; Driver et al., 1985, 1991c; Lee relationships depicted in the model, and to and Driver, 1992). Pilot tests are currently understand the nature of the actual benefits under way in several locations nationwide attained from the process better. Although in cooperation with the USDA Forest Serv- this model made an important contribution ice to extend recreation research from to the BBM framework, it focuses primarily wilderness areas to other settings. Among on the production of personal and societal these are urban parks, heavily used Bureau benefits. Economic benefits are viewed as a of Land Management lands, national forests subset of societal benefits and environmen- and state and local parks (Bruns et al., tal benefits are not directly articulated in the 1994). model. Beyond the development of motivational Bruns (1993) presented a modification to scales to test the critical relationships Brown’s (1984) model for community (soci- between recreation behaviour and desired etal) and personal (individual) benefits that outcomes, a second major contribution to enhances the benefit production process by the conceptual advancement of BBM is the incorporating the type and quality of off-site development of conceptual models to services and attractions that can influence explain the relationships among the major the quality of experiences and benefits factors influencing the production of bene- attained. He also introduced the visitor’s fits. Brown (1984) developed a benefits characteristics (i.e. the amount of awareness production model that sought to explain they have for the attractions in the area and how benefits are produced, what factors visitor demographics) and travel character- influence their production, and how bene- istics (i.e. the market segment that the visitor fits can be seen as an outcome of recreation represents, the type of trip planning the visi- management. He suggests that five interre- tor conducted, and a general profile of how lated processes occur which result in the visit to the recreation site relates to the production of benefits: (i) production of overall trip). These adaptations highlight Planning to Provide Community and Visitor Benefits 203

what occurs on-site as only one of several individuals and society, thereby improving factors influencing the visitor’s complete economic and environmental health. mix of desired and accrued experiences and In recent years, several pilot tests have benefits. Despite this advancement toward a been conducted in the US and other coun- broader representation of benefit produc- tries to research and implement the BBM tion, the Bruns (1993) model essentially framework. Personal benefits research has focused on the production of personal bene- been conducted on Bureau of Land Manage- fits. It did not clearly depict the value-added ment lands in Colorado, on the Coconino relationship between experiences and bene- National Forest in Arizona, on the Jefferson fits nor did it clearly illustrate that both National Forest in Virginia and in six Min- on-site and off-site benefits are attained as a nesota State Parks (Itasca, Tettegouche, St result of the recreation engagement. Croix, Interstate, George Crosby Manitou Figure 18.1 adapts Bruns’ (1993) model and Forestville/Mystery Cave). Oregon’s to incorporate an even broader perspective Bureau of Parks and Recreation and neigh- on the process used to realize personal and bouring communities to two of Minnesota’s community benefits. In this model, off-site state parks (Itasca and Tettegouche) have attractions and preferences, visitor charac- also participated in pilot tests to assess the teristics, and travel characteristics are community benefits of wildland recreation. included and on-site beneficial experiences Other national, state, and local recreation are shown as an antecedent component of management agencies have also expressed the realization of both short- and long-term an interest in moving toward a BBM personal and social (community) benefits. approach. In addition, recreation research- The model also shows that realization of ers and managers from several countries social benefits are directly influenced by on- (Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, New site beneficial experiences and attainment of Zealand and Norway) have begun to con- personal benefits. The adapted model also duct benefits-based research, education and displays links between personal and com- implementation. munity benefit attainment and service Among the personal benefits identified quality preferences expressed by visitors by the pilot tests which visitors desire and and society. attain is a range of benefits from recreation The development of motive scales to engagements which include enjoyment of measure psychological outcomes from the natural scenery, getting away from the recreation and the creation of conceptual usual demands of life, learning more about models to explain the relationship of the nature, keeping physically fit and experi- factors influencing benefit attainment have encing solitude (Stein, 1994; Stein and Lee, been major contributions to the evolution of 1995; Nickerson, 1998). Among the commu- the research agenda and BBM. At the same nity benefits identified in the pilot tests are time, BBM’s evolution has included the an increased sense of community pride, development of a strong applied compo- increased identity for the area surrounding nent. BBM enhances EBM’s encouragement the recreation site, employment, increased for managers to develop management objec- community sensitivity to environmental tives that target specific outcomes. One of issues, and places to preserve/conserve vari- BBM’s intended results is that managers will ous natural and unique ecosystems in larger develop BBM objectives that allow them to natural areas (Stein, 1997; Stein and Ander- target management actions toward realiza- son, 1998; Stein et al., 1999). Increased tion of a specific mix of experiences and family satisfaction, interactions, and stabil- benefits most suited to a specific site. Since ity; enhanced leadership skills among managers use management objectives and young people; and a sense of attachment or actions to control many of the setting attri- belonging to the community have been iden- butes important to the recreation tified as some of the community benefits in experience, BBM assumes that recreation the Portland, Oregon, project (Borrie and providers influence the quality of life for Roggenbuck, 1995). 0 DorothyH.Anderson 204 et al.

Fig. 18.1. Proposed benefits-based management framework displaying factors influencing realization of personal and social outdoor recreation experiences and benefits. Adapted from: Bruns (1993). Using social information for park and recreation management. In D.H. Anderson, D.W. Lime and W. Morrissey (Coordinators). Outdoor Recreation Management in the 90s. Continuing education course conducted at the University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota. Planning to Provide Community and Visitor Benefits 205

Trends in Implementing Benefits- some of the specific benefits identified by based Management BBM research conducted to date. Other national, state and local park agen- An important component of the BBM pilot cies and professional organizations are tests conducted in the US has been applica- expressing a growing interest in movement tion of research results to management toward BBM research and implementation. actions. Results of the pilot studies are being For example, Portland, Oregon’s, Depart- used at the federal level by the USDA Forest ment of Parks and Recreation is designing Service to develop new approaches to recreation programmes in selected city recreation resource management which parks to deliver specific benefit opportun- respond to people’s and the nation’s needs ities. Moreover, the National Recreation and for the year 2000 and beyond. Other federal Park Association has published several arti- and state agencies involved in these studies cles in their monthly journal regarding BBM are also adopting a benefits-based approach (Allen, 1996; Driver, 1997; Dustin and to recreation resource management as a Goodale, 1997), conducted training insti- result of this research. The Bureau of Land tutes at their annual conferences, and Management has developed a management developed implementation guides for man- plan based on the results of their pilot tests. agers. Managers who have taken an interest In Minnesota, direct linkages between the in the BBM framework see it as a way to pilot test research and management plan- understand their clientele better, identify ning has occurred at Itasca and Tettegouche and manage recreation areas for specific out- state parks (MN DNR, 1997, 1998). At Itasca comes, enhance management account- and Tettegouche, management goals, man- ability, and aid in budget preparation and agement zoning and park vision statements distribution. In addition, an awareness of have been heavily influenced by the how a community benefits from a particular research. At Itasca State Park, specific target recreation area can increase managers’ benefits have been established that the park understanding of the role wildland recrea- will attempt to provide opportunities to tion areas play in the larger landscape. This attain. Work is also under way to develop recognition aids in regional planning and guides for applying the BBM framework to natural resource management. It also aids in management decisions (Anderson and efforts to increase community support and Stein, 1997). efforts to increase citizen involvement in Several Canadian Provinces (particularly decision making (Stein et al., 1999). Alberta and Ontario) have also taken a leadership role in implementing what is referred to in Canada as a benefits-driven approach Implications for Benefits-based to management of their provincial parks. Management Although the Canadian experience has focused more on use of the benefits-driven Study of the relationships between visitors’ approach as a budgeting and marketing tool beneficial experiences, activities and based on research conducted elsewhere and desired settings within the BBM framework less on conducting original research than is is relatively recent. Component parts of this perhaps the case with the pilot tests in the framework have been researched, but the US, Canadian researchers have organized recent pilot tests were the first efforts to several tools that assist managers with examine relationships between multiple implementation of the benefits-driven components of the framework. Examination approach. Among these are slide shows and of whether visitors actually attain the bene- video tapes, ‘how to’ manuals and speakers ficial experiences they consider most guides. The Canadian Parks and Recreation important to their visits has also just begun. Association (1997), in cooperation with sev- Perhaps the most important implications are eral provincial park associations has also related to the observation that visitors come published The Benefits Catalogue that lists to recreation areas with a set of experience, 206 Dorothy H. Anderson et al.

activity and setting preferences, and that same recreational opportunities will be pro- they report an ability to attain the experi- vided at several locations – giving managers ences and benefits they seek. Equally more information to market recreation important is that residents of nearby cities opportunities for appropriate users (Knopf, and towns report they attain benefits from 1990). local recreation areas. If managers and plan- Equally important to considering the ners are to develop management objectives similarities between recreation areas as and recreational opportunities effectively management objectives are written as the which promote benefit attainment at a given need to recognize that differences do exist recreation area, it is important to remain between recreation areas in terms of the cognizant of which benefits the visitors to desired and attained experiences and bene- the site and local residents attain and do not fits. The pilot test results provide insight attain. into how the experience and benefit attainment processes relate to particular setting Implications for agency managers preferences. Management planning to Visitors to several different BBM pilot test accommodate different setting preferences recreation areas have reported that many of needs to do so within the context of the the same experiences and benefits were desired beneficial outcomes. important to their decisions to visit the dif- The need to select carefully the recrea- ferent areas. For example, visitors to the tional opportunities that will be offered at a various sites indicated that opportunities to given recreation area in relation to the find solitude and escape, to enjoy nature and desired beneficial outcomes involves writ- to learn from their visits were important. ing clear and measurable management Visitors to the pilot test sites also consis- objectives and target benefits for each recrea- tently reported an ability to attain those tion area. Since the attainment of experiences and benefits they considered experiences and benefits is more compli- most important to their visits. This result cated than a bivariate relationship between supports the observation that there is prob- an activity and a beneficial experience, man- ably a core set of experiences and benefits agement objectives which consider multiple associated with particular types of wildland variables become an important tool that recreation areas (e.g. national forests, planners and managers can use to identify national parks or state parks). Although which recreational opportunities might additional research is necessary to docu- have the greatest likelihood of aiding visi- ment the specific core experiences and tors in attaining their desired beneficial benefits better, results for the pilot tests outcomes. reveal finding opportunities for solitude, escape from the pressures of home, learning Implications for agency planners about nature, enjoying nature and improv- The emerging evidence, supporting the ing family relations are likely to be among observation that a core set of important this core set of desired experiences and experiences and benefits might exist for sim- benefits. ilar types of recreation areas, supports the Visitors to the pilot test sites also identi- conclusion that regional recreation plan- fied several activities as most satisfying. One ning might consider a core set of implication of this is that visitors are able to recreational opportunities in multiple loca- attain their important experiences and bene- tions. Among these might be opportunities fits from one of several activities that they for solitude, family bonding, enjoying identify as most satisfying. Management nature and learning. Recognition of a core planning should incorporate the concept set of important experiences and benefits that many of the same experiences and bene- might translate into ensuring that the natu- fits are attainable from a variety of activities ral and cultural resources found within each and settings. A likely outcome of such a recreation area are protected, remote trail planning perspective is that some of the opportunities are offered, picnic areas and Planning to Provide Community and Visitor Benefits 207

campgrounds that offer opportunities for Implications for collaborative planning and family togetherness and other core experi- management ences are provided, and interpretive Recreation planners and managers must programming is made available. understand the diversity of complex and At the same time, it is important for important benefits recreation areas provide regional planning efforts to recognize that to local residents. They must develop plans visitors come to specific recreation areas to sustain natural recreation areas that rec- seeking particular experiences and benefits. ognize the natural characteristics, which Planning also needs to consider the unique distinguish these areas, are essential to characteristics of each recreation area and maintaining opportunities to attain desired its associated visitors when determining the benefits associated with these areas. Com- types of recreational opportunities that munity residents, who live close to natural should be provided. This consideration areas managed for recreation, see enormous might translate into offering a variety of benefits derived from the natural character- camping, picnicking and hiking opportun- istics protected in these recreation areas. ities regionally. For example, some The pilot test results indicate that both per- recreation areas within a given region might sonal and community benefits are attained focus on providing remote backpack camp- by local residents from nearby recreation ing, challenging hiking trails and small areas. The personal benefits studies indicate picnic areas, while others might focus on that local community residents use nearby providing more developed drive-in camp- recreation areas for some of their outdoor ing, paved trail and large group picnicking recreation endeavours and attain personal opportunities. Ongoing research and mon- benefits from those endeavours. Local resi- itoring at multiple locations will be dents also report that these recreation areas necessary to aid managers in identifying the are part of their community identity, pride particular mix of benefit opportunities and health. People live in those commu- appropriate for particular recreation areas. nities because they enjoy the stress relief, In addition, continued publication of accu- aesthetics and quality of life provided by rate visitor information brochures that recreation areas. describe the different opportunities avail- Economic benefits derived through able in a region can aid visitors in selecting nature-based tourism are also important to those locations most likely able to provide local communities and cannot be ignored in opportunities for them to attain the experi- public recreation area planning. Nature- ences and benefits they find most based tourism has become important to the important. economic growth of many communities. At In addition, recreation planning for a the same time, it is important to consider the given site needs to consider those opportun- environmental benefits associated with pro- ities provided by other public and private tection of natural areas when planning recreation providers within the region. For nature-based tourism opportunities. Plan- example, private recreation providers near a ners and managers must understand their public recreation area might provide ample role in working with communities to pro- horse riding, drive-in camping or snowmo- vide sustainable regional tourism biling opportunities to serve the area’s opportunities that allow access to recreation needs. In these cases, a management plan for areas without causing irreparable damage to the particular public recreation area might the natural resources. They must work col- suggest those types of opportunities should laboratively with communities to develop not be duplicated within the public recrea- management plans that balance increased tion area. However, the public recreation tourism with natural area protection. area might be in a better position to offer Active engagement of community mem- other opportunities not adequately pro- bers in planning and management processes vided by private providers. increases the likelihood that benefits are accurately articulated and incorporated into 208 Dorothy H. Anderson et al. management plans for wildland recreation Future Research areas. Since the passage of the National Environmental Protection Act in 1969, To investigate visitor and community bene- which mandated public involvement in fits derived from wildland recreation areas public land use decision making, the trend more fully, researchers should consider toward increased citizen participation has using a mix of qualitative and quantitative continued to grow. Increased citizen partici- research methods. The many variables to pation in natural resource decision making consider when examining visitor and com- and increased inter-agency cooperation are munity benefits are impossible to capture also outcomes of the trend in a growing using only one of these methods. Qualitative number of agencies toward adoption of eco- research methods which seek to describe system based management (Grumbine, and understand rather than predict seem to 1997). Identifying and considering benefits be the most efficient methods to understand most important to neighbouring communi- the complex relationships among commu- ties in wildland planning and management nities, wildland recreation areas and benefit decisions is consistent with these trends. opportunities. Therefore, a greater focus on Public participation is the most efficient describing the culture of the community in means in which to improve the production terms of its relationship to a wildland of community benefits. It is also something recreation area would avoid getting bogged local communities demand from their pub- down in the multitude of variables inherent lic land managers. By using appropriate in understanding community benefit oppor- methods and focusing communication on tunities. Qualitative methods that are how people and communities benefit from promising in this area include focus groups, recreation, planners and managers are more nominal group process and in-depth inter- likely to create management plans which views with individuals. local communities, as well as visitors to Quantitative methods must not be for- those communities, support. gotten, however. According to Driver et al. Articulating the community benefits of (1987, p. 296), ‘It is impossible to state accu- recreation areas is becoming increasingly rately the magnitude of any benefits inferred important for public agencies faced with from this ‘‘perceived benefits’’ research that increasing competition for funding, used introspective reports’. Quantitative demands for accountability and demands to methods, which include both one-time and be more responsive to public needs. Public longitudinal studies using paper and pencil meetings, community questionnaires, focus survey methods, are proven methods for groups, and increased interaction with man- gathering data on desired and realized bene- aging agencies through citizen advisory fits from randomly selected visitors and boards, friends’ groups, and volunteer community residents to infer to large pop- opportunities gives community residents ulations. the opportunity to tell planners and managers how they want to benefit from Personal benefits research wildland recreation areas. In turn, this Several BBM research topics need to be knowledge greatly aids planners and man- examined more thoroughly and others are agers in providing appropriate yet to be explored. Additional research is opportunities for visitors and local commu- necessary to explore relationships between nities. Also, understanding community experiences and benefits considered impor- benefits wildland recreation areas provide, tant by visitors and their ability to attain aids in establishing common regional plan- those experiences and benefits in other loca- ning goals that effectively incorporate tions. Similarly, research in other locations recreational needs into planning efforts. is necessary to examine the relationship between benefits identified as important by visitors and visitor setting preferences. This research might seek to identify similarities Planning to Provide Community and Visitor Benefits 209

and differences between multiple sites and Community benefits research aid in development of core management Research on community benefits is rela- objectives that might be applicable to a vari- tively new. To strengthen the understanding ety of locations. of community benefits, future research Future research should also be conduc- should continue to identify specifically how ted at the pilot test sites as part of an communities benefit from wildland areas. effective long-term monitoring and evalu- Recreation researchers have devoted a great ation system. For example, the relationship deal of effort to inventory an extensive list of between important beneficial experiences individual experiences and benefits that and visitors’ ability to attain those experi- result from recreation experiences (i.e. ences should be periodically examined at stress relief, environmental learning). A these locations to monitor changes in the comparable list of community benefits nature of these relationships over time. should also be created. Initial identification Additional follow-up research should also of these community benefits has been con- be conducted periodically to identify chan- ducted as part of the Ruby Canyon–Black ges in setting preferences and those Ridge and Minnesota State Park Benefits- beneficial experiences visitors consider based Management Pilot Studies (Borrie and important. Management objectives and Roggenbuck, 1995; Stein and Lee, 1995; actions might require adjustment if such Stein, 1997; Stein and Anderson, 1998; research identifies a change in this rela- Stein et al., 1999), but more research needs tionship. to be done. A series of future research topics also Also, community benefits research emerge from the fact that most of the existing should incorporate wider samples of com- BBM research has focused on personal on- munity residents. The pilot tests focused on site experiences and benefits. The BBM key stakeholders within communities. framework is much broader than on-site These pilot tests did not include random experiences and benefits and includes off- samples of community residents. Future site long-term personal benefits, economic research should focus on eliciting desired benefits, community benefits and environ- community benefits from randomly selected mental benefits associated with particular groups of community residents. These peo- recreation sites. Research on community ple might have different perceptions and benefits has only recently begun and little beliefs regarding how their community can research has been conducted on the nature and should benefit from wildland recreation of environmental benefits. areas. Random samples will also allow Additional personal benefits research is researchers to test relationships identified in needed to articulate better the differences the BBM models (Brown, 1984; Bruns, 1993) between an experience and a benefit, differ- using multivariate statistical techniques (i.e. ences between on-site and off-site benefits, factor and cluster analysis). and linkages that might exist between short- As wildland recreation areas are diverse, and long-term benefits. Additional personal it is reasonable to assume that the commu- benefit research is also needed to under- nity benefits they provide are also diverse. stand how settings, customer satisfaction, To date, very few pilot tests have been con- demographics and general trip profiles ducted in very few places across the influence the benefit attainment process. country. Other areas of the country need to Furthermore, researchers are just beginning become involved in community benefits to understand how to apply research results research. For example, heavily used parks to management actions. Research is needed such as the Great Smoky Mountains and to understand how to transfer knowledge to Yellowstone might yield different sets of managers better, develop BBM influenced benefits from each other, as well as from management objectives, and alter planning those found in state parks in Minnesota or models to accommodate knowledge gained BLM lands in Colorado. from BBM research work. A more intensive look at the commu- 210 Dorothy H. Anderson et al.

nities themselves is also needed. For erature has explored the relationships example, community benefit research between human desires and needs, commu- should examine whether different demo- nity economic needs and ecosystem health graphic groups within a community attain as essential components of implementing different sets of benefits from a recreation sustainable management regimes in natural area. In addition, community characteristics areas (Jensen et al., 1996; Callicott and probably influence the kinds of benefits a Mumford, 1997; Grumbine, 1997). community might attain. For example, a Although these conceptual presentations town that lies just outside a wildland recrea- of relationships between natural areas and tion area’s boundary will probably receive a environmental benefits are extremely different set of benefits than a community 20 important, empirical evidence to document miles from the area. Characteristics such as the specific environmental benefits of given distance, size, primary occupation, average recreation areas is lacking in many cases. It age of residents and community function is as important for researchers and managers would all be useful indicators in defining to understand how a recreation area benefits appropriate and sustainable community the environment as it is to understand the benefits. personal, economic and community benefits. Furthermore, it is important to Environmental benefits research understand how the environmental benefits The type of benefit which has received the derived from a particular natural area are least empirical attention among BBM related to the production of personal, com- researchers is the environmental benefit. munity and economic benefits. For example, The Canadian Parks and Recreation Federa- does a wilderness area produce different tion (1997) has identified several perceived personal and community benefits because it environmental benefits associated with provides a series of environmental benefits recreation areas. Among these is that provi- that are different from other areas or does the sion of parks, open spaces, and protected wilderness area produce different personal natural environments contribute to environ- and community benefits simply because it is mental health, environmental protection more remote and rugged than a state park and an increased possibility of a healthy adjacent to an interstate highway? Research environmental future (Canadian Parks and understanding these relationships is impor- Recreation Federation, 1997). Support con- tant to the development of sustainable tinues to remain strong around the country management objectives and monitoring for natural areas that protect water quality, approaches to measure the ecological health species diversity, air quality and other of natural areas managed for recreation. important environmental features. Driver Additional research on the environmental (1992) reminds us that one of the reasons for benefits associated with recreation areas can creation of federal wilderness areas listed in also be used by policy makers as they con- the 1964 Wilderness Act was to preserve sider establishment of new recreation areas areas that offered primitive types of recrea- and preservation of existing recreation tion opportunities. Authors of this areas. legislation saw the important link between recreation areas and protection of natural environments. The 1992 United Nations Concluding Remarks Conference on Environment and Develop- ment in Rio de Janeiro recognized a link Research efforts in BBM continue to yield between environmental quality and eco- positive results. Planners and managers are nomic development (Callicott and enthusiastic about implementing, monitor- Mumford, 1997). Economic development in ing and evaluating BBM plans. Wildland some parts of the world is driven, at least recreation visitors and residents of commu- partially, by a growing nature-based tourism nities near wildland recreation areas are industry. Recent ecosystem management lit- eager to participate in efforts to identify Planning to Provide Community and Visitor Benefits 211

desired benefit opportunities, as well as especially look for ways to improve public work with planners and managers to pro- participation in BBM decision making. vide those opportunities. Researchers, Improving methods of gathering public planners, and managers should continue input and analysing public input will result their efforts to work with visitors and com- in a better understanding of the relationship munities in the identification and between visitors and communities and the production of benefit opportunities in wild- resource. It will also result in a better knowl- land recreation areas. They should edge base for managing public lands.

Part IV Evaluation and Valuation: Determining How Valuable the Resources Are and What is Happening to Them

19 Trends in Leisure Value and Valuation

George L. Peterson and John B. Loomis

Introduction legitimate political, economic, and legal institutions are relevant to public land man- This chapter explores trends in the eco- agement policy. As stated by Santayana nomic value of outdoor recreation, with (1896): emphasis on public land-based recreation not traded in markets. We first establish a We may therefore at once assert this axiom, background of value concepts to avoid mis- important for all moral philosophy and understanding about what monetary value fatal to certain stubborn incoherences of does and does not measure. Confusion about thought, that there is no value apart from some appreciation of it, and no good apart such concepts frequently causes needless from some preference of it before its debate about economics. The chapter then absence or opposite . . . Or, as Spinoza investigates trends in recreation value clearly expresses it, we desire nothing issues, trends in the development of meth- because it is good, but it is good only ods for estimating the economic value of because we desire it. recreation, and trends in empirical estimates. The concluding section summarizes Aristotle (320 BC) complicates the question, the main points of the chapter and then however, when he observes, discusses where the trends in recreation value and valuation methodology are likely As every knowledge and moral purpose to go in the future. aspires to some good, what is in our view the good at which the political science aims, and what is the highest of all Background Concepts and practical goods? As to its name there is, I may say, a general agreement. The masses Definitions and the cultured classes agree in calling it happiness, and conceive that ‘to live well’ Value as preference and appreciation or ‘to do well’ is the same thing as ‘to be As far as public land management policy is happy’. But as to the nature of happiness concerned, ‘value’ is an expression of they do not agree. human preference and appreciation. One might argue that natural resources have Preference and the value it creates are in the functional value to nonhuman species or eye of the beholder. Some might argue that relative to abstract philosophical maxims, value is absolute as defined, for example, by but only values justified by sovereign the preferences of god or by virtue of some human preference as expressed through absolute framework of morality or truth. © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 215 216 George L. Peterson and John B. Loomis

One that holds such a view is but one among domain of the preferred as implied and justi- many, however, who may not agree. fied by the actual choices people make. Conceived value concerns what one believes Individual versus collective preference is preferable, despite whether it actually is Human preferences express values both preferred by operative choice. Object value individually and collectively. Individual is ‘concerned with what is preferable (or preferences create the ‘short run’ or every- ‘desirable’) regardless of whether it is in fact day framework of personal values, such as preferred or conceived as preferable’. For find expression in recreational choices, mar- example, a person whose highest priority is ket transactions and voting booths. The long and healthy life may choose to con- short-run values operate within the enable- sume too much red meat high in cholesterol ments and constraints created by the (operative value) as a matter of taste and/or institutionalized ‘long-run’ value structure obsessive-compulsive behaviour while of society, as produced by expression of believing that other dietary choices are pref- collective preference through law, politics erable (conceived value). They may be and cultural tradition. Short-run preferen- misinformed, however, about what dietary ces thus generate economic values within choices actually promote long and healthy the boundaries established by the social life. The choices that are, in fact, preferable, contract created by collective preference. given the persons’ highest priority, are object values. Economic values as expressed The several facets of individual value in markets or market-like situations are Individual values take many different forms, strictly operative, being justified by con- not all of which can be captured in an eco- sumer sovereignty as the outcome of nomic framework. Failure to differentiate consumer choice. If the context in which among these concepts often confuses dis- one expresses preference or makes a choice cussion of economic value. places the person in the role of citizen or Aesthetic and moral value agent of another’s interests rather than a Santayana (1896) distinguishes between consumer, the result may be conceived aesthetic and moral value. Aesthetic value is value (Blamey, 1995; Sen, 1977). intrinsic in the experience as an end in itself, whereas moral value is something De jure and de facto value instrumental to avoidance of evil or attain- Preferences based on legally defined sover- ment of a higher or future good that may eign rights justify de jure value. The rights require sacrifice of present pleasure. Eco- and powers that justify such values vary nomic values may be aesthetic or moral. from society to society, depending on the Also, economic values created by final governing institutions. People also may demand and aesthetic values are similar in have preferences that are not based on sover- that they are an end in themselves. Values eign rights or effective powers, however. generated by intermediate demand and Such preferences yield de facto values that moral values are similar in that they are a are important to people, but policy generally means to an end other than self. Moral value ignores them until they find expression by is also of direct relevance to recreation as it effective legal or political means. Economic pertains to the trade-off between work and values may be either de jure or de facto. If leisure. Is outdoor recreation a pure con- the question is one of legal rights, only de sumption of pleasure without productive jure value is relevant. If, however, the ques- return, or does it lead to personal and social tion is about actual economic welfare, de benefits that make it a productive invest- facto values also are relevant. ment?

Operative, conceived and object value Direct and derived value Morris (1956) classiﬁes values as operative, Human preference assigns direct value to conceived and object. Operative value is the the preferred object. The direct preference Trends in Leisure Value and Valuation 217

also assigns derived value to objects or con- tric values. A third argument is that the ditions on which the preferred object power humans have to save or destroy other depends by functional relationship, even species creates an ethical duty to exercise when the person expressing the preference that power in benevolent ways (Rolston, is not aware of that relationship. For exam- 1981, 1985, 1994). Such values are ple, good health depends, among other preference-based for those who hold them, things, on a sufficient intake of vitamin C. but as with any personal preference, there Vitamin C therefore derives value from pref- may be no legally defined rights to support erence for good health regardless of whether them and they may lack collective justifica- vitamin C is an object of direct preference. tion at the level of sovereign public policy. Because sailors in ancient times were not They are nevertheless part of the broader aware of the functional dependence of good tapestry of human values. Economists some- health on vitamin C, they often contracted times refer to existence value or, more scurvy. broadly, non-use or passive use value, as Derived value is the focus of much uncer- ‘intrinsic’. This economic concept of intrin- tainty in natural resource management sic value is, however, strictly operative and because of the extreme and poorly under- based on human preference. stood complexity of the ecosystems in which we participate. In recognition of this Normative value uncertainty, the precautionary principle A value advocated by one agent as a stand- (Taylor, 1991; Haigh, 1993) is finding appli- ard or norm by which to judge the cation in policy around the world. For desirability of something to a second agent example, the Endangered Species Act (1973) is a normative value. For example, philoso- assigns direct value to endangered species phers, theologians, educators or scientists in the US as an expression of collective might advocate certain criteria as values by preference, while also assigning derived which to judge the goodness or badness of value to the environmental conditions and human behaviour. Such values are norma- processes on which they depend. Operative, tive with respect to public policy until conceived and object values all generate adopted and validated by the sovereign derived values, which coincide only in the authority of the society in question. They are presence of perfect information and rational also normative with respect to any individ- preference. Derived value will be external to ual whose preferences do not agree with economic accounts when the individuals those values. Even when lacking sovereign having the preferences that create the justification, however, normative value may derived value are not aware of the functional be an important value component. It may be relationship. the product of specialized knowledge not shared by the people or their governing Intrinsic value powers and therefore not yet incorporated in Biologists and ethical philosophers some- personal preference or canonized by polit- times refer to intrinsic value as independent ical sovereignty. Keeping and advocating of human appreciation. They may mean this value account is the domain of scien- thereby their own conceived values, or they tific, educational, philosophical and may have posited a philosophical criterion ecclesiastical institutions. It is an informa- of value other than human preference, such tion system worth scrutinizing by those as a philosophical maxim, or what they whose rights and lives may be affected, but it believe to be the preference of God, nature or generally is external to economic accounts. nonhuman species. For example, one argument is that genetic information produced Marginal and total value by millennia of genetic experimentation has Marginal value is the value of one more or intrinsic value because we cannot replace it less unit of the thing in question. Total value if lost. Another is that nonhuman species is the value with versus without all units have rights that validate nonanthropocen- taken as a whole. A related concept is the 218 George L. Peterson and John B. Loomis

value with versus without the function or the derived value will be external. Equilib- service performed. If the thing in question is rium between supply and demand (relative the only way to obtain the function, that is, if scarcity) determines marginal prices in a it has no substitutes, total value is the value market economy. Personal values determine of the function or service performed. The whether to accept the price and make a ‘diamonds and water paradox’ illustrates transaction. these concepts. Under normal conditions a single ornamental diamond is worth far Priced and nonpriced value more than a single drink of water. The total Markets establish marginal prices for things value of all ornamental diamonds is worth that have the characteristics of private far less, however, than the total value of goods, that is, are rival and excludable in water. Life can continue very well without consumption. A good is nonrival in con- ornamental diamonds, but without water it sumption if consumption by one person ceases to exist. Failure to differentiate does not diminish the amount of the good among marginal value, total value, and the available for consumption by another per- value of the function or service performed is son (e.g. a sunset). It is nonexcludable if the a common cause of confusion in economic owner cannot prevent consumption by a debate. person who refuses to pay. Markets fail to establish prices for things that are nonrival Outdoor recreation benefit as a household and/or nonexcludable in consumption, are production process exchanged in markets that are imperfect It is important to differentiate among the because of external or monopolistic dise- values of the outdoor recreation opportun- conomy, or are nonpriced by policy choice. ities (sites, resources, facilities), the value of The market price also fails to measure chan- management of the opportunities, and the ges in wellbeing brought about by a value of the recreation itself. Recreationists nonmarginal change in supply. Absence of combine the opportunities and related man- efficient prices for things people value cau- agement with time, travel, skills, personal ses inefficiency and inequity in the equipment, and on-site activity in a house- allocation of resources, a condition econo- hold production process to obtain the mists call market failure (Randall, 1983). benefits they seek, whether simple feelings of pleasure or productive outcomes such as The difference between financial and physical fitness or skill development economic analysis (Becker, 1965; Bockstael and McConnell, Financial analysis includes only direct 1981, 1983). The value of recreation oppor- monetary transactions. The purpose is to tunity and management derive from the role measure the financial efficiency of the opportunity plays in the process by which agency, as with profit and loss statements the recreationist produces the desired out- and balance sheets in the private sector. come. Financial analysis accepts existing prices on face value and considers only the priced The special case of economic value components of the transactions in question. Definition Economic analysis is broader, however. It Economic value is the amount of money one endeavours to include all nonpriced values is willing to exchange for a good or service. as well as priced values in the analysis. The As expressed through markets or market- objective of economic analysis is to evaluate like situations, it is strictly operative and overall social well being, whereas the objec- justified by consumer sovereignty, that is, by tive of financial analysis is to evaluate only human preference as the outcome of choice. the financial return to the agency or firm in It may be direct or indirect, but if the indi- question. viduals or collectives assigning economic Economic analysis addresses two objec- value by their preferences and choices are tives, economic efficiency and economic not aware of the dependency relationship, equity. The economic efficiency objective Trends in Leisure Value and Valuation 219

asks whether the aggregate economic gain at Economic analysis should include as the scale in question exceeds the aggregate nonpriced value any money people would economic loss, including nonpriced gains have been willing to pay if otherwise exclu- and losses, and without regard for who gains ded. Nonpriced value increases economic and who loses. The equity objective asks wellbeing, because it is money people whether the distribution of gains and losses would have spent on recreation but can across society and over time is fair. Political spend on other things while still enjoying conflict resolution decides the equity ques- the benefit of recreation access. This benefit tion, based on exposure of the distribution is known in economics as consumer surplus of economic gains and losses by economic or net willingness to pay (WTP). The analy- analysis. sis also should include any distributional or equity impacts of pricing policy (Walsh et Nonpriced recreation value al., 1989). Many outdoor recreation sites have unique Trends in issues of management philosophy natural features that make them attractive. and policy They also tend to lack nearby substitutes. Increasing recognition of nonpriced value Such sites are locationally monopolistic A discussion of trends in valuation of out- with downward-sloping demand functions, door recreation must include two as opposed to the horizontal demand func- components: (i) changes in issues of man- tions that face firms in competitive markets. agement philosophy and policy regarding Left to the private sector and unregulated, the kinds of value to include and the process such sites might be managed monopolisti- for including them, and (ii) trends in the cally for maximum profit, resulting in values themselves and methods for measur- inefficient and inequitable allocation of eco- ing them. One of the most important trends nomic costs and benefits. Government often in the first camp is increasing recognition steps into such situations to preserve the that while monetary value is an important unique resources and correct the monopo- piece of the puzzle, it does not present the listic diseconomy. The additional full picture. People often choose to partici- nonpriced economic benefits thus produced pate in outdoor recreation because it attracts when the government charges an efficient them or simply feels good. Why it feels good price lower than the monopolistic price is often a mystery, even to the participants. needs to be accounted in economic analysis. They may give reasons for participation If the policy context is with versus without when queried in order to justify their access to the site in question, additional choices, but the root causes of the attraction nonpriced benefits accrue because closing may be buried deeply in the psyche or even the site would be a nonmarginal supply in the genome. change and would impose a higher price in the form of additional travel cost for access Development of benefit-based management to a substitute and/or lower quality and less There are often many beneficial consequen- satisfaction with what the substitute has to ces that flow from participation in outdoor offer. Although access to public land is often recreation (Driver et al., 1991a; 1996). Those excludable in theory, the managing agency benefits, which accrue either to the individ- might decide to provide recreation opportu- ual participants or to society as a whole or nity below the efficient (marginal cost) price both, may not be the direct causes of the or free of charge for social merit purposes, as preferences that motivate choice. The par- with city parks.1 Alternatively, access con- ticipants may not even be aware of some trol and fee collection may cost more than benefits actually produced by their activity. the revenue obtained thereby. If not, economic value as derived from their

1 For a discussion of pricing policy for public outdoor recreation areas, see Rosenthal et al. (1984) and Walsh et al. (1989). 220 George L. Peterson and John B. Loomis

choices or expressed preferences will not recreation currently taking place at existing measure the full or correct value of the activ- recreation sites. These included reservoirs ity. For example and metaphorically and national parks. Both the travel cost speaking, an economist will tell you that the method and contingent valuation method ‘value’ of a given meal is the sum of money were employed during this time. Quickly consumers are willing to pay for it, say following this was application to the press- US$15. A nutritionist, however, will dissect ing recreation problems of the late 1960s the meal into its nutritional consequences and 1970s, evaluation of the benefits of pro- and explain the effects of those components posed sites. This was a more challenging on personal health. If the consumer’s high- effort and the initial solution to this was the est priority is good health while operative forerunner of benefit-transfer approaches: choice is based on taste in ignorance of the transferring of existing travel cost method nutritionist’s information, there will be dis- demand curves from similar sites. sonance between economic value and the While these were relevant first steps, the value derived by functional relationship retrenchment of the Federal government with the consumer’s overriding preferences. during the Republican era of the 1980s Management of recreation resources to pro- brought greater emphasis to improving the duce or facilitate production of beneficial benefits of managing existing sites, rather outcomes is called ‘Benefit-based Manage- than opening new sites. The 1980s saw the ment’ (Lee and Driver, 1996; Driver and full development of multisite travel cost Bruns, 1999). Recreation resource manage- models. By pooling data across sites of vary- ment theory is moving away from ing quality, a coefficient on site quality management of inputs and outputs toward could be estimated. Improved site manage- management for beneficial outcomes. ment could then be visualized as shifting the demand curve for the recreation site out- Identification and measurement of ward. The area between the original site recreation benefits demand curve and the improved site The nonpriced component of the economic demand curve, was the increase in visitors’ value of outdoor recreation is difficult to net WTP for the improved site. Key quality measure. Available methods, including parameters modelled were water quality travel cost analysis and contingent valua- (Smith and Desvousges, 1986) and fishing tion are not without controversy, even when quality (Vaughan and Russell, 1982). done well, and doing them well can be Increasing demand for recreation cou- expensive. In many situations, especially pled with little or no increase in supply small-scale project-level decisions, the cost during the 1980s also brought the economic may not be justified. Other emerging philo- benefits of reducing congestion to the fore- sophical and policy trends likely to front of the research agenda. Unfortunately, continue into the future are: (i) scientific the travel cost method is not well suited for explanation of the benefits of leisure in the valuing reductions in congestion. In part ‘nutritionist’ sense and (ii) development of this is due to visitation being both the noneconomic meaningful measures of the dependent variable and an indicator of con- beneficial outcomes of public investment in gestion. However, the contingent valuation outdoor recreation opportunity. method was well suited to this task. Two approaches were used to value reductions in Trends in Economic Value and congestion: (i) estimating the value of exist- Valuation ing recreation during peak and off-peak periods to isolate the higher benefits of Trends in recreation issues to be valued reduced congestion (McConnell, 1977) and Broadening measurement of economic (ii) asking existing visitors how much they value of recreation would pay for hypothetical reductions in During the infancy of recreation valuation, congestion (Walsh and Gilliam, 1982). the first steps taken were simply to value Trends in Leisure Value and Valuation 221

Trends in economic valuation methods Contingent valuation Revealed preference or actual behaviour The other primary approach to valuation of methods recreation and recreation quality is the con- The travel cost method was the first valid tingent valuation method (CVM). Davis recreation valuation method developed. (1963) is generally credited with the devel- The formalization of this model is often opment of this method. Due to its reliance credited to Clawson (1959b). Economists on stated WTP, rather than actual behaviour, quickly embraced this method since it is CVM was slower to gain acceptance among essentially estimating a demand curve using economists. Early CVM analyses utilized an cross-sectional observations of prices (travel open-ended question format, asking visitors costs) and quantities (trips). The first models the maximum they would pay. This ‘state used the available secondary data: grouping your value’ question format further engen- of trips taken by distance zones, hence the dered scepticism among economists. With name zonal travel cost model. There were the development of the dichotomous choice dozens of applications of this model from or ‘take it or leave it’ format (Bishop and 1959 to 1973 for national parks (Clawson Heberlein, 1979) and its formalization by and Knetsch, 1966), reservoirs (Grubb and Hanemann (1984), application of CVM stud- Goodwin, 1968; Cesario and Knetsch, 1976) ies mushroomed during the 1980s. The more and sport-fishing (Brown et al., 1964). market-like, price-taking behaviour coupled The concern over refining the price varia- with the availability of qualitative choice ble to include the opportunity cost of travel statistical models such as logit and probit, time, led to the development of the individ- helped to bring greater acceptance of CVM ual level travel cost method (Brown and for measuring recreation use values. Nawas, 1973; Martin et al., 1974). The focus on the individual level continues today in Contingent behaviour travel cost demand modelling. One reason for this is the closer tie of individual In the 1980s, a hybrid approach was first demand models to the consumer demand used by Walsh and Olyienk (1981) and Ward theory which describes individual behav- (1987) that involved asking visitors how iour. Unfortunately, applying simple they would change the number of trips they regression techniques to individual data would make if site quality changed. The may result in biased coefficients that will premise was that it was easier for visitors to overstate the consumer surplus or net WTP. state accurately how their number of trips As a result, some of the early individual would change in response to quality, than to observation studies produced some very express such a change in monetary terms. large estimates of WTP (Martin et al., 1974). Individual observation models have survived because of the development of Combining revealed and stated preference improved econometric models to better cap- methods ture the subtleties of individual behaviour Until the early 1990s, contingent valuation such as recreation participation and trip and travel cost methods were seen as com- frequency. peting approaches to measuring WTP. The most elaborate of the individual level Studies looked at the convergent validity of travel cost models are models of site choice. the two methods (Bishop and Heberlein, Borrowed from transportation planning, 1979; Mitchell and Carson, 1989). Cameron these multisite models account for site qual- (1992) suggested that contingent valuation ity as well as quality and location of and travel cost data could be used in a com- substitute sites (Morey, 1994). Because of plementary way as each provided the explicit accounting of substitute sites, information on different aspects of the same these models often produce some of the low- preference mapping of visitors. That is, est estimates of net WTP. information about the vertical intercept of 222 George L. Peterson and John B. Loomis

Table 19.1. Comparison of economic value (US$1996) of selected outdoor recreation activities from three literature reviews.

Sorg and Loomis, 1984 Walsh et al., 1992 Loomis and Shrestha, 1998 Activity (1965–1982) (1968–1988) (1977–1998)

Camping 22.83 25.82 51.65 Picnicking 26.53 22.95 48.06 Motor-boats 27.98 41.80 48.76 Float boats 53.05 64.47 39.21 Hiking 30.09 38.51 44.63 Skiing 47.23 37.74 21.25 Hunting 57.58 49.41 61.55

the demand curve might be more easily dis- tha (1998). This data contains a few earlier covered using contingent valuation, while studies obtained from previous unpub- information about the horizontal intercept lished literature reviews of McNair (1993). might be easily revealed with travel cost Our results show that the value of camp- data. Today, there is a blossoming research ing, picnicking, motor-boating and hiking programme in combining stated and have increased over time. However, this is revealed preference data (Adamowicz et al., not a perfectly controlled comparison, 1994). because there have been methodological changes in the valuation techniques over Trends in empirical estimates of the this period and the composition of the economic value of recreation: 1970–1997 recreation areas studied have changed. For Interest in summarizing the empirical lit- example, in the case of hiking the more erature dates back to Dwyer et al. (1977). recent data of Loomis and Shrestha (1998) However, the US Department of Agriculture includes a study for a wilderness area in the (USDA) Forest Service has been one of the southeast US. The scarcity of wilderness prime supporters of systematic summariza- opportunities in the southeastern US makes tion of the literature so as to provide wilderness hiking quite valuable. Skiing economic values of recreation for the appears to have decreased in value since the Resources Planning Act. One of the first more recent studies focused on cross- published comprehensive summaries of the country rather than downhill (which the valuation literature was performed by Sorg earlier studies concentrated on). and Loomis (1984). The next major update One of the innovations of the Walsh et al. was by Walsh et al. (1992) and Smith and (1992) and the Smith and Kaoru (1990) work Kaoru (1990). This latter study only was to summarize systematically the values included travel cost method derived values in the literature using a statistical technique so will not be used here. called META analysis that can control for In Table 19.1, we illustrate the moving the valuation methodology, and to a lesser average of inflation adjusted values for hunt- extent the quality of the recreation site. This ing (big game, small game and waterfowl), approach uses the value per day or trip camping, picnicking, hiking and boating recorded from the study as the dependent taken from the three main literature reviews variable and characteristics of the study performed to date. The first study is from method and site as the independent vari- Sorg and Loomis (1984) and the second from ables. Walsh et al. (1992). The third literature This technique can provide us some review is an update of recent studies (largely insights regarding the trend in the economic since 1988) conducted by Loomis and Shres- value of recreation over time. For example, Trends in Leisure Value and Valuation 223

even after adjusting different years’ study framed in the scientific method and exe- values for inflation, Walsh et al. (1992) cuted through effective collaboration with found the values from the more recent research. As emerging trends in manage- period (1980–1988) were on average ment philosophy and policy unfold, US$7.97 lower than those from the earlier management increasingly will be an adven- period (1965–1979). Smith and Kaoru ture in exploration of new territory. If (1990) also found a negative time trend of properly documented and guided by the sci- US$2.50 in their study of travel cost method entific method, innovative management estimates over time. actions can be a series of experiments by These decreasing trends are in contrast to which to accumulate and apply new a META analysis on the Loomis and Shres- knowledge. tha (1998) data (Loomis et al., 1998). This For example, recreation valuation has more recent effort which more fully moved from simply providing the economic accounts for recreation activity differences value of the current quality of recreation to as well as for methodological differences being able to value changes in the quality of and site composition effects found a small, recreation experiences. Examples include but statistically significant positive time increasing fishing catch rates and reducing trend in value of recreation (P 0.003). In congestion. Thus, managers have tools to particular they found the value increased by evaluate the economic benefits of their man- about US$1 a year (0.92 to be exact). There is agement programmes aimed at improving nearly a 30-year time span in this data (10 the quality of recreation experiences. This years more than previous studies) and the same research provides empirical guidance sample is heavily weighted toward more on the benefits of limiting recreation use to recent studies of the last 10 years. within social carrying capacity of the recreation area.

Implications for Management Conclusion The philosophy and policy of recreation resource management are moving away Meaningful discussion of trends in the eco- from focus on inputs and outputs to empha- nomic value of outdoor recreation requires sis on beneficial outcomes. Important trends clear understanding of the meaning of eco- include: (i) recognition of nonpriced and nomic value. In this chapter we dissect the derived values that are external to market word ‘value’ into several components to mechanisms and traditional management identify the concepts that economic value methods; (ii) derived values that are often does and does not include. As determined in hidden from management and recreation markets and market-like situations, such as participants behind a veil of complexity and with market prices or measurement by travel ignorance; (iii) development of meaningful cost analysis or contingent valuation, eco- measures of recreation benefit by which to nomic value is strictly operative, that is, the evaluate achievement of management objec- result of actual choices, and therefore may tives and customer satisfaction; and (iv) fail to capture conceived and object values, development of benefit-based management. or philosophically based intrinsic or norma- These trends will both facilitate and require tive values. Because of imperfect closer collaboration between research and information, it may also fail to capture management as we move into the future. important derived values created by hidden They also will require more intense continu- functional dependence of what people ing education of managers and a greater choose or prefer on other things. willingness to reach out for new concepts An important philosophical trend in out- and improved techniques. One of the most door recreation value that digs into and important and challenging opportunities beyond the foundation of economic value is will be to implement adaptive management what we have called the ‘nutritional’ 224 George L. Peterson and John B. Loomis

approach. It is an approach that aims at The actual trend in the dollar value of better understanding of the deeper social, recreation is often difficult to discern due to spiritual and experiential benefits. This changes in the measurement methodology approach is based on growing recognition of and the composition of recreation sites stud- a need to manage recreation and recreation ied over time. Much as ecologists have opportunity for production of beneficial out- begun to establish and monitor long-term comes, including but not limited to ecological research sites, recreation analysis economic outcomes. It requires research to would benefit from establishing similar expose derived values that result from benchmark sites. By monitoring visitor use, recreation choice and the production pro- visitor experiences and economic value at cesses by which management actions affect the same site with standard measurement outcomes. It also includes emphasis on edu- methods, we may be better able to detect cation that helps customers and managers changes in the real economic value, as well better understand the consequences of their as the deeper social, spiritual, and experien- choices. tial benefits, of outdoor recreation. 20 New Developments in Measuring Tourism as an Area of Economic Activity

Stephen L.J. Smith

Introduction Governments thus seek methods to monitor the economic magnitude and evolution Tourism has become a significant economic of tourism. However, for the reasons de- activity in a majority of the world’s nations scribed below, the measurement of tourism and is likely to continue to grow in the long as an economic activity has been difficult. term. The World Tourism Organization Most economic impact measures of tourism (WTO) (1998b, p. 4) suggests several reasons are ad hoc indicators based only on visitor for this growth: survey data covering variables such as the number of trips and expenditures. These are sometimes supplemented with attempts to ● Increasingly rapid, safe, and affordable measure indirect and induced effects transportation; through so-called tourism multipliers. ● Growing interest in learning more about While such measures have been useful, they other nations and cultures plus greater have certain weaknesses. In particular, they information on destinations; and are usually developed independently of ● Long-term increases in disposable other, more general, systems of macroeco- incomes and discretionary time in some nomic indicators, particularly Systems of parts of the world. National Accounts, the international convention for describing and measuring the Tourism induces social, environmental magnitude and interrelationship of the and economic change in the places frequen- industries that comprise national econom- ted by visitors. While all types of change ies. Lacking any connection with Systems of draw attention from policy analysts, eco- National Accounts, it is not possible to make nomic impacts are arguably of greatest valid comparisons between the magnitude interest to most governments. The reason for of tourism and traditional industries. Fur- this is that tourism has the potential to be a ther, the lack of international consistency in significant export commodity for a destina- the definition, collection and reporting of tion and thus a contributor to the Gross tourism economic indicators means inter- Domestic Product. Tourism is also a source national comparisons are not always of job creation, especially for individuals reliable. entering the labour force with limited This chapter describes the evolution of a skills. method that allows the measurement of © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 225 226 Stephen L.J. Smith

tourism as an economic activity in a way to deal with various classes of visitors. In that permits valid comparison with tradi- 1991, the International Conference on tional industries. We begin with a brief Travel and Tourism Statistics, held in description of the evolution of ‘tourism’ as a Ottawa, reached a consensus on concepts statistical concept. The reasons why tourism and terminology that would: (i) offer world- has defied measurement in Systems of wide practical application in both National Accounts are then examined. Sub- developing and developed nations; (ii) be as sequent sections introduce the concept of a simple and clear as possible, and as con- Tourism Satellite Account and describe sistent as possible in the world’s major extensions of Satellite Accounts into new languages; (iii) provide the basis for con- tools for policy analysts and planners to sistency in international statistics; and (iv) make more informed decisions about the permit integration with statistics drawn tourism industry. In brief, the trend in defin- from Systems of National Accounts. Among ing and measuring tourism has been toward: the important advances at this conference (i) international consensus in terminology; was agreement on the very concept of tour- (ii) closer ties with standard measures of ism itself. traditional industries; and (iii) growing pre- Tourism, the Conference delegates cision and sophistication in measurement agreed, is the activities of persons travelling and analysis. to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consec- utive year for leisure, business and other History of the Definition of Tourism purposes (WTO, 1994b). There are several and Related Terms important aspects of this definition. First, tourism is a demand-side concept; that is, The English terms, ‘tourism’ and ‘tourist’, the activity of the consumer is central to the date from the late 18th or early 19th cen- concept, not the nature of commodities turies. The second edition of the Oxford produced. English Dictionary (1994) quotes a 1780 Second, tourism is more than just pleas- advertisement, Ode to Genius of Lakes in ure travel; it includes travel for many North of England: ‘He throws the piece only purposes as long as the primary purpose of into the way of actual tourists’. It also cites travel is other than the pursuit of remunera- Sporting Magazine with the use of the word tion from within the place visited. Thus, ‘tourism’ in an 1811 article: ‘Sublime Cock- business travel in the form of travel to con- ney Tourism’ to describe the new ventions, installation and maintenance of phenomenon of working class pleasure equipment, corporate meetings, and sales trips. calls in situations where the sales repre- Tourism and tourist lacked any partic- sentative is paid by their company back ular technical meaning until 1937 when the home (rather than directly by remuneration Committee of Statistical Experts of the from the person making the purchase) are League of Nations (OECD, 1973) proposed tourism. Travel for medical reasons, pil- the first operational definition of ‘interna- grimages, visiting friends and relatives, and tional tourist’: anyone visiting a country many other personal purposes also are tour- other that which is their usual residence for ism. Not all forms of travel, though, are more than 24 h. The Committee explicitly tourism. Travel for the purpose of commut- excluded workers, migrants, commuters, ing, to change residence, as well as travel by students, and travellers who did not stop en diplomats or members of the armed forces route through a country on their way to while on duty, refugees, nomads, and border another country. workers are explicitly excluded from the Over the next few decades, a series of definition of tourism. international statistical commissions refined the definition of tourist and related terms as well as introduced some new terms New Developments in Measuring Tourism 227

The Problem of the Tourism Industry transportation. While there is some variation in the range of accommodation service For a group of businesses to be considered and technology – hotels and motels provide an ‘industry’, they must meet three criteria: beds inside a permanent building, camp- (i) they must produce a relatively homo- grounds provide space for sleeping out of geneous product; (ii) they must use doors or in a temporary shelter – all provide essentially the same technology; and (iii) the space for rest and sleeping, a more or less number of businesses and the financial homogeneous product. value of their output must be substantial Transportation firms also offer, at a gen- enough to merit statistical attention as a dis- eral level, a homogeneous product: crete sector. movement of people. One can specify varia- These criteria imply the need for judge- tions in product depending on the mode of ment as well as for the possible appearance travel – ground, air, water – but all involve and disappearance of industries as society, moving people. So, can one combine accom- technology and economies evolve. Fifty modation, transportation, and other sectors years ago, there was no computer manu- into a comprehensive concept called the facturing industry. It is now a substantial ‘tourism industry?’ The answer is, ‘No, not one. A century ago, horse-drawn cart manu- in the conventional sense of industry’. facturing was a significant employer and Although one often hears the phrase, source of income. It is no longer recognized ‘tourism industry’, in the context of policy as a distinct industry. analysis, lobbying and advocacy efforts, While the number of businesses and the education, and destination marketing orga- magnitude of their output is important, the nizations, tourism is not an industry for two matters of ‘homogeneous product’ and ‘the basic reasons. First, the differences in the same technology’ are central to determining product of accommodation firms (keeping whether a group of businesses can be con- people in one place) and that of transporta- sidered an industry. Variations in product or tion firms (moving people around) are too technology can be accommodated to a great to qualify as a homogeneous product. degree using a hierarchical model of ‘indus- Second, tourism is fundamentally a try’. One such hierarchical model is the demand-side concept, characterized by the North American Industrial Classification activities of certain consumers. Industries System (NAICS). This system consists of five are defined in terms of their products, not levels for most industries, ranging from the their customers. While the marketing lit- highly general single-digit level (e.g. 1 erature (Medlik and Middleton, 1973; ‘primary’ industry, or the composite of agri- Jefferson and Lickorish, 1988; Smith, 1994) culture, forestry, fishing and mining) argues that, from the customer’s perspec- through more precise five-digit industries. tive, a tourism experience should be viewed For example, the growing of wheat is a as a single, integrative experiential product five-digit industry (NAICS 11111). It is also involving the services of many businesses part of a more general four-digit industry, from the time the visitor leaves home to the ‘grain and oilseed farming’ (NAICS 1111). time the visitor returns; traditional meas- This, in turn, is part of a still more general ures and definitions of industries do not three-digit industry, ‘crop production’ accommodate this perspective. Tourism is (NAICS 111). Crop production, combined something people do, not something an with some other three-digit industries, con- industry produces. stitute the comprehensive two-digit Interest in the economic importance of ‘agriculture, fishing and forestry’ industry tourism has not disappeared in the absence (NAICS 11). of traditional macroeconomic measures Given this malleable notion of industry, related to tourism. So, as noted previously, can one speak of a general tourism industry? tourism analysts developed ad hoc meas- To answer that, consider two familiar com- ures to estimate direct expenditures on ponents of tourism: accommodation and accommodation, food and beverages, trans- 228 Stephen L.J. Smith

portation, recreation and entertainment, text of Canada, 24 tourism commodities and retail. Occasionally, attempts were also have been identified. These belong to the made to estimate the indirect and induced broad classes of transportation, accommo- effects of tourism through the calculation of dation, food and beverages, recreation and tourism multipliers. While some of these entertainment, and travel trade. models have been widely accepted, the Tourism commodities are purchased not accuracy of the results were sometimes sus- only by visitors but by local residents and pect, particularly with respect to others whose activities do not meet the defi- multipliers. In no case could the results be nition of tourism. For example, individuals meaningfully and reliably compared to data in the process of changing residences may for conventional industries. This did not, stay at a hotel; diplomatic officials may however, stop some special interest and travel by air. Visitors also purchase non- lobby organizations, such as the World tourism commodities such as groceries, Travel and Tourism Council (1995), from clothing, newspapers and books, and suntan making unscientific claims that tourism is lotion during their tourism activity. The ‘the world’s largest industry’. None the less, bulk of the demand for these commodities, the idiosyncratic methods such as those however, comes from people who are not used by the World Travel and Tourism involved in tourism at the time of the pur- Council do not permit any valid compar- chase. isons between tourism and traditional Although there is no tourism industry in industries or the magnitude of tourism the conventional sense of the term, one can among nations. still speak of tourism industries as those Given both the problems posed by the industries that produce tourism commod- nature of tourism as a form of economic ities. In Canada, 16 tourism industries have activity and the continuing need for credible been identified in the sectors of transporta- and comparable measures of tourism as an tion, accommodation, food and beverages, area of economic activity, many groups and recreation and entertainment, and travel governments continued to press for new trade. Although these appear to be the same measures of tourism. In the middle of the categories as for commodities, the distinc- 1980s, a new approach that could provide tion between commodity and industry must such information was being outlined by be kept separate: industries produce com- economists and statisticians in several modities. nations – the Tourism Satellite Account. While industries are also defined by the The next section discusses the emergence primary commodity they produce, some of Satellite Accounts as an important trend tourism industries also produce nontourism in measuring tourism. However, before commodities. Hotels sell, for example, introducing the method, some key defini- clothing, dry-cleaning services, and tele- tions and concepts need to be introduced. communication services. Some airlines sell duty-free gifts or rent electronic entertainment equipment (headphones for movies Core Concepts and Definitions and recorded music). Conversely, some nontourism industries produce tourism Consumers engaged in tourism are visitors; commodities. Certain department stores sell visitors consist of tourists, who stay over- meals and a few rent cars. Governments night, and same-day visitors, who do not. operate museums and attractions. This com- Although tourism is not defined in terms of plex pattern of tourism industries producing the production of commodities, one can still tourism and nontourism commodities, as speak of tourism commodities. In the con- well as nontourism industries producing text of measuring the economic magnitude tourism and nontourism commodities has of tourism, tourism commodities are goods been a major hurdle to the measurement of and services for which a significant portion the magnitude of tourism economic activity of demand comes from visitors. In the con- in a way that permits comparison to the New Developments in Measuring Tourism 229

output of traditional industries. Tourism features of Satellite Accounts, the concepts Satellite Accounts provide a way over this and definitions needed for these accounts, hurdle. principles for recording data, the basic structure of Satellite Accounts and possible extensions of these accounts (WTO, 1998b). A Brief History of Tourism Satellite These drafts incorporate the basic principles Accounts and design features of the Canadian Satellite Account as the recommended model for French statisticians, in the early 1980s, were Accounts in other nations. In addition to the first to propose the concept that would Canada; Australia, the Dominican Republic, become known as a Satellite Account. Their France, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, ideas were in response to the need to meas- Spain, Sweden and the US have or are ure aspects of national economic activity actively developing their own Satellite that are inadequately identified in the Sys- Accounts. tem of National Accounts, such as tourism, transportation, education and health, or are completely ignored, such as the environ- What is a Tourism Satellite Account? ment and household work. The WTO, too, called for the development of a new system At a simplistic level, a Tourism Satellite to provide a ‘uniform and comprehensive Account is a method for creating a synthetic means of measurement [of tourism] and tourism industry by combining the bits and comparison with other sectors of the econ- pieces of conventional industries that pro- omy’ (Secretary General, WTO, 1983). The duce tourism commodities. The term, goal of such a system was not just to permit ‘satellite’, indicates this method is an exten- interindustry comparisons within one sion of the System of National Accounts. nation, but to allow for greater harmoniza- More technically, a Satellite Account is a tion and comparability of tourism statistics comprehensive, multilayered information among nations. Recognizing their potential system that collects, orders and interrelates importance, the Organization for Economic statistics describing all significant quantita- Cooperation and Development (OECD) also tive aspects of tourism. called for the development of Tourism The Satellite Account creates a tourism Satellite Accounts and developed recom- dimension in the input–output framework mendations for their construction (OECD, of the System of National Accounts. The 1991, 1998b). input–output framework is, in effect, a In North America, the National Task series of matrices in which the inputs con- Force on Tourism Data (1987) considered sumed by every industry from the outputs of the idea of a Satellite Account and asked all industries are identified and measured. Statistics Canada to develop the concept fur- The Satellite Account provides a method ther. A proposal was developed by Lapierre whereby a synthetic industry known as (1991) and presented to the 1991 Ottawa ‘tourism’ can be extracted from the System Conference. This proposal provided the of National Accounts. basis for work within Statistics Canada that The linkage of a Satellite Account with eventually resulted in the first phase of a the System of National Accounts provides working Satellite Account (Lapierre and two essential qualities. First, it means that Hayes, 1994). Also in 1994, the WTO pre- estimates of the size (outputs) of tourism sented a set of recommendations regarding can, for the first time, be reliably and con- tourism statistics, initially worked out at the sistently compared to the size of traditional 1991 Ottawa Conference, to the United industries. No other approach to measuring Nations for acceptance. the size of the tourism industry provides Over the next few years the WTO tourism data that can be consistently and released increasingly refined drafts of A Sat- accurately compared to data from other ellite Account for Tourism that describes the industries. 230 Stephen L.J. Smith

Secondly, input–output matrices bal- the same as the broader measure more ance. The total output of any industry is usually used in national accounting, and equal to the total inputs from that industry that includes capital investment and the by all consumers of that output. The System government sector. of National Accounts thus provides a discipline that prevents under- or overestimation of the size of any industry. An Overview of Tourism Satellite A key element in the interpolation of this Account Methodology synthetic tourism industry is the estimation of tourism ratios. Tourism ratios are the per- The Satellite Account starts with expendi- centage of each tourism commodity tures and receipts for tourism industries. consumed by individuals (visitors) engaged These are then classified as exports, imports in tourism. These ratios are estimated based or as personal expenditures. Expenditure on detailed household and consumer sur- and receipt data are derived from various veys of family expenditures as well as travel household and business surveys, the Con- expenditures; these are supplemented by sumer Price Index and the National business surveys collecting operating costs Accounts themselves. The data are then for various types of businesses. allocated by appropriate commodity and It should be emphasized that tourism industry categories. Finally, the complex ratios and the Satellite Account itself focus flows of tourism commodities among vari- on expenditures by individuals, businesses ous producers and consumers are captured and governments made directly in support through the use of the input–output of individual trips. Capital expenditures for matrices. Finally, the Gross Domestic Prod- items like roads, airports, aircraft and motor uct contribution of tourism activity is coaches are not considered. Such expendi- estimated. tures support the development of the tourism industry and make tourism possible, but they are not considered part of the Issues and Limitations in the Current tourism industry, per se. Recall the defini- Satellite Account tion of tourism: the activities of persons temporarily away from their usual environ- Timeliness ment. Again, this is a demand-side concept; Satellite Accounts are data and labour inten- capital expenditures are associated with sive. They not only require extensive production or the supply side. Expenditures amounts of precise and reliable data related by governments on the operations of tourism to production and consumption of certain services such as travel information centres commodities, they are developed as an or campgrounds are also not part of the Sat- extension of a nation’s economic input– ellite Account. As Meis and Lapierre (1995) output matrices, which are even more data explain: and labour intensive. As a result, there is an inevitable lag between the collection of data this is an important point. Canada’s TSA and the development of a Satellite Account. [Tourism Satellite Account] currently Because the Canadian input–output measures tourism’s economic importance matrices are updated only every 4 years, the relative to ‘business sector GDP [Gross Satellite Account is also updated only every Domestic Product]’. This is . . . ‘all 4 years. From an analytical perspective, this transactions who produce goods and lag is not likely to be as serious as one might services for sale at a price that is intended assume. The critical aspects of input–output to cover the cost of production. These include corporations, unincorporated matrices are the fundamental relationships business enterprises, independent among industries in terms of production and professional practitioners, and government consumption. These basic relationships business enterprises . . . This means that usually do not change dramatically over a the measure of GDP used in the TSA is not few years. However, in terms of providing New Developments in Measuring Tourism 231

information for decision makers to use in or hotel rooms, though, estimates of the vol- policy analysis, planning and assessing the ume of expenditures on single-purpose performance of tourism industries, much vehicles will not be made at the level of the more current data are required. New tools individual or household. Rather, some esti- (the National Tourism Indicators, described mate will be developed reﬂecting total below) combining the structural insights of consumer spending on a single-purpose the Satellite Account with more current vehicle in any given year; the tourism ratio data, have been developed to assist decision will then be applied to this aggregate ﬁg- makers. ure.

Pre- and post-trip expenditures Purchases of second homes or cottages Currently the Satellite Account focuses on Unlike the purchase of vehicles, which is a expenditures made only during a trip. How- form of personal consumption, the purchase ever, trip-related expenditures are often of homes is considered a capital purchase. made immediately before or after a trip, That is, the purchase of real estate is produc- such as the purchase of photographic film tion, not consumption. This means that, to and film developing. While many of these ensure that Satellite Account results remain purchases are not tourism commodities, comparable with the other outputs from the ideally estimates of such expenditures System of National Accounts, the purchase should be included in a Tourism Satellite of second homes cannot be included as a Account. The challenge is one of developing consumer expense. However, the use of sec- reliable sources to obtain these estimates. ond homes and cottages do represent a form of consumption even if the value is only implicit because the owner does not pay Consumer durables rent to himself. Some estimate of the impu- The handling of personal capital or durable ted rent for the use of private second homes expenditures has been a matter of some and cottages outside the usual environment debate. For example, the purchase of a boat could be incorporated into a Satellite is often clearly associated with tourism Account. activity, but was not included in the original Satellite Account because the purchase of such items is not normally associated with a Beyond the Tourism Satellite single trip. However, it is recognized that Account expenditures on consumer durables conceptually represent trip-related purchases and With the basic Satellite Account opera- could be incorporated into a Satellite tional, several initiatives are under way that Account in some fashion, assuming the will extend its usefulness. Two of these are existence of accurate and reliable data sour- refinements to the Satellite Account itself: ces. The following summarizes current (i) an expanded labour market module, and proposals for the handling of two major cate- (ii) creation of Provincial Accounts. Two gories of consumer durables. other initiatives represent new analytical tools based on the Satellite Account: (i) the Purchases of single-purpose vehicles National Tourism Indicators, and (ii) the Purchases of items such as recreation vehi- Tourism Economic Impact Model. cles, boats and snowmobiles will be Employment estimates generated by the prorated according to some tourism ratio Satellite Account are derived based on total reflecting the percentage of use of these labour costs and average compensation rates items that meets the definition of tourism. paid in each sector. The results provide an This ratio is assumed to be in the 96–100% estimate of the number of full-time equiva- range for recreation vehicles; similar esti- lent positions in each tourism industry. The mates will be made for other types of number of full-time equivalent positions is vehicles. Unlike purchases of airline tickets then prorated by the tourism ratio for each 232 Stephen L.J. Smith

industry to provide an estimate of the num- the National Tourism Indicators, was devel- ber of jobs directly attributable to tourism. oped. The Indicators are based on the ratios While this information is useful for certain and relationships identified in the Account, policy purposes, industry and labour asso- and combine these with data drawn from the ciations prefer to have an estimate of the visitor surveys to provide quarterly data total number of people employed, regardless within 75 days after the end of the reference of the number of hours worked per week or quarter. The data cover more than 300 the number of weeks worked per year. Fur- aspects of tourism demand, supply and ther, they are usually interested in the total employment. number of people employed in each sector, The National Tourism Indicators have unadjusted by the tourism ratio. The reason been extrapolated back to 1986, so it is now for this is, as some human resource leaders possible to examine a time series of data have, in effect, argued, ‘We don’t train full- related to cycles in tourism supply and time equivalents; full-time equivalents demand (Wilton, 1998). For example, the don’t pay union dues. We deal with real time series reveals that total tourism expen- people’. As a result, work is now proceeding ditures (seasonally adjusted, constant 1986 on developing a labour market module dollars) increased by 26%, two percentage within the framework of the Satellite points higher than the increase in the Gross Account that will provide data on part-time, Domestic Product. This supported a 22% full-time, seasonal and year-round employ- increase in person-years of tourism employment, hours and wages. The module will ment, nearly twice the 12% increase in the allow an analyst to specify the level of aggre- overall business sector. An econometric gation or detail with respect to counting analysis of the trend data also reveals that either jobs or employees. fluctuations in domestic tourism supply and Another request from provincial govern- demand closely follow the overall business ments and industry leaders has been to cycle, but the amplitude of the tourism cycle create Provincial Satellite Accounts. There is about 50% greater than the business cycle. are substantial regional and provincial In other words, domestic tourism replicates variations in the size, structure, and per- business cycle change, but with an ampli- formance of tourism industries, so having fied pattern (Wilton, 1998). data at only the national level fail to provide Finally, a national Tourism Economic adequate insights into what is happening in Impact Model is under preparation. As different parts of the country. An unpub- described previously, the Satellite Account lished feasibility study by the Income and looks only at direct spending associated Expenditure Accounts Division, Statistics with tourism. The full impacts of tourism in Canada (1998) confirms that the creation of a nation’s economy, however, extend Provincial Accounts is technically possible, beyond direct spending. These impacts although restrictions on the availability of include indirect impacts, resulting from the data and confidentiality concerns in some purchase of goods and services by busines- smaller provinces will mean that some ses that meet the needs of visitors, as well as industries, such as those in transportation, induced impacts, resulting from wages and may be reported at only a highly general salaries paid to employees of tourism busi- level (e.g. reported as ‘transportation’ rather nesses. The impact model looks at direct than as specific forms of transportation). and indirect, but not induced, effects. As noted previously, there is a significant One critical issue in the impact model is time lag in the release of new Satellite the matter of leakages. The purchase of Account information. This means that Satel- imported items represent a loss of income – lite Accounts are not useful for monitoring a leakage – from the business sector. Govern- the performance of the tourism industries or ment revenues from, for example, admission tracking current changes in domestic and charges for national parks, withdrawals international volumes of travel. To provide from inventory, and sales taxes are other this type of timely information, a new tool, types of leakages. The impact model is New Developments in Measuring Tourism 233

designed to account for the impact of leak- rates. The model does not address visitor ages on the overall economy as well as on motivations, demographics or predict or tourism sectors. track the effectiveness of advertising. The model makes a distinction between The relationships among inputs and out- gross production and value added. Gross puts across all sectors are assumed to be production is measured by the total revenue fixed. A given change in demand for some generated by an industry; it includes the commodity, say a 5% increase, will be purchase cost of goods produced by other reflected in both a 5% increase in inputs into industries as well as value added through the production of that commodity and a 5% processing. Looking only at gross produc- increase in the output of that commodity tion across several industries can result in apportioned across all industries producing double counting, because the output of one that commodity. In other words, the model industry used as an input in a second indus- assumes there are no: (i) limitations in sup- try will also appear in the value of the output ply; (ii) changes in prices resulting from of the second industry. The impact model changes in demand; (iii) changes in con- separates gross production and value added sumption patterns; and (iv) changes in to avoid this problem. productivity resulting from new technology The model produces three types of multi- or packaging. Finally, the model does not plier: gross production, Gross Domestic address the impacts on government spend- Product and total impact. The gross producing or employment resulting from increased tion multiplier estimates the impact of a tourism revenues. On the other hand, given increase in tourism expenditures on impacts resulting from government activity, total output of the economy, including leak- such as advertising, that result in an ages associated with sales taxes. The Gross increase in tourism demand can be mod- Domestic Product multiplier describes the elled. impact on total value added from the same expenditure. This multiplier is normally less than one because of the existence of Conclusion leakages (theoretically it could exceed one because subsidies are considered the oppo- For the first time, through development of site of taxes; thus a heavily subsidized Tourism Satellite Accounts, businesses and industry, such as passenger rail travel, could governments will have defensible, reliable have a Gross Domestic Product multiplier measures of the true impact of tourism on an more than one). The total impact multiplier economy. The method has become the inter- is the sum of direct and indirect effects, nationally accepted model for measuring divided by the initial expenditure. This the role of tourism in national economies. multiplier is always greater than one Satellite Accounts not only provide a deep, because it includes the value of the initial quantitative understanding of the nature expenditure plus all the direct and indirect and structure of tourism, they also provide impacts. the basis for tracking the performance of the The new impact model will allow users various sectors of tourism as well as their to specify alternative scenarios such as very evolution. The full impact on govern- increased domestic demand or increased mental policies has yet to be realized, but air travel to explore the impacts of such Tourism Satellite Accounts represent a rev- changes on specific sectors – say, accom- olution in how governments measure, and modation, or recreation and entertainment. thus perceive, tourism. However, there also are some important lim- Despite recent success in creating these itations in the impact model. As noted, the Accounts, much work remains to be done. model does not look at induced effects, nor Satellite Accounts and supporting statistical is it able to estimate the impacts of non- systems still have to be developed in the economic events such as unusual weather, majority of nations. Those nations that have labour disruptions or currency exchange operating Accounts need to improve further 234 Stephen L.J. Smith

the reliability and accuracy of the data that a reliable, credible, and stable statistical sys- feed their Accounts. Work still needs to be tem. Tourism has become an economic done to implement, update, refine and activity of strategic importance in many expand the basic definitions and classifica- nations; it is timely that tools are now being tions of tourism supply and demand developed to provide tourism analysts and included in the Recommendations on Tour- policy makers with information to ensure its ism Statistics (WTO, 1994b). The continued contribution to economic growth. development of tools to extend the results of It is not possible to provide general esti- Satellite Accounts to industry, such as the mates of the cost of creating a Satellite development and publication of industry Account. Cost is, in part, a function of the productivity and performance benchmarks, extent and quality of existing data sources as also are needed to ensure the development well as a variety of technical decisions and maintenance of political support for related to the scope of the Satellite Account Satellite Accounts. a nation chooses to develop. These matters With respect to the issue of maintenance, are beyond the scope of this brief chapter; it must be emphasized that Satellite however, Satellite Accounts are expensive. Accounts are not one-time studies. They In the long run, though, the cost of ignorance should become a fundamental managerial and misinformation about the true value of and policy tool for governments and indus- tourism in an economy is likely to be even try. They thus require regular updating and greater. 21 Trends in Tourism Economic Impact Estimation Methods

Daniel L. Erkkila

Introduction Historical Issues

Many approaches exist for quantifying tour- For a variety of reasons, information from ism and travel impacts on regional tourism economic impact studies is often economies of all sizes. Demand for eco- criticized and dismissed by decision makers nomic impact information seems to have as lacking credibility. This is probably less increased in the 1990s at the same pace as the case today than in years past and to some industry growth itself and consumers of degree may be closely tied to tourism’s impact information can be found every- increasing visibility on Main Street in gen- where, from public sector agencies at all eral. Regardless, as tourism’s image and levels of government (and nongovernmental stock among economic development offi- organizations) to private sector clients. Sup- cials grew, thereby diffusing some economic pliers of tourism economic impact impact credibility concerns, problems still information are growing in numbers as well arose because of the highly technical nature and their make-up is nearly as diverse as the of the models used. Also, the use of national consumers. Today, regardless of whether data as a proxy for local survey data, and the you are a consumer or supplier of tourism significantly different answers produced economic impact information, you probably when different models were used to solve will not be severely limited by method, data similar questions, often combined to con- or tools. That may not have been true 15–20 fuse policy makers being ‘educated’ about years ago. tourism as an economic engine. Ongoing This treatment touches on the main tools structural differences between models used, used and reported by analysts and summar- databases and applications also contributed izes research findings, paying close to planning confusion. attention to the most often cited advantages Probably the most significant and longest and limitations of various estimation meth- standing issue facing planners is the fact ods. References are made for the reader who that estimation of the economic impacts of would like to follow up on details or exam- tourism is difficult because tourism and ples. Most of the principal methods emerged travel as an industry does not cluster for outside tourism, accounting for the number quantitative analysis as neatly as nearly all of nontourism sources reported. other industrial sectors of an economy. Industry is categorized into similar types by © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 235 236 Daniel L. Erkkila

the North American Industry Classification from suppliers within the economic area to System (NAICS), currently replacing the US support their businesses. These purchases Standard Industrial Classification system. generate additional output. Those suppliers These categories are used for economic esti- purchase goods and services from addi- mation analyses. Tourism, however, is not tional suppliers and the chain of purchasing classified as a unique industry. Tourists and selling continues until the initial tourist spend their money, for example, at gas sta- purchase completely leaks out. Leakage tions, local restaurants and motels. The describes economic benefits accruing to codes used to classify these activities aggre- industries outside the target area due to gate them into broad categories. For importation of goods. Finally, payroll example, gas stations are classed with gross income received by all employees in the sales for all wholesale and retail petroleum economic chain represent induced benefits products, restaurants are classed with all that fuel household spending. In simplistic restaurants and bars, and motels are classed terms, then, a community’s economic well with all types of lodging. Determining what being is enhanced by generating high levels percentage of these expenditures is the of primary (direct) and secondary (indirect result of tourism and separating out con- and induced) benefits while minimizing sumption by tourists, local residents and leakages. Additional background and refer- business travellers has been a significant ence may be found in Frechtling (1994a,b). analytical problem. Current national data This chapter focuses on trends in meth- collection methods do not adequately ods for estimating the full range of economic account for most of the activities collec- benefits (primary and secondary) that flow tively attributed to the tourism and travel from tourism activity. First, however, it is industry. worth commenting on the methods aimed at Defining what is to be measured within measuring primary benefits. an economic impact study is another factor that influences the results. Just what defines Primary benefit measurement methods a ‘tourist’ varies widely. Definitions which Probably the most well known model for impose minimum distances travelled or tracking statewide traveller spending has overnight stays will lead to different impact been the Travel Economic Impact Model estimates than definitions which define a (TEIM) devised by the US Travel Data Cen- tourist as ‘anyone travelling anywhere for ter (Frechtling, 1994b). Described as a cost any length of time’ (Fleming and Toepper, factor approach, individual state estimates 1990). Some even question whether tourism of employment, payroll and tax revenues is an industry to be analysed as such, or generated by travel spending were reported. rather as a market (Wilson, 1998). TEIM estimates were derived from national survey data on travel activity. TEIM direct impact estimates frequently became the data Estimation Methods1 source for subsequent secondary benefit analyses. Visitor spending generates immediate, Other methods covered by Frechtling direct or primary benefits to the firms and (1994b) include direct observation, bank communities where the visitors are staying, return, residual receipts, seasonal differen- in the form of travel-related payroll income, ces, supply-side judgemental (i.e. tourism jobs and taxes. Their spending also gen- satellite accounts, discussed by Smith, erates secondary benefits to the Chapter 20), expenditure ratio and surveys. community’s economy, the summation of Each carries its own utility and limitations. indirect and induced benefits. Firms gen- Mail survey nonresponse bias and recall erate indirect benefits to the community as bias, for example, may limit data obtained buyers and sellers of goods and services through sample surveys of travellers for

1 This discussion is taken from an earlier review by Erkkila and Penney (1994). Trends in Tourism Economic Impact Estimation Methods 237

expenditure information. Researchers have investments. As it may be enlightening to discussed and devised a variety of approa- know how much income, employment and ches to avoid or overcome data collection taxes may be generated by tourism develop- issues, such as traveller diaries to overcome ment, multipliers provide a straightforward recall bias as suggested by Gartner and Hunt approach to quantifying such development. (1988) and Faulkner and Raybould (1995). Limitations Multipliers Archer and Fletcher (1988) list four major Economic impact estimation methods serve weaknesses in multiplier analysis. First, the to produce multipliers which measure the available data are inadequate to compile a relationship between an injection of (tour- detailed model of the economy, a limitation ist) dollars into an economy and the amount that applies to all estimation methods. Sec- of economic activity that results. Multipliers ond, tourism expenditure data may be are used to measure changes in business inaccurate or too aggregated for use in a transactions and output, income levels, gov- detailed model. Third, many models ernment revenue, foreign exchange and assume, inaccurately, that additional expen- employment (Archer, 1977, 1978; Archer ditures generate exactly the same impact as and Fletcher, 1988). The magnitude of the previous expenditures, i.e. there is produc- multiplier will depend upon the pattern of tion linearity. Finally, most multiplier the initial round of tourist spending and the models assume incorrectly that sufficient extent of the region’s economic base and spare capacity exists to meet the demands of linkages. The larger the region’s economic additional tourist expenditure, which base, the smaller the tendency to import and implies additional income, taxes, and so on. the larger the regional value added, the This results in an overestimate of the impact greater will be the multiplier (Var and Quay- of additional expenditure. Chappelle (1985) son, 1985). cites concerns expressed by others that mul- Multipliers have been categorized tipliers cannot be extrapolated to other according to what they measure. Type I mul- situations or regions. He also points out that tipliers are the sum of the direct and indirect multipliers apply only to the next incre- effects divided by the direct effects. Type II mental change in the region’s economic multipliers are the result of the sum of the structure and must be recalculated after the direct, indirect and induced effects divided changes have been introduced into the by the direct effects. These multipliers are transaction or coefficients table. Also, multi- calculated for models that consider house- pliers derived from different units of holds as an industry. Type III multipliers are measure (e.g. output, income or jobs) may the result of the sum of the direct, indirect rank prospective investments or projects and induced effects divided by the direct differently, causing problems in planning. effects generated by a change in final demand. Type III multipliers estimate Input–output analysis induced effects based on the changes in In the past decade, input–output (I–O) anal- employment and population. ysis has arguably become the most prevalent approach to estimating tourism economic Advantages impacts. It has been used to analyse every- Multipliers are advantageous to planners thing from coastal tourism (Pomeroy et al., and policy makers seeking to explain or 1988) to big city conventions (Braun, 1992) make decisions concerning the economic to birding (bird watching) festivals (Kim et wellbeing of their region. A multiplier is a al., 1998). In I–O analysis, the economy is single number by which tourism impacts disaggregated into industries and the flow of may be traced through the myriad inter- goods and services among them is exam- actions of an economy. Chappelle (1985) has ined. It measures the input required by an suggested that this number could be used to industry to produce a given output. A tour- evaluate public and private projects and ism I–O analysis, for example, would 238 Daniel L. Erkkila

describe the quantitative relationships tiplier System (AIMS), and Economic between tourism and different aspects of the Impact Forecast System (EIFS) used by the economy, such as the number of jobs cre- Army Corps of Engineers (Bushnell and ated, the wages paid, and the gross receipts Hyle, 1985). produced by businesses. The I–O model can Models that combine survey with non- be used to estimate the income, employment survey data, commonly called ‘hybrids’, and production required to satisfy a given may now be living up to what some level of tourism demand. In addition, the researchers once predicted would be the model can be used to generate multiplier most promising option for the future estimates, which enables consideration of (Round, 1983; Richardson, 1985). Hybrid secondary benefits (Archer, 1977; Kottke, models employ primary data where it is 1988; Frechtling, 1994b). critical to define or enhance the description of global tourism economic activity with Survey-based I–O Models existing secondary, structural data of other Regional I–O models can be based upon industry sectors. The analyst may be able to survey-based data collection methods to strike a reasonable compromise between the detail industry transactions. While most high cost of primary data collection and the researchers cited here believe survey-based issues associated with models built on sec- I–O models to be the most accurate estima- ondary data. Archer and Fletcher (1996), for tion procedure available, they admit they example, found that their hybrid model not are expensive to construct and have been only described foreign visitor impacts to a described as insufficiently detailed for use national economy but also produced data in tourism studies (Chappelle, 1985; Ste- that showed that some markets produced vens and Rose, 1985). The costs and efforts higher returns from tourism expenditures required in compiling the data are usually than others – helpful information for mar- more than a small area can afford (Bushnell keters. and Hyle, 1985; Miller et al., 1989). Their high cost of construction probably explains IMPLAN their limited use. Originally developed for and by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Nonsurvey-based and hybrid I–O models Service, IMPLAN may be one of the most In response to primary data collection widely used I–O impact models in the US issues, analysts have worked to develop today, possibly because it has evolved from models based on nonsurvey methods or a a mainframe application into a PC-based combination of survey and nonsurvey data. system. It is made up of software and ‘rea- Szyrmer (1989) views nonsurvey methods sonably priced’ databases that allow users to as one of the few alternatives to costly and craft regional I–O models for any county (or time-consuming full-survey data collection contiguous combination) in the US. Users methods. Nonsurvey regional I–O models can develop their own multipliers, create a are based upon national I–O tables adapted hybrid model by changing system compo- to derive I–O accounts for individual states nents such as production functions or trade or counties (Mak, 1989). At the national flows, and generate custom reports as nee- level, the Bureau of Economic Analysis ded. Ease of desktop use, coupled with (BEA), Department of Commerce, estab- annual database updates to the national I–O lishes the classifications and flows of table and state/county data sets probably payments that make up the national I–O explain expanded use of I–O analysis. A model. Small area I–O models have been trend increasingly showing up in discus- constructed and used at the state and local sions of impacts, methods and analytical level. Some examples of regional models issues suggests that analysts are taking include Regional Input–Output Modeling advantage of IMPLAN’s availability. John- System (RIMS II) by the US Department of son and Sullivan (1993) and Kim et al. Commerce, Automated Input–Output Mul- (1998) show examples where IMPLAN pro- Trends in Tourism Economic Impact Estimation Methods 239

vides a description of tourism economic strength. Stevens and Rose (1985), Chap- impacts, as does Johnson and Moore (1993). pelle (1985) and Johnson et al. (1989) point Its use is increasing and its flaws are being out that the nonsurvey-based models are reported along with mitigation measures relatively inexpensive and highly detailed, that enhance analysis, as Leones et al. (1998) which has made state or regional models did regarding the Type III multiplier prob- devoted to tourism feasible. Chappelle lems reported earlier (Charney and Leones, (1985), Archer and Fletcher (1988) and 1997). Briassoulis (1991) cite I–O comprehensiveness and flexibility as advantages. Social accounting matrices (SAM) The social accounting matrix, or SAM, is a Limitations special case of I–O model formulation that The most common issue, documented by has emerged on the tourism impact scene. Stevens and Rose (1985), Chappelle (1985), Traditional I–O models focus only on pro- Frechtling (1994b), and others has been the duction activities, or industry gross outputs, lack of a tourism sector. The lack of data in contribution to a set of final goods forcing the use of national coefficients and demanded. The SAM brings in information the unreliability of available data are repor- that allows welfare significance to be ted to be the major constraints (Archer, attached to the volume or value of gross 1978; Bendavid-Val, 1983; Tyrrell, 1985; output, including impacts on income dis- Szyrmer, 1989). Fletcher (1989) believes tribution and factors of production that most secondary data are unsuitable (Bulmer-Thomas, 1982). Because a SAM because they are rarely accurate at the level will include more information than an I–O of detail needed. As a snapshot of a regional model, I–O models are actually a subset of economy at one point in time, this static the SAM. Wagner (1997) describes a nature of the model limits impact analysis regional SAM that provides tourism link- and forecasting (Weber, 1986), as lags ages among regional production and between expenditures and multiplier effects consumption of goods and services, in addi- are not measured. The assumption of linear- tion to the distribution and composition of ity inherent in most models, where output income. His analysis brought out interrela- increases the inputs of materials, services tionships between household spending and and factors of production in the same pro- tourism investment. A different spin on portions and from the same sources, is a hybrid models was created by West (1993) questionable assumption. This assumption when he combined a SAM framework with ignores the possible existence of economies an econometric model to look at tourism of scale within sectors or the transfer to impacts in Australia. SAM capabilities are different suppliers (Bendavid-Val, 1983; now a part of the IMPLAN system. Frechtling, 1994b). Kottke (1988) sees the I–O approach with aggregates of entire Advantages industries rather than a set of firms as a Early on, practitioners have reported many drawback, which also makes the feasibility advantages of I–O analysis as a realistic of municipal level analysis questionable. He method of tourism assessment. Archer also finds that results are not easily trans- (1978) and Fleming and Toepper (1990) saw lated into applied recommendations. the ability of I–O to examine the leakages, Trends in research continue to uncover the links between sectors, and the effects of ways to overcome many of the deficiencies change to be of great value to policy makers of I–O modelling (Maki, 1997) and will help and planners. Fletcher (1989) saw the atten- to improve impact estimates derived from tion focused on sectoral interdependencies this method. that exist in an economy and the flexibility of the structure as benefits. He also cited the Econometric methods capability of studying all levels of impact A regional econometric model is a set of (i.e. direct, indirect and induced) as a equations describing the economic structure 240 Daniel L. Erkkila

of a regional economy such as a state, prov- income, and dependent variables (i.e. elas- ince or metropolitan area. The parameters of ticities). Eadington and Redman (1991) have the equations are estimated by regression demonstrated several tourism applications, equations, as distinct from an I–O model in showing, for example, that tourist expendi- which parameters are based on single point tures are income elastic and thus sensitive to observations. The equations are grouped in income change. They also applied an categories which reflect the economic the- expenditure allocation model, a type of ory as applied to, for example, product econometric model that creates a system of markets, labour markets, firm behaviour, demand equations, to traveller-spending government behaviour and migration (Bol- decision making, showing how a consumer ton, 1991). Econometric models are often will distribute expenditures among goods, multiple-equation systems that describe a given the prices of those goods. regional economy’s structure and they can be used to forecast income, employment, Limitations and other economic indicators. They Econometric models suffer the same fate as employ time–series data (Leitch and Leis- other forms of analysis – lack of data. In most tritz, 1985) and many econometric models developed nations, there is abundant data incorporate I–O subsectors (Weber, 1986). for national model building, but data for Computable general equilibrium (CGE) regional models are limited or scarce and, models are one type of econometric tool that when available, are rarely from a unified has been around for some time but has not source. Time series and cross-sectional data appeared to find wide acceptance or use exist for national levels, but are scarce for outside academic circles. Zhou et al. (1997) regional areas (Leitch and Leistritz, 1985; constructed a CGE model and compared Perryman and Schmidt, 1986). The lack of tourism impacts against a similarly framed investment and export and import data is I–O model to evaluate differences. State normally an obstacle to estimation of these agency clients and others have applied the components in regional models. Regional REMI (Regional Economic Models, Inc.) output data are weak or missing outside model to tourism policy, investment and manufacturing, so analysts must resort to impact issues. REMI incorporates both controversial methods to predict total gross dynamic, econometric components with an regional product. Leitch and Leistritz (1985) imbedded I–O interindustry structure point out that econometric approaches are (Treyz et al., 1992; Treyz, 1995). not manageable by the lay public and require advanced technical knowledge for Advantages interpretation. Because making I–O model technical coefficients dynamic is difficult, their usefulness as a forecasting tool is limited (Briassoulis, Economic base analysis 1991). The advantage here goes to econo- Economic base analysis is the simplest metric models, which are much more model of economic theory. The approach attuned to forecasting long-term changes in divides the local economy into two seg- an economy (Perryman and Schmidt, 1986). ments. The first unit, the basic, consists of Leitch and Leistritz (1985) state that econo- firms that sell goods and services (exports) metric approaches to multiplier estimation outside the region. The second, the non- can accommodate a vast array of factors that basic, consists of firms that supply goods include local and nonlocal data. Their use in and services to customers within the region. estimating regional multipliers is rigorous, According to economic base theory, exports sophisticated, and their ability to establish are assumed to be the prime mover of the confidence limits imparts credibility. local economy and consumer spending is Econometric study has also resulted in eval- considered to be related entirely to the level uating the relationship between an of regional activity (Leitch and Leistritz, independent variable, such as price or 1985; Frechtling, 1994b). Trends in Tourism Economic Impact Estimation Methods 241

Economic base theory holds that all eco- secondary employment generated by tour- nomic activity can be classified as basic or ism, important in areas with extensive nonbasic. Both sectors are related to exoge- unemployment or in regions with a shortage nous demand, the basic sector directly and of labour (Archer, 1978). the nonbasic sector indirectly by supporting the basic sector. When exogenous demand Limitations for the exports of the regions increases, the Archer (1978) feels that economic base anal- basic sector expands. This generates an ysis has very little relevance to policy expansion in the supporting activities of the making and planning. He states ‘the nonbasic sector. The level of nonbasic activ- approach is theoretically unsound’ because ity in a region is determined through a it depends on two unrealistic assumptions. functional relationship with basic activity, First, all economic growth is treated as origi- known as the multiplier effect. It is nating in the exogenous sectors, assuming expressed as the ratio of basic to total growth is not possible in a closed economy. regional employment, population or income Second, all outside injections of money are (Milon et al., 1982; Bendavid-Val, 1983; considered to have the same multiplier Leitch and Leistritz, 1985). A variety of sour- effect upon the regional economy, whether ces, like the US Census Bureau, provide the the money comes from private, government data for allocation of sales, employment and or tourist activity. These assumptions have payroll figures among basic and nonbasic been shown to be incorrect by other forms of markets (Frechtling, 1994b). The location economic analysis. Frechtling (1994b) adds quotient is the most widely used method for that other important variables to regional measuring the economic base, followed growth are not recognized in economic base closely by the minimum requirements tech- studies, including interregional capital nique. Location quotients delineate between flows and technological changes. Leitch and basic and nonbasic components by sum- Leistritz (1985) list model shortcomings as ming the individual industry estimates of the following: oversimplified, assumes fixed employment exports for each industry using relationships, neglects imports, savings and a national frame of reference. The minimum the balance of payments, fails to explain requirements technique compares a region’s exports or inadequately estimates them, and employment structure with samples from neglects excess capacity. similarly sized areas rather than a national frame of reference (Richardson, 1985). Eco- Ad hoc models nomic base studies with a focus on tourism Adaptation of the Keynesian income multi- economies are not widely reported. plier to estimating the income multiplier for travel expenditures was termed the ‘ad hoc’ Advantages multiplier by Archer (1978). Ad hoc models Frechtling (1994b) and Leitch and Leistritz are concerned with, and developed for, a (1985) suggest several positive attributes particular region or event. Ad hoc multi- about economic base analysis. Economic pliers are relatively inexpensive in their base models are the simplest and most inex- data requirements and can be operated pensive methods available. Analysis can be based on a sample survey of consumers and accomplished with a minimum of resources industry. The model can produce consistent and within a very short period. If output, results as long as the surveys are conducted earnings and income data are consistent uniformly. The ad hoc model must be con- with one another, economic base models structed from the ground up for each area can produce consistent estimates. The studied and requires technical and eco- model is easy to apply across varied areas nomic expertise (Frechtling, 1994b). Var and the input data needed are usually avail- and Quayson (1985) applied Archer’s able on a timely basis. In addition, the model approach for tourist multipliers. Milne is efficient in using the available data. The (1987) modified the ad hoc multiplier to size of the multiplier indicates the extent of derive differential multipliers and found 242 Daniel L. Erkkila

them to be a suitable alternative to I–O mod- counts, for example, will provide better els for regions or countries without the front-end data for analyses where invest- means to build I–O tables. The main weak- ment options are being assessed or public ness of ad hoc multipliers is their policy decisions are weighed in the bal- inadequate treatment of the induced ance. effects. Implications from model trends Implications for Planning and Public Early tourism impact assessments were straightforward applications of a particular Policy model applied to tourism economies. Two trends are observed: greater sophistication While most data collection and modelling of models and more access to (and use of) methods relating to economic impact esti- proven approaches. Where hybrid models mation have been around for some time, usually referred to I–O models that mixed their application to tourism economics have survey and nonsurvey data structures, not. The focus of this review has been on ‘hybrid’ could now apply to new approaches methods and models. Observed trends in that ‘conjoin’ or link static I–O models to methods and their implications for tourism dynamic econometric tools. Applications of planning and public policy can be consid- this technique are being reported in non- ered from the perspective of data, models tourism sectors (West, 1995; Rey, 1997) and and use. tourism applications will no doubt follow. More sophisticated modelling, with the data Implications from data trends enhancements predicted, could see models Clearly the work on tourism satellite being tested for applications in tourism accounts has the greatest potential to affect planning and public policy decision mak- planning and public policy issues. The abil- ing. ity to better explain tourism economic More use of traditional methods, partic- activity for subsequent modelling and anal- ularly I–O, have stemmed from ysis will improve development and technological advancements, like desktop investment alternative assessment and computing. The IMPLAN model is an exam- enhance policy maker choices. Process and ple where personal computers have not only data standardization will also help inter- made solving the matrix mathematics of I–O national assessments and reporting. The US accounting simple, they have nearly made Bureau of Economic Analysis’ development the analysis of regional economies a drag- of satellite accounts for benchmark I–O and-drop exercise. On the plus side it brings accounts of the US are based on recom- powerful tools to more planning analyses mendations by the Organization for and policy questions. On the negative side, Economic Cooperation and Development not all users fully understand the tool they and the World Tourism Organization, which are wielding or the results they are review- are also being adopted by other countries. ing. Tourism satellite accounts linked with a SAM model will greatly strengthen tourism investment assessments, especially where Implications from use trends welfare considerations are important. Study Better data, more use, and greater model of the causal link between economic growth sophistication will certainly lead to broader and employment and income distribution application and consideration of tourism will add a rich dimension to economic economic impact results in decision mak- evaluation of projects and programmes. ing. Tourism project evaluation methods Overcoming deﬁnitional issues and such as beneﬁt/cost analysis (Dwyer and research on data collection issues will also Forsyth, 1998) and contingent valuation for improve model impact assessments. Better nonmarket output valuation (Lundberg and traveller expenditure estimates and visitor Johnson, 1997) could be coupled with Trends in Tourism Economic Impact Estimation Methods 243

improved economic impact assessments to unique industry. The existing system in the portray broader and different economic per- US delineates and codifies economic activ- spectives of a specified regional touristic ities and products by aggregating tourism as enterprise. For example, the USDA Forest a service-based industry. This makes identi- Service was under attack by environmen- fying expenditures and consumption by talists for ‘below cost’ timber sales in the tourists and business travellers, separately early 1980s. An argument was made that the from local residents, a significant analytical programme in some regions had a negative problem. Also, the lack of standard defini- cash flow only in a classic, financial sense. tions for a tourist, visitor, or tourism’s The agency responded by developing a products and services, for example, has reporting system that portrayed timber pro- always further confused impact assess- gramme financial costs and revenues in an ment. accounting framework, along with the eco- Some impact estimation assessments nomic benefits and costs (market and focus only on the primary benefits from nonmarket) in an economic evaluation con- tourism, or the immediate, direct impacts text and aggregate economic impacts from that accrue to firms and communities in the an I–O model. A similar approach may form of travel-related expenditures. The prove itself useful in providing different Travel Economic Impact Model devised by perspectives to the sustainability of tourism the US Travel Data Center has been a visible projects in regions around the country and example of a primary benefit estimation world as public policy issues heat up in the approach. years ahead. Most economic impact assessment meth- Finally, a trend toward more serious ods expand the view, however, to include questioning of the use of models and their also the secondary benefits to the commu- results suggests maturation in the field that nity’s economy generated by tourist will also have implications on the kind and spending. Secondary benefits include the quality of analysis done for planning and summation of indirect (interindustry trans- policy making. Frechtling (1994a) sets out actions) and induced benefits (household useful criteria for evaluating economic payroll income). Multiplier analysis, I–O impact methods and determining their use. models and econometric methods are the Further, Crompton and McKay (1994) and most widely used techniques to describe the Crompton (1995) raise significant ethical impacts of tourism development on regional questions about the use and misuse of tour- economies. All have strengths and limita- ism impact data that must be considered. tions in their application, which have been Following these guidelines will greatly described earlier. improve the quality of assessments and Implications from trends in data suggest make them more credible to policy makers. that the development of tourism satellite accounts have the greatest potential to affect planning and policy issues relating to eco- Conclusion nomic impact assessment. Standards for process and data definition will greatly Many tourism economic impact estimation enhance impact assessment because tour- methods are available to an ever-increasing ism will have its own set of product and number of consumers desiring impact activity codes for compilation into national assessments. The most widely employed data sets for further analysis. Two trends techniques appear to be those developed observed relating to impact estimation mod- and tested to measure impacts from non- els include greater sophistication of models tourism sectors of regional economies. The and more access to (and use of) proven credible application of these and other approaches. Linking I–O models with approaches to tourism has been stymied pri- econometric methods serves as an example marily due to a lack of a data classification of the direction tourism assessments may and collection system for tourism as a take. Trends in technological advance- 244 Daniel L. Erkkila

ments, such as desktop computing, have toward more serious questioning of the use made access to I–O models like IMPLAN of models and their results in the ﬁeld; ana- easier. This brings a powerful tool to more lysts have also suggested criteria for planning analyses and policy questions but selecting models. Tourism economic impact can lead to erroneous results if put in the estimation has matured from mere model hands of the untrained. demonstration exercises to introspective Finally, better data, more use and greater discussions of the ethical use of models and model sophistication will probably lead to application results. This can only serve to broader application and consideration of greatly improve the quality of assessments tourism economic impact results in decision and make them more credible to policy making. Furthermore, there has been a trend makers. 22 Holiday Styles and Tourist Types: Emerging New Concepts and Methodology

Sara Dolnicar and Josef A. Mazanec

Introduction (see also Plog, 1990; Smith, 1990a,b) and John Crompton’s (1979) elaboration of push- This chapter examines two trends regarding: and-pull factors. These terms are still (i) the way tourism managers are consider- popular today and have become household ing tourist typologies and (ii) the methods words in the contemporary study of tourism. employed for constructing these typologies. Twenty years ago the providers of tourist The trends are briefly explained and eval- services were still operating in a seller’s uated in terms of scientific progress criteria. market. They felt little need to adopt new A case example is then presented to demon- concepts such as market segmentation based strate the implications for tourism on lifestyle and psychographic research management. which had its first peak in the early 1970s (Wells, 1974). The situation changed when competitive pressure increased and marketing scientists entered the field, and tried to Trends in Constructing and Using benefit from their experience in consumer Tourist Typologies markets and branded products. Marketing and, in its wake, tourism research gradually During the last two decades, tourism abandoned the idea of finding the all- researchers have modified their conceptual purpose or the definitive only and methodological approaches towards consumer/tourist typology. This develop- constructing tourist typologies. Originally, ment has favoured the refining of tourist it was the ambitious purpose of the psychol- typologies to make them instrumental for ogists, sociologists and anthropologists who effective market operation. Even the theoret- studied tourist behaviour to construct a fun- ical underpinnings for constructing tourist damental classification of tourists according typologies have evolved accordingly. For- to their basic motives. Famous examples are merly, the tourist types were based on Eric Cohen’s seminal publication on a socio- motives or on attitudes or on the activities logical classification of tourist types (1972) pursued during their holiday. Nowadays, which was not empirically tested until 1993 the type-defining (active) variables are col- (Mo et al., 1993). Equally prominent are lected from various sources of lifestyle (see Stanley Plog’s (1974) distinction between the review of six typologies by Lowyck et al., ‘allocentric’ and ‘psychocentric’ travellers 1992). The concept of holiday style has © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 245 246 Sara Dolnicar and Josef A. Mazanec

emerged and offers a more complete frame- ease of application is required for segmenta- work for tailor-made tourist profiling. tion methods. In particular, the range for Researchers and practitioners have learned subjective judgement in the traditional clus- that there are numerous, or actually an infin- tering methods must be reduced. There ity of, tourist typologies to serve specific are two directions where methodology marketing objectives. This is the first and improvements are sought. One is parametric conceptual trend. and relies heavily on the development of At first glance, one may suspect that this general linear mixture models. The current trend is in contrast with the objective of state-of-the-art is perfectly covered by scientific discovery. It is the common under- Wedel and Kamakura (1998). In addition to standing that behavioural (and marketing) this mainstream segmentation methodol- science aims at producing systems of ogy, it is tempting to foster a radically explanatory hypotheses with the highest different line of research which is non- possible scope for generalizability. Thus, an parametric and completely disposes of accumulation of singularities – a special the rigorous distributional assumptions typology for each managerial decision situa- required for mixture models. These methods tion – may fail to contribute to this long-term build on adaptive (data-driven) partitioning goal. But the crucial point is how to organize and exact (permutation) tests. Comprehen- the process of generalization. This can be sive documentation is under way.1 extremely cumbersome even in the most Preliminary results are presented in Dolni- advanced and respected fields of science. car et al. (1998). (Readers interested in a The long-standing struggle of physicists to more rigorous treatment of the adaptivity arrive at a Grand Unified Theory by integra- issue are referred to the Appendix.) The ting relativity and gravitational theory with contemporary improvement in methodol- quantum physics is a striking example ogy is the second major trend in (Hawking, 1980). In principle, tourism mar- segmentation and typology construction. keting research, despite being still in its infancy, suffers from the same problems. However, if it is true that the social sciences Understanding the New Marketing are condemned to be satisfied with only View of Consumer/Tourist ‘quasi-nomological’ theories (Albert, 1957), Typologies there is no alternative to a two-step procedure: (i) first elaborate tailored models From the marketing point of view, a tourist (small theories of limited empirical scope) typology represents a way of segmenting a for well-structured situations with precise travel market. The concept of ‘types’ implies antecedent conditions; (ii) then build a a number of integrated personal and behav- ‘meta-theory’ which points to the most ioural characteristics. As the structure of promising explanatory models given the these segments is not known until some antecedents of a particular application sit- fairly sophisticated analysis has been per- uation. This is exactly what the search for formed, the exercise is called ‘a-posteriori situation-specific typologies aims to segmentation’ in marketing jargon. The cru- accomplish. cial point is that producing typologies is When the concepts evolve, the data- part of regular strategic planning. It depends processing tools have to follow suit. More on the marketing objectives and creates a and more tourism managers expect their strategic advantage for the company or desti- market research specialists to provide new nation operating a segmentation scheme segmentation (typology) results at short more cleverly designed than those of its intervals. Therefore, a reasonable balance competitors. The rule of the game is simple: between the degree of sophistication and the you are expected to invent your own

1 See the web site of the Joint Research Programme on Adaptive Systems for applications in other areas of management science (http://www.wu-wien.ac.at/am/). Holiday Styles and Tourist Types 247

segments and be the first one to offer emotional state of mind as well as the con- them a customized product! A-posteriori comitant behaviour. A-posteriori segmenta- segmentation rests on the assumption that tion by means of holiday styles considers subgroups in a consumer population are more than just one type of behavioural vari- homogeneous in terms of motives, attitudes ables. It aims at uncovering the underlying and/or activities. This mental and behav- motives and also seeks their observable con- ioural homogeneity is likely to make them sequences. This is not easy to handle in a react to product offerings and promotional standard mass survey. Motives are con- efforts in a similar way. The earliest ceived as a state of arousal with no distinct approach to mastering such a market situa- directional effect toward a particular means tion was known as ‘benefit segmentation’, of satisfaction (take questionnaire items introduced by Haley (1968). He argued that such as ‘to change pace’ or ‘to realize one’s consumer groups seeking markedly differ- creativity’ as examples). In the commercial ent patterns of benefits should be considered travel surveys, many of the questions pur- to be natural segments in the market. From porting to measure motives actually ask for a behavioural science point of view, the evaluation of some attributes of a tourist the notion of ‘benefit’ relates to the more product. This, however, is the purpose of general concept of ‘attitude’. Benefits attitudinal rather than motivational items. desired or expected are attitudes toward While the motives are responsible for the particular consumption goals – a well- arousal of behaviour, attitudes govern its known conceptualization since the direction and orientation (Kroeber-Riel, Rosenberg (1967) perceived-instrumentality/ 1992). Consumers navigate through the value-importance-based model of attitude world of products and services by con- measurement. stantly adjusting their personal hierarchy of attitudes. Satisfaction is an example of a transitory state of an attitude following a Trends in the Foundation of Market particular consumption experience. Segments: From Types to Styles Another example of a more abstract and slowly changing level of attitudes is repre- Tourist types may be derived from survey sented by value systems (Kamakura and data on travel motives, attitudes toward a Novak, 1992), which have attracted atten- destination (attraction), benefits sought or tion in travel segmentation theory and activities. Holiday styles are travel-related practice more recently. Motivational and counterparts of ordinary lifestyles (Wells attitudinal variables related to various and Tigert, 1971; Wells, 1974; Darden and domains of everyday life are combined to Darden, 1976; Cathelat, 1985; Bernard, yield lifestyle types. If ‘everyday life’ is 1987; Veal, 1989; Kramer, 1991; Kreutzer, replaced by ‘leisure travel’, the output is 1991; Mazanec and Zins, 1992, 1993). called holiday styles. Therefore, a more comprehensive set of vari- Travel and holiday activities are another ables is required to portray a temporary type of raw material for constructing a- away-from-home lifestyle either in contrast posteriori segments (Hsieh et al., 1992). or more or less in harmony with everyday Questions about the tourist’s activities are behavioural patterns. Given a number of cor- customary in travel or guest surveys. The relates to make the psychographically concept of ‘tourist roles’ as suggested by defined groups accessible to selective mar- Yiannakis and Gibson (1992) is closely ket operation, the types or styles become linked with travel activities. Tourist activ- eligible as market segments. ities easily lend themselves to segmentation A holiday style is a temporary life into purposes. The analyst, however, must take which a tourist escapes from their usual care to avoid the trivial single-item classifi- surroundings. It includes observable and cation (sightseeing tourist, culture-seeker, unobservable characteristics of the tourist. museum-visitor) and to replace it with a A holiday style represents a cognitive and multivariate activity pattern. In contempo- 248 Sara Dolnicar and Josef A. Mazanec

rary activity segmentation it is the ‘activity motives and it is very likely there are groups bundle’ which characterizes an activity seg- of tourists that share a common set of ment. In a holiday style the activities are motives. The goal is to identify these specific also expected to come up in symptomatic subgroups and profile them in order to sup- combinations. port strategically oriented decision making. The concept of a-posteriori segmentation In a first step, profiles of classification vari- via holiday styles is intriguing to tourism ables for each segment have to be compared managers. It draws a more realistic picture with the average and the profiles of other of their customers who are more than just segments. This informs about the segment- examples of a certain age in a particular specific benefits. Next a second descriptive income bracket and with more or less travel step focusing on other than the active seg- experience. The holiday type becomes a mentation variables is necessary to help more complete entity by exhibiting more marketing managers target these segments. real-life contours. Holiday styles, like life- The database of the Austrian National styles, are more stimulating to the creative Guest Survey (winter 1997/98) contains a designers of trip packages or media adver- sufficiently large number of approximately tisements. Elaborating segmentation 3000 resort tourists, who are neither city schemes is a continuing mission for today’s travellers nor necessarily keen on skiing marketing strategists. They never aim at (Zins, 1998). The regular guest survey meas- detecting the true segment structure in the ures the travel motives with a slightly market: instead, they launch a new typology modified instrument developed by the Euro- which inspires a new specialization strategy päisches Tourismus Institut GmbH at the and then operate – at least temporarily – in a University of Trier, Germany. The motives quasi-monopoly. are operationalized by means of four-point The following application example uti- scale ratings for personal statements on lizes the guest database of leisure travellers travel-related desires, preferences and con- to Austria during the winter season 1997/98. sumption goals. The respondents gave their City travellers are excluded, as it does not opinions about the importance of 21 differ- make sense to mix them with resort tourists. ent holiday aspects (e.g. relaxation, comfort, (The reader interested in a brief technical sports), which were aggregated from the outline of the analytical procedures used is four-point scale to binary values denoting referred to the Appendix.) the ‘important’ and ‘unimportant’ category. Some of these statements are too specific, but the majority may be considered as indic- Sample Application ative of abstract travel motives. It is hypothesized that the winter tourists, although being on holiday in the same The case example outlines a combination of region, are still heterogeneous in terms of typologies for an Alpine, central European travel motivation. The resulting 0–1 data country trying to understand the push-and- were analysed using the senior author’s pull factors driving its visitors during the TRN32 vector quantization program (see winter season. Prior experience with the Appendix and web page http://leisure.wu- explanatory constructs; location, season, wien.ac.at/software/). The solution featuring sampling or time of measurement, are the ten motive types was superior in terms of typical antecedent conditions mentioned in statistical criteria and with regard to the con- the introduction. textual interpretation. The motive types are named according to A motivational typology the most conspicuous motive items (Table A tourist has certain expectations concern- 22.1). Their size varies between 4% (Type ing their holiday. Within the entire universe M5) and 18% (M3). The types within the of tourists such expectations may differ groups separated by double bars share some widely. The expectations are based on travel commonality in their motive patterns. They Holiday Styles and Tourist Types 249

Table 22.1. Motive types. Table 22.2. Activity types.

Number Motive types Size (%) Number Activity types Size (%)

M1 Snow and ski 11 A1 Dining out and evening 27 M3 Modest and isolated 18 entertainment M2 Rest, romanticism, nature 10 A2 Excursions and sightseeing 18 M4 Ease and comfort at any price 12 A3 Skiers-only 35 M5 Hard to motivate 4 A4 Never go out 20 M6 Rest-seeking health tourist 7 M10 No sports but culture 5 M7 Physical fitness 16 M8 Live your creativity 6 (Table 22.2). The four activity types share M9 The restless 10 some commonalties; alpine skiing, for example, is important for three out of the four types. On the other hand there are marked differences. Type A3, for instance, could be merged if larger segments are never engages in walking or hiking, while required. Taking a closer look at these types, type A4 never goes out for dining or night it turns out that the dominant motives of entertainment. Type A3 concentrates on type M1 are their serious concern for suffi- alpine skiing, with snowboarding, or some- cient snow cover and the guarantee of times cross-country skiing, being part of this staying in an attractive skiing region. Type pattern; while activity type A4 is a skier of M4 is characterized by a strong desire for average frequency but, in contrast to A3, is excellent service quality in a highly comfort- enthusiastic about walking and hiking. able environment, being (in conjunction with M8), the least concerned about prices. Judging the marketing value of the motive Physical training, pleasure, fun, social and activity types events and entertainment are the motiva- Types are not particularly attractive as mar- tional highlights for type M7, with rest and ket segments unless they differ significantly relaxation being rather unimportant. Type in terms of market response. Two indicators M10 does not value physical activity and available from the guest survey come close challenge; also ‘health and wellness’ are to sales and revenue information: daily rather meaningless. Given the fact that city expenditure and length of stay. The differ- travellers had been excluded from the analy- ences between motive types are significant, sis, type M10 exhibits a remarkable desire but are smaller between the activity types for cultural offerings (attaining seven times (Table 22.3). Segments A4 and A1 appear to the average frequency in this motive ele- be equally attractive. The ‘skiers-only’ are ment). the largest segment; but with a length of stay of only seven nights, however, they activate An activity-centred typology less purchasing power than the ‘excursions- For designing trip packages it is also impor- and-sightseeing’ type. tant to learn how tourists spend their time It is hypothesized that combining the during their stay. The manager needs to motives and activities classification into know about the activity mixture typical of a holiday styles will generate more distinct group of tourists. Twenty-seven activities and pronounced segments, where motiva- were listed in the guest survey question- tion statements coincide with travel activity naire. The respondents ticked the activities patterns. they performed at least ‘sometimes’, producing a binary data set. The activities data were Generating and profiling holiday styles subject to the typology representing network Market segmentation aims at identifying method, leading to a four types’ solution tourist subgroups that are homogeneous in 250 Sara Dolnicar and Josef A. Mazanec

Table 22.3. Marketing value of motive and activity types.

Daily expenditure Length of Motive/activity type number (US$) Rank stay (nights) Rank Size (%)

M8: Live your creativity 126 1 8.9 2 6 M7: Physical ﬁtness 117 2 7.1 9 16 M4: Ease and comfort at any price 112 3 7.7 6 12 M2: Rest, romanticism, nature 103 4 8.5 3 10 M1: Snow and ski 103 5 7.6 7 11 M6: Rest-seeking health tourist 102 6 9.2 1 7 M9: The restless 100 7 7.5 8 10 M5: Hard to motivate 95 8 8.1 4 4 M3: Modest and isolated 92 9 8.0 5 18 M10: No sports but culture 84 10 6.3 10 5 A4: Never go out 110 1 8.1 3 20 A1: Dining out and evening entertainment 108 2 8.2 7 27 A3: Skiers-only 103 3 7.0 1 35 A2: Excursions and sightseeing 93 4 8.6 5 18

Table 22.4. Three holiday styles.

Motive % of motive Activity % of activity Number Holiday style Size (%) type type type type

M10–A2 Culture-focused nonskier 3 M10 67 A2 19 M7–A3 Sports- and excitement- 9M757A326 oriented skiers M6–A2 Rest- and health-oriented 4M657A222 travellers

as many aspects as possible. So far, the motives, the same motive drive may lead reader has been confronted with two differ- tourists to different activity patterns. Com- ent segmentation solutions. It is tempting to bining both aspects thus establishes a more examine a segmentation scheme including realistic picture of a holiday style. The two both activities and motivations. Instead of cluster solutions are cross-tabulated and searching for clusters within a monstrous holiday styles become visible as intersec- data set with 27 activity and 21 motive items tions with a large percentage of overlap. (paving the way for all sorts of uncontrolled Where respondents are evenly distributed inter-variable trade-off effects) a safer solu- over the cross-tabulation cells, no system- tion was chosen to build holiday styles from atic relationship, and thus no holiday styles, activity and motive types. Supposing that can be postulated. the motive and activity patterns are not Cross-tabulation indicates the existence independent of each other, one should of a few holiday styles in the sense expect partial overlap and partial incompat- explained above. Three such styles are ibility. Given the concept of abstract worth mentioning (Table 22.4) as likely to

Holiday Styles and Tourist Types 251

Fig. 22.1. Selected motives compared. capture the destination manager’s attention. seems less important. In summary, there is a These holiday styles turn out to be more clear shift toward a more specific winter- distinct and pronounced than the original culture-tourist than was found for the A2 activity and motive types. The culture- and M10 types separately. focused nonskiers are described in detail to The ‘culture-focused nonskiers’ are a demonstrate the differences occurring in the very homogeneous group of travellers with interpretation and their consequences for clear preferences and activity patterns. targeted marketing action. However, they do not reach a spectacular The motives of this holiday style exhibit position when judged and ranked in terms even more interest in culture than the of performance variables such as daily ‘excursions and sightseeing’ activity type expenditure and length of stay. The rest-and and the ‘no sports but culture’ motive type health-oriented travellers and the sports- (Fig. 22.1). Culture-focused nonskiers also and excitement-oriented skiers, on the other care more about nature and experiencing hand, exceed the activity segments regard- change in their environment. Furthermore, ing these criteria. safety and a romantic/nostalgic atmosphere Judging culture tourists by daily expendi- play a more prominent role during their ture and length of stay uses nonspecific holiday and the lifestyle of the locals market response criteria and does not seem receives more attention. It becomes appar- appropriate for this group. Other aspects are ent from Fig. 22.2 that all members of superior in assessing their market value. If activity type A2 spending time on sports are the interpretation of this holiday style as excluded from the holiday style M10–A2, ‘culture-focused nonskiers’ is correct, one resulting in an activity profile without any would expect these tourists to differ in vari- sports at all. On the other hand, cultural ables indicative of culture-orientedness, activities still retain their importance: the- comprising expenditure on cultural attrac- atres, musicals, operas and museums are tions, satisfaction with cultural offers, and visited by a larger percentage of ‘culture- indirect indicators such as the percentage of focused nonskiers’, whereas relaxation repeat visitors known to be lower among 252 Sara Dolnicar and Josef A. Mazanec

Fig. 22.2. Selected activities compared.

culture-seeking travellers, or length of stay revisit the destination was lower (42%), as typically being shorter for these guests. were the average total expenditures per cap- When analysing these descriptive vari- ita (US$524) and the expenditures for sports ables for activity type A2, motive type M10 and ski-lifts per capita (US$3 and US$12, and holiday style M10–A2, these expecta- respectively). Further differences in demo- tions are met to a large extent. First, the graphic and travel behaviour variables are expenditure for entrance fees for cultural omitted due to lack of space. attractions is higher 2 (US$12) than among Obviously, the ‘culture-focused nonski- both the ‘no sports but culture’ (US$8) and ers’ represent a more distinct and the ‘excursions and sightseeing’ (US$5) pronounced group of travellers than the groups. Second, more members of this group original culturally interested activity and report positive experiences with cultural motive types. The holiday style may not offerings (17%), with more members com- seem particularly attractive for target mar- plaining about cultural offerings as well keting when judged by daily expenditures (34%). Also the level of entrance fees for and length of stay. However, with expenses cultural attractions was judged in a much for cultural activities and attractions ten more subtle and discriminating way, with times as high as the average, the ‘culture- far more guests expressing positive surprise focused nonskiers’ remain the segment of (20%). Furthermore, the percentage of tour- choice for the managers of cultural attrac- ists being on a short trip was signiﬁcantly tions or regions focusing an cultural higher (32%) than in any of the component tourism. groups the holiday style originated from; there was very little prior holiday experience in Austria (21%), the intention to

2 All differences reported between holiday styles and activity/motive types are signiﬁcant at the 95% level. Holiday Styles and Tourist Types 253

Implications for Tourism Summary: How Does the Case Management Example Fit into the Big Picture of Tourist Market Trends? Once the number of segments is fixed and each submarket has been analysed and val- The case study lends face validity to the ued in detail the newly established claim that there is no unique and ultimate segmentation scheme forms the basis for solution for tourist market segmentation. strategic market planning. It starts with the Depending on the idiosyncrasies of the des- decision on which segments to target and tination or attraction the managers have a eventually leads to the implementation of range of opportunities. If they are willing to marketing action specifically tailored to hol- follow the trend of creating styles or of merg- iday styles. ing types into styles they get a reward. The Holiday styles stimulate the product/ holiday styles promise to engender more service design of travel packages and pronounced segments that are homogene- imaginative communication strategies. ous in terms of motives and activities They tell the manager about the commonal- simultaneously. It is not the purpose to seg- ties and the diversities of some ‘real-life’ ment on psychographic variables such as traveller segments. Condensing multivari- personal values first and to predict activities able classifications into styles also reduces afterwards (Madrigal and Kahle, 1994). the danger of misinterpretation. Motive Instead, holiday styles depend on combined items like ‘fun’ and activity items like ‘going patterns of motivational or attitudinal tour- out at night’ convey a different meaning ist attributes and tourist activities. A once they become either strongly or weakly traveller merely stating he is adventurous is associated with ‘excitement,’ or when they one thing, the same traveller actually taking relate to different age groups. a risk is a different matter. Styles provide a In the case example, choosing the activity greater variety of matching tourist products type ‘excursions and sightseeing’ when aim- and promotional messages with corresponding at the culturally interested would have ing segment properties. The overall trend is caused such a misinterpretation. The cul- in favour of differentiation and specializa- ture tourists defined this way would engage tion in the marketplace. For the mass in sports, while the expenditure on cultural markets it is unlikely that any subtle strategy attractions would not even have reached of micromarketing will ever be able to cater half the amount spent by the ‘culture- to the individual tourist. A holiday style focused nonskiers’. Choosing the motive approach, however, may succeed in uniting type ‘no sports but culture’ would have been the economies of scale and scope with the less misleading. Here, the tourists would not illusion of individuality. have cared much about sports and the expenditures indicated a greater interest in cultural attractions. Still numerous expend- Appendix iture figures would have been overestimated ‘Type-producing’ Methodology and the relative preponderance of students would have been neglected. By the same Constructing typologies and a-posteriori token one would have missed the fact that segmentation has been a domain of cluster the vast majority travel with their partners analysis and its associated tools for signifi- and have very little experience of Austria cance testing for quite some time (Formann and a low intention of revisiting it. et al., 1979; Mazanec, 1980, 1984). More recently, tourism research has discovered that adaptive methods from the neuro- and biocomputing toolbox offer some promising alternatives. For instance, the method of Self-Organizing Maps (SOMs) assists in

254 Sara Dolnicar and Josef A. Mazanec

solving clustering problems while preserv- from an initial weight distribution of small ing topological properties of the data random coordinates it learns to adapt its (Kohonen, 1982, 1984, 1990, 1997 for a weight structure according to the distribu- review; Mazanec and Zins, 1993, 1995, tion pattern of the input data. Each 1998; Dolnicar, 1997 for marketing research prototype learns to take responsibility for a applications). homogeneous subset of data vectors. The The SOM is mainly criticized for two weight update follows the learning rule reasons: (i) The SOM update rule (for con- (Martinetz et al., 1993): tinuous variables) is not a gradient descent ⌬ w ϭ⑀•hλ (k (x, w )) • (x w ) i ϭ 1, . . . , N process and thus hinders the mathematical i i i i analysis of the asymptotic behaviour of an 0 < ⑀ < 1 is a learning constant. k ϭ 0, 1, explicit objective (energy) function; (ii) ... , N 1 and ki(x, wi) indicates the rank SOMs impose a rigid framework (a prede- number k associated with each prototype. termined grid) of neighbourhood relations Thus rank 0 denotes the winning prototype, that the update algorithm has to respect dur- 1 the second-closest node (the co-winner), ing the training. It may be desirable not to etc. As in the SOM the prototypes compete impose rigorous neighbourhood connec- with each other and only the winner i' with tions but to have them learned and x wi' < x wi , ∀i, gets full update. The unlearned during the training. A novel pro- units in its neighbourhood are allowed to cedure is employed in this study: the TRN improve their ﬁt by a weight update with model was introduced under the name hλ (k (x, w )) ϭ exp ( k (x, w )/λ) Topology Representing Network (Martinetz i i i i and Schulten, 1994). This employs the where λ is a decay constant that decreases neural-gas algorithm by Martinetz et al., during the training. For λ ϭ 0 the process is (1993) to perform a topology-sensitive vec- equivalent to the online version of the pop- tor quantization. As in the SOM, ular K-means algorithm. The update rules competitive learning is the underlying prin- outlined above have been shown to optimize ciple. In simple words this means that a set an explicit cost function where the co- of prototypes (archetypical cases or segment updating of adjacent prototypes resemble a centres) are competing to approximate the fuzzy assignment of data points to the best, frequency distribution training rule adjusts second-best, third-best prototype. The neu- not only the winning prototype but all pro- ral gas algorithm was shown to excel totypes according to the rank order of K-means as well as the SOM and the distances between a data point and the ﬁrst maximum-entropy clustering procedure winner, second winner, etc. Thus, the neu- (Martinetz et al., 1993). ral gas method exploits a higher amount of Up to this point the training process does information stored in a system of proto- not enforce a topographic mapping of the types. As in SOMs, the similarity between data points into a set of prototypes subject to data points and their prototypes (cluster a learned adjacency structure. This step was centres) is measured by the Euclidean dis- added by Martinetz and Schulten (1994). tance d between the ith prototype’s Adjacency is conceived as a dichotomous coordinates (or weights) vector wi and a concept in the TRN. Two prototypes are data vector x with values x1, ... ,m arriving neighbours or not. The adjacency learning as input: and unlearning process is based on the sim-

1/2 ilarity of the winning prototype and its ϭ ϭ ϭ 2 di x wi (xk wik) closest competitor. Each data point arouses k = 1,...,m a winner/co-winner pair for which it either with x ϭ (x , . . . , x ) 1 m conﬁrms or establishes the adjacency rela- and w ϭ (w , . . . , w ) i il im tion. Adjacency connections for pairs that During the training the system of proto- do not get conﬁrmed for a number of succes- types is repeatedly exposed to input vectors sive updates die out but may emerge again randomly selected from the data set. Starting later on. The age and lifetime parameters in Holiday Styles and Tourist Types 255

this learning process are subject to exponen- found for one variable; it penalizes this tial decay during training. In a simulation increase if the size of these clusters is small experiment, the authors demonstrate that and the variables involved carry little infor- the TRN is capable of preserving rather com- mation (i.e. do not vary much). In case that plicated topological structures. It seems to more than one cluster solution attains a high render a perfect topological mapping as long SSI value, the best solution in terms of iden- as the grid of prototypes is dense enough to tically classiﬁed pairs of data points in approximate a manifold of lower dimen- repeated runs is selected. sionality embedded in the high- dimensional data space. Any partitioning (non-hierarchic) Acknowledgements method requires that the analyst sets the number of clusters. As the dispersion-based The exploration of the vector quantization criteria use to be of little help an method used in this study was part of the interpretation-based heuristic called the Joint Research Programme SFB010 on Simple Structure Index (SSI) was applied ‘Adaptive Systems and Modelling in Eco- (Dolnicar et al., 1998). The SSI honours an nomics and Management Science’ increase in the number of clusters if a large sponsored by the Austrian National difference of two cluster centres is at least Research Foundation (FWF).

23 Biophysical Impacts of Wildland Recreation Use

David N. Cole

Introduction used, the importance of maintaining natural, largely undisturbed conditions makes recrea- The biophysical impacts caused by recreation management extremely challenging tion and tourism are often a serious problem (Hammitt and Cole, 1998). This challenge is that must be addressed through planning further attenuated by the extensive nature of and management. This is particularly the wildlands, the lack of resources available case in wildlands, less developed recrea- given relatively low recreation use, and the tional settings, and locations where the desire to avoid restriction and regulation in emphasis is on ecotourism or wilderness these wild settings. experiences. Immersion in ‘natural’ settings, whether to study and observe nature or to Trends in Biophysical Impacts and experience peace and tranquillity, is a pow- Their Management erful motivation for many recreationists and tourists. Natural environments draw people Many of the obvious biophysical impacts of to them and, in turn, are degraded by people recreation use have been well documented if the number of recreationists is too high, if (Liddle, 1997; Hammitt and Cole, 1998). For people act in inappropriate ways or if the example, trampling by recreationists – settings are inappropriately managed. whether on trails, campgrounds, picnic In developed recreational settings, bio- sites or in areas of dispersed activity – physical impacts have been intensively affects vegetation and soil. As plants are managed for many years. Sites are often trampled, their height and vigour declines hardened, trafﬁc is conﬁned, behaviour is and ultimately they may die. If enough restricted and, if need be, amount of use is plants die, vegetation cover declines, leav- limited. Where applied appropriately and ing areas of bare ground. Since some plants rigorously followed, such developed recrea- are better able to tolerate trampling disturb- tion programmes have been successful in ance than others, durable plants increase in providing opportunities for recreational use relative abundance and species composition while keeping impacts to acceptable levels. changes. Soil organic horizons, when Only in recent years, however, has it exposed to trampling, can be abraded and become widely recognized that impact man- eroded away, exposing mineral soil. agement is equally important in wildlands. Exposed mineral soil is compacted by tram- Although wildlands are less intensively pling, which causes additional changes © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 257 258 David N. Cole

such as reduced water inﬁltration, increased of impact on individual campsites and the runoff, and accelerated erosion. These chan- total number of affected campsites. Impact ges, once initiated, have synergistic effects levels are highest when there are a large that are not self-limiting even if the source of number of campsites and individual camp- disturbance is removed. Increased runoff sites are highly impacted. Therefore, to and erosion accelerate the exposure of min- evaluate trends, it is necessary to assess both eral soil which leads to further increases in change in the condition of individual camp- runoff, erosion and so on. sites and change in the number and Some of the most serious impacts of distribution of campsites. The ﬁrst of these recreation are not readily obvious to the cas- components of change was evaluated using ual observer. Vegetation removal, loss of a sample of established campsites in the organic horizons and soil compaction alter Eagle Cap Wilderness, Oregon (for 11 years), soil biotic communities, organic matter in the Bob Marshall Wilderness, Montana decomposition rates and nutrient cycling, (for 9 years) and in Grand Canyon National changes that can severely reduce the resil- Park (for 5 years). Change in the number and ience of these sites. Disturbance of animal distribution of campsites was evaluated by populations, both through alteration of hab- listing all the campsites in portions of the itat and unintentional harassment, can have Lee Metcalf Wilderness, Montana (for 16 long-term and widespread effects (Knight years), the Eagle Cap Wilderness (for 15 and Gutzwiller, 1995). Because disturbed years) and the Selway-Bitterroot Wilder- animals can move, impacts to animals can ness, Montana (for 12 years). have more far-reaching effects than impacts The assessment of conditions on individ- to plants and soil. Moreover, because ani- ual campsites found tremendous variation mals are capable of teaching their offspring, in amount of change, both among and effects of disturbance can be passed from within campsites (Cole and Hall, 1992). Cer- generation to generation. Finally, impacts to tain campsites improved, while others water and aquatic systems – from contamina- deteriorated, and others remained relatively tion with wastes to increased nutrient inputs unchanged. In many cases, one type of – are poorly understood but potentially seri- impact increased on an individual site, ous, particularly given the recreational while another type of impact decreased on attraction of water and riparian systems. the same site. In the Eagle Cap Wilderness and Grand Canyon National Park, the num- Magnitude of biophysical impact ber of sites that generally deteriorated Although there is some anecdotal evidence exceeded the number that generally to the contrary – that some locations are in improved. In the Bob Marshall Wilderness, better condition than they were several dec- the number of sites that improved exceeded ades ago – the impacts of recreation use the number that deteriorated. However, in appear to be increasing over time in most all three study areas, most changes were places. More places have more affected small and conditions on most campsites trees, damaged vegetation and bare ground, were relatively stable. exposed and compacted soils, disturbed Anecdotal evidence suggests that some of wildlife and contaminated waters than in the most aesthetically displeasing types of the past. These trends can be illustrated by impact and a few of the most severely reference to a series of long-term campsite impacted wilderness destinations have impact studies conducted in wilderness improved over time. Most wilderness visi- areas and national parks in the US. Wilder- tors report, for example, that litter and ness and national park campsites provide rubbish are a much less serious problem good case studies because campsite impacts than they were a decade or two ago (Lucas, are severe and yet often not tightly con- 1985; Cole et al., 1995). ‘Pack-it-in, pack-it- trolled by management. out’ messages asking recreationists not to The total impact of recreational use on leave their trash and litter have been quite campsites is a function of both the severity successful (Roggenbuck, 1992). There also Biophysical Impacts of Wildland Recreation Use 259

are a number of popular wilderness destina- of the increase occurring as a result of the tions that were heavily impacted more than creation of new sites. 50 years ago by particularly destructive Campsite proliferation has been less of a styles of use (very large groups, numerous problem along trail corridors than in desti- horses and mules, frequent large campfires nation areas. Visitors may be more content and elaborate facility constructions at camp- to camp wherever they end up while en sites) that are much less common today. route to their final destination. Visitors Conditions in some of these locations have appear more inclined to seek out and use an improved greatly, reflecting the success of undisturbed site when they reach their des- intensive management programmes (see for tination. Proliferation also appears to be example, Parsons, 1979, 1983; Marion and most pronounced in regularly used but only Sober, 1987). moderately popular destinations. In places These examples of substantially that are not used regularly, there are likely to improved condition are more the exception be few sites used frequently enough to be than the rule. There is little reason to be highly impacted. In very popular areas, most overly optimistic or pessimistic about the of the potential campsites have already been future condition of long-established sites. affected; consequently, there is little risk of Continued use of these sites may cause some further impact proliferation. additional impact, but the amount of addi- The tendency for impacts to proliferate tional deterioration is likely to be low in no doubt results from both visitor behaviour comparison to the deterioration that has and management programmes. Anecdotal already occurred. On the other hand – with evidence suggests that more visitors are the exception of less litter and improve- using the more remote portions of wildlands ments in a few of the most severely damaged than in the past. Many formerly pristine lake places – there is little evidence that manage- basins, for example, now have evident trails ment attempts to mitigate site impacts have and evidence of camping. Guidebooks have been very effective. The severely damaged been a prominent source of information ena- sites of today are not likely to look all that bling visitors to more confidently venture different a decade or two into the future. off-trail. In the Sierra Nevada of California, Changes in the number and distribution for example, guidebooks were written dur- of campsites have been much more pro- ing the 1970s that described virtually every nounced than changes in the condition of reasonable off-trail walking route in the long-established campsites (Cole, 1993). In mountain range. Unplanned trails devel- three wilderness areas, the number of camp- oped along virtually all these routes. sites has increased markedly over periods of Moreover, once visitors arrive at a destina- 12–16 years: 53% in the Selway-Bitterroot tion, they appear more inclined than in the Wilderness, 84% in the Lee Metcalf Wilder- past to pioneer a new site rather than use an ness and 123% in the Eagle Cap Wilderness. existing one. This pioneering trend is likely In each of these areas, visitors are allowed to to continue as interest increases in ecotour- camp virtually anywhere. The primary ism and adventure and risk recreation. exception is a prohibition on camping These tendencies are often aggravated by within a short distance of lake shores. They management actions. Educational cam- can also choose to camp either in an existing paigns, with the intention of reducing campsite or on a previously undisturbed impact problems, frequently ask visitors to site. The substantial proliferation of affected avoid popular places and seek out more campsites that has occurred in each of these remote locations. Low-impact brochures wildernesses suggests that existing sites get often illustrate how to select and use a low- used frequently enough to be maintained in impact campsite – usually a site with little a disturbed state, while numerous new evidence of previous use. Improper, care- campsites are being sought out, used and left less, or even frequent use of such sites will in a disturbed state. The result is a dramatic leave them substantially damaged. In many increase in total impact over time, with most places camping is prohibited on many tradi- 260 David N. Cole

tional campsites close to lake shores. there has been considerable interest in goal- Consequently, new campsites further from attainment planning systems, such as the lake shores develop and the traditional lake Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) and Vis- shore campsites seldom recover rapidly. itor Experience and Resource Protection They are not very resilient and they con- (VERP) frameworks (Stankey et al., 1986; tinue to be used for picnicking and McCool and Cole, 1997; USDI National Park occasionally camping. The net effect is an Service, 1997). With these frameworks, increase in campsite density. management decisions rely on systematic In some wildlands, however, manage- and objective monitoring data. As a result, ment has been effective in limiting campsite many wildland recreation areas have proliferation by prohibiting or discouraging recently developed impact monitoring pro- the use of undisturbed sites. Usually this grammes. involves either designating campsites or The earliest attempts to monitor recrea- simply asking visitors to use well- tion impacts probably involved use of repeat established sites. The aim of this photography and casual observation. Neil management strategy is to concentrate and Bayfield, one of the pioneers of recreation confine use and impacts. Since conditions ecology (the scientific discipline concerned on long-established campsites are relatively with recreation impacts), was perhaps the stable, regardless of use frequency, the fre- first to publish a method for rapidly mon- quent use of a small number of sites results itoring the condition of trail systems in less aggregate impact than less frequent (Bayfield and Lloyd, 1973). His approach use of a large number of sites (Cole, 1994). involved taking quick measurements of a Marion (1995) reports, for example, that an number of impact parameters at a large num- impact concentration programme at Dela- ber of systematically located, temporary ware Water Gap National Recreation Area stations along the trail system. This reduced the impacted area on campsites by approach has been revised and extended in 50% over 5 years. Such a management pro- attempts to increase accuracy and precision, gramme can counter the general trend of as well as to provide more useful types of increasing impact observed in most places data (Cole, 1983a; Lance et al., 1989; Mar- where the location of use is uncontrolled. ion, 1994). Coleman (1977) developed an alternative approach – taking a small num- Biophysical impact monitoring ber of detailed measurements of trail A decade or two ago, most wildland man- cross-sectional area at permanent sampling agers were aware of and concerned about stations – as a means of monitoring trail biophysical impacts but had little objective erosion. information about impact levels or trends Campsite monitoring evolved similarly, over time. Consequently, impact manage- beginning with repeat photography. The first ment programmes were commonly published descriptions of how to monitor whimsical and inconsistent, determined campsite impact were Frissell’s (1978) pro- largely by the values, biases and perspec- posed condition class method and Schreiner tives of the individual managers in charge. and Moorhead’s (1979) radial transect tech- Moreover, in many places, managers tended nique. From these initial suggestions, more to stay in one place for only a few years. This elaborate and precise protocols were devel- meant that the shortcomings of relying on oped (Parsons and MacLeod, 1980; Cole, subjective impressions of impact problems 1983b, 1989a; Marion, 1991). Systems vary were further aggravated by the short-term in their use of qualitative versus quantitative perspective available to most managers. descriptors, temporary versus permanent More recently, as natural resource man- sampling sites, and single versus multiple agement issues have become increasingly impact parameters. controversial, public acceptance of whim- As is the case with trail monitoring, man- sical and inconsistent management has agers typically must choose either a waned. In the recreation management field, technique that provides a large number of Biophysical Impacts of Wildland Recreation Use 261

rather imprecise measures or a technique ment. Unless managers make monitoring a that provides a small number of more pre- higher priority than it is today they will not cise measures. The appropriateness of any be able to thwart effectively the trend technique is determined more by the nature toward increased impact described above. of the information managers’ need than the relative precision of the technique. Inten- Low-impact visitor education sive, precise techniques are more useful for Visitor education has been widely touted as assessing change on established recreation the most appropriate approach for managing sites and in places that are heavily used and recreation in primitive wildland settings impacted. Extensive, less precise techni- (McCool and Lucas, 1990). Many impact ques are more useful for assessing site problems are more a result of inappropriate proliferation and for surveying lightly used behaviour than of too many people (Cole et and impacted areas. Combining techniques al., 1987) and inappropriate behaviour can is another useful option. For example, a few be changed through visitor education (Rog- rapid assessments can be made on all sites, genbuck, 1992). Although some researchers with more detailed measures being taken on caution against expecting too much from a sample of sites. education (McAvoy and Dustin, 1983; Cole, The trend toward increased use of 1995), everyone agrees that visitor educa- improved monitoring frameworks and pro- tion must be a fundamental part of any tocols is a positive one. Nevertheless, programme that attempts to control the bio- progress has been slow and further progress physical impacts of recreation. Visitor is not guaranteed. Only 39% of National education programmes have increased in Park Service wilderness areas monitor quantity and quality around the world. campsite impacts and fewer than 10% mon- One useful example is the development of itor trail, wildlife or water quality impacts low-impact education programmes for wil- (Marion et al., 1993). Monitoring pro- derness lands in the US. grammes have often been proposed, The early historical development of developed and initiated, but then slowly low-impact educational programmes in wil- wither away. This often occurs when there derness is difﬁcult to trace. Clearly, informal is a shift in management or when the person- education must have a long history but the nel who developed the programme move identity of the earliest educators has been away. Data is often collected but never used. lost. When early rangers observed visitors Techniques are often selected based on doing things that damaged wild places, they familiarity rather than a thoughtful assess- informed them of alternative practices that ment of the most appropriate technique for were less damaging. During the 1960s, pub- the situation at hand. The root cause of most lic land management agencies began of these problems is inadequate institutional promoting the ‘pack-it-in, pack-it-out’ slo- support for monitoring. In many cases, gan to reduce litter in wildlands. About this nobody accepts responsibility for monitor- time, the National Outdoor Leadership ing. Should it be undertaken by planners, School included low-impact education in managers or researchers? Many managers the curriculum of their courses (Petzoldt, feel their job is to ‘take action’ rather than to 1974). These efforts evolved over the years conduct studies – a common view of what so that, by the late 1970s, the need for visitor monitoring is. education was widely accepted, at least in As the world’s population grows, bio- theory. physical impact problems resulting from Until the mid-1980s, however, the effec- recreation and tourism will increase con- tiveness of these efforts was limited by two comitantly. The primary hope for avoiding factors. First, the information available on this future is to raise the level of manage- low-impact techniques was limited to the ment professionalism. The collection, idiosyncratic personal experience of the storage and analysis of objective monitoring educator. Little scientiﬁc information on data are critical to professional manage- recreation impacts was available and there 262 David N. Cole

were no networks for sharing ideas about agement) joined with NOLS to develop and low-impact techniques. As a result of differ- distribute ‘Leave-No-Trace’ (LNT) educa- ences in personal experience and opinion, tional materials. This partnership formally many low-impact recommendations were in adopted a set of six low-impact principles direct conflict with each other (Cole, 1989b). based on those in the Soft Paths video. They Secondly, educational efforts were uncoor- developed booklets (about 20 pages each) on dinated and almost entirely opportunistic. LNT practices specifically adapted for each Meaningful educational opportunities were of more than a dozen different regional largely confined to chance encounters with environments and user groups. Finally, they rangers and educational campaigns consis- developed and taught a series of ‘train-the ted primarily of a few general slogans, like trainer’ courses on LNT practices. Through ‘pack-it-in, pack-it-out’ or ‘accept the chal- these courses, land managers, educational lenge’. In a few places, recreationists might organizations and other public groups are be given brochures with low-impact mes- given the tools to educate others in LNT sages or they might read low-impact techniques. By 1996, more than 300 people messages on bulletin boards. However, had graduated from these courses (Swain, other potential educational media were 1996), most of whom have gone on to train poorly developed. many others. Moreover, a consistent set of Since the mid-1980s, substantial prog- educational materials, based on the best ress has been made in overcoming these available information, can be requested over limitations. The US Department of Agricul- the phone by anyone. ture (USDA) Forest Service in collaboration Given the initial success of these efforts, with the National Outdoor Leadership the outdoor recreation industry and a more School (NOLS) compiled both existing diverse group of other private interest research on recreation impacts and low- groups were brought into the partnership in impact educational materials from 1995, with the formation of LNT, Inc. This wildernesses and parks around the US. Rec- more diverse group of partners is better able ommendations were reviewed for internal to promote the LNT message and to raise the consistency and congruence with scientific funds needed to develop new and improved theory and research findings. This work cul- messages and educational materials. minated in the publication of the first Along with progress in the development comprehensive report on low-impact prac- of more educational materials delivered in a tices (Cole, 1989b) and the first popular book more consistent and comprehensive fash- devoted to the subject, Soft Paths (Hampton ion, the content of low-impact messages and Cole, 1988). Both products have had has also become more sophisticated. For substantial influence throughout the US and example, a common early low-impact rec- abroad. For example, the report has been ommendation was to avoid visiting popular translated into Spanish for dissemination in places in the wilderness. The basis of this South America. Soft Paths provided the recommendation was that impacts and basis for a Soft Paths video, it has been crowding could be reduced if visitors were revised and expanded (in 1995), and it has more widely dispersed. Use dispersal can be spurred the writing of half a dozen other an effective management strategy in some books on low-impact techniques. places. Research has shown, however, that Of equal importance, an ambitious dispersing use can also increase both national programme to disseminate consis- resource impacts and crowding because dis- tent low-impact educational messages in a persal increases use levels in places that are coordinated manner has been developed. In relatively pristine and uncrowded (and the early 1990s, the four federal land man- therefore highly vulnerable) and decreases agement agencies with responsibility for use levels in places that are already so wilderness management (USDA Forest impacted and crowded that they are not Service, National Park Service, US Fish and highly vulnerable (Cole, 1997). Wildlife Service and Bureau of Land Man- Our improved understanding of these Biophysical Impacts of Wildland Recreation Use 263

relationships suggests that spreading people sequently, recreation impacts tend to and their impacts widely is an effective accumulate over time. Even with a constant strategy in low-use places, while the exact level of use, impacts will increase if use opposite – concentrating people and their distributions are allowed to shift around. impacts – is the most effective strategy in With shifting use, new impacts are con- popular locations. The simple, often coun- stantly being created while old sites that are terproductive, past recommendation to no longer used remain affected for a sub- disperse use has been replaced with today’s stantial period. The contribution of shifting more sophisticated set of three recommen- use patterns to the trend toward increased dations: (i) in popular places, concentrate impact can be reduced by controlling the use; (ii) in pristine places, disperse use; and distribution of recreation use, by adopting a (iii) avoid places that are lightly worn or just management strategy of confining, contain- beginning to show signs of use. While the ing and concentrating use. message has become more complicated for the visitor, the visitor now has the tools to Public policy implications choose the most appropriate course of action Assuming there is little that can, should or in any given situation. will be done about population growth or increased participation in recreation and Implications of Trends in Biophysical tourism, the other potential broad societal Impact and Management response to the trend of increased impact would be the allocation of more land to Despite increased attention to impact mon- wildland recreation and ecotourism. Deci- itoring and the increased quality and sions about the appropriateness of quantity of low-impact visitor education alternative land allocations should be based programmes – both positive trends – the on careful consideration of many factors that biophysical impacts resulting from recrea- are beyond the scope of this chapter. The tion use are increasing. Increased allocation of more land to recreation and biophysical impact threatens to diminish tourism would certainly benefit recreation the attributes that attract recreationists and users but, because it would mean that less tourists to wildlands. Changes in public pol- land was allocated to other competing uses, icy, planning and management are needed such a decision would conflict with the to reverse this trend or even to keep the rate interests of others. of deterioration from accelerating. Increased A more focused response to the trend of biophysical impact is largely the result of ever-increasing impact is to press for more population growth and increased participa- professional management of recreation and tion in recreation and tourism. Each year, tourism. Through increased professional- more and more people are using wildlands ism, decreasing the per capita impact of and leaving their imprint on the land. Three recreationists should be possible. Increased primary strategies for dealing with this sit- professionalism would require the alloca- uation are: (i) to add to the lands available tion of additional resources to management. for recreation and tourism; (ii) to limit Even more important, however, is the need recreation and tourism use; and (iii) to for a new perspective in which recreation reduce per capita impacts. management is recognized as complex, diffi- Increased biophysical impact also results cult and extremely important. because impacts occur rapidly but are long Managers naturally tend to spend most of lasting (Cole, 1994). Studies have shown, for their time and resources on responsibilities example, that camping can substantially for which either the rewards of success or the alter a previously undisturbed site in just a costs of failure are high. Few managers are few months of use (Marion and Cole, 1996). rewarded for doing a good job managing In contrast, impacted sites closed to further recreation and few are held accountable for camping can show relatively little recovery doing a poor job. Consequently, management even in a decade (Cole and Hall, 1992). Con- of recreation tends to receive less priority 264 David N. Cole

than programmes considered more impor- Planning and management implications tant – programmes for which managers are Financial and institutional support for mon- held accountable. Management of the bio- itoring needs to be improved. Although physical impacts of recreation is unlikely to increased attention to monitoring is one of improve until more resources are allocated the positive trends noted in this chapter, to their management. In times of fiscal substantial further progress is needed. The restraint, this is unlikely to occur unless importance of monitoring needs to be insti- recreation management is defined as a crit- tutionalized, as do personnel and funding ical responsibility reflected in the evaluation requirements. Monitoring is an ongoing task and reward system of line officers. that is fundamental to making wise deci- With more resources, research pro- sions about where management is needed, grammes could be expanded. We need to which actions should be taken, and how learn more about the nature and significance existing programmes need to be adjusted. of recreation impacts, the factors that deter- Short-term, one-shot and poorly funded mine their distribution and severity, how monitoring programmes will simply not be they might best be monitored, and how they adequate. There also are substantial chal- can be effectively controlled. The resultant lenges to developing efficient monitoring increase in knowledge would provide one of techniques, but these technical challenges the necessary supports for an improved pale beside the problems of inadequate management programme. Another neces- institutional support. sary support is careful planning and Low-impact education programmes – monitoring. Management programmes need while clearly improving – also need further to be based on specific objective statements attention. One particular need is a better of the conditions a recreation area is to pro- understanding about how to educate recrea- vide, as well as monitoring data capable of tionists and tourists effectively. Currently, identifying situations where objectives are most educational programmes are predica- not being met. Finally, managers need suffi- ted on the belief that lack of knowledge is cient training, as well as the political will to the primary factor keeping recreationists make difficult management decisions. from complying with low-impact recom- Another important policy decision mendations. Educational messages are involves the allocation of resources between churned out; in booklets, brochures, on popular, heavily used and already severely signs and videos; on the assumption that impacted recreation areas, and areas that are recreationists will attend to, comprehend, more remote, less popular and less damaged accept, access, recall and comply with them. by recreation use. Typically, virtually all Decades of research in persuasive commu- available resources have been allocated to nication suggests this is an unlikely popular areas, the places where most people outcome (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993); that go and where biophysical impacts are most persuasive communication programmes are evident. Cole (1997) argues, however, that not likely to succeed unless careful attention this allocational decision is short-sighted. is devoted to all stages of the communica- Remote, lightly used places deserve a higher tion process. proportion of available resources than they Finally, management programmes need currently receive. Remote, wild places are to be more concerned with the proliferation unusually precious, because they offer the of impacts, since proliferation is more com- greatest contrast to commonly available monly the source of increased impact than recreation landscapes. Their near-pristine the intensification of impact on individual state also makes then unusually vulnerable sites. This suggests increased reliance on to degradation. Finally, because they are rel- use and impact containment strategies, the atively vulnerable, they are more likely to most proven means of minimizing the per respond positively to good management and capita impacts of recreation and tourism. negatively to bad management than more heavily used places.

24 Assessing Social Impacts of Resource-based Recreation and Tourism

Patricia A. Stokowski

Introduction direct, indirect and cumulative effects of technological and social change in a system Attention to the social impacts of resource- with the stated purpose of providing techni- based recreation and tourism has grown cal information and analysis to decision over the past 30 years, partly as a result of makers engaged in public policy formation legislation mandating impact assessment in and planning (Bowles, 1981; Leistritz and federally funded development projects, but Murdock, 1981; Finsterbusch et al., 1983; also as a result of more general public inter- Branch et al., 1984; Freudenburg, 1986; est in and concern for environmental issues Dietz, 1987). SIAs are required for projects and the consequences of development poli- that occur on public lands, affect public cies and actions. The US National resources, or receive federal funding; these Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), signed include, for example, plans to develop an oil into law on 1 January, 1970, created the shale industry in a mountain community formal legislative requirements for assessing (Gulliford, 1989), construct a dam or hydro- and documenting social impacts. Section electric project (Taylor and Bryan, 1987), or 102 of that Act calls for the ‘integrated use of open a federal nuclear storage facility (Scott the natural and social sciences and the envi- et al., 1987). ronmental design arts in planning and in SIA occurs as part of the environmental decision making which may have an impact impact assessment process, and social data on man’s (sic) environment’ (Erickson, and impacts documentation are published 1994, p. 7). Subsequent to the 1970 Act, state in environmental assessments (EA) or envi- and local legislation incorporating environ- ronmental impact statements (EIS) that mental and social assessments into forest, disclose information related to current con- park and resource area planning has ditions of a site, expected changes to the emerged, and guidelines for analysing social affected environment under a variety of and environmental impacts have been adop- alternative decision choices, and potential ted by various governmental and mitigation strategies for identiﬁed negative nongovernmental agencies, in the US and impacts. Under NEPA guidelines, assess- internationally. ment of the affected environment requires The term social impact assessment (SIA) (in addition to analysis of physical and bio- refers to a process of anticipatory social sci- logical effects) analysis of a range of ence research focused on analysing the potential social impacts (at individual, © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 265 266 Patricia A. Stokowski

group and institutional levels), their magni- have been usefully applied in natural tude under different conditions, the resource settings, and new approaches to distribution of impacts, and the interrela- social impacts analysis are continually tionships among impacts. The specific types evolving. The broad focus of topics and of impacts to be studied in a given project issues in resource-based recreation and are usually identified in assessment proces- tourism, however, produces not one, but ses prior to the initiation of research. several, significant trends: Beyond formally mandated EISs and SIAs, public interest in social impacts is ● Analysis of quantitative impacts (e.g. evident in contexts where SIAs may not be economic outcomes) tends to take prec- required. Research literature in recreation edence over analysis of qualitative and tourism provides many examples of impacts (e.g. social, cultural, or political general studies of social impacts – research outcomes). projects undertaken for purposes of further- ● Since measurement and analysis of ing basic or applied research goals, even social impacts is complex, case studies when there is no legal mandate to conduct predominate and theory development the research or involve the public, and no has been slow to emerge. expectation of directly or immediately influ- ● Research about social impacts tends to encing public policy. Particularly in tourism be conducted only at single moments in contexts, researchers undertake and encour- time, and longitudinal research is rare. age social impact studies to better ● Social impact research tends to focus on understand the effects of public or corporate internal aspects of a system under decisions and actions, to aid planning, and study, and often ignores the boundary- to reduce potential negative impacts of spanning nature of impacts. development. Compared to SIA procedures, ● Social impact studies tend to adopt a policy applications from general social reductionist and linear model, ignoring impact studies are not always direct or complex interactions among entities immediate; results are typically published involved in a development project. in agency technical reports or in scholarly journals, rather than in EA or EIS documents These trends are elaborated in the follow- that are open to public scrutiny. ing section, which details the current status In both social impact assessments and of impacts research in resource-based social impact studies, the range of potential recreation and tourism. Later, each trend is impacts studied is diverse, and includes addressed separately, and their implications psychological, social, economic, cultural are summarized at the end of the chapter. and political outcomes that arise from policy revisions, actions or decisions of resource managers, plans for or adoption of community development programmes, and Current Status of Impacts Research other actions leading to social change. A in Recreation and Tourism rich tradition of social impact studies related to the effects of large-scale energy The term resource-based recreation and exploration and extraction projects on tourism is used here to refer to experiences small, rural communities can be found in related to natural areas/amenities that serve the rural sociology literature (some studies as activity sites or attractions for recreation also describe impacts of rapid community or tourism. These include formal, designa- growth on recreation and tourism; see Cor- ted places (such as parks, forests, wildlife tese and Jones, 1977). Many community areas, scenic byways and others), as well as studies in sociology, anthropology and informal or vast areas (such as scenic land- recreation and tourism may also be read and scapes, water resource areas, settings with interpreted as studies of social impacts. unique spiritual qualities, resource- Social impact studies and assessments dependent communities and others), and Assessing Social Impacts 267

Table 24.1. Common social impacts studied in resource-based recreation and tourism.

Outdoor recreation Impacts type Tourism

Regional socioeconomic effects Economic Regional socioeconomic effects (expenditures, jobs, sales) (expenditures, jobs, sales) Per capita income Per capita income Agency revenues Local government revenues Infrastructure improvement Entrepreneurial activity Opportunity costs Leakage Social/physical carrying capacity Social Social/physical carrying capacity Benefit achievement Tourist–guest interactions Development of competencies Demonstration effect Social cohesion on-site Crime, delinquency, social welfare costs Recreational conflicts Local community cohesion Maintenance of historic artefacts Cultural Maintenance of historic artefacts Maintenance of cultural values Maintenance of cultural values Preservation of scenic values Change in traditions and customs Intercultural communication Changes in material culture Partnership benefits Political Institutional capacity Growth machine politics Community conflict/cohesion Environmental concerns (pollution, traffic, Other Environmental concerns (pollution, traffic, noise) noise)

include places of obvious significance, as fees, permits, area closures or other on-site well as places that may be physically unre- changes; and (iii) growth processes in the markable, but are perceived to have special form of new development, construction, or meaning for subsets of recreationists or business expansion. The first two categories tourists. are most common in resource-based recrea- Social impacts research in recreation and tion, while the last category is more likely to tourism extends across a diverse array of occur in the context of resource-based tour- case studies, resource settings, and variety ism. Table 24.1 lists some of the more of impact types, but most research assumes a common impacts that have been studied in simplified model of impacts creation where research about resource-based recreation the initial stimulus for change is provided and tourism (see also: Mathieson and Wall, by a public or private entity initiating 1982; Pearce, 1989; Pearce et al., 1996). action. In recreation, land management agencies at federal and state levels tend to be Social impact assessment in resource-based the source of changes leading to impacts; in recreation tourism, the sources stimulating change A review of impact analysis sections from may be resource agencies, government or several EIS documents prepared for federal nongovernmental organizations, or private agency management planning allows three corporations or businesses. Three broad generalizations about the current state of actions typically lead to impacts analysis: (i) social impact assessment (SIA) in resource- regular agency planning processes, such as based recreation. First, the definition and preparation of general management plans; boundaries of the ‘affected environment’ (ii) changes in management or policy, such (usually including natural, cultural and as decisions to apply new use regulations, social environments) tends to be remarkably 268 Patricia A. Stokowski

similar across federal agencies, regardless of These three generalizations suggest that the specific goals of the planning effort. This environmental and social impact assess- is because EA and EIS documents must ments offer only limited utility in demonstrate compliance with an array of understanding impacts generation in state and federal legal statutes related to resource-based recreation. The documents clean water, endangered species, historic provide extensive information often with- and wilderness preservation and other out corresponding theoretical focus; they issues; the assessment process thus becomes support a primary goal of documenting the circumscribed by legal requirements. occurrence of impacts. Moreover, since SIAs Secondly, recreation resource agencies are published in individual management typically subdivide the social environment plans, it is rare to find comparative impacts into categories that include visitor activities research across park or forest jurisdictions. and experiences, scenic values, area opera- Additional research evaluating whether pre- tions, transportation and traffic, health and dicted impacts actually occurred, and what safety features, concessionaire activities and forms they took, is needed. Currently, com- regional economic effects. Aside from the parisons across EIS documents can only last, most categories refer to objective reveal trends in what managers think might impacts that are internal to the forest, park happen, not assessments of what really did or resource area system. For example, in the or did not happen – though, presumably, National Park Service’s (1995) Grand Can- implementation of a management plan yon EIS, the ‘impacts on operations’ section would provide opportunities for research briefly considered negative interactions and evaluation of actual outcomes. between park visitors and park employees – Finally, these documents generally do but there was no discussion of interactions not explain the rationale for including spe- fostering community cohesion among tour- cific publics in the assessment process. ist groups, residents of communities outside Agencies involved in preparing EIS docu- the park and Native American communities ments are required to involve relevant in the region. Elements of the social environ- publics throughout the process, from identi- ment seem to be limited primarily to those fying goals, scoping and preparing that can be measured easily, those that are alternatives, to evaluating data and making within the boundaries of a resource place, final decisions. Input is usually solicited and those that ignore social processes. from citizens and interested parties (other Thirdly, data included in the EIS docu- agencies, organizations and interest groups) ments are primarily quantitative in nature in a variety of public and private settings, (see NPS, 1997a, for an example). Consider- from working groups to public meetings. able effort is devoted to estimating labour Letters mailed to an agency expressing the force needs, tourist and employee expendi- views of interested parties are also obtained ture patterns, population effects and and are sometimes included in the EIS docu- impacts on services, relative to proposed ment. Throughout, the intent is to provide alternatives, but little attention is given to opportunities for relevant publics to provide quality of life values, place attachment, and review information, and discuss, debate social interaction possibilities, cultural and challenge conclusions drawn from the resiliency, gender issues, meanings of data. While public inputs to the process may recreation experience and other qualitative be substantial, it is not always clear how indicators. An EIS for a wilderness area those inputs are analysed or used in plan- (BLM, 1987), for example, provided only ning or decision making. If public very limited data describing social environ- participation is only a standardized process ment issues. It contained no information ‘allowed’ by a recreation agency, the poten- about people beyond descriptions about tial for various publics to be real partners in numbers of visitor-days, miles of trails and decision making seems limited. Views of roads available for human use, and lists of some affected publics may never be potential on-site recreational activities. expressed; access and competence remain Assessing Social Impacts 269

problematic, as do equity and social justice research into resource-based recreation (Shannon, 1987). impacts is centred around community/ agency interactions. Interest in partnership Impact studies in resource-based recreation formation, conflict resolution and collabora- An extensive literature exists to detail the tive management of recreation resources has values of recreation participation and the stimulated studies that focus on benefits that might accrue to agencies and community-level interactions among communities providing outdoor recreation resource agencies, governments and resi- opportunities. Beyond early studies of site dents of nearby cities and towns, and demand and individual user benefits organizations and interest groups (Colfer (Hughes and Lloyd, 1977), recent work has and Colfer, 1978; Carroll, 1988). The poten- focused on amenity resource valuation tial for research that considers the impacts (Peterson et al., 1988) and analysis of of policy changes on social systems is regional economic impacts of recreation unlimited, particularly given the complex (Bergstrom and Cordell, 1991; Stynes and nature of many resource-related planning Stewart, 1991). The IMPLAN input–output problems. model used in national forest planning also It is clear that the general study of social formalizes a methodology for assessing the impacts in resource-based recreation is not impacts of multiple use policy choices on very well advanced. Individual level out- regional economies (Loomis, 1993). comes of on-site activities are fairly well Despite Clawson and Knetsch’s (1966) documented in the carrying capacity litera- early model of the recreation experience, ture, but beyond a limited number of much of the research about social and community studies, there has been little social-psychological aspects of recreation interpretive research and only minimal has focused on the on-site segment of the focus on entities larger than social groups. continuum. No theoretical approach has Research remains context-dependent, stud- had more influence on recreation manage- ies do not present a cumulative or integrated ment than that of social carrying capacity set of findings about the types and qualities (see, for example, Hendee et al., 1978). If of impacts that might arise from different increasing levels of visitor use on-site pro- kinds of social change, and analyses of duce changes in the recreation experience, policy-related consequences are limited. then how might managers determine the amount of change that is acceptable, the Impact studies in resource-based tourism magnitude of effects created by differing The emergence of impacts research in tour- amounts of change, and the strategies for ism can be traced to the differing agendas of maintaining high-quality recreation experi- public/private resource provision. Govern- ences? An extensive body of research ments invest in natural resource attractions derived from this model investigates rela- and services to improve public welfare, tionships among crowding, density, while private tourism entrepreneurs create privacy, tolerance, conflict, participation attractions and services to fill business norms and satisfaction with the recreation niches, respond to market conditions, and experience (see Manning, 1986b, 1999). optimize individual profits. Tourism devel- Practical solutions (zoning systems, use opers do not face the same bureaucratic and rationing, pricing strategies) for managing legislative mandates as governmental enti- recreation experiences have been proposed ties, and their planning timelines are (Hammitt and Patterson, 1991; Shelby and usually shorter. Private tourism develop- Vaske, 1991; Kuentzel and Heberlein, 1992; ment also usually occurs in community Loomis, 1993). Comparative research evalu- settings rather than on resource lands that ating variation in impacts under different are set aside from private development. In levels of management would also be useful combination, these factors raise a host of to extend carrying capacity theorizing. social impact issues that are not usually cen- A relatively underdeveloped area of tral in public recreation settings. 270 Patricia A. Stokowski

Yet, even though the tourism engine may nities experiencing tourism growth. Smith’s be primarily driven by private interests, (1989) classic book presenting sociological there is substantial public agency linkage and anthropological case studies about tour- with the tourism industry. One way this ist (guest) and resident (host) encounters occurs is through reliance of private tourism was one of the first to evaluate the positive businesses on public natural resources as and negative impacts of tourists on receiving the basis for the tourist attraction. Ski societies. Studies of the cultural consequen- resorts, for example, are often situated on ces of such interactions have been well public lands leased from the Forest Service represented in the tourism impacts litera- or other agencies, so must comply with fed- ture (see MacCannell, 1976, 1989; van den eral and state conservation laws. Whenever Berghe, 1993). A quantitative approach to a resort corporation wishes to expand opera- host/guest interactions is seen in the numer- tions, they must work with the relevant ous studies of residents’ perceptions of agency to prepare an environmental impact tourism development, demonstrating that assessment (see, for instance, the EIS for the different groups of local people often have Sugarbush, Vermont, ski area; USDA Forest very different views about tourism’s impacts Service, 1998). Beyond EIS and SIA prepara- (for example, business owners and tourism tion, tourism developments may also be industry workers tend to be more supportive subject to federal or state legislation related of growth activities than other citizens). to endangered species habitat, water flow Studies documenting economic, social and quality, wetlands maintenance, historic and institutional impacts arising from com- preservation or hazardous waste site clean- munity tourism development are numerous up. (see e.g. de Kadt, 1979; Preister, 1989), and Cohen (1984) divided the sociology of among these, analyses of the regional ecotourism into four areas of interest: studies nomic impacts of tourism are especially about tourists themselves; studies about common. Since developers and promoters tourism systems; studies about interactions acclaim the potential of tourism to provide between tourists and local residents; and new jobs, raise personal incomes, stimulate tourism impact studies. Of these, studies of regional business development, create tax tourism systems provide often-cited exam- revenues, and in general, ‘grow economies’, ples of formal models that attempt to it is natural that researchers have focused on explain how tourist destinations change the economic benefits of tourism (Eadington over time. Miossec’s 1976 evolutionary and Redman, 1991). Other studies of social model of regional tourism (as described in and institutional effects of tourism develop- Pearce, 1989) links resort growth to trans- ment, however, challenge the perceived portation networks, changes in tourist notion of widespread economic value. behaviour, and planning controls. Butler’s Researchers have shown that tourism trans- (1980) model of tourist destination life forms host communities and societies, but it cycle, based on the number of tourists visit- is not clear how tourism compares with ing a destination, applies the notion of other forms of modernization as an agent of carrying capacity to tourist areas. Doxey’s social change. Studies documenting the 1975 ‘irritation index’ (as described in effects of tourism development on specific Pearce, 1989) suggests that residents prog- types of resource-based communities, ress in mood from euphoria to antagonism including islands, seashores, mountains as tourism grows or expands in their com- and other resource places are readily avail- munity. These and other models (Getz, able in the tourism literature (see e.g. 1986) provide useful frameworks for asking Stansfield, 1969; Price, 1992; Gill and Wil- questions about the impacts of tourism liams, 1994; Stokowski, 1996; Towner, development. 1996). Many of these also incorporate some Another area of emphasis in tourism assessment of environmental impacts, since impacts research focuses on interactions the quality of the resource base is intimately between tourists and residents of commu- linked to the success of the development. Assessing Social Impacts 271

Research about ecotourism and adventure case studies prevail. There is no single set of travel (see e.g. Boo, 1990) has also docu- indicators or methods that must be included mented the consequences of tourism’s in all social impact studies, and focus differs growth on resource places and remote native according to agency goals, theoretical cultures. While economic effects are often approach and complexity of the system. expressed as gains (although leakage Many unanswered questions remain about remains problematic), the social, political, the form, magnitude, potency, durability or and cultural consequences for local societ- resiliency of impacts over time in resource- ies are often viewed as negative. based recreation and tourism settings. Third, impacts research in resource- based recreation and tourism is often Discussion conducted only at one point in time, either when a new proposal is introduced, or after The theoretical basis for social impact stud- a development has opened. Longitudinal ies can be found in classical theories of research is needed to extend research individual benefit maximization, and social beyond mere documentation of the and political organization and moderniza- presence/absence of social impacts, and to tion. The ultimate goal of impacts research determine how impacts are interconnected is to predict the future and control unwan- and linked across social systems more gen- ted outcomes of social change. To do so, erally. Social impacts research should be relevant impacts data, measurement prac- extended to consider the individual and tices, and criteria for evaluating alternatives, cumulative effects of impacts across the are needed. Evaluation of the current status entire spectrum of planning or development of impacts research in resource-based – from initial announcement, to discussion, recreation and tourism provides documen- decision making and operation – and by tation for elaborating the five trends strengthening measures of perceived and identified earlier. actual impacts outcomes (Stokowski, First, analyses of economic benefits of 1996). resource-based recreation and tourism are Fourth, differences in approaches to the common in impacts studies. Well- study of impacts in recreation and tourism developed quantitative techniques exist to result both from legislative requirements measure these impacts, and their analysis mandating research needs, as well as the seems to be given high priority in policy nature of the system under study. Public applications. Economic values are seen to be recreation resources tend to be bound geo- more ‘defensible’ than other types of social graphically (a ‘park’ has specific acreage and impacts, and so are useful in justification of is managed by a specific agency), while tour- agency decisions. Over-emphasis on eco- ism systems often include an array of public nomic impacts, though, can minimize and private participants and resources. attention to other types of social impacts When impact studies are conducted in that may be equally relevant in planning, either context, the focus tends to be internal, management and policy making. As Won- ignoring the boundary-spanning nature of dolleck (1996, pp. 258–259) noted, ‘The impacts. A park may be required to conduct conventional systematic, technical analysis impact assessments relative to management conducted by resource managers is essential decisions implemented on those resource to making informed decisions, yet . . . hard- lands, but the consequences of those deci- to-define values do not fit within the sions may extend beyond park borders into traditional paradigms of professional land adjacent communities or regions. Likewise, management’. tourism developments in a community adja- Second, while many types of negative as cent to a protected resource area often have well as positive social, cultural and political no mandate for preparing impact assess- impacts are evident in recreation and tour- ments, yet their outcomes may impinge on ism projects, measurement is complex and the quality of experiences obtained, or the 272 Patricia A. Stokowski

management options available, within the interpretive research is needed, but unlike adjacent resource place. quantitative tools (such as cost–benefit anal- Fifth, contemporary social impact stud- ysis in economics), these approaches remain ies in resource-based recreation and tourism poorly developed in impacts research and in tend to be reductionist, tracing actions or social science more generally. There are decisions made by a corporate entity (a gov- obvious reasons why agencies might want to ernmental agency, a nongovernmental rely on primarily quantitative data in mak- organization, a private business) in causing ing and defending decisions, but methods or inflicting impacts upon a host commu- for incorporating meaningful qualitative nity, a regional economy, or visitors to a indicators in data collection procedures and resource place or attraction. This model evaluation processes must also be devel- ignores the historical context of decisions oped. and actions in which individuals and agencies operate. A more realistic, complex Trend 2: complex analyses model, however, suggests that resource The choice of impacts to consider in any agencies, tourism developers, residents of given study is generally a function of the communities, and even visitors and tourists types and number of issues raised in the themselves, might generate impacts. scoping process preparatory to SIA work, or Impacts may also accrue to all of these enti- the theoretical/practical interests of a social ties, each of whom has different goals, impacts research team. Setting the bound- status, requirements for public accountabil- aries of the research task too strictly, though, ity, and ability to cause, absorb or deflect may narrow the scope and scale of research impacts. to topics that are managerially relevant but not complete enough to reflect changes in the surrounding social and physical envi- Implications ronment. For example, defining a community only by geographic borders may There is widespread agreement about the exclude social relationships and interac- benefits of conducting social impacts tions beyond those borders that are affected research, but problems remain in under- by or affect impacts dispersion or mitiga- standing how to identify relevant impacts, tion. Disregarding difficult-to-measure measure them, and incorporate results into variables or ignoring variables that affect planning and policy making for resource- only a small segment of a population is also based recreation and tourism. Regardless of problematic. Without comparative studies whether research is conducted for a formal to determine whether policies, plans or impact assessment or a general study of developments have similar outcomes social impacts, implications for future regardless of setting, theoretical develop- research can be drawn from each trend iden- ment will be impossible. tified above. Trend 3: longitudinal research Trend 1: quantitative/qualitative analyses The use of SIAs is mandated in planning Both impact assessments and studies when federal properties or funds are require defensible methods and measure- involved. Agencies routinely prepare EA ment, and a specific concern noted in the documentation while developing their gen- literature relates to analysis of non- eral management plans, and the results of quantitative aspects of social impacts. Issues assessments are used to evaluate agency such as human values, morals and ideals; goals or alternatives for action. Incorpora- community quality of life; sense of place; tion of results from nonmandated, general and societal well-being, are integral to social impacts studies in policy making pro- human experience, yet may not be amenable cesses, however, is less clear. Research is to quantitative accounting. Qualitative or often carried out for theoretical exploration, Assessing Social Impacts 273

or is proprietary to the funding source and Trend 5: complex interactions not subject to community, government, or Traditional models of impacts production interest group review. The preponderance of and mitigation will, in the future, be inade- case studies in social impacts research quate for understanding the complex makes it difficult to generalize across studies interactions among resource agencies, pub- that use widely divergent methodologies, lics and communities, and impact approaches, settings, or theories. In addi- assessments and studies cannot rely on sim- tion, the inability of researchers to predict ple causal models that limit analyses to with certainty the types, quantities and mag- linear relationships. All components of a nitude of many kinds of social impacts revised impacts model must be called into leaves such studies vulnerable to disregard question. Research is needed not only about by policy makers and publics. impacts themselves, but about the types of The solution is to extend the focus of both agency decisions that produce changes in social impact studies and SIAs to include a the social environment, the form of the longitudinal focus as well as broader con- changes themselves, and the eventual crea- textual details surrounding proposed tion and mitigation of social impacts. A alternatives. Additionally, there is a need to circular, contextualized, and historical understand secondary or indirect and model of impact creation, rather than a lin- cumulative effects of social change over ear causal model, is required. Such a revised time, and effects that are dispersed across conceptualization raises a host of nontradi- space (tourism impacts, for example, occur tional questions for social impact studies not only in destination regions but also in and assessments. How do participants con- regions that generate tourism demand and struct realities about resources and resource transit regions through which tourists pass; places, and can those separate realities ever see Pearce, 1989). Criteria are also needed merge? How and why do some visions of for making comparisons among proposed reality come to the forefront, while others alternatives of SIAs so that relevant political languish? What impacts are most meaning- consequences are made apparent (K. ful to each interacting party (and how would Branch, Seattle, 1999, personal communi- a researcher analyse impacts if these were cation). also fluctuating in meaning)? Who is responsible for mitigation if the parties are engaged Trend 4: boundary-spanning in a process of mutual reality construction? An emerging international focus on region- Clearly, the ‘cookbook approach’ to defining alism and globalization requires new effort and analysing impacts, and the particula- towards visionary planning. Future studies ristic forms of many current social impact of social impacts will need to factor into case studies, are inadequate for more critical analyses an understanding of localism (local theorizing. history, culture, society, economy and politics) as well as a sensitivity to broad, external organizational and power influen- Summary ces (at regional, national or international levels) that are interwoven within the local The benefits of social impacts research in context. An example is provided by the resource-based recreation and tourism are emergence of ideals such as ecosystem man- generally accepted. Based on the historical agement, which – particularly in those development of this research area, five forms that require extensive coordination trends – related to analysis of quantitative and integration across public and private impacts, use of case study methods, lack of landowners as well as across resource types longitudinal research, focus on internal (Loomis, 1993) – will require a broad vision aspects of systems, and applications of lin- considering how to maximize positive and ear models – were identified. The reduce negative impacts across administra- implications of these trends are seen prima- tive boundaries. rily in planning, management and policy 274 Patricia A. Stokowski

making for resource-based recreation and planning and management, and contribute tourism. Implications include the need for to the preservation of valued community more interpretive, comparative and longitu- qualities and desired landscape settings. dinal research, and more complex Ultimately, attempting to predict social approaches to theorizing about impacts impacts and incorporating their evaluation across local, regional and global scales. The into resource-based recreation and tourism consideration of social impacts in resource- planning, management and policy should based recreation or tourism can be expected bring us closer to desired goals of commu- to produce more equitable, value-centred, nity and environmental sustainability. communal and civic approaches to amenity Part V Development: How Resources Are Organized For Use

25 Development Economics

John Fletcher and Stephen Wanhill

Introduction ies to move from agriculture, through production industries, to the service econ- The undoubted growth in the economic omy. In doing so, these processes have prosperity of the major industrial countries radically changed economic thinking about together with the travel revolution brought development, as this chapter will show. about through holidays with pay, lower Many smaller states have jumped the inter- international transport costs in real terms mediate stage by moving from primary and information technology, has seen world industries to the tertiary service sectors, tourism grow to a truly global business. One using tourism as the development vehicle. billion international arrivals are predicted By this means they have generated substan- for 2010, reaching 1.6 billion by 2020. Past tial increases in their living standards, growth has not been without fluctuations something that would never have been con- caused by shocks and cycles in the world templated in the classical theories of economy, but what is remarkable is the resil- development worked out in the early part of iency of the industry through troubled the 19th century. times. Discovery grows exponentially, thus the expansion of technology has made instant Theories of Development reservation and confirmation possible, to the point where the customer expects an The progress of economic thought in respect immediate response and, if not, chooses to development has been coloured by the another product. Technology will lead to historical circumstances in which econo- increasing integration between the different mists found themselves. Much of the sectors of the industry to allow the customer thinking is reflective of observations of the to put together ‘bespoke’ packages all on the world in which the writers lived and the same system, making the world an elec- prognosis for the future was derived from tronic marketplace. It has also brought down extrapolating perceived relationships to the real cost of travel, and in so doing has some limit point. With hindsight, it is possi- brought countries closer together. Thus long ble to look back and wonder how haul has come nearer to short haul, which in development theorists missed the obvious turn has permitted the former to grow faster and promulgated the obscure, yet this is to than the latter. take their reasoning out of context. As will Technological improvements and the be shown in what is to follow, despite many accumulation of capital have enabled societ- wrongheaded notions, some of the ideas of © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 277

278 John Fletcher and Stephen Wanhill

earlier writers still have meaning in the Dividing Equation (25.3) by Equation (25.2) modern world. and noting that (1 c) is the propensity to save, s, results in the fundamental growth Classical economics relationship The classical thinkers at the turn of the 19th century immersed themselves in the world GDP / GDP sk (25.4) of agricultural production. Because they could not foresee technological develop- The left-hand side of Equation (25.4) is the ment, nor the possibilities of voluntary birth rate of growth of GDP, which is determined control, they came up with the gloomy pre- by the savings rate (s) in the economy (the diction that population growth would means for investment) multiplied by the outstrip agricultural output, thereby leading productivity of that investment, as given by to stagnation and periodic outbreaks of fam- k. For GDP per capita not to fall, the value of ine. The mechanism for this was the law of sk must match the growth rate of the popula- diminishing returns, which comes about tion. This has been defined as the steady from applying more and more labour to a state or natural rate of growth. fixed supply of land and so lowers productivity. The ‘doom’ scenario is where the Marxism population eats its ‘seed corn’ so there is nothing left to plant. Such scenarios are It is somewhat of an enigma that the clas- observed in less developed countries (LDCs) sical thinkers were writing at a time when today and form headline news stories, but tremendous innovations were being made the circumstances which have brought them that would reshape the economies of West- about are more political than economic. ern Europe, usher in the factory system of What the classical economists did realize industrial production, and would see the was the importance of capital accumulation growth of major cities as centres of indus- for economic growth. It was their fear that trial output. The rise of the business class population growth would diminish the sur- (capitalists) controlling the means of pro- plus or profits available for investment. duction was seen by Karl Marx in terms of Investment is the engine of growth and social conflict, through the exploitation of development, as may be seen in the follow- the value of labour provided by the working ing simple model: classes (the proletariat). Profit in Marx’s terms was the ‘labour surplus value’ appro- ● From the demand side, Gross Domestic priated by capitalists from the workers and, Product (GDP) may be expressed as within this, capital contained the seeds of its own destruction. The expansion of capital GDP Consumption Investment would be accompanied by a falling rate of (25.1) profit and, in attempting to maintain their position, capitalists would invest in labour- Consumption c(GDP) (25.2) saving technologies, thus creating a reserve where c the propensity to army of unemployed. Furthermore, the consume. growth of monopoly power from capital Substitution of Equation (25.2) into accumulation would encourage the demise Equation (25.1) and collecting terms, of small businesses to the ranks of the prole- gives tariat, as capitalists competed for market GDP Investment / (1 c) share. ● From the supply side, the potential Marx’s prediction was that eventually the increase in GDP is proletariat would revolt and seize control of the means of production, which would then GDP k(Investment) (25.3) be invested in common ownership to bring where k the incremental output- in an era of socialism. In time, socialism is capital ratio. displaced by communism and the state, Development Economics 279

with its power to compel, withers away. The sufficient domestic savings, there is nothing irony is that Marx’s revolution took place in wrong with borrowing from outside, pro- the least capitalistic country in Europe, Rus- vided the money is invested wisely. Too sia. Nevertheless, his views are still often it has been the case that the money has influential as a creed for populations discon- been spent on prestige projects or has sim- tented with their governments or concerned ply disappeared, with corresponding about the globalization of capital and its limited effects on economic growth. ability to act independently of democrat- As was consistent with the economic ically elected governments. thinking of the time, the takeoff stage would Marx’s insight into the capitalist system be achieved through a planned package of can be found in the dilemma facing many of industrial developments with infrastructure today’s governments, when contemplating support. This spurred the construction of a the microelectronic and IT revolutions, range of deterministic planning models to which have displaced old ‘Fordist’ labour- set targets for investment and production. using production processes. On the one Emphasis was given to rapid capital accu- hand it is hard to accept the political con- mulation and investment in basic sequences of rising unemployment, while industries, with the state being given a on the other, countries cannot afford not to strong planning role. Furthermore, pessi- invest in new technologies if they are to mism about export opportunities remain internationally competitive. The contributed to import substitution strategies solution lies in the new jobs that technolo- as yielding the best returns. In this context, gies create in their wake and an appropriate the service economy would develop to meet welfare safety net to ease the transition the needs of local industry, rather than as an process. export industry in its own right. Unfortunately, despite the availability of Stages of development foreign aid, many LDCs do not have the business environment to take on such mas- In the post-war period, a historical compar- sive investments as implied by Rostow’s ison between industrialized countries and takeoff stage. Hirschman (1958), noting that LDCs led Rostow (1971) to expound a theory many developing countries already have a of development which asserts that the tran- mixture of investments and are not starting sition of an economy from a traditional from scratch, recommended a strategy of society to an age of mass consumption is supporting those sectors of the economy that possible through a series of economic stages. initiate further investment decisions. Spe- The most important stage is the ‘takeoff’ cifically, planners should consider the when resistance to change in traditional interdependence of one investment project ways is finally overcome and modern indus- with another and encourage investment in tries begin to expand. It is characterized by: sectors that have the greatest complementary effect, as identified by their backward ● A sharp increase in investment; (purchases) and forward (sales) linkages ● Rapid growth in at least one substantial with the rest of the economy. In this respect, manufacturing sector; and tourism has strong backward linkages to dif- ● Institutional reform to support the ferent enterprises because of the broad range expanding modern sectors of the econ- of goods and services demanded by visi- omy. tors.

Rostow’s analysis is more a generalized Modern development policy interpretation of economic history than a The modern view envisages the broad objec- theory, but it found favour with multina- tive of a development strategy to be one of tional aid agencies because it promised a raising living standards. This cannot only be takeoff for LDCs once a sufﬁcient infusion of seen through increasing levels of per capita capital was made. When a country lacks GDP; it includes welfare, the environment 280 John Fletcher and Stephen Wanhill

and enhancing the opportunities for all cit- nomic appraisal process (Wanhill, 1994). izens to participate in and benefit from the The purpose is to ensure a better economic activities of society. This must include the climate, so new projects could function eradication of absolute poverty, provision of more efficiently, thus improving returns. employment opportunities, and the reduc- However, governments are not alone in their tion of huge disparities in inequality, task. The problems of poverty, unemploy- because of the political tensions they gen- ment and income inequality are perceived erate and because egalitarian policies result in an international setting, so there is a range in more citizens realizing their potential, of multinational agencies to assist countries thus enhancing social and economic effi- in their development objectives. ciency. In a democracy, the difficult task of government is to build a consensus on these issues, drawn from shared values, tradi- Development in a Market Economy tions, cultures and a sense of belonging. The instruments for achieving the above The modern view of development has come aims are carefully selected development about for reasons that are both theoretical projects, which link this modern view to the and empirical. The economic theory of mar- work of Hirschman (1958). Deterministic kets as an efficient means for allocating planning models were helpful in setting resources is well documented. The prices goals, but the reality is one of uncertainty in set in the marketplace serve as the adjust- which the information is defective and the ment mechanism by: various economic agents are not under the planner’s control. So what is needed are ● Rewarding sellers; robust development strategies and flexible ● Rationing available supplies among institutions that operate well under a wide buyers; set of relevant environments. The current ● Relaying information forward from sell- consensus, based on theory and experience, ers, showing relative costs of is that markets should be given primacy in production or scarcity value, and back- the production and allocation of goods and wards from customers, showing their services, but to obtain socially desirable out- relative preferences by what they are comes it is the task of government to provide prepared to pay. an institutional infrastructure in which markets can function. By this means, markets are able to deal with Thus, traditional demand management some of the fundamental issues in econom- policies and state planning have been aban- ics, namely, what should be produced, the doned in favour of macrostabilization method of production, and for whom the policies to ensure sound money and micro- product is produced. policies to make markets work better. This is However, it has been the continuing glo- less so in LDCs due to their political struc- balization of competition and the classic ture and the lack of private institutions to failure of state planning (as has been wit- take on development. Concern is for action nessed in the appalling productivity record to remove the structural rigidities that have of the Eastern European countries), leading given rise to the dualistic nature of many to the collapse of the communist system, LDCs, where the traditional and modern are that has given confirmation to the market- found alongside each other. Bitter experi- oriented view. Globalization and reduced ence has shown that market-oriented transport costs have facilitated export- projects in LDCs with inappropriate macro- oriented strategies and the transfer of economic policies have struggled to survive. technology between countries in which This acknowledgement heralded in an era of there is little role for the state. This is in structural adjustment, dating from the marked contrast to some of the propositions 1980s, to build onto the characteristics of arising from Rostow’s analysis. dualism already accounted for in the eco- Since the mid-1990s, world trade has Development Economics 281

been growing at about 6% per annum, just because of resistance to high taxes by the over twice the rate of world GDP, making electorate. This has led to cutbacks in public economies more open and increasing the expenditure, privatization of infrastructure, internationalization of activities and inter- and the demand that some public merit dependency between countries. This goods such as museums, galleries and parks, opening of trade and the export success of which also form part of the tourist product, the South East Asian countries (despite should charge for their services. The view is internal troubles caused by poor economic forming that in an economy that has the management and the impact on global stock appropriate institutional structure to ensure markets) have shown that the promotion of that markets perform as they are supposed exports can be an effective strategy for the to, then there should be no reason to have transfer of technology and enhancing the more than a small state enterprise sector. competitiveness of domestic industries.

Key trends Regional Development The most significant trends to note from the global changes are: The issue of state intervention at the ● Increasing financial openness giving regional level has waxed and waned with rise to mobility of capital: the capital the political complexion of governments. controls that existed in the post-war While regional disparities are obvious, there period until the 1970s are being dis- were no clear guidelines for intervention mantled. The IT revolution is other than market failure, and the spatial accelerating this process; direction of industry has run counter to the ● Accordingly, enterprises are becoming current policy view that the location deci- increasingly footloose and relocating in sion is part of the market adjustment their major export markets; process. For some time, the theoretical ● The impact of technology in speeding underpinnings of regional growth analysis up the innovation process from inven- could not support the pragmatic intervention to placing new products in the tionist approach. marketplace, which, in turn, accelerates obsolescence; Regional growth theory ● Despite restrictive immigration policies The development of the fundamental there has been increasing international growth relationship (Equation 25.4), which labour mobility. Better education and dominated the economic literature until the falling transport costs have seen a rising late 1980s was based on the neoclassical flow of young workers to the industrial models of Solow (1956) and Swan (1956). countries; The neoclassical economic tradition of ● International mobility of ideas, know- growth, whether applied at a national or how and culture; in an increasingly regional level, stresses the influence of basic computer literate population, no gov- supply factors such as labour force growth, ernment striving for technological the growth in capital stock, and some exoge- development will be able to stop its cit- nous technical change, on the level of izens from surfing the web. output. This approach draws heavily on the assumption that the market allocates resour- Role of government ces efficiently so that at any one time With the rise in market power and the glo- regional disparities are a transitory phenom- balization of competition, it is becoming enon as resources are reallocated between more difficult for the governments in the regions to achieve convergence toward some industrial democracies to meet their tradi- steady-state rate of growth. Moreover, Barro tional obligations in terms of education, and Sala-i-Martin (1995) have shown that social security, health and pensions, this convergence process is relatively quick, 282 John Fletcher and Stephen Wanhill

halving regional disparities every 12 years. poles make them magnets for movements of The prescription for policy is clear; allow economic resources, including the labour market forces to act and wait. In practice, the force from other regions. The underlying flexibility in factor movements and prices adjustment processes can be identified in that this requires are rarely, if ever, achieved the backward and forward linkages. With and so the neoclassical perfect competition backward linkages, as enterprises move to adjustment mechanism fails to operate. Fur- the core, they increase demand, making it thermore, the idea that technical progress more attractive for other firms to locate at the ‘rains down from heaven’ to make labour core. In the case of forward linkages, the steadily more productive contradicts more firms move to the core, the easier they common-sense policy notions of encourag- make it for existing firms to buy the same ing savings/investment and efficiency to product diversity at lower prices, due to boost economic growth. These criticisms greater specialization and lower transport are underlined in newer growth theories, costs. which take account of market power and knowledge accumulation as generating competitive advantage through increasing Implications for Tourism returns to scale. In these circumstances, private returns are no longer the same as social Tourism development returns and so there is no longer any reason With tourism set to be one of the main inter- why market allocation should be efficient. national economic drivers in the 21st The lack of realism and the failure of the century, together with increasing demands neoclassical paradigm to recognize the from the domestic population for leisure importance of demand has led post- and recreation, the industry is a develop- Keynesian economists to place particular ment option that few governments can emphasis on the role of regional exports as afford to ignore. Yet the increasing with- the main generator of output growth. drawal of the state from matters to do with Growth is seen as demand determined for industrial development makes it necessary the simple reason that no region’s develop- to query whether the public sector has any ment could be constrained by supply, when role in tourism. factors of production are mobile. A significant aspect of this export-base explanation Public Sector Role of development has been the way in which The case for government involvement in the principle of cumulative causation tourism can be made along traditional lines through knowledge accumulation has been in terms of the: built into models of regional development ● Complexity of the tourist product; (Kaldor, 1970; Dixon and Thirlwall, 1975). ● Institutional structure; Thus, once regional disparities occur, they ● Guardianship of the resource base; tend to become cumulative and self- ● Market failure. perpetuating as regions exploit the benefits of economies of scale and greater special- The complexity of the product is indi- ization. This is known as Verdoorn’s Law cated by the characteristics of a tourist’s (1949), which is, in essence, ‘learning by journey, where it will be appreciated that doing’ that raises productivity and feeds the trip is not a single product, but rather it into the competitiveness of the region’s is made up of components supplied by a exports, in turn raising output growth, variety of organizations with different objec- which stimulates the continuation of the tives and different economic structures. cumulative process. Furthermore, each offering may be consid- The concepts implicit in the Verdoorn ered unique, as visitors add their own relationship may also be found in the preferences to the total experience. In this ‘growth pole’ ideas of Perroux (1955) and manner, the tourist becomes part of the pro- Myrdal (1957): the efficiency of growth duction process. Development Economics 283

Market success is the delivering of the tions and agencies, primarily through right mix of components to satisfy the concern expressed for the natural environ- demands of the visitor, but this delivery ment. However, in tourism there is the requires coordination and cooperation. A broader relationship of visitors to the phys- critical difference between tourism and ical and social environment, and so many other agents of development is that of sustainability may be summarized as devel- inseparability, in that tourism is consumed opment which meets the needs of present at the place of production, thus involving tourists and host regions while protecting itself with the host community, and requir- and enhancing opportunities for the future ing some commodification and sharing of (WTO, 1993a). The public is evidently traditions, value systems and culture becoming more aware of the perceived (Cohen, 1988). Since the tourist industry adverse effects of tourism on the environ- does not control all those factors which ment and it has become fashionable to ‘go make up the attractiveness of a destination green’: Muller’s (1997) ‘green viruses’ and the impact on the host population can appear to be spreading. Some operators have be considerable, then the essence of success- consciously taken the decision to reduce ful tourism development is the creation of a their consumption of natural resources to ‘partnership’ that is incentive compatible the benefit of the organization and staff for the various stakeholders in the activity of alike. Others have used the concept that tourism; central and local government, green tourism is equated with ‘soft’ tourism, quasi-public bodies such as tourist boards, which has low impact and is therefore voluntary organizations and charitable acceptable, as little more than a marketing trusts, the private commercial sector, the tactic. But, in general, there has been a rise local community and the visitors them- in the ‘green’ lobby, which the industry selves. must take account of from the standpoint of As a rule, it may be observed that the both its markets and the increasing volume greater the importance of tourism to a coun- of legislation. However, green tourism, eco- try’s economy the greater is the involvement tourism or alternative tourism (the words of the public sector, to the point of having a are often used synonymously) are in essence government ministry with sole responsibil- small scale solutions to what is a large scale ity for tourism. In this manner, the options problem, namely the mass movements of concerning the development of tourism can people travelling for leisure purposes. Thus, be considered at the highest level of govern- there is still a requirement to continue to ment. The ideal institutional structure is one create large ‘resortscapes’ capable of manag- that is compatible with the global marketing high-density flows. place in which the tourist industry finds If the institutional framework is to func- itself, but offers the incentives for the ‘part- tion in a way that is socially compatible, nership’ to engage in socially and then there is a prerequisite for local involve- economically constructive activities, thus ment in the development process to avoiding or resolving conflict and prevent- encourage discussion about future direc- ing actions which enrich one partner at the tions. This has generated interest in models expense of another. Typically the emphasis of community tourism development (Mur- is placed on trust, but this is commonly phy, 1985; Inskeep, 1991). Cultural conflicts surrounded by a legal framework that gives need to be resolved through, say, staging powers of compulsion, something that is development and using marketing commu- necessary for long term agreements. What nication channels to prepare guests better makes the public sector unique is that the for their holiday experience. As a rule, the state has a monopoly on the legitimate use of greater the difference in lifestyles between force to ensure compliance. hosts and guests and the less the former have The concept of sustainable development been exposed to visitors, then the longer (Brundtland, 1987) is infiltrating the policy should be the period of adaptation. framework of many government organiza- The market failure argument follows on 284 John Fletcher and Stephen Wanhill

from what has said above, namely that envi- looking for and what role it envisages for the ronmental protection and community private entrepreneur. In most cases, eco- ownership of the development process are nomics forms the basis of tourism not guaranteed by the free market. Those development plans. Within this framework who argue for the market mechanism as the three objectives tend to be given the central sole arbiter in the allocation of resources for position, subject to the proviso that it is no tourism are ignoring the lessons of history longer considered acceptable in political and are grossly oversimplifying the hetero- terms that these objectives should be ach- geneous nature of the product. The early ieved at a cost to the environment or by growth of the seaside resorts during the lat- adversely affecting the host community: ter half of the 19th century, as, for example, in the UK, was the result of a partnership ● Employment creation through spread- between the public and private sectors ing the benefits of tourism, both direct (Cooper and Jackson, 1989; Cooper, 1992). and indirect, to as many of the host The local authorities invested in the prom- population as possible; enades, piers, gardens and so on, while the ● Foreign exchange earnings to ensure a private sector developed the revenue- sound Balance of Payments; earning activities, which enhanced the ● Regional development, notably in income of the area and in turn increased peripheral areas, which, by their very property tax receipts for the authorities. nature, are attractive to tourists and Thus, embodied in the tourist product are often have few alternative develop- common goods and services, which are ments. either unlikely to be provided in sufficient quantity if left to the market mechanism, or It is important that governments should available without cost, as is the case with not set objectives that may seriously conflict natural resources. The principal concern for with each other. Too often governments talk the environment is that indiscriminate con- of tourism quality yet measure performance sumption, without market regulation, will in terms of numbers. Yet, the question of the cause irreversible damage that cannot be environment is a difficult one to maintain compensated by increasing the stock of when it threatens to be a drag on the econ- other capital. omy in matters of employment creation. The The upshot is that the single-minded pur- implementation of policy therefore becomes suit of private profit opportunities within a process of maintaining the balance tourism may be self-defeating, as many older between the various objectives as opposed resorts have found to their cost (Plog, 1973). to trying to maximize any single one. Legis- The outcome may not be the integrated tour- lation and investment support given by ism development which distills the essence governments for tourism developments are of the country in its design, but a rather the instruments used to realize the balance crowded, overbuilt and placeless location of objectives set by the country’s tourism with polluted beaches; one that is totally out policy. of keeping with the original objectives set by the country’s tourism policy. For example, Regional tourism strategy the major hotel developments that took Much of regional tourism development place in the resorts of southern Spain during planning is underpinned by the growth pole the 1960s and early 1970s were completed principle, with the aim of raising regional under laissez-faire expansionism with little export values through tourism. The focus is consideration given to planning or control. the creation of a destination through an investment strategy that provides a balanced Tourism policy range of facilities to meet visitor require- The precise nature of a country’s stance on ments and at a level which gives the area tourism investment is determined by the ‘tourism presence’ in the marketplace. As an kind of development the government is illustration, within the European Union, Development Economics 285

upon the adoption of the Single European commercial development is likely to create Act in 1987, there was a commitment by the more problems than it solves. It is right and Union to promote economic and social proper that the private sector should con- cohesion through actions to reduce regional centrate on commercial criteria for their disparities. In response, the 1992 Maastricht investment projects, but successful develop- Treaty acknowledged, for the first time, the ment requires that there should be a role of tourism in these actions (Wanhill, partnership between the various stakehold- 1997). ers in the activity of tourism. To achieve the desired level and type of The role of coordinating such a partner- tourism development in Europe, member ship, to achieve the desired level of tourism states may invoke a variety of policy instru- development, falls on the public sector. The ments or levers on the demand and supply economic theory suggests that targeting spe- side as part of their partnership role. But, cific projects and concentration to ensure since the late 1980s, greater emphasis has ’tourism visibility’ is the most appropriate been given to stimulating small tourism strategy. Given that tourist movements will firms and indigenous development for long- increase both nationally and internation- run sustainability, as opposed to attracting ally, there will be a need for more regulation large scale inward investment projects. and improved management of tourism However, it would be naïve to suppose that resources to prevent environmental degra- tourism development could be effective in dation. The current approach cannot be one every region or locality. Increasing market that tries to reverse the market changes that segmentation will generate niche markets have taken place. Such a policy would now for some areas, but the cost of supplying be difficult to implement, as the increasing these markets could be prohibitive. globalization of economic activity has reduced the power of national governments to control their destinies. Rather, the move Conclusions should be toward a more pragmatic approach to intervention and regulation that With tourism marked out as one of the key should place an increasing emphasis on economic sectors for the 21st century, it has international collaboration. raised development and employment It would be convenient if there were a few opportunities that few governments can instruments or levers, which could be con- afford to dismiss. Modern development eco- sidered optimal for the implementation of nomics assigns a greater role to market tourism policy. Certainly, the tourist indus- power to determine the allocation of resour- try responds strongly to legislation and the ces, with government being given the task of availability of finance, but the tourist prod- providing the institutional structure for uct varies so much around the globe that it is markets to function. However, the complex- customary for states to adopt a bundle of ity of the tourist product and the current instruments and adjust them over time, in emphasis on sustainable tourism, indicates response to feedback information on their that, based on past experience, uncontrolled workings.

26 Globalization and Tourism

Peter F. Keller

Introduction conditions, company structures and the local factors. The main question here is Globalization is a trend that requires some whether there is a need for action in the area clariﬁcation. What in fact does the term of tourism policy, and if so who should be mean? And what are the driving forces taking such action? behind this controversial process? As with other trend-setting developments, globalization too has its countercurrent. Is the Mega-trend at the Turn of the increasing internationalization of the world Century irreversible, or is the local level regaining importance? The term ‘globalization’ is a typical buzz- Such questions are of particular interest word of the 1990s. It refers to the ever in relation to tourism-dependent sectors of increasing networking or integration of the economy, which are strongly affected by players in the world economy. It is not, this mega-trend of globalization. The however, a purely economic phenomenon, rapidly growing demand for ever more dis- but rather a mega-trend which is resulting in tant travel destinations is helping to the internationalization of all social, cul- reinforce and accelerate the process of glo- tural and political relations (Keller, 1996). balization. The clearest evidence of this The march of civilization toward a global would surely be provided by an analysis of condition is manifest, dynamic and hetero- the structures of the world market. Other geneous. This process is indeed nothing questions that arise in this context are as more than the adaptation of the parts of a follows: Does the internationalization of system to the system itself. It is a process demand not lead to the destruction of that is making the world smaller, doing jus- mature supply structures in the traditional tice to the image of our planet as a closed destinations? Can small-to-medium-sized circle – a sphere, a ‘globe’ or put another enterprises (SMEs) cope with the additional way, a ‘global village’. competition and the changes associated As a matter of fact, there is nothing new with this process (Fig. 26.1)? about globalization. Adam Smith, the father The latter question can only be answered of the modern science of economics, has by means of careful analysis of the develop- already described the phenomenon. Eco- ment prospects under conditions of nomic historians indeed have come to the globalization. This analysis must focus par- conclusion that the world economy was ticularly on the tourism markets, production even more open before the World War I than © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 287 288 Peter F. Keller

Fig. 26.1. The globalization process – the important questions from the tourism policy point of view. it is today. What is new is the extent to economic, political and technological chan- which the process has been gathering speed. ges occurring in the same time frame. It began with the transition from fixed to Among such variables of acceleration we flexible exchange rates and the liberaliza- may number the triumphal advance of the tion of capital transfers and financial market economy with the corresponding transactions. Another new aspect is the retreat of the planned economy; the estab- intensification of networking that has come lishment of worldwide competition as the with technological advances in the areas of ethic of free trade and the global norm; the transport and telecommunications. And the improvement of living standards, and the extent to which globalization now extends lowering of transport and communication to all corners of the globe is also new. Inter- costs. Tourism has played a part in accel- nationalization is no longer a phenomenon erating these changes which, in turn, are that affects only the trade triangle of Amer- having a considerable impact on the tourism ica, Europe and Japan. Today’s global market itself. market includes a growing number of emerg- The introduction of market economy ing economies. organization in countries that were formerly run as planned economies under communist regimes, and the gradual transition to Variables of Acceleration the same open market economy in the developing and emerging nations has resulted in a The forward-going process of globalization much larger total market. The phenomenon is driven by the coincidence of fundamental known variously as ‘Reaganomics’ and Globalization and Tourism 289

‘Thatcherism’ was used to describe the proc- jet age has increased dramatically. In the ess of internal deregulation adopted by the heyday of the Wild West, as in Europe’s leading western industrial nations. At the belle époque, a mail coach could cover up to international level it went hand in hand 160 km in a day. A modern jet covers 1000 with liberalization across national bound- km in just an hour. Information, including aries. In contrast to the General Agreement images, travels at the speed of light today. on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the new World It is beyond a doubt that tourism benefits Trade Organization also regulates trade in greatly from the variables of acceleration services and the protection of intellectual that are part of the globalization process. property. The capital and currency markets The spatial growth of the world market has have been extensively liberalized. The brought a number of brand-new destinations worldwide trend toward liberalization is into the limelight. The new international accompanied by another phenomenon, that destinations arriving on the market are over- of regional integration. Meanwhile the Euro- taking the traditional tourism countries. The pean Union, which is planning a major general improvement in living standards extension of its sphere by moving its fron- thanks to competition has opened new tiers eastwards, is in the process of creating regions of the world to tourism. The East an almost completely deregulated economic Asia–Pacific region has thus become an and monetary union with the introduction important area for tourism in just one dec- of the Euro. ade. As for intercontinental tourism, this In a world economy that has been exten- sector owes its above average rate of growth sively liberalized, competition helps to to technology’s conquest of time and space, ensure innovation, increased productivity and to the fact that transport costs have been and growth. In conditions of global competi- greatly reduced. A great many of the new tion, the winners are the countries with the tourism countries depend almost entirely on most open economies. The globalization the availability of inexpensive flight con- process confirms the theory of comparative nections. costs of David Riccardo. Each nation bene- International tourism not only benefits fits from free trade in making use of its from favourable exogenous developments, relative cost advantages and competitive but has the effect of a motor that speeds up advantages. Protectionism acts as a brake on the development of worldwide integration. growth and improvements in the standard of In the emerging and developing nations, the living. In the wake of the so-called ‘Asian net currency effect contributes greatly to the crisis’, which has brought the banking sys- creation of modern economies. Globaliza- tem to its knees in some emerging nations, a tion is not a zero sum game. It also brings great many economists have called into considerable growth potential to the tradi- question the worldwide liberalization of tional tourism countries, potential which capital transactions and have at the same indeed has not been fully exploited in all time called for the introduction of controls places! (Baghwati, 1998). They are forgetting the fact that it is not free trade so much as the structural weaknesses of the banking sys- Internationalization and Localization tems of the countries in question, with the lack of international fair play and rules gov- There are, however, economists who con- erning competition, that are at the root of the sider globalization as no more than a myth. current economic difficulties. They like to point out that industry has been Competition also creates the conditions shrinking due to international competition for technological progress which in turn in terms of productivity, while maintaining helps to speed up the process of global inte- its share of global output in real terms (Bau- gration. I am referring in particular to mol, 1991). The services sector, on the other innovations in the areas of transport and hand, which to some extent at least is tied to communication. The speed of travel in this a specific location, continues to gain ground. 290 Peter F. Keller

The internationalization of industry thus from products that range from skiing in the contrasts with the localization of services Rocky Mountains to swimming in Bali at the (Krugman and Obstfeld, 1991). We may other end of the globe. Global competition safely conclude, therefore, that global com- for clients with considerable purchasing petition factors are not alone in determining power means that there are no guarantees of wages, prices or the general development of success even for suppliers offering unique the economy. Future economic develop- services of the highest quality. Increasingly ment will depend much more on the important are the price and the general eco- independent (endogenous) growth of serv- nomic conditions in the production ice economies with strong ties to specific location. In this context the question that locations. must be asked is whether the emerging and Tourism in particular is affected by these developing countries enjoy more favourable contradictory trends of internationalization local growth potential than do the highly and localization, and the tradeoff between developed nations, with their hard curren- them. Contrary to the opinion of many policies and relatively high levels of cost. ticians, tourism-dependent sectors of the economy are much more internationalized than other sectors. In all the most developed Structure and Development of the nations, tourism is involved in intensive World Market import–export competition. The spending of foreign visitors in the host country con- The international demand in tourism has stitutes the export portion, and the spending been more or less developed to the same of residents of the host country on foreign extent as air travel, and to a slightly greater travel constitutes the import share. The extent than world trade and the world econ- degree of internationalization of a given omy as a whole. Indeed a country must have branch can be measured with the help of the reached a certain level of development Index of Revealed Competitive Advantages before it can enjoy real tourism growth. The (RCA), which identifies the export surplus tourism world market is virtually a closed by relating the export and import totals. shop, open almost exclusively to the most The degree of internationalization developed countries, which share similar depends on the development of tourism demand preferences and supply structures. demand. As the key magnitude of the tour- International tourism is a matter of ‘com- ism phenomenon, this is strongly petition between equals’. As recently as the influenced by the ever greater distances cov- 1950s, international tourism was limited to ered by those who travel to ever more remote just a handful of Organization for Economic locations. But tourism demand benefits the Cooperation and Development (OECD) local economy through tourist spending. countries specializing in the business of Which sectors of the economy are tourism- tourism. But whereas in 1950 the overnights dependent can be determined by tracing amounted to just 25 million in the area of these expenditures. A characteristic of these international tourism, by 1997 their number ‘incoming’ branches in developed econo- had increased to 612 million, a figure which mies is that the largest share of value added above all reflects the increase in interna- is in the home market. In contrast with the tional tourism made possible by the less developed countries, there is scarcely interdependency of the OECD countries and any need to import intermediate goods from a general improvement in the standards of other countries (Keller and Koch, 1995). living in this area. A good two-thirds of the As an internationalized sector of the total remains concentrated in the western economy with high value added for the industrial nations. home market, tourism acts as a strong multi- What is new is the arrival of the increas- plier in developed countries. It is, however, ingly market-oriented developing and exposed to competition on a worldwide emerging nations among the group of coun- basis. The potential client is free to choose tries that count most in tourism on a Globalization and Tourism 291

quantitative basis. This is in fact a relatively haul’ tourism. Today this sector accounts for small group, which in the past few years has 18% of international tourism. The World managed to attract more than 90% of the Tourism Organization (WTO), revising flow of private capital. The growth of tour- upwards its earlier forecast, predicts this ism has been greatest in 12 emerging proportion will increase to about 24% in the economies of Eastern Asia, Latin America, year 2020. It is likely indeed that interconti- China and India (World Bank, 1998). With nental tourism will increase substantially in the exception of the island states, the poorer terms of absolute figures, but more steadily developing countries participate relatively in percentage terms. A glance at the flow of little in the globalization process. In these intercontinental travel in Fig. 26.2 indicates countries, the most pressing problem is the clearly that the frequency is the greatest by need to alleviate poverty, in an effort to far on the North Atlantic route between improve the chances of these countries one North America and Europe, as well as day being able to integrate the world market between the East Asian–Pacific region and in tourism. North America, and Europe (WTO, 1998a). The geographical distribution of tourism flows and revenues is not homogeneous in the wider tourism world market that Structural Impacts includes both developed and emerging nations. Despite the internationalization of The internationalization of demand has not demand, the home markets and the markets been without consequences. The traditional of the closest neighbours in each continent tourism countries have lost market share. remain by far the most important regions of This is a logical enough development, in tourism in each of the respective continents view of the fact that the new competitors are intraregional tourism. The globalization growing at a faster and greater rate. Moreo- process is far from being at an end, even in ver, the lion’s share of the new growth tourism. Some 82% of cross-border tourism concerns intraregional travel in the East takes place within these continental regions, Asia–Pacific region. Finally, one must point for example Europe or East Asia–Pacific. out in this context that the traditional desti- Thus the people of central and northern nations are not taking enough advantage of Europe take their holidays in the Mediterra- the intercontinental growth opportunities. nean region or in the Alps, while Despite the fact that demand is growing Australians prefer to visit nearby Bali and everywhere, competitive pressure has con- the Japanese go to New Zealand. tinued to increase on the supply side. This It is also a fact that intraregional tourism phenomenon is being aggravated by the is only part of a country’s income from all overcapacity that exists in the air travel and tourism activities, the extent of which accommodation sectors. The extension of depends on the size and state of develop- the world market has greatly increased the ment of the country concerned. Domestic supply worldwide. From 1985 to 1994, in a tourism (i.e. the contribution to tourism rev- period of 9 years, more than a million new enues which the residents of a country make hotel rooms have been created in North and through internal tourism activities) is far South America, with an equivalent amount more important than cross-border tourism in Europe and an additional 740,000 in the in the most touristic countries like the US East Asia–Pacific region. Based on these and France. There are, however, no coherent amazing figures, it is safe to conclude that international statistics in this area. Even so, globalization has led to competition on both in the US we know that less than 10% of the price and quality between the various desti- population goes abroad for holidays. In nations, despite the extra growth. It is above France, domestic tourism accounts for some all the SMEs that bear the brunt of this extra 70% of all overnight stays. competition. One of the most important indicators of The extensive internationalization of globalization is intercontinental or ‘long- tourism demand has resulted in the creation 292 Peter F. Keller

Fig. 26.2. The globalization of international tourism – forecasts with regard to the most important intercontinental travel flow lines, 2010. Source: WTO, Madrid (1996). of large corporations, which are in a position New competitors indeed benefit from soft to take advantage of the ever spreading glo- currencies and low-cost production factors, balization of the economy. Airline or at least they will in the short- and companies, tour operators, hotel empires, medium-term. They are thus in a position to resort developers and car rental firms oper- offer attractive prices, which means they are ate according to global strategies, and make better able to compete on price. use of local competitive advantages in a State-of-the-art tourism infrastructure, worldwide market. Production is in their equipment and installations are often lack- case industrial and highly professional. ing at every level in the traditional tourism They are constantly expanding, making countries. New attractions in particular are adroit use of their financial might and con- often lacking. The supply of accommoda- siderable influence in the marketplace. They tion may have fallen so far behind in some are able to leapfrog any barriers to the mobil- sectors that it falls well short of the level ity of production factors that might remain. international hotel chains set as a minimum The globalization process is unsettling requirement. This is far from being the case for all those enterprises, organizations and in the new competitor countries. Most of countries which, for whatever reason, have these offer new attractions and installations not managed to remain competitive. First designed to please modern tastes. and foremost among these are the traditional A problem common to all traditional tourism countries. In most cases, these are tourism countries is the predominance of plagued by unfavourable general condi- SMEs which suffer from low productivity tions, often have to rely on out-of-date and and from what is sometimes called ‘cost unattractive infrastructures, are hampered sickness’. Despite the difference between by their lack of size or ‘critical mass’, and fail their productivity and that of the economy to make good use of the general advantages as a whole, their prices have to reflect the of the destination. general level of prices in the national econ- The basic question that needs to be asked omy. Their services are expensive as a today is whether or not the general eco- result. Major efforts may be made to counter nomic conditions in highly developed this price disadvantage by providing excep- economies are in fact favourable to tourism. tional quality. But this approach is rarely Globalization and Tourism 293

Fig. 26.3. Future tourism development in conditions of globalization.

cost-effective. The new competitor coun- opment of tourism in the conditions of tries, on the other hand, tend to operate globalization (Fig. 26.3). through companies and organizations which are larger and more profitable. Marketing At the destination level, traditional tour- Markets ism countries tend to have extremely The question which currently concerns the fragmented supply organization. The pro- markets is what preferences clients are viders of various services are often reluctant likely to develop in the future. It appears to work as partners to create a common that the world as a whole is developing sim- product. There is a lack of cooperation both ilar expectations regarding the comfort of horizontally and vertically. The situation is installations and the quality of services in very different in the new tourism countries, tourism. On the other hand when it comes to where resorts have sprung up out of thin air, choosing where to go, cultural differences ready to operate as a cohesive system. and the uniqueness of destinations play an ever greater role, as do certain destination- like products such as leisure parks and Implications for Development cruise ships. Global information and reservation sys- The globalization process will have a con- tems are already having a major influence, siderable influence on future development. and altering the typical tourist’s behaviour. Here too, the main trend runs counter to a Today’s tourist finds it increasingly easy to number of lesser trends. Based on our cur- obtain information, with the help of multi- rent knowledge we can safely reach several media technology, and to discover the most empirical conclusions regarding the devel- advantageous travel arrangements, the most 294 Peter F. Keller

attractive destinations and the best prices. Management This is having the effect of increasing price Production conditions transparency worldwide, allowing the cus- The liberalization of transactions and capi- tomer to make comparisons across the tal transfers has increased the amount being board. invested in new destinations considerably. But while the production factor of capital Destinations has been extensively liberalized, labour The arrival on the market of new destina- remains as immobile as ever. In the case of tions and destination-like products has less qualified labour, the low wages to be resulted in a kind of touristic ‘hypercompe- found in the developing and emerging tition’. This forces individual destinations economies have increasingly become the to differentiate themselves, to develop standard for industrial production. This has unique products and to reposition them- effectively meant the transfer of less pro- selves with the help of new strategies. ductive jobs and sectors from the developed Destinations need to be built up and pro- world to the developing world. At the same moted in the same way as brands. Only then time the ‘innovation explosion’ in the devel- can one ensure that a location or region will oped countries has resulted in ever greater never ‘go out of fashion’ (Keller, 1998). employment and income disparities To be consistent, an international brand between skilled and unskilled jobs. policy must be able to rely on quality assur- It is not possible to transfer abroad the ance at the destination level. Success in the relatively less productive and personalized positioning of a destination brand is not services of tourism, as is happening in possible without attractive products. These industry, due to the location-specific nature new developments influence the organiza- of tourism. In conditions of globalization tion of cooperation in the area of marketing this fact puts the developed countries at a at the local and national levels. In this age of disadvantage in terms of wage costs and the globalization, destinations will only be able recruitment of workers, jobs in tourism not to take full advantage of their intrinsic being competitive on the local labour mar- advantages if they are managed in the same ket. An important consideration here is way as a corporation. whether or not a country has a policy of The marketing management of destina- encouraging low wages or prefers to concen- tions is a good way of overcoming the trate on highly qualified jobs. Clearly the fragmented structure of tourism-dependent extremely flexible US labour market with its sectors. It also puts the multiple supply policy of low wages is better suited to the options of a location to good use. Mature needs of tourism-dependent sectors than are destinations, compared to resort corpora- the countries of the European Union, with tions, have advantages as well as their more rigid labour markets that demand disadvantages. For indeed they are unique, high qualifications and offer attractive work- inimitable systems, with much more to offer ing conditions and good wages. than destinations created out of thin air (Porter, 1990). Their attraction lies in the Corporate structures variety of the associated product range. Basic factors like the labour market have a They help tourism to integrate with society substantial influence on production condi- at large. Other effective long-term advan- tions and organization. In future the tages of the traditional tourism countries important thing will be to increase tourism include a high state of development, many productivity, while trying to find a middle years of specialization in the field of tour- way between a ‘service economy’ and a ‘self- ism, competitive awareness and a critical service economy’. In terms of international international clientele. competition it will be a matter of deciding which services are truly indispensable for the total touristic experience. Globalization and Tourism 295

With the arrival of telematics it has back from the periphery to the agglomera- become possible to develop new network- tions. type corporate structures. We can expect to see a great deal more of these in tourism. A Environment great many of the new networking types of This development is at least interesting from companies already exist in all areas of tour- the viewpoint of ecological sustainability. ism, many of them transnationals. For the There are, however, countercurrents, most part these are institutionalized forms including the growth of tourism to the most of cooperation. Among such transnationals remote regions of the world, a number of one finds hotel chains, which allow the local them relatively unexplored. This ‘adventure SME members to maintain their operational and wilderness tourism’ is often incorrectly independence, while at group level the con- referred to as ‘ecological tourism’. The ques- centration is on cooperative marketing tion that needs to be asked in this context is, efforts. This not only makes it possible to can the lifestyle that goes with tourism origi- achieve economies of scale and scope in the nating in the developed world be extended area of marketing and brand management, to the entire planet and all peoples. If the but also in controlling transaction costs. peoples of India and China were to begin This enables the smaller enterprises to, at travelling as frequently as the West Euro- least partly, overcome the disadvantages peans and North Americans, then the that go with small size. world’s known reserves of oil could be expected to last no longer than another 8 Planning years. To have some idea of just how much the process of globalization in tourism is Culture already affecting the environment, one has The population is now aware of increasing only to think of the effect that kerosene, worldwide integration (Robertson, 1992). A which for the most part is duty-free, has at new world culture is being created, greatly 10,000 m, where its ozone-destroying tox- influenced by mega-events including the icity is ten times greater than it is on the Olympic Games and international exhibi- ground. tions. This phenomenon is directly influencing the development of tourism, for such mega-events require travel by large Government numbers of people. ‘Postmodern’ society Competition between places will increasingly be devoted to leisure and The process of globalization has both friends travel. The global village being created offers and enemies at the political level. The pessi- its own attractions, as alternatives to the mists speak of economic terrorism, the traditional products based on natural and dictatorship of the financial markets, an culture resources which until now have alleged trend toward monopolistic practi- served as one of the main attractions for ces, growing unemployment and what they tourism. see as ‘social dumping’. The debate on glo- The question we must ask is what role balization for the most part involves will authentic landscapes and monuments concepts derived from the liberal market of culture have to play in this new global economy. In the real world, the worst fears village. For a long time such resources as the of the pessimists are unjustified. Matterhorn in the Alps and the Pyramids of In actual fact the effect of the financial Giza acted as main magnets for tourism. In markets is to discipline governments and view of the uniqueness and inimitability of their economic policies. Technological such attractions, competition was never progress stands in the way of all attempts by total. The new competition, leisure parks the big multinationals to take over the mar- and destination-like products, not only ket completely. An ever greater number of manages to imitate the originality of these ‘global players’ concentrate their activities traditional products, it is bringing demand on their core business and systematically 296 Peter F. Keller

resort to outsourcing and spinoffs supported interdepartmental tourism policy needs to by downsizing. And finally, it has been be developed at the level of the national or proven that the process of globalization is Federal government, to ensure the most not a ‘destroyer of jobs’, since the down- tourism-friendly framework conditions sizing of industry in the developed possible. countries has resulted in an increase in France, Australia and Switzerland pro- labour-intensive jobs in the services sector. vide successful examples showing that There is no doubt, on the other hand, that active state promotion of innovation and the globalization process does aggravate cooperation on the supply side and the competition between places. This competi- development and marketing of products at tion will ultimately decide which economic destination level is necessary to overcome and social systems are to be counted among market distortion in the fragmented small- the winners, and which the losers. And business structure of the ‘incoming’ area and finally it determines the touristic develop- to use untapped competitive potential. ment of a country or group of countries. Thus for example in the western industrial nations the implementation of values such Conclusions as ‘the freedom of the citizen’, ‘economic wellbeing’, and ‘individual self-fulfilment’ Globalization is an irreversible mega-trend requires a highly developed economy and which can be expected to have an ever an efficient state that limits its activities to greater impact on the economy and on soci- the essential. The question we must ask at ety in future. It implies the increasing this point is, what significance does this networking of human activities. The process trend have for the tourism policy of these will lead to a new global condition: it is countries. There is no denying the fact that making the world smaller, and bringing us up-and-coming destinations in the emerging daily closer to the global village about which economies have had the benefit of state we have all heard. The combined impact of funds in developing and marketing new fundamental political, economic and tech- products. The traditional tourism countries nological changes, all occurring more or less thus find themselves caught up in a so- at the same time, tends to accelerate, inten- called ‘prisoner’s dilemma’. If they do sify and spread further the process of nothing, they will simply continue to lose globalization. The most important variables market share (Keller and Smeral, 1997). of acceleration are liberalization of cross- border economic exchanges, and Tourism as a strategic sector of the deregulation within national boundaries, economy leading to ever greater competition, techno- For a number of reasons in conditions of logical innovation and prosperity. globalization, a carefully planned tourism As in the case of all mega-trends, global- policy is essential for the creation of com- ization unleashes conflicting forces. The petitive advantages. As in the past, the best internationalization of new areas of industry way to ensure optimum development of and services contrasts with the growth of tourism potential at the local or regional place-specific services. Tourism is partic- level is with the help of coordinated, ularly subject to the opposing trends of market-oriented planning. Moreover, it is in internationalization and localization. As a the interest of the competent state authority buyers’ market, tourism has been exten- to constantly upgrade the infrastructure nec- sively internationalized. In contrast, the essary for tourism. In tourism the state has greatest share of tourism-dependent value an irrevocable duty as a co-producer of pub- added is place-specific. It follows that the lic goods such as security, means of overall economic conditions of a given place transport and landscape protection. To the are destined to play an ever greater role as extent that tourism is a strategically impor- the competition for prospective visitors tant sector of the economy, a specific, increases. Globalization and Tourism 297

The focus of competition in the area of of globalization than will the SMEs of the international tourism today is between traditional tourism countries. Destinations countries that have already reached a high with fragmented and multi-optional prod- level of development. However, this select ucts and services will be under greater group now includes a growing number of pressure to differentiate themselves from emerging countries, which has led to an the competition than has been the case up extension of the total market. The consider- until now. The disadvantages of small able growth in tourism worldwide is above operators in the production and marketing all based on increasing exchanges between of products and services in conditions of the more developed regions of the world. partnership can be overcome with the help Intercontinental tourism is an increasingly of carefully planned destination manage- important indicator of globalization. How- ment. ever, compared to domestic tourism and Tourism is today a strategic part of the interregional tourism between countries of economies of developed countries. The ser- the world’s leading tourism regions, it is not vices it offers are life-enhancing yet considered as important. ‘experiences’, based as much on unique and Although globalization in the ﬁeld of authentic cultural differences as on man- tourism is as yet in the early stages, the ﬁrst made attractions. In contrast to industry and structural consequences can already be dis- the conventional services sector, the state is cerned. The traditional tourism countries a co-producer in the creation of the ‘world of are losing market share as their new com- experiences’ behind each tourism product petitors grow more and faster. As a result of or service. For it is the state that makes overcapacity there is increasing competition available publicly owned property includ- on price, which puts SMEs at a disadvan- ing unspoiled landscapes and the tage. infrastructure on which tourism relies. In the years ahead, the globalization proc- Moreover, cooperation between service pro- ess will lead to the standardization of viders in tourism is often made possible by comfort and quality worldwide. The incentives from the state. This raises the increasing reliance on new information question whether, in conditions of global technologies will improve price transpar- competition, countries with an explicit tour- ency. The new multinational networks of ism policy turn in a better economic large tourism enterprises will be in a better performance than countries that do without position to take advantage of the conditions such a policy.

27 Rural Tourism Development

Patrick Long and Bernard Lane

Introduction dial a wrong number and talk for ﬁfteen minutes anyway; In the early 1980s, Charles Kuralt, a Colum- bia Broadcasting Station television You know you’re in a small town if you can’t walk for exercise because every car correspondent, travelled extensively that passes you offers you a ride; through the back roads of the US recording and reporting his experiences to the eager American public. In his words, he tried to You know you’re in a small town when the biggest business in town sells farm ‘go slow, stick to the back roads, take time to machinery; meet people, listen to yarns, notice the countryside go by, and feel the seasons change’ (Kuralt, 1985, p. xvi). You know you’re in a small town if you write a check on the wrong bank and it Kuralt documented his travels in a book covers it for you anyway; and titled, On the Road With Charles Kuralt. He describes his conversation with the editor of the local newspaper in Shelton, Nebraska, You know you are in a small town if someone asks you how you feel and spends Douglas Duncan. Kuralt asked Duncan how the time to listen to what you have to say one knows if one is in a small town. Mr. (Kuralt, 1985, pp. 170–171) Duncan replied:

The Kuralt–Duncan discourse touches on You know you are in a small town when some of the key demand factors for rural Third Street is on the edge of town; tourism, factors which have helped propel tourism to the top of many rural agendas. You know you are in a small town if you’re Personal contact, authenticity, heritage, born on June 13th and your family receives individualism – all are qualities sought by gifts from the local merchants because the visitor to rural areas, all are rural you’re the ﬁrst baby of the year; strengths. Twenty years ago the small town was seen as a dreary backwater. Now, small You know you’re in a small town if you town values and destinations have become speak to each dog you pass, by name, and fashionable again. The media have become he wags his tail at you; interested in all things rural and fashion is dictated to a great extent by the media. Tour- You know you’re in a small town if you ism can be claimed to be a fashion-driven © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 299 300 Patrick Long and Bernard Lane

industry: rural tourism has become part of a technologies, to fear of city crime and pollu- global shift in fashionable leisure patterns. tion, to early retirement to rural retreats. Tourism is just one of a whole new series of opportunities that rural communities can The Rural World Today consider. But, like all new opportunities, understanding and exploiting tourism is a Today, for the most part, rural communities difficult process for most rural communities across the US and throughout the world are (Perry et al., 1986; OECD, 1992, 1994). not quite as idyllic as Kuralt describes them. It is not news that traditional rural economies are experiencing economic restruc- Why can Tourism be Developed in turing. It is also no surprise that any and all the Rural Environments of the economic alternatives are being considered World? by elected officials, community leaders and residents of rural areas. In fact, some rural The basic background to rural tourism’s communities are actively seeking nontradi- development lies in our changing mental tional industries such as prisons, nuclear perceptions of country life. In Why Save waste sites and gambling, in an effort to Rural America? Daryl Hobbs (1987) pointed stimulate their economy. The word heard out that an idealized rural US ‘is a product of today in the rural world is ‘revitalization’ – a images, some based on experience, some term which generally means to created, and some based on selective perception and nostalgia’, including ‘images of resist the direction of deterioration and to bedrock values, virtue and general well- move actively, even aggressively, in the being. It is always in an outdoor setting that opposite direction – to begin anew. This one popular commercial concludes, ‘‘Times life that is to begin anew is one of don’t get any better than this’’ ’. With the energized, determined existence, resisting growing size, homogenization, and com- that which whittles away at being fully alive plexity of metropolitan areas, rural (T. Michael Smith, 1994, personal authenticity, uniqueness and manageability communication) is becoming an increasingly sought-after alternative. In other words, if we cannot A whole series of problems besets the sustain or recapture the ideal sense of place developed rural world; in Asia, in Europe, in our own workaday urban communities, and in the Americas. Farm produce prices we are likely to seek it out in our leisure time have fallen. Land prices have fallen. Service and on our own travels. centres are retreating and centralizing, be These mental constructs are not peculiar they banks or hospitals or shopping facili- to Americans. They are affecting most afflu- ties. Youth is moving out. These are not new ent, educated urban peoples throughout the processes: in the UK they are an extension of world. Today, rural communities are able to a 150-year-long process of rural retreat. capitalize on the imagined rural world by Many parts of Europe have experienced a promoting tourism. It is important to recog- century of rural decline. And as Wallace nize that this behaviour does not necessarily Stegner graphically describes in his fictional constitute an exploitation of city folks’ history, Wolf Willow, many parts of rural romantic illusions by greedy small-town America have been in decline since the sharpsters. But, for many rural communi- 1920s (Stegner, 1962). ties, tourism development is now one of the The paradox is, however, that in the few opportunities to enhance the local econ- midst of the latest stage of the retreat from omy. It has been estimated by various the countryside, new forces are at hand sources that tourism is the US’s third largest which are bringing positive possibilities to retail sales industry (Travel Industry Asso- the rural world. They are connected to ciation of America 1997). In all US states, changing transport and communication tourism is a significant industry, helping to

Rural Tourism Development 301

create jobs, increase tax bases, generate with adjacent jurisdictions having a density direct revenue for both private and public of 1000 persons per square mile and other entities and heighten civic pride. In the UK, urban places with 2000 or more residents. following national surveys, the Rural Devel- Other federal agencies have different defini- opment Commission claimed in 1992 that tions of rural areas. tourism and recreation in rural Great Britain There is not, therefore, a universally generated a gross income of £8 billion per accepted definition in the US of rural, and annum and supported 400,000 jobs (Rural that creates problems when determining Development Commission, 1992). On a policy whether local, state or federal. But worldwide basis, the World Tourism Organ- ‘rural’ can also be a self-assigned label that ization (WTO) predicts that tourism and reflects a lifestyle, values and an environ- travel could become the world’s largest ment desirable for its relative isolation and single industry early in the 21st century pace of living. Rural can be perceived as a (WTO, 1996). No community – rural or place of safety, with solid values, surroun- urban – can totally ignore tourism’s oppor- ded by open space and natural beauty, tunities for wealth transfer and where one is treated respectfully and employment. friendly (Long, 1998). It is this perception that can be used very effectively in marketing the recreational experiences that drive But What is Rural? the rural tourism industry.

The problem of defining exactly what is a rural area is an international issue. Even What can be Considered Rural within the US, there are a number of possi- Tourism? bilities. Flora et al. (1992) in Rural Communities: Legacy and Change, have summarized several classification systems Lane (1994b) argued that, in its purest forms, currently used for rural communities. The rural tourism should be: Economic Research Service (ERS) has placed all nonmetropolitan counties into ● By definition, in rural or remote areas; three broad categories: urbanized (popula- ● Functionally rural, meaning that it tion of at least 20,000), less urbanized (urban should be based upon the countryside’s population of 2555 to 19,999), and rural unique selling points of small-scale (those with no places of 2500 or more pop- enterprise, open space, contact with or ulation). This definition also groups closeness to nature, and heritage – a nonmetropolitan counties by those both heritage based on ‘traditional’ societies adjacent to, and not adjacent to, a metropoli- and working practices; tan county. The ERS also places ● Rural in scale – in terms of buildings, nonmetropolitan counties into seven social settlements and organization – and, and economic categories: farming, manu- therefore, usually small scale; facturing, mining, specialized government, ● Slow growing, connected with family persistent poverty, federal lands and retire- enterprises, and long-term in nature; ment destination. and The US Office of Management and ● Of many different kinds, reflecting the Budget defines nonmetropolitan counties as world’s complex patterns of environ- those lacking a city of at least 50,000 or a ment, economy, history and location. commuting connection with a city of that size. Of the 3097 counties in the US, 2388 (or Getz and Page (1997) modify the defini- 77%) are designated nonmetropolitan. The tion slightly, noting that on occasion US Census Bureau defines rural areas as all large-scale operations do occur in rural tour- nonurban areas: an urban area is defined as ism, that occasionally even locally owned cities of 50,000 or more population along enterprises grow rapidly and that the defini- 302 Patrick Long and Bernard Lane

tion is likely to continue widening as the series of other positive key factors, current product palette which the rural entrepre- or emerging, including: neur offers broadens in scope. ● Increasing levels of education, encouraging exploration and outdoor learning activities; Trends in Rural Tourism ● Development Growing interest in heritage, tradition, authenticity and rural life; ● The search for personal contact in a Beyond a general shift in perceptions, four world of mass travel, anonymous hotels, primary trends can be recognized as impor- shopping malls and video entertain- tant in the expansion of rural tourism. These ment; are factors that seem likely to spread ● A trend of taking multiple holidays per through the population and across the world year, with opportunities to take a sec- in the future. ond short break in a rural location; ● Increasing health consciousness, giving The trend away from traditional resort a positive appeal to rural lifestyle and destinations values such as fresh air, activity oppor- The development of modern tourism began tunities and stress-free situations; as a resort-based activity. Some resorts were ● Market interest in high performance purpose built – such as Coney Beach, outdoor equipment from clothing to all- Spain’s Benidorm or the modern Disney terrain bikes and high-tech climbing Worlds. Others were major centres of cul- equipment; tural pilgrimage – London, New York, Paris, ● Growing interest in specialty foods and Prague, Rome or Sydney – which became traditional country cooking techniques; resorts in a new ‘City Tourism’ trend. Plog ● The search for solitude and relaxation in (1991) describes the beginning of a shift quiet natural places; and away from resorts back in the 1980s, the ● An ageing but active population retiring shift toward what he termed the ‘allocentric’ earlier but living and travelling far into traveller. His classic chapter entitled, Where old age. in the World Are People Going Now That There Is No Place to Go? sums up this new Enabling technology wave (Plog 1991). Backed by demand for It is hard to remember at the beginning of the mild adventure and for special interest holi- 21st century just how remote rural areas days, the rise of the ‘Free and Independent were only a couple of decades ago. Now Traveller’ became the opportunity for many email, web sites, fax and telephone, airline rural regions to enter the tourism business. services, highway improvements, and wide- Other factors back up the trend, not least spread car ownership have together being the health fears associated with sun, transformed accessibility. In Europe and sea and sand holidays in a world of shrink- Japan, for example, high-speed train servi- ing ozone layers. There also appears to be a ces running at 125–175 mph also have been growing perception, and unfortunately in key factors. Remote areas still exist, but they some cases, reality, that urban venues are no are fewer and only relatively remote. longer safe. Indeed, speakers at a recent OECD conference proffered the view that rural New rural tourism market opportunities remoteness was now so rare that it had The market factors causing a swing away become a positive unique selling point for from resort destinations were and are the tourism rather than a problem (Albarracin, opening opportunities for rural entrepre- Spain; OECD Territorial Development Serv- neurship in tourism. The Organization for ice). Technological advances have also Economic Cooperation and Development enabled product development for rural tour- (OECD) (1994) report on rural tourism lists a ism to proceed, be it in cycling, walking, Rural Tourism Development 303 climbing or canoeing equipment. The elec- Evolution of Rural Tourism tronic transmission of money and the plastic charge or credit card enables rural areas to The development of rural tourism has now take and bank tourism cash flows easily. been through what could be called ‘Phase Mass media communication has had a One’ of its evolution. Across the world, com- dramatic effect on enterprise and political munities and enterprises have begun to thinking within the rural communities of practice the art of tourism in the country- the world. No longer cut off from the main- side. Practitioners are learning its secrets of stream, ideas about socioeconomic success – and the problems of failure. Aca- development and change permeate rural demics are tracking its progress, and communities as never before. From general debating its concepts. issues transmitted via television, to groups Farm-based tourism was an activity long of country people travelling the world to see practiced in some parts of Europe – with specific new practices, to email networks organizations such as France’s Gîtes Rur- nurturing and spreading ideas and confi- ales, Austria’s Urlaub auf den Bauernhof dence through their users – technology has and Britain’s Farm Holiday Bureau enjoying transformed so many country peoples’ out- success for more than 20 years. In the 1980s, look on the world. such farm-based activity began to spread geographically and thematically, with a Acceptance of tourism in rural change wide range of businesses and communities The changes outlined above have come just becoming involved in the process (Getz and in time for many rural regions throughout Page, 1997). America’s National Rural Tour- the world. The ongoing loss of farm-based ism Development project, based at the employment has reached the stage where University of Minnesota from 1988 to 1991, basic service provision is becoming difficult Canada’s various provincial level Commu- and community viability is often threat- nity Tourism Development programmes, ened. Equally, the global farm produce and Britain’s Rural Tourism Development market and its price fluctuations make it Project at the University of Bristol have all imperative to diversify rural economies to been part of that first phase. These efforts give stability and security. have emphasized group and community Tourism is not a panacea for all rural working, especially in marketing and pro- problems, but it has a number of positive motion. Internationally, the trend to rural attractions. It can provide organic, low capi- tourism was recognized when, in 1994, the tal economic growth in locally owned OECD’s Rural Development programme businesses. It can provide ‘pluri-activity’, a worked with OECD’s Tourism Committee to situation where individuals and family produce a substantial position paper on the units live from several jobs rather than just subject (OECD, 1994). one, giving variety and reducing risk (see An important part of the Phase One proc- Bollman and Bryden, 1997). Tourism, if ess has been the acceptance at the national properly managed, can help justify and fund political level that tourism was an important conservation of the natural and human her- possibility for the future of the countryside. itage. The US national parks are a classic US President, George Bush’s statement in example of the power of rural tourism to October 1991, at a briefing before travel and help secure natural heritage areas. Some of tourism executives, typifies that recogni- the US’s most visited public lands – Yellow- tion: stone, Yosemite and the Grand Canyon, This solid record of the [economic] growth among others – are in rural areas. On the of tourism has not gone unnoticed by small human heritage side, Heritage Canada’s communities and by rural areas facing the work with its Heritage Regions Program has challenge to diversify their economies. provided an object lesson in how rural tour- More and more rural communities are ism can help conserve human heritage for making tourism a part of their economic future generations (Brown, 1996). diversification options for the nineties. And 304 Patrick Long and Bernard Lane

the U.S. Travel and Tourism In the US, for example, despite strong Administration, along with other grassroots efforts, elected officials at the fed- governmental agencies, are working to put eral level will continue their ‘hands-off’ small town America on the tourist map policy toward tourism generally. Select fed- (Travel Industry Association of America eral agencies (e.g. Department of Newsletter, 1991) Transportation, the National Park Service, the USDA Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management) will continue to provide, Implications of Future Rural Tourism where staff and funding are available and Development political will prevails, support for special tourism initiatives and training. No formal The next phase for rural tourism develop- policy for rural tourism is likely. In varying ment will be a much more complex one. It degrees, individual states will further or will be a phase of expansion, differentiation, establish select programmes to expand their consolidation and understanding. The fol- rural tourism product, thus increasing both lowing ten implications are likely to occur. visitation and travel expenditures. Such programmes will be based primarily upon Competition will increase – provision will cultural, historic and environmental themes. grow In other western countries more state As governments, communities and entre- intervention will take place through a vari- preneurs hear of the concept of rural ety of methods. In Australia, a published tourism, more are seeking to exploit it. At national rural tourism policy is backed at the local level that means more farmers the state level by a variety of more or less offering accommodation, more heritage cen- detailed policies and measures. In turn, tres, more ‘themed’ restaurants, more local administrations in some parts of Aus- opportunities to bike or ski or ride. Nation- tralia are deeply involved in tourism ally it means more regions putting their development and promotion (Common- offers together to market their wares col- wealth Department of Tourism, 1994). In the lectively. Internationally, as long-haul UK, national strategies for rural tourism are travel grows, it means that we can expect more advisory than formal. The key to pub- increased competition globally. Already lic sector intervention in the UK lies at the within Europe, the former countries of the local district level, where salaried tourism Soviet Bloc and its satellites are working development officers frequently work hard to exploit their rural heritage and low- closely with the private sector. Public sector cost labour supply. Latin America and provision covers the costs of tourism mar- Africa are increasingly active in the field. keting, tourist information, training, Visits to rural China or Korea are more of a coordination, project planning and the pro- possibility (Sofield and Li, 1997; Choi, 1998; vision of infrastructure such as signposting, Hall and O’Hanlon, 1998). Not all destina- heritage product development, trail and tions will be successful. Nevertheless, the path creation and maintenance. The major- supply side will grow: possible oversupply ity of UK local districts have their own will demand increasing skill and sophistica- tourism strategies, closely linked to the mar- tion if businesses are to succeed. keting function and to physical planning policies. More national and provincial/regional rural Two other types of European state-sector tourism policies intervention should be mentioned. The for- Rural tourism policies will increase but the mer command economies of central Europe manner in which those tourism policies are are attempting to develop rural tourism at a conceived and implemented will vary rapid pace through the wholesale importa- across the world. A battle of the political tion of western experts and expertise. styles on policy will be enacted, probably Operating at national and regional levels, with no final consensus about success. they hope to convert public and private sec- Rural Tourism Development 305

tor representatives, small town officials, and Building partnerships among tourism small farmers to pursue a new tourism enter- businesses is an effective way of linking prise culture for domestic and international enterprises – and also linking enterprises to markets. The process is a difficult one – but public sector assistance. Interest and skills all economic and social change in emerging in this area are likely to grow with partner- economies is fraught with problems. Capac- ships taking many forms. At the local level, ity building and restructuring of rural the now common tourism development economies are long-term issues: for many committees and local business forums will rural people in central Europe the experi- continue their work. Their regional level ence of being a tourist is a novelty, let alone counterparts have proved more difficult to its professional practice (Augustyn, 1998; develop because of local rivalries, but as Hall and O’Hanlon, 1998). communications and lifestyles make In western Europe, the European Union’s regional working easier, they are likely to (EU) concept of the semi-autonomous grow. The US Scenic Byway Program has regional enterprise company – referred to as made great strides in regional cooperation the 794 LEADER local action groups – have partly due to its required corridor manage- been trying to implement broad rural devel- ment plan developed by its respective opment programmes since 1991. More than regional partners. Such planning could be 80% of these programmes focus on the tour- public-sector based (such as the Scenic ism sector. Overlaid across existing public Byway Program in the US or the South Pem- sector organizations (and sometimes com- brokeshire Action with Rural Communities peting with them), these EU funded and (SPARC) in South Wales), or private-sector professionally staffed groupings support a based, (such as Red Andaluza de Alojamien- range of innovative projects undertaken by tos de Casas Rurales (RAAR)) in Andalusia, local action groups, regularly exchanging Spain. It could be linear, based on trails or information and working together on a rail lines, such as the UK’s rail partnership transnational basis (Nitsch and Van der schemes, linking local marketing initiatives Straaten, 1995). Total public funding over with rail companies. Or it may be of a type to the period 1994–1999 is around 1755 mil- exchange information nationally, including lion ECU; in addition private sector match partnerships with groups such as the US’s funding is levered in by negotiation. Outdoor Recreation Coalition of America or Despite a range of styles and approaches Sporting Goods Manufacturer’s, to access to public policy, all grapple with similar vital and timely travel-related trends and fundamental truths. Tourism is a fiercely information. competitive market where the private sector must be effective to ensure success of a tour- The market will grow ism economy in the marketplace. The public On the demand side, an increasing number sector rarely succeeds directly in the tour- of visitors seem to be avoiding more urban ism business. But there is considerable venues either because they have already vis- scope for indirect participation. Just how far ited these sites and are familiar with their that scope should go, and what is best prac- offerings or these venues are no longer eco- tice, remains to be seen. nomically accessible. And the trends to individual active travel outlined earlier are Partnership building likely to continue. They will be encouraged The hallmark of most rural tourism enter- by new products and marketing factors dis- prises is their small size. Small scale can be cussed below. a competitive advantage; it gives guests personal contact, and it is a unique selling point Marketing will become more effective and for travellers from sprawling anonymous sophisticated urban centres. But it can be a major problem Access to the market, market information, for organization, marketing and product and marketing skills have always been prob- development. lem areas for many rural tourism businesses. 306 Patrick Long and Bernard Lane

But the trends are set to make these activities ture. The product has evolved from simple much more effective. Information about cycle hire to cycle holidays. Within cycle domestic and international travel trends, holidays there is a wide range of offers. At outdoor recreation patterns and product the top end of the market, luxury accom- purchase information is becoming much modation with back-up vans and masseurs more widely available due to expanded are typified by international tour operators research and its publication. New Zealand such as the US’s Backroads and the UK’s Tourist Board’s (NZTB) specialist publica- Country Lanes. Many other operators pro- tions on overseas markets for rural tourism vide simpler accommodation, but offer are object lessons in good practice here luggage transfer arrangements. Mountain (NZTB, 1995). Training will allow both indi- Bike holidays are also available – one enter- vidual businesses and partnerships to prising UK rural operator offers short breaks develop specialized marketing skills. The under the title Dirty Weekends – washing case for niche marketing of rural products and drying facilities included! has been thoroughly investigated and is The golden age of expansion of gambling increasingly well understood (OECD, as a tourism development tool in rural areas, 1995a,b). particularly in the US, has passed, although A series of technical developments are this niche activity will see some expansion becoming available to assist the rural niche among select communities and geographic market developer. At its simplest level, the regions. Native American Indian tribes will widespread use of personal computers has slowly expand their gaming offerings as allowed database development and direct markets are identified or expanded. There mail operations to become the norm. But the will continue to be pressure by the gaming biggest breakthrough is taking place from industry, some politicians, and select real Internet marketing and promotion. Ever estate/land developers to expand resort, more sophisticated and user-friendly web large city and riverboat gaming. In addition, sites, with linking facilities and on-line gaming will continue to be suggested as one booking, are becoming commonplace, over- of the few alternatives to reviving dying coming the tyranny of distance faced by racetracks. many rural areas. Technology improve- The profits are simply too large for this ments in accounting, reservation systems tourism niche to disappear. What will result and ‘virtual reality’ will enhance the com- is the expansion of the limited or single petitiveness of rural tourism destinations licence system, ensuring that a community across a truly global market. or area is not overwhelmed by a gaming economy and that a range of expected and Product development necessary community services continues. Early rural tourism products were largely The few examples available of rural commu- simple: sightseeing, walking and unsophis- nity gaming provide an understanding of the ticated appreciation of rural life. Moving to importance of planning and how a gambling the future, product development pro- tourism economy is driven by scale, com- grammes are already ushering in an almost petition and a determination of who benefits bewildering range of niche activities. Some (Long et al., 1994). are products of an increasingly aware and demanding market. Others stem from suc- Training cessful rural initiatives. Two examples To enable the diversification of rural econo- illustrate this range of opportunities – cycle mies into tourism, training opportunities are tourism and gambling. a vital prerequisite, as noted by the OECD’s Cycle tourism has transformed the attrac- (1994) report and many other commenta- tiveness of areas without high scenic merit, tors. Indeed research into small tourism or which are relatively flat, because dedi- business failures highlights the lack of train- cated cycle tracks or networks of quiet back ing and business planning as a major roads can provide very valuable infrastruc- problem (McKercher and Robbins, 1998). Rural Tourism Development 307

Small businesses, the economic back- management techniques, should become bone of rural tourism, are a special challenge better known (Herbert, 1995). to the training provider. Limited time, finances and personnel frequently make More sustainable tourism policy attendance at formal training sessions pro- The demand for tourism development poli- hibitive. But technology advances, most cies – sustainable in all senses – will become specifically the Internet and World Wide universal. Although the concept of sustain- Web, ensure that training and technical sup- able tourism dates back to the Europe of the port will be easily available through 1970s, its full development and acceptance distance learning, addressing some of these is relatively new, owing much to the delib- limitations. Increasingly, emphasis will be erations of the United Nations Rio Earth placed on training local trainers to a high Summit in 1992 on the Environment and and recognized standard. Development. Sustainable tourism aims to create a balance between exploitation and Real estate issues conservation, to conserve the industry’s vital seed corn as well as the natural and A major proportion of rural tourism activity human world’s heritage. The concept has is driven by real estate development. The been discussed at length in many places ownership and development of land for sec- (Inskeep, 1991; Lane, 1994a), but the trend is ond homes, holiday/timeshare apartments, already pointing to a widespread market and factory shopping outlets, golf courses and legislative requirement for sustainable other recreation venues will continue to development policies. In the UK, for exam- grow. There is a range of contentious issues ple, government guidelines now require all here, connected with outside investment, local councils to prepare sustainable tour- land and property prices, and the unbalanc- ism development policies (Department for ing of communities through retirement Culture, Media and Sport, 1999). Elsewhere settlement. But the trend to build new loca- in the developed world, environmental tions and facilities and the trend to retire to impact assessments are required for most safe, low-cost communities, will grow (Reid, developments of any magnitude. 1995). Three themes are central here. First, more information and experience are now avail- Development around heritage able about sustainable tourism planning. Heritage, as an anchor for a rural commu- Second, there are more private sector com- nity’s tourism economy, will grow in panies and government agencies available to controversy and be more fiercely debated at provide technical assistance. And third, the local level. The role of the countryside as pressure exists at all levels to make tourism a repository of natural, built and cultural ‘fit’ with a community’s cultural, social, his- heritage is a vital one. Tourism can toric and environmental resources. With strengthen and revitalize heritage conserva- more than 16,000 rural communities in the tion. But there is a tradeoff when heritage is US alone potentially adding to the rural transformed into a marketable tourism prod- tourism product, there is increasing com- uct. Such tradeoffs can involve native petition for the traveller’s money. The peoples, historic artefacts and ways of life. manner in which new destinations are Infused into the debate about the exploita- developed, the attractions and services they tion of heritage will be a range of new ideas provide, and the integrity by which they from better heritage interpretation techni- address social, cultural and environmental ques using guides and trails and the issues, will determine to a great extent, their ecomuseum concept, through to attempts to success. develop high technology, virtual reality The charge is to assist rural areas in tak- operations. More appropriate and sensitive ing advantage of their tourism potential by heritage tourism development, through her- identifying effective ways to assess and itage strategy development and heritage manage tourism through a strategic sustain- 308 Patrick Long and Bernard Lane

able development plan. Such a plan must Rural tourism can be, and should be, not focus on building local and regional capaci- the exploitation of an illusion, but the cele- ties for attracting visitors and on accurately bration of an ideal. Indeed, to be sustainable assessing the impacts of tourism upon local over the long haul, tourism development communities and regional economies. And, must catalyse the development of the host importantly, tourism development must be community toward its own ideal. This does guided by a vision that recognizes the eco- not mean that there is no place in rural nomic value while maintaining the tourism development for outsiders. Indeed, authenticity and integrity of the attractions since rural decision makers are, by defini- and service that contribute to long-term tion, relatively isolated and have limited success. resources, in order to use tourism as a community development tool they need help Conclusion from state and Federal government and from other entities that can provide the necessary Like every human enterprise, rural tourism resources and vision. offers a mixture of opportunities and dilem- Rural tourism has expanded beyond mas. Rural residents have the power to steer what we had come to know as the traditional rural tourism away from the pitfalls and major resort destinations. This is coupled toward its promise. Charles Wilkinson, Uni- with a substantial increase in consumer versity of Colorado natural resource law interest in the offerings and benefits of the professor, effectively captures the qualities rural tourism experience and a significant that most rural communities seem to be influence of technology that has narrowed striving for today in this statement: the gap between urban and rural tourism We need to develop what I call an ethic of marketing and promotion. In addition, tour- place. It is premised on a sense of place, the ism as a catalyst in rural change, has recognition that our species thrives on the increased in acceptance by both policy subtle, intangible, but soul-deep mix of makers and residents. landscape, smells, sounds, history, Although there has been a great deal of neighbors, and friends that constitute a speculative hope that tourism can ‘save’ place, a homeland. An ethic of place rural communities, much discussion, and respects equally the people of a region and the land, animals, vegetation, water, and some accomplishments, there are yet few air. It recognizes that [westerners] revere standards by which to measure success. their physical surroundings and that they There are examples of well-established and need and deserve a stable, productive profitable attractions, activities, and com- economy that is accessible to those with munity tourism systems. What we lack most modest incomes. An ethic of place ought to are accepted indicators by which to track be a shared community value and ought to over time the positive and negative impacts manifest itself in a dogged determination to made by a tourism economy on community treat the environment and its people as life. Such indicators will lead to better poli- equals, to recognize both as sacred, and to cies and better planning, ensuring that the insure that all members of the community not only search for, but insist upon, greatest benefits are derived for all parties solutions that fulfill that ethic from a rural tourism economy. (Udall, 1990) 28 Community Tourism Development

Gail A. Van der Stoep

In July of 1998, a sperm whale carcass washed up on the beach of western Newfoundland, just south of Port au Choix. The ﬁrst reaction by many community residents was something like ‘Get that stinky, rotting carcass out of here! It will turn away the tourists’. However, another resident – a local business owner and artisan – viewed the carcass differently: as a potential tourism treasure, washed in from the sea that for centuries has been a dominant inﬂuence on the lives and lifeways of residents of the area.

Trash or Treasure? about halfway between Gros Morne National Park and the tip of Newfound- Was this small town, traditionally an out- land’s northern peninsula. Currently it is port fishing community, involved in reached from the south by a spur road off the community tourism development? Did its main roadway that follows the western residents and businesses have a common shoreline. The main road, first paved in the vision? Were they basing their tourism prod- 1960s, was routed away from the jagged uct and image development on ‘things coastline to speed north–south traffic. It now authentic’ within the community? Were bypasses the small community, thus remov- they engaged in collaborative efforts? Was ing Port au Choix from the main tourism tourism integrated with other aspects of Port corridor. To counter this displacement, the au Choix’s community and economic community must have attractions intriguing development? enough to coax people off the main thor- As have many of Newfoundland’s com- oughfare and into town. The town council munities, Port au Choix has been trying to certainly did not want the stench of decay redefine itself, at least partially, as a tourism and an unsightly rotting lump of blubber to community. In fact, with the decline of the repel tourists, sending them back to High- Atlantic fishery, all of Newfoundland has way 430 before they ever reached town. been working to diversify its economy. However, Ben Ploughman – a singer, Tourism is a major component of that effort; writer, storyteller and owner of a craft shop individual communities want to reap eco- – believed the carcass could become the nomic benefits from this diversification. To cornerstone of the community’s tourism do so, however, each must be actively efforts and image. At the same time, it could involved in tourism development. become a catalyst for building local pride Port au Choix is at the tip of a small finger and honouring the town’s history. The of land jutting into the Gulf of St Lawrence, sperm whale carcass could, he believed, be © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 309 310 Gail A. Van der Stoep

flensed (the blubber cut away in the tradi- tourism development approaches, or evalu- tional manner of whalers), and the bones ate the effectiveness of such approaches, cleaned and reassembled for an exhibit in were not found, publication and use of the local museum. The museum, recently numerous applied materials in the past 10 transferred to the community by Parks Can- years indicate growing interest. Published ada when it moved to its new facility, could materials, which have developed from var- feature an exhibit based on the sperm whale. ied sources and applications, include Stories could include the relationship workbooks and manuals, textbook chapters, between the sperm whale and the giant and articles in conference and workshop squid, the life cycle and migration of proceedings. Many of the approaches whales, and the history of commercial whal- applied to community tourism development ing in the Gulf of St Lawrence, begun in the have evolved through more general commu- 1500s by Basque whalers. These stories nity development, often implemented in could form a backdrop for telling the rural areas. Such approaches form a strong centuries-old history of Port au Choix Indian foundation for the development of tourism and non-Indian relationships with the sea. within a more comprehensive context. In Additionally, the actual flensing event such approaches, the unifying goal is to could be used as a special event for tourists, strengthen the social and economic fabric of and to draw them into other parts of the communities; tourism is simply one of the community; and serve as a catalyst to bring threads in that fabric. Used appropriately, together community members to learn and evaluating tourism development options participate in a ‘lost skill’ once critical to the can become a tool to bring together commu- area’s early whalers. nity members, adjacent communities and even former adversaries. Many of the princi- Purpose of Community Tourism ples and experiences identified through Development partnership efforts, primarily in the natural resource management arena, are applicable. While the tourism development ideas These efforts have received more research described previously were the ideas of a attention. single Port au Choix resident rather than the To provide some historical perspective, result of a community-wide, collaborative in the late 1970s the University of Missouri tourism development planning process, (1978) developed and published the first characteristics of Ploughman’s ideas reflect edition of Tourism USA: Guidelines for the purpose and ideals of community tour- Tourism Development. While not specified ism development: basing tourism in the title, the purpose of this publication development on an area’s authentic natural, was to aid communities interested in initiat- historic and cultural resources; involving ing or further developing tourism as one numerous stakeholders within the commu- component of their economic development nity; and integrating tourism with other programmes. This volume was updated and aspects of community and economic devel- expanded in 1986 to include international opment.1 marketing and visitor services for special populations. During the mid to late 1980s, Trend: Growth in Community there appeared a series of articles and other Tourism Development publications focused on community tourism development. Among them were While research studies that either indicate Blank’s (1989) The Community Tourism trends in implementation of community Industry Imperative; Murphy’s (1985, 1988) 1 Several concepts and programmes associated with community-based tourism development are mentioned throughout this chapter. However, most are not discussed in great detail. For supplementary information, see the chapters within this book on partnerships, public/private partnerships, social impacts of tourism, sustainable development and best practices, conflict management, cultural tourism and place meanings and attachments. Community Tourism Development 311

Tourism: A Community Approach and Com- and emergency services, displacement of munity Driven Tourism Planning; and Sem’s local residents from ‘special places’, outside (1994) Tourism Development Decision Mod- cultural and social influences, and deteri- els. A chapter on community tourism oration of natural and historic resources. development is included in Gartner’s Residents may feel they have lost control of (1996a) Tourism Development: Principles, their own communities. Community tour- Processes, and Policies. Other authors have ism facilitates regaining control over the included tourism development within a type and level of tourism development. broader approach to community and economic development. Examples are Negative reaction to haphazard tourism Matulef’s (1988) Community Development: development A National Perspective; Kretzmann and While many communities are becoming McKnight’s (1993) Building Communities more sophisticated in analysing develop- from the Inside Out; Bergstrom et al.’s (1995) ment proposals, granting building permits Collaboration Framework: Addressing Com- and approving zoning variances, other community Capacity; and the Entergy munities have been caught off guard, not Corporation’s (1992) Community Develop- realizing the long term impacts of new ment Handbook. Still others have proposed development until changes have occurred. similar approaches in working with rural Tourism often develops haphazardly, based communities, especially those wanting to on opportunity to individuals (or individual diversity economies beyond traditional agri- businesses), rather than as a result of an culture: Fessenmaier and Fessenmaier’s integrated planning process. A recent flurry (1993) Helping Rural Communities Prepare of development of tourism bureaus, conven- for Economic Development: Assessing and tion and visitor bureaus and regional Developing Tourism Resources; Brass’s tourism associations, particularly in rural (1995) Community Tourism Assessment areas and small communities, indicates an Handbook; Butler et al.’s (1998) Tourism interest in more sensible, integrated approa- and Recreation in Rural Areas. Despite the ches to community tourism development. lack of specific community tourism trend data, increasing attention is being given to Tourism must be community driven. Not more coordinated and collaborative tourism every community is suited for tourism planning, development and promotion in development, nor is tourism suitable for general, as well as to tourism planning inte- every community . . . [Tourism grated within a community or regional development] is not free, and it requires planning process. Reasons, often interrela- both resources and commitment that might ted with other social, political and economic be directed elsewhere trends, are several. (Calcote et al., 1994, p. 7)

Externally funded and imposed tourism Need for economic diversiﬁcation development Traditional industries (e.g. logging, mining, Tourism has simply evolved in many areas, manufacturing) and agriculture (e.g. small with no integrated plan or local policy con- family farms) have been undergoing major trol; often tourism development has been changes in recent years. Regional econo- imposed on communities from external mies, community structures, personal sources. Such is the case when outsiders, lifestyles and land-use patterns have all often ‘corporate moguls’, invest in an area been impacted, often in ways perceived as that they believe can be exploited for their negative. Thus, many communities, regions, own purposes, often in ways incompatible even countries, are seeking ways to diversify with local priorities and ways of life. their economies and maintain or increase Impacts, often perceived as negative by the quality of life for residents. Tourism pro- locals, include trafﬁc congestion, higher tax vides one possible ‘solution’. Those rates, stress on community infrastructure involved in tourism development often tout 312 Gail A. Van der Stoep

it as a panacea for economic development – and development process, focused on an industry that is ‘clean’ and brings lots of strengthening communities and within external dollars into a community, region or which tourism is considered one possible state. However, costs and negative impacts component. The tourism component is have received increasing attention by based on visitor access to authentic resour- researchers and, specifically within the ces and experiences (natural, historic, framework of community tourism develop- cultural). The benefits of such an approach ment, have been considered as communities are discussed below. make deliberate decisions about if they want to initiate (or expand) tourism involvement and, if so, to what extent and in what ways. Benefits of Community Tourism Development Increasing local participation in government actions Another impetus for approaching tourism The need for economic development or planning within the broader context of com- diversification is often the initial impetus munity development has been increasing for tourism development. However, other action by organized citizen groups to: (i) benefits accrue from community involve- thwart certain types of development (e.g. ment in tourism planning, decisions and large chain discount stores, malls, fast food implementation. While some of the trends outlets); (ii) preserve and promote commu- and triggers to community tourism develop- nity town centres, main streets and ment are described in the previous section, landmark historic structures; (iii) stop these other benefits may provide the sustain- development of industry, the building of ing force for long term community prisons and raising of ‘unsightly’ commu- involvement. nications towers; and (iv) prevent other changes perceived as threatening to their Community buy-in and empowerment community and personal lifestyles, health When community residents are actively and safety, sense of place and cost of living. involved in debate about their future, and Integrated community planning, to include are allowed an influential voice in final deci- tourism as a potential component, focuses sions, they are more likely to support the on giving residents and stakeholder groups a actions, accept the impacts, and understand voice and some degree of control in the the social, economic and environmental management of change and development takeoffs made with their development deci- within their communities. This process sions. And they are less likely to use legal involves residents in a deliberate process of strategies to block development because the ‘social exchange’ based on what they value, decisions are theirs, not imposed by others. as individuals and as a community (Jurow- ski et al., 1997). Reduced potential of lawsuits used to block While these external factors have influ- specific development projects enced a more coordinated community- See above. based approach to tourism development, ‘community tourism’ is not a ‘thing’ that can be succinctly defined or easily recognized Improved chance of long term success from external observation. Rather, it is a When community members are involved in process based on a philosophy and guided community planning and the associated by supporting principles. The concept has development decisions, particularly those been used in a variety of ways, with different believed to benefit the entire community, emphases and starting points in various they are more likely to support and partici- communities. For this chapter, community pate in implementation for the long term. tourism development is described as a For example, imagine a community in community-level collaborative planning which high school students are involved in Community Tourism Development 313

a process to identify all of its natural, cul- the area’s history and natural resources. The tural and historic resources. This list is then drawings and stories, in the children’s hand- presented in a community forum for resi- writing, were used to produce wayside dent assessment of importance and exhibits for visitors. The process of research- contribution to community identity. Results ing, drawing and writing made the students, are used by the students to develop inter- their parents, and other residents aware and pretive tourism brochures about the proud of their history and the mountainous community’s sites and themes. Community natural environment they call ‘home’. members – adults and youth – are involved, invested, and likely to support sharing their Protection of ‘sacred places’ and sensitive community with tourists (example from resources Marquette, Michigan). When residents identify the range of resources within their community, then have a Better understanding by residents of the voice in the tourism development plan community’s history, culture and natural based on those resources, they can choose to resources share some with visitors and not share oth- Residents are often not aware of what ers. Thus they can keep their ‘sacred places’ resources exist within their communities, or and stories – whether a secret ﬁshing hole, which may be of interest to tourists. In some sacred burial ground, private ceremonial cases, potential tourist attractions may be event, or a ‘shady’ part of history – protected the very things that remind local residents of from prying eyes, potentially insensitive ‘bad times’. An example is a small Great visitors, overcrowding and resident dis- Lakes community suffering economic hard- placement, and accidental or intentional ship because the transportation systems damage to the resources. When outsiders (railways connecting with Great Lakes car decide what should be included in the ‘tour- ferries) and the freight they once hauled (e.g. ist package’, residents have little or no lumber), once the lifeblood and economic control. base of the community, became obsolete. The historic complex of a railroad turntable, Implementation of strategies to minimize car ferry dock, lifesaving station and car or mitigate potential negative impacts ferry – potentially a strong tourism attrac- When community members are proactive in tion – was perceived as an eyesore and an making decisions about tourism, and are unwelcome reminder of the ‘sellout’ of the realistic about potential negative effects, community by the industries that once sup- they can design and implement strategies to ported it. Community tourism planning can minimize those impacts. For example, they help a community recognize resources and may route tourists away from a particularly view some resources from different per- sensitive natural resource area. spectives. Development and enhancement of Increased sense of community identity and community amenities for residents pride Community amenities that serve tourists Through involvement in identifying and can and should also (perhaps primarily) assessing a community’s resources, the spot- serve residents. For example, in Leaming- light is turned on sites, characteristics, ton, Ontario, a small coastal community on people, history and other elements that may Lake Erie, a community collaborative called have simply been taken for granted by resi- ErieQuest became the entity through which dents. What is familiar is often government organizations, local divers and unrecognized for its value. In another exam- small businesses worked together to redeve- ple, this time in Jasper, Alberta, elementary lop the waterfront. The impetus was and secondary students were invited to enhancement of dive and other marina- draw pictures and write short stories about based tourism, but the park, boardwalk, 314 Gail A. Van der Stoep

memorials and other waterfront enhance- behind the trend of increased use of commu- ments also provide residents with a nity tourism development approaches, as wonderful recreational facility year-round. synthesized from numerous sources, are presented. Opportunities to share resources Working together for common tourism goals The definition of ‘community’ is left to the – such as presentation of a unified commu- group of people within a geographic area nity story and identity, efficiency of who may specify community based on polit- information distribution to tourists and ical structures (e.g. village, town, township, funding of promotional efforts – individ- city, village, county), geophysical structures uals, businesses, government agencies, and (e.g. watershed, valley, river corridor), cul- nonprofit organizations can share staff, tural identity (e.g. ethnic community, funding, ideas, information centres and neighbourhood, agricultural community) or other resources to facilitate effective and other characteristic(s) that makes sense to efficient use of these resources. both the tourism providers and the tourists.

Keeping profits within the community ‘Planning process’ implies that planning is When community organizations and busi- ongoing, and involves monitoring and nesses are involved with local government evaluation of implemented tourism pro- in tourism development planning, they can grammes, to include monitoring of develop policy and deed restrictions, pro- economic impacts, visitation patterns, vide grants and other incentives, and employment trends, social indicators, traffic otherwise develop an environment that counts, environmental impacts, etc. encourages local investment and involvement in provision of tourism facilities and ‘Collaboration’ means that all stakehold- services, thus keeping profits within the ers are involved in the process of decision local community. This is an alternative to making and management. Stakeholders, relying on external corporate investment depending on the community structure, can and development that ultimately lead to include: elected government officials, gov- major leakage of money out of the commu- ernment agency employees, planning nity. commission, economic development authority, nonprofit entities (e.g. museums and historical societies), land management Principles of Community Tourism agencies (local, state, federal), business Development owners (tourism-based as well as nontourism-based), schools, landowners Interwoven in the previous discussion of and residents, and organizations such as community tourism benefits are allusions to convention and visitor bureaus, chambers of some of the steps used in community build- commerce, and tourism associations. ing (asset identification, strategic community visioning, SWOT analysis ‘Authenticity’ means developing tourism [identification and assessment of strengths/ attractions, theme, and image (or ‘brand’) weaknesses, opportunities/threats], impact based on natural, cultural, and historic analysis, community theming and ‘brand- resources that are authentic and unique to ing’, leveraging of external resources, the community. development of action strategies and mon- Several underlying principles of commu- itoring of impacts). Detailed explanations, nity tourism development are less obvious accompanied by worksheets, examples and in the description, but are nonetheless crit- suggestions, are available in a variety of ical to the overall process and philosophy. other sources and, therefore, not included These include community empowerment here. Rather, the principles and philosophy and control, sustainability (McCool and Community Tourism Development 315

Watson, 1995; Lipman et al., 1996), link- tial linkages (e.g. tourism packages, tourism ages, and tourism attractions as community theme identification and use, multi-site dis- resources. count tickets), promotional linkages (e.g. joint advertising, themed brochures) and ‘Community empowerment and control’ others. means that community members, together, make deliberate decisions about the future ‘Tourism attractions as community assets’ characteristics of their community. Issues is a concept fundamental to community may revolve around type and level of tourism development. Most obvious, per- acceptable development; amenities desired; haps, is that attractions (museums, parks, physical character of the community (both harbours) must be acceptable, desirable and natural and built environments); and the accessible to residents. Amenities (e.g. community’s sacred places and values. If a waterfront parks and boardwalks, public art, community decides it wants to share its restaurants) also should be accessible and resources with tourists in exchange for eco- acceptable to residents. Less obvious, but nomic returns, then it must make a series of just as critical, is that the community tour- specific decisions to establish parameters ism development process – especially for tourism development. With this must activities such as community inventory and come a clear understanding that tourism assessment, community visioning, and development will create change; it is the identification of sacred places – can serve as community’s responsibility to manage that a catalyst for building community identity, change in a way that is acceptable and pride, vision, unity and social bonds. appropriate to the community.

‘Sustainability’ is a concept used widely in the last decade as applied to management Challenges of Community Tourism of natural resources, economies, individual Development industries, and social/cultural entities. While a succinct definition – reaping bene- Despite this attractive list of benefits asso- fits from resources while not destroying the ciated with community tourism develop- resources themselves – is simple enough, it ment, challenges do exist, just as they have is applied to systems that, by their nature, been identified in the literature on partner- are extremely complex and contain many ships (Selin and Chavez, 1995a,b; Selin and interrelated components. Opinions often Myers, 1995; Selin et al., 1997; Selin, 1998). vary widely as to what type and level of First, it is often difficult for individuals and resource degradation or change is deemed groups, especially businesses and tourism acceptable. Thus, ‘sustainability’ is most bureaus nurtured within a competitive capi- useful as a tool for making development talistic market, to work collaboratively. and/or management decisions and for mon- Often the assumption is that each commu- itoring the impacts of subsequent actions. nity must compete for a slice of the tourist dollar pie. The concept of ‘linkages’ is broad and, in Communities new to the tourism busi- the case of community tourism develop- ness sometimes make the false assumption ment, refers to a variety of connections that ‘getting into the tourism market’ is as important to the success of tourism. It simple as putting up a few promotional includes human linkages (e.g. collaborative signs and distributing some brochures. They planning and management), communica- fail to recognize that tourism development tion linkages (e.g. sharing of information means creating and nurturing a complex among tourism stakeholders and between system, to include: commitment of financial tourism providers and clients), physical and human resources to conduct an assess- linkages (e.g. transportation system link- ment of potential tourist attractions and ages, pedestrian corridors, visual access experiences; enhancement of attractions; through design of physical space), experien- provision of support services and amenities 316 Gail A. Van der Stoep

(e.g. travel corridors, directional signs, park- Thus, a major challenge to community-wide ing, lodging, restaurants, shopping collaboration is finding effective ways to opportunities); expression of hospitality by interest and involve residents who perceive all residents and businesses; provision and community development as peripheral to staffing of an integrated, consistent informa- personal priorities, not their responsibility, tion system to assist tourists before and or beyond their knowledge and ability. during their visits; creation and operation of Turnover in tourism enterprise owners, an organizational structure through which tourism organization staff, and tourism busi- tourism stakeholders share information and ness employees occurs frequently. This ideas; development of policies, regulatory creates challenges to consistency and lon- instruments, financial incentives and other gevity of coordinated tourism development policy instruments to facilitate and guide efforts. tourism development in directions decided Some businesses may not operate in ways upon by the community (specific sugges- supportive of tourism. For example, efforts tions can be found in Butler et al., 1998); in North Carolina to develop heritage tour- creation of a financial support structure for ism based on handmade crafts were the tourism system (e.g. bed tax, tourism hampered initially by inconsistent and association membership fees); creation of a unpublicized hours of operation by crafts- means for gathering or accessing existing people and lack of directional signs to tourism market data; and implementation of artisan homes or workshops, often well off a process to monitor effectiveness and the ‘beaten tourist path’. impacts (economic, social, environmental) Partnerships and collaborative planning of tourism development. In fact, a commu- and management require not only attitudes nity should develop a strategic tourism inconsistent with traditional hierarchical development plan that either clearly shows organizations, but a set of skills not typically integration with a community development taught in academic or training institutions, plan or is embedded within the commu- nor traditionally used in certain sectors. nity’s comprehensive and/or economic Problem solving, public involvement strate- development plan. gies, effective personal and nonpersonal Another challenge of community tourism communication, diverse computer skills, development is that such an approach, as lifelong learning strategies, and critical with all partnerships (Selin, 1998), takes a thinking are all important. Nonprofit and substantial commitment of time by stake- public sector employees must be proficient holders. While a goal of collaborative efforts in traditionally private sector skills: market- is to seek common ground, the reality is that ing, business plan development, strategic stakeholders often come to the table with visioning and management, and research. baggage that is full of opinions, perceptions Stakeholders are often not familiar with (often misperceptions) and judgments about the ‘languages’, operations approaches, mis- other stakeholder groups. These barriers sions and priorities of their partnering must be overcome before trust and open organizations. Thus, even communication is communication can be established. difficult. In some communities, elected officials may have a strong influence on community priorities. If elected officials, possibly under Implications of Trends and term limit constraints, are the ones who Challenges of Community Tourism spearhead tourism development efforts, then are replaced by officials not having the Community tourism planning and develop- same priorities, efforts may not be sus- ment are growing, as is citizen demand for tained. government accountability and for personal Many people become involved with input into decisions affecting them and their issues only when they perceive a direct communities. Thus, it seems prudent, both (often negative) impact on themselves. for increased efficiencies of tourism service Community Tourism Development 317

delivery and for providing satisfactory used: regulatory instruments (laws, licen- experiences for tourists, that collaborative ces, permits, quid pro quo exchanges), efforts in tourism continue. However, voluntary instruments (information and numerous factors, including pre-existing education, support for volunteer and non- conditions and attitudes, challenge prolon- governmental organizations, technical ged implementation. Tourism businesses, assistance), direct expenditures (funding tuned into incentives of ‘heads in beds’ and specific development or rehabilitation pro- profit margins, may develop partnerships jects, funding development of relevant with other tourism businesses. However, businesses, entering into public/private integrating tourism development within a partnerships, funding marketing and other broader community building context research, funding promotional efforts), requires focused effort, including commu- financial incentives (offering tax incentives; nity desire, long-term commitment, strong developing competitive pricing of public leadership based on community capacity services; providing grants, loans, rebates or and willingness to involve the public rewards for tourism-supportive activity), actively and regularly in the planning and and simply choosing not to become decision making. involved in activities unsupportive of com- This is not an easy shift to make. To some, munity and tourism development goals. it may seem as if smaller communities are Policy issues apply primarily to principles more able to engage their citizens – because of community control, collaboration and logistics are easier when resident numbers process facilitation to develop authentic and geographic range are small, because res- resources. idents may more easily perceive direct In some cases, facilitating community personal impacts of community develop- control may involve simply educating tour- ment decisions, and because there may be ism and community development partners fewer competing interests to meld. How- about how to access and use existing pro- ever, residents of small communities may be grammes to achieve specific goals. For more likely to carry perceptual and emo- example, a community that decides to tional ‘baggage’ due to lifelong interactions enhance its authentic historic character by with other residents. Also, their commu- redeveloping its historic town centre, to nities may be attractive to outsiders who both serve as a tourism attraction and pro- move to these communities and who may vide community services, may need have different ideas, values and priorities. technical assistance in researching and Lifelong residents may be resistant to their applying for national or state historic regis- ideas and values. Therefore, the actual ter designation. If a community chooses to nature of community involvement and col- preserve and enhance its natural environ- laborative planning is affected by the ment, it may need assistance in applying for characteristics and history of individual heritage area or corridor designation. For communities. Nevertheless, some general example, in Michigan, a heritage routes pro- implications related to public policy, man- gramme allows communities to apply to agement, planning and marketing can be have a stretch of road designated as a scenic, identified. Suggestions discussed below are historic or recreation corridor. Specific cri- intended to facilitate application of commu- teria and management policies, with which nity tourism development principles. the communities must comply, are associated with this programme. Public policy In other cases, specific policies or policy Implications for public policy within indi- instruments must be developed to facilitate vidual communities will derive from the or encourage certain kinds of tourism- decisions made by a community about if, related activity. To preserve an area’s how much, and the type of tourism it choo- historic character, a community might ses to develop. Butler et al. (1998) present develop deed restrictions, façade or other five categories of policy tools that might be design controls, and sign design and place- 318 Gail A. Van der Stoep

ment guidelines. It might implement tax petition (Flora, 1997). It includes shifts incentives or a grant programme to encour- from: age historic façade or building restoration. It might provide technical assistance, using ● being involved in community develop- historic preservation guidelines, to restore, ment to community building; renovate or rehabilitate historic structures. ● conducting needs assessment to asset In yet other cases, a community may mapping; encourage construction of a replica. An ● focusing on clients and their needs to example is the privately funded construc- citizens and what they can contribute to tion of a replica of Friendship, a 1797 the community; three-masted square-rigger, to be docked at ● depending on individual leadership to a Salem Maritime National Historic Site in team of community contributors, and Massachusetts (Hierta, 1996). While public nurturing skills and contributions of funds may not be available to support such community members; and efforts, other in-kind actions (e.g. providing ● using strategic planning (based on meet- free dockage for a historic vessel, extending ing identified needs) to strategic sewer and power lines to a historic attrac- visioning (the agreed upon target com- tion, or restricting commercial development munity condition toward which a around a historic community) may provide variety of actions could contribute). critical assistance. To protect natural resources, a community planning commission In this approach, the vision becomes the may use environmental regulations to sup- community’s ‘bottom line’ and serves as the port decisions. For example, mitigation fundamental criterion against which to strategies that require protection of X acres assess the contribution of specific develop- of land or reconstruction of wetlands in ment ideas. exchange for development rights in a less This planning approach, however, must sensitive area might be used. Developers struggle against attitudinal and organiza- may be required to provide a certain amount tional momentum, which tends to reinforce of green space, wildlife corridors or other adversarial approaches to decision making natural resource area. Government might and often involves negotiation, mediation become actively involved in acquisition of and power plays. Some of the institution- waterway buffer strips, or purchase of devel- alized processes are partisan political opment rights or easements along such jousting and blatant use of ‘pork barrel’ poli- corridors. tics and budget decisions; adversarial legal posturing that uses injunctions, lawsuits Planning and legal negotiation to resolve controver- Planning is integral to the entire process of sies; the capitalistic economic system that community tourism development. Yet it is relies on competition, buyouts and mergers perhaps the most difficult process to sustain, to exert economic pressures and power; spe- particularly to maintain involvement and cial interest lobbying that is based heavily buy-in by residents and organized stake- on self-interest of the group(s) being repre- holder groups. The planning process is sented. These ‘business as usual’ fundamentally different from simply hiring approaches do not automatically preclude a firm, or having a team of consultants successful community involvement and develop a plan behind closed doors. It community-based tourism development; means committing to involving stakehold- rather, they must be modified to fulfil differ- ers and allowing them to participate in ent roles. decision making. It means making changes An example of a successful community in attitude and approach toward building a planning process that integrates community community for the future based on human, building, economic development, environ- natural, historic and other resource assets, mental protection, and tourism and using collaboration rather than com- opportunities is a process, initiated by a Community Tourism Development 319

project called the Les Cheneaux Economic tourists, such as having adequate rest Forum, engaged in by a small community in rooms, parking space, and interesting Michigan’s Upper Peninsula. Basing its dis- stories and engaging exhibits; tourism cussions on scientific environmental impact professionals must recognize museums’ and development trend data, the process concerns about protecting the natural involved residents (via public forums with and cultural resources for which they adults and youth, volunteer task forces, and are responsible. To aid communities continuous communication through print with such efforts, a national collabora- and electronic media formats) in identifying tive recently published a guidebook its assets, developing a community vision called Partners in Tourism: Culture and (based on principles of long-term economic Commerce (Garfield, 1997); prosperity, natural resource protection, and ● involving the community’s youth in the local public participation), developing process; action plans, identifying stakeholder part- ● finding ways to maintain stakeholder ners for individual projects, considering involvement over the long term; and issues of sustainability, maintaining com- ● developing effective processes to mini- munication, implementing action plans, mize and/or address conflicts among and monitoring impacts (Hudson et al., stakeholders (including reduction of 1998). litigation-based determinations) and to Following the Les Cheneaux example, negotiate decisions that fairly balance and using principles identified earlier in community-wide social benefits with this chapter to address challenges of com- individual rights. munity tourism development, other planning needs based on changing ‘ways of Management doing business’ include: Management, as used here, is defined as a way to implement, monitor and modify ● identifying stakeholders and finding actions based on the community ‘planning ways to clarify relevance of the process, process’ discussed above. As an extension of facilitating their involvement, and the planning process, it must incorporate ensuring their involvement in the deci- strategies that continue to involve residents sion making process; and stakeholder groups. This includes find- ● facilitating education of stakeholder ing ways for organizations to share organizations and residents about each management responsibilities (and account- other – their priorities and missions, ability) as well as the benefits of tourism and operational procedures and constraints community development. This means bas- – to help build trust and create an envi- ing ‘success’ on criteria in addition to ronment in which they can talk and personal, organizational, and business prof- plan with mutual understanding, find its. It also means that monitoring and common ground, and develop strategies evaluation procedures must be built into that consider all perspectives and implementation and management systems impacts. For example, Michigan’s cur- so that community members can assess rent efforts to develop cultural tourism effectiveness and make changes, as neces- are focused on bringing together mem- sary. Some of the implications specific to bers of the cultural community (e.g. managing the tourism component of com- museum directors) and tourism indus- munity building include: try (e.g. hoteliers, CVB staff, tourism associations) to speak face to face, to ● assuring that attractions and amenities learn each others’ language and bottom first serve residents effectively, and that line criteria, and to seek common tourist visitation does not displace or ground. Museum professionals, who inhibit local access; this involves main- have difficulty perceiving themselves as taining easy access (physical, economic ‘businesses’, must recognize needs of and cognitive) to historic and cultural 320 Gail A. Van der Stoep

attractions, natural resource sites, and tourism (and other development) other attractions by residents as well as impacts as well as of community atti- managing tourist transportation conges- tudes, values and preferences. tion that might discourage resident use; Marketing ● presenting the interpretive stories, iden- Marketing, which involves several compo- tified as important by the community nents, is interwoven with planning and and which it chooses to share, in ways management elements of the community that both ‘bring life’ to the stories (for tourism development process. Marketing both tourists and community residents) efforts are approached somewhat differently and are linked with each other through- than with a traditional focus on market out the community; this means that needs and preferences. Of course, initial attractions that focus on telling stories market analysis, community asset identifi- (e.g. museums, nature centres, theatres, cation, and continuous tourism monitoring tour organizations) should coordinate are all parts of the process. This includes their interpretive efforts with those of identifying the needs, preferences, spending tourism support services (e.g. restau- and travel patterns of tourists. However, rants, lodging establishments, gift decisions about community tourism devel- shops, marinas, libraries); for example, opment actions are based not solely on those placemats, menus, mini-exhibits and results, but on those results in conjunction historic photos with interpretive pla- with community priorities, preferences, cards, can be used in such facilities to values and vision. Implied specific actions tell parts of the community’s story, and include: are particularly appropriate for use in adaptively reused historic structures; ● developing a monitoring system to eval- ● tourism organizations and community uate tourist satisfaction, to identify designers should consider, in the phys- changes in tourist perceptions and pref- ical layout of facilities and the provision erences, to identify tourism impacts, of services and attractions, ways to link and to monitor community attitudes tourism opportunities, experiences, and toward tourism; sites throughout a community in ways ● educating communities about how to that are easily usable and understand- promote themselves, how to integrate able by tourists (see the discussion of their promotional efforts with regional linkages); and/or state promotional efforts (and ● implementing training and/or other themes); programmes to help make all commu- ● developing effective target marketing nity residents and businesses part of the efforts consistent with community pri- tourism system so they all work as hosts orities; and information providers; this can be ● developing pricing strategies appropri- achieved only if the community has ate for target markets; and input into and accepts changes resulting ● developing tourism packages (not only from tourism; residents must under- traditional hotel/restaurant/attraction stand that personal attitudes as well as packages, but joint attraction and/or service quality are critical to effective experience packages that help tell the tourism delivery, especially if they community story). desire long-term tourism involvement; and ● identifying and implementing controls Conclusions and Challenge for the to sustain the natural and historic envi- Future ronment, economy, and quality of life of the community; this effort requires con- Facilitating community tourism develop- tinual monitoring and evaluation of ment involves a fundamental shift in Community Tourism Development 321

attitudes about roles of ‘specialists’ and ‘pro- scale collaborative projects before embark- fessionals’ as they relate to citizens; a shift ing on community-wide tourism develop- from competitive priorities to collaborative ment. Additionally, education and training win–win priorities; and a willingness for must present and nurture different attitudes; stakeholders to look for common ground teach skills relevant to collaborative, team and areas of negotiation leading to win–win and community-building efforts; and pro- outcomes. Without this attitude shift, chan- vide opportunities for students/trainees to ges in approaches will be unsuccessful, at work in teams to solve problems, develop least for the long term. Among communities effective community building plans, and and certain stakeholder groups, and among hone effective interpersonal communica- professionals – land managers, tourism pro- tion skills. Educational requirements fessionals, community planners, etc. – are should allow more diversification in curric- people holding traditional values, percep- ula rather than exclusively move tions of the roles of professionals, and a individuals toward specialization. This belief in traditional planning and govern- may mean developing more integrative, mental processes. Others are strict problem-solving courses and experiences, capitalists, for whom economic competition and encouraging students to take courses is sacred. Stakeholder involvement is con- within a variety of related areas. Without sidered to be too much trouble, to take too exposure to people, issues, and basic knowl- long, and not be worth the effort. However, edge of other professions or stakeholder the support for decisions arrived at jointly, groups, it is difficult to learn the languages. rather than those imposed upon a commu- Perhaps this can lead people to consider nity, are likely to be much better received, the possibility at least that a tourism treas- have increased community-wide and perso- ure is wrapped in a rotting carcass. Perhaps nal benefits, and be less likely to trigger legal Port au Choix is on the right track in involv- challenge. Changes this fundamental are not ing stakeholders to develop tourism and easy or swift. Clear successes, based on rele- other community amenities to meet the vant issues, must be showcased. needs of its citizens in a rapidly changing Communities might experiment with small natural and economic environment.

Part VI Management and Operations: Tools to Get the Job Done

29 The Role of Tour Operators in the Travel Distribution System

Nevenka Cavlek

Introduction Main Development Trend

From the moment tour operators appeared The main trend that can be identified in the on the market, the individual form of tour- travel distribution system is the consolida- ism has been complemented by package tion of tour operators in the tourism market. holiday tourism that has revolutionized This is the result of global processes of travel and enabled a large number of people development in the world economy that to join international tourism flows. The tre- have had an inevitable influence on tourism mendous development in international travel and, with it, on the development strat- air-passenger traffic and the favourable egies of the leading European tour operators. package holidays offered to tourism con- The business environment within which sumers by tour operators have clearly travel companies operate has become caused a rapid development in international increasingly uncertain. Organizations have tourism. Nevertheless, modern tourism has become bigger and more complex over the shown that its most distinctive character- last two decades. To survive in the very istic is the mass participation of tourists. competitive tourism market, it has become According to the World Tourism Organiza- essential for the organizers and distributors tion (WTO), tour operators contribute of tourism to merge with or to purchase annually around 25% of all world tourism companies that deliver different compo- travel. This means that in 1998 about 160 nents of the whole product that they supply million international tourism journeys were on the market. On the other hand, practice in created by tour operators (WTO, 1999). For the tour operators’ business has shown that their part, European tour operators account the tour operators work with many risks and for around 50% of all package tours in the at the same time with very low net profit world (Cavlek, 1998). The concentration of margins (Mundt, 1993; Youell, 1994). There- demand in the tourism market has led to the fore, it is important for tour operators to concentration of tourism supply that is share in the profit of as large a number of changing faster than ever and adapting to different components of the whole product the new requirements of the market. Tour that they supply on the market as possible. operators will continue to play a decisive role in meeting the requirements of this market. © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 325 326 Nevenka Cavlek

Dominance of tour operators in outbound feature of the British tourism market from tourism the 1970s until now (Lavery, 1993). The business of tour operators was created Although the share of package holidays in and has developed mostly in Europe. the total number of holidays abroad has Although the US has been the driving force gradually declined (from 73% in 1970, to of the world economy, where the largest 56% in 1990, and 52% in 1998), this type of airlines in the world, the most extensive travelling is still dominant on the market. reservation systems, the biggest hotel chains From the moment when the British tour and the largest travel agency chains have operators entered the initial stages of the together paved the way for the development package holiday business, the main charac- of tourism; in the field of the tour operating teristic of this market has been the incessant business the US lags behind Europe. Apart battle to win as large a market share as possi- from the Europeans, only the Japanese ble, which is usually done through a fierce (although with a shorter tradition) have a price war and through the increasing con- similarly strong habit of travelling abroad on centration of business in the hands of a package holidays. Unlike the tour operating limited number of powerful tour operators. business in Europe, the tour operating busi- In the British package holiday market, more ness in the US is mostly directed towards than 1000 tour operators have been regis- domestic destinations (approximately tered. However, just 19 of them account for 70%). This is natural, considering the geo- approximately 90% of total sales, while the graphic vastness and attractive tourism four leading tour operators – Thomson, Air- destinations within this market, for instance tours, Thomas Cook Holdings and First Florida, California and Hawaii. Although Choice – control 75% of the market there are about 2000 tour operators in the (Holmes, 1999). These data reveal an excep- US, only 350 of them sell package holidays tionally high concentration of business in abroad, and 50 of the largest realize 80% of the hands of just a few of the most powerful the total sales. tour operators which strongly influence the Although the largest tour operator con- domestic market of demand and have a cerns have developed in the most powerful strong negotiating position with business European tourism generating markets (i.e. partners in the main tourism receiving Germany and Great Britain), it should be markets. emphasized that the number of inhabitants In 1997, the size of the British air-package of a particular country is not the only, or the market, according to data from the British most significant, factor in the emergence of Civil Aviation Authority, amounted to 17.9 large tour operating companies (FVW Inter- million tourists. The leading five tour opera- national, 1998b). Indeed, the very fact that tors in the British market achieved there are limits to the number of potential approximately 80% of the total turnover. clients on the domestic market pushes tour Such a concentration of business has a pos- operators to become active in other markets. itive effect for consumers, because in the An example is the case of tour operators in battle to win a larger market share, the lead- the Swiss tourism market. ing tour operators are constantly forced to By 1970, tour operators had already been reduce their prices. While consumers bene- recognized as an essential part of the mod- fit from this, tour operators fall victim to ern tourism system (Mill and Morrison, their own business decisions. However, 1985), only to become, in the later stages of when a critical point is reached, tour opera- their development, a dominant landmark in tors are forced to reduce supply on the all the significant tourism-generating mar- market, the average selling price of a pack- kets of the world. age per passenger then starts to increase and the tour operators which have survived on The British market the market enter the phase of recovery. The mass nature of travelling abroad on air- In 1992, more than 60% of all British packages can be considered as the main tourists travelling to Spain (a total of 3.08 The Role of Tour Operators 327

million) went on package holidays (Bray, in Germany, we can conclude that with the 1996). Such a share of organized travel in increasing influence of tour operators and relation to individual travel was even more with the strengthening of their role in creat- evident in the case of Greece where, in the ing package holidays, the share of organized same year, nearly 90% of British people travel in the total number of holiday trips travelled on package holidays (a total of 1.58 longer than 4 days has recorded constant million package holidays sold). In 1996, of growth. While the number of individual the British package holiday market, Greece trips has decreased, the number of package had a 12% share. At the same time, Turkey holidays has grown. At the very beginning of climbed from tenth place on the list in 1992 the takeoff stage (1970) in the German tour- to third place in 1996 (from 220,000 tourists ism market, the ratio of organized trips to to 750,000), reaching an 8% share of the individual holiday trips amounted to British package holiday market (Table 17 : 83. In 1982, this ratio was 26 : 74, and in 29.1). 1998, the relationship between organized and individual trips amounted to 45 : 55. However, if we observe just the travel that Table 29.1. The top-ten list of the best selling German tourists took abroad, then we can destinations for summer holidays on the British notice a significant increase in organized market in 1996. The figures in parentheses refer to travel compared to individual trips which positions in 1992. amounted to 59 : 41 in 1989 and in 1998 jumped to 80 : 20. Market share of package The use of air travel by German tourists Position Destination holidays (%) started to grow rapidly around the mid- 1970s, when air-charter transport became 1 (1) Spain 39 increasingly significant. In the period 2 (3) Greece 12 1976–1989, the share of holiday travel by air 3 (10) Turkey 8 almost doubled. In the 1990s, this trend 4 (6) USA 6 became even more pronounced, with a 5 (2) France 5 sharp growth in interest by German tourists 6 (5) Portugal 4 in travelling on packages to long-haul desti- 7 (7) Italy 4 8 (4) Cyprus 4 nations which, due to reductions in air fares, 9 (-) Caribbean 3 became very competitive in relation to tradi- 10 (-) Malta 2 tional destinations. The German package holiday market still Source: Observer (8 December, 1996). has room for expansion. Although there are no precise data on the size of the German package holiday market, since these specific items of data have not been measured, some The German market research has been carried out which can at In Germany, which in the early stages of the least approximately depict the size and development of tour operators was the sec- strength of this market (Freyer, 1998). In ond largest tourism-generating market in the 1998, the size of this largest European pack- world, the number of holiday departures age holiday market was estimated to outside the place of permanent residence comprise more than 30 million organized has constantly grown. In 1970, the number trips. This figure is based on the fact that 56 of holiday trips outside the place of perma- of the most significant German tour opera- nent residence for longer than 4 days tors in that year realized a total of almost 24 amounted to 18.5 million, whereas in 1998 million organized trips, producing a total this number more than tripled to 63.4 mil- turnover of about 24 billion DM from selling lion (Reiseanalyse, 1999, tourism market packages. Clearly, these operators represen- research in Germany). By analysing the ted about 70% of the total German market of development of the package holiday market organized trips. Therefore, compared with

328 Nevenka Cavlek the financial year 1996/97, this market grew Integration Processes on the by 5.5% in the number of package holiday European Market trips, or 6.9% in realized turnover (FVW International, 1998a). Within the last few years, on the European The five leading German tour operators as well as on the world tourism market, (Touristic Union International (TUI), Neck- many important changes have occurred in ermann und Reisen (NUR), Luftfahrt the sphere of the vertical and horizontal Unternehmen GmbH & co. KG (LTU), Deuts- integration of tour operators and tourism ches Reiseburo GmbH (DER), Frosch concerns. A present tendency is for tour Touristic International (FTI)) represent operators to buy existing operators and retail more than 50% of the total tour operating travel agency chains in a particular market business on this market, whereas the rather than to create new tour operators or remaining 800–1200 tour operators share their own travel agency chains. The logic of slightly less than half the business. such a business approach is easy to under- Through the examples of the British and stand. The investment necessary to buy an the German markets, it can be concluded already well-established company is much that tour operators, thanks to air-charter lower than that needed to introduce a new transport, opened new horizons in tourism, company name on to the market (Goold and particularly by introducing new tourism Sommers Luchs, 1996). The processes of destinations that were far enough away from integration within the German tourism mar- the main tourism-generating markets to ket are numerous and significant. In the fight make travel by any other mode difficult to for a larger share of the market, large com- accomplish. panies are taking over smaller ones almost daily. However, unlike the situation on the Phases of development British market, where a large share of the In order to understand the whole issue of the market is usually achieved by using price as involvement of tour operators in the world a weapon, so that tour operators, travel agen- market, it is necessary to observe their devel- cies and charter companies engage in opment within the framework of specific exhausting price wars; on the German mar- phases. In particular, it is necessary to ana- ket, prices, at least until now, do not carry as lyse the history of organized travel after much importance as they do in Britain. The World War II, because, as pointed out by Van German tourism market has mainly used Doren and Lollar (1985), social, political, diversification of the tourism product, economic, technological and environmental rather than price, as the main weapon in changes after the war resulted in the ‘con- market competition. sequences’ that now shape the present travel Until the beginning of 1998, unlike Brit- industry. The conclusion can be drawn that ish tour operators, the leading German tour we cannot apply one-sided criteria, valid operators, with the exception of LTU, were only for one area of human activity, to exam- not vertically connected with airline com- ine the development of any phenomenon, let panies. However, in recent years, the alone that of tourism and tour operators. A involvement of German tour operators in holistic perspective can be achieved only by long-haul markets has increased (i.e. the combining criteria that include all the ele- participation of long-haul destinations in ments relevant to such a process of the total programme of these tour operators development. By applying the above princi- has grown) and, consequently, the use of ples and criteria, it is possible to establish significantly larger airline transport capaci- the following stages in the development of ties has encouraged tour operators to change tour operators: the introduction of tour their most recent business practices. On the operators into the tourism system, the take- other hand, the influx of British tour opera- off stage, the maturity stage, and the future tors on to the European markets, and stage of mass consumption, which are sche- recently also on to the German market, has matically summarized in Table 29.2. The Role of Tour Operators 329

Table 29.2. The main characteristics of the stages of development of tour operators.

Stage of development Main characteristics Environment Leading tour operators

Introductory Stage Typical sales-oriented Fast socioeconomic Horizon 1950–1970 market transformation of society Clarksons (limited number of tour (high GNP growth, increase Cosmos operators on the market). in the number of days of Touropa Flourishing of charter air- paid holiday). Scharnow companies. Post-war modernization and Dr Tigges Beginnings of integration of motorization. Club Méditerrané tourism concerns. Takeoff Stage Transfer from a sales- New era of air transport Thomson 1970–end of 1980s oriented to a consumer- (introduction of jumbo jets). Intasun, ILG oriented market Two energy crises. Horizon Increase of supply faster that Deregulation of air-traffic. Touristic Union International that of demand. (TUI) First tour operator Neckermann bankruptcies. Kuoni A large number of new Club Méditerrané names among tour American Express operators. Owners Abroad ‘Apex’ tariffs. Continuation of the process of integration. Sudden growth of the tour operators’ offer of new tourism destinations. Stage of Maturity Restrained consumption Huge political and TUI From the beginning of Package holidays take on economic changes Neckermann the 1990s the characteristics of (transformation of socialist LTU consumer goods economies into market Amexco Consumer sensitivity to economies; opening of Thomson prices. borders of countries behind Airtours Very prominent trend in the Iron Curtain; free flow of Club Méditerrané last-minute bookings. goods and services). Nouvelles Frontières Change in the structure of World recession. Kuoni supply with tour operators. War in the Gulf. DER Substitution of ‘standard Creation of a single First Choice packages’ for European market. ‘individualized packages’. Signing of the GATTS Diversification of the market Agreement. of demand. Changes in the system of Increasing number of values of the population on specialist tour operators. the leading tourism- Large investments in CRSs. generating markets. Tour operators outgrowing their own markets. Future Stage of mass Globalization of the tourism A significant growth in Hapag-Touristik Union (HTU) consumption product living standards in the so- C & N Touristik Very prominent called Third World Airtours segmentation of tourism countries Thomson supply and demand. Changes in the system of Amexco Several tour operators values of the population dictate the tourism market living in those countries throughout the world. Further shortening of the working week (increase of free time). Two dominant orientations of values: one orientation towards material opulence and hedonism and the second orientation towards nonmaterial, alternative values and quality of life. 330 Nevenka Cavlek

brought German tour operators into direct In a way, the German travel concerns are confrontation with competition from the following the British model of vertical inte- strongest market of air-package holidays in gration in the market; that is, integration Europe, which has prompted them to form with retail travel agency chains. This is seen mergers. The aims of these mergers are in HTU’s purchase of the biggest travel clear: through them, tour operators tighten agency chain in Germany, First (with a stake their links with airline companies in order of around 80%, the remainder being in the to: (i) increase their power on the market; (ii) hands of Westdeutsche Landesbank – WLB), weaken or eliminate some of their competi- and has now in its hands the biggest dis- tors; (iii) correct any mistakes made by tribution chain in Germany. However, the buying smaller tour operators; and (iv) owner of HTU, Preusag, sought to expand strengthen their low-profit business with the further. Soon afterwards, Preusag acquired synergetic effects that come from cooperat- 25.1% of Thomas Cook, a British travel ing with airline companies and from agency company that has lately been participating in their profits. involved in tour operating as well as in the Germany is, according to the number of travel agency business (with the intention of trips abroad, the strongest tourism- becoming the major shareholder of Thomas generating country in the world. Therefore, Cook by the end of 1999). These have been it is not strange that the largest tour operator very important strategic steps taken by Ger- in Europe – TUI – operates in this market. In man tourism concerns in the direction of 1998 TUI sold more than 5 million package distribution channels outside their domes- holidays on the German market alone (FVW tic market. International, 1998b). Although the German The mergers of the mentioned tourism anti-monopolies commission has for many enterprises have not led to the creation of a years opposed the mergers of tourism con- monopoly. On the contrary, competition in cerns and the creation of oligopolies, the the market has become stronger. Some mar- processes of vertical integration have been ket analysts predicted that this kind of difficult to prevent. In the German travel vertical integration would reduce the pack- market, there are two large ‘blocks’: The age holiday offered on the market, but it Reds, led by TUI, and The Yellows, presided actually widens it. The prices have also not over by NUR. At the end of 1997, the second gone up, as was predicted. Actually, they largest tour operator group in this market, have been reduced. This situation is very NUR, merged with the charter company, much in favour of the customers who travel Condor, and a new holding, C&N Touristik, in even better conditions than before. One of was created. In response to the creation of the main reasons lies in the fact that the this holding, swift preparations followed to British tour operator, Airtours, entered the create a new holding on the side of the Reds. German tourism market in May 1998 by The German market has changed signifi- acquiring a 29.1% stake in the German tour cantly since Preusag, whose basic activity operating group, FTI, and is intending to lies in the fields of energy, raw materials and create a new tour operating force in this technology, entered the tourism business. In market. On the other hand, the fourth Ger- response to the creation of this holding, Pre- man tour operator, LTU, succeeded in usag, which succeeded in obtaining a linking itself with the mother company of majority ownership of the largest tour oper- Swissair, the SAir group, which bought ator in Germany and in Europe, TUI, which 49.9% of LTU from WLB. This has given is almost the sole owner of the tourism con- LTU extra strength on the German market, cern Hapag Lloyd (which has an in-house better chances of staying as a real competitor charter company under the same name), to the newly created holdings on the Ger- decided to merge TUI and Hapag Lloyd and man market, and has opened the way to formed a new holding under the name forming the first European charter alliance. Hapag-Touristik Union (HTU) by the end of In contrast to the practice of concentra- 1998. tion on the German tourism market (except The Role of Tour Operators 331

for LTU), the integration of tour operators and German tour operators outside their with airline companies and chains of travel domestic markets have not always been the agencies on the British market is well estab- same. Whereas British tour operators enter lished, whereas mergers with hotel foreign markets because they cannot expand companies are generally avoided (except for further within their own market and because Airtours). Without presenting a deeper anal- they need to exploit their airline-company ysis of this situation, it is believed that the capacities more fully, German tour opera- basic reasons lie primarily in the geographic tors can still achieve significant increases in location of Great Britain, its distance from their turnover on their own domestic mar- the main tourism receiving markets, as well kets. The main aim of German operators, it as in its previous negative experiences with seems, is to become global European tour other forms of concentration on the tourism operators. market. Thomson Travel Group owns the The leading European tour operators biggest charter airline company in the have polarized their spheres of interest so world, Britannia Airways, the travel agency that they are moving towards markets which chain Lunn Poly, with more than 800 branch are structured in a similar way to their home offices and several tour operators. Airtours markets. The German tour operators, for has a similar structure. It owns the charter example, have turned toward The Nether- airline company, Airtours International, lands, Belgium and Austria, and are and Premiair (Scandinavia), the travel increasingly interested in penetrating the agency chain Going Places (with around 700 markets of the neighbouring east European outlets), several tour operators in Great Brit- countries, since those markets are struc- ain and abroad, four cruise ships and some tured in a way similar to their domestic hotels in receiving tourism destinations. market. None of the mentioned markets was a typical market for air-package tours, neither were the companies bought by the Capital Flows of European Travel German concerns vertically integrated with Concerns airline companies. As a result of the actions by the leading German tour operators, the When the tour operators in the most power- Dutch and Belgian markets are almost com- ful European tourism generating markets pletely in German hands. TUI bought two of were no longer able to expand their business the largest tour operators on the Dutch mar- significantly on their domestic markets, and ket (Holland International and Arke Reisen), under the influence of global economic and NUR conquered the Belgian market development, they started to international- through its daughter company, NUR Reisen, ize. This was accomplished in part, by the by buying All Air and by purchasing the tour strategic power, brought by international operator Sunsnacks. capital market businesses. In this pyramid, The situation on the British tourism mar- business can only be done and the battle can ket until 1997 differed greatly from the only be fought by the biggest, for example, situation on the Continent, where the largest the German travel concerns which, in most and most powerful tour operators attemp- cases, are directly or indirectly supported by ted, within the possibilities offered to them powerful banking capital. With the financial by a single European market, to reap the best growth of these concerns, their influence on possible rewards from their efforts. Unlike world tourism flows and global relation- the entrepreneurial German tourism con- ships will continue to increase. The cerns, the British tourism companies had for conditions regarding inclusive tours are a long time been observing with some suspi- already dictated by tourism concerns which, cion the newly formed European tourism as already stated, besides tour operators, structure and could not decide whether to most often own chains of travel agencies enter other European tourism markets. How- and/or airline companies, ships, hotels etc. ever, as much as it was convenient for the The motives for the expansion of British British companies to stay in their ‘splendid 332 Nevenka Cavlek

isolation’, with the arrival of other European ership structure show that non-European companies on their market, they started to capital is not involved in any significant realize that the European Union (EU) way in the ownership of European tour brought with it different rules of behaviour operators (Bywater, 1998). The exceptions and that long-term isolation could mean had been the Thomson Travel Group extinction from the market. For this reason, (owned until May 1998 by the Thomson British tour operators have turned toward Corporation of Canada and since then markets that have structural similarities to quoted on the London Stock Exchange) and their own market. The most similar Euro- the very small share of Japanese capital in pean markets are, of course, the Club Méditerranée and American capital in Scandinavian and the Irish ones. Scandina- Airtours. Therefore, it seems more likely, as via and Ireland are typical air-package is already happening in practice, that the holiday markets, tour operators are verti- European tourism industry will move cally integrated with airline companies, the toward the global market rather than for markets are particularly sensitive to price, foreign capital to significantly penetrate the and in all their features they reflect the busi- European tourism-generating market. For ness conditions of the British market. So it is example, Airtours is operating on the North not at all surprising that British tour opera- American market, and the Swiss tour oper- tors have been practically ruling the ator Kuoni has subsidiaries in India and Scandinavian market. Airtours was among Hong Kong. Due to the increasing interest the first British tour operators that ventured shown by tourists in travelling to long-haul out of the domestic market, first by buying destinations, it can be expected that the larg- the SAS Leisure Group in 1994, and then est tour operators, which generate a mass of Spies Holding at the beginning of 1996. It tourists for long-haul destinations, will fur- was precisely this expansion into foreign ther try to exploit synergies in dealing with markets that enabled Airtours to exceed these markets in the sense of widening their Thomson’s results on the international mar- activities in them. They will try, within the ket. Thomson Travel, still the leading tour limits of legal possibilities, to direct the operator in Britain, started to involve itself tourism-generating potentials from these more in the Irish market in 1997, and some- markets toward other destinations in their what later also in the Scandinavian tourism programmes. They will ensure in this way a market and, in this way, the British tour constant expansion of their activity and will operators’ principle of isolation from over- strengthen their influence on the global tour- seas tourism markets conclusively ended. ism market, which means that the However, as business conditions in the development of the tour operating business market of Continental Europe change under in the future will move from being an inter- the influence of EU regulations on the crea- national and multinational business to tion of a single European tourism market, so being a global one. Therefore, it could be opportunities for the access of British tour predicted that the largest tour operators in operators to this market are widening. For Europe will start directing their influence the first time, Airtours was able, by the end toward these markets by investing their cap- of 1997, to enter the market of Continental ital in relevant tour operators or by buying Europe, dominated by the leading German them out completely. tour operators, with the purchase of Sun Regardless of the different motives for the International which, apart from the domes- expansion of European tourism concerns, tic Belgian market, also operates in The the new EU system evidently facilitates their Netherlands, France and Great Britain. In growth, that tourism is becoming increas- May 1998, Airtours made a decisive step in ingly based on partnerships, that the the German market by buying 29% of the ownership structure in European tourism shares of the very promising tour operator, today is all the more difficult to disentangle, FTI. and that the further ‘Europeanization’ and The analyses of the tour operators’ own- globalization processes of the tourism mar- The Role of Tour Operators 333

ket greatly influence the establishment of is now also moving to the tourism receiving new business relationships. It seems that markets. European travel concerns are consistently Many tourism receiving countries moving toward further consolidation. All depend today on foreign tour operators. But, big tourism concerns are looking for further some of the receiving destinations, by allow- acquisitions to power their growth. The top ing foreign tour operators to become targets will be regional companies and spe- extensively involved, have lost control of cialists on the domestic market and abroad, their own tourism development. One reason but even bigger mergers cannot be exclu- for this is that turnover based on foreign ded. tourism depends on the will and readiness of tour operators to include or keep a particular destination in their programme. Since Implications tour operators have full control of their product, they choose or abandon a partic- With the strengthening of the process of hor- ular market (the tourism receiving izontal and vertical integration, access to the destination) depending on the prices of market for new tour operators is becoming accommodation at those destinations, on more difficult. First, concentration proces- the quality of the services, on the attractive- ses on the tourism markets have created ness of the destination, on its image, on the powerful tour operators with an expanding extent of their own investment and on many network of travel agencies. An increasing other factors. Their business interests and number of small, independent tour opera- those of their business partners at the receiv- tors and travel agencies have been ing destinations do not always match. swallowed up by these large organizations Therefore, the risk of placing this receiving that have consequently become even bigger destination on the generating market in such and more powerful. This situation puts the a situation is particularly high, because medium-sized and particularly the small changes, either in the market of demand or tour operators at a disadvantage, because it in the market of supply, which have neg- limits their access to channels of distribu- ative effects on the demand for a particular tion (the tour operator is a wholesaler, and destination, leave the tour operators without usually does not sell its package holidays the means to directly or adequately inter- directly to clients, but does so using the vene on the foreign tourism market. services of intermediaries, mainly travel Moreover, since tour operators have caused agencies) and to the leasing of charter seats. structural changes in international tourism The small operators also have a less favour- demand, directing it toward a lower eco- able negotiating position when contracting nomic category of consumers, the tourism accommodation capacities at tourism desti- supply of tourism receiving destinations nations. As a result of the power which large adapted itself to receive this category of mass-market tour operators have on partic- tourists, becoming at the same time less ular tourism markets, small- and attractive to the higher economic stratum of medium-sized tour operators can ensure consumers. their existence among the giants only if they For tourism receiving destinations, become recognizable by offering to the mar- whose placing on the generating markets ket a specific and first-rate product. mainly depends on tour operators, the situa- Since the tourism concerns are usually tion is particularly unfavourable when they owners or major shareholders of accommo- are mostly oriented towards only two or dation facilities in the main receiving three markets. The situation becomes even tourism destinations, they can easily control more difficult when, in addition, most or dictate the prices of these services, and capacities have been leased to only a few make other requests or bend some rules in tour operators from these markets. These their favour. This implies that the competi- risky situations for the receiving destination created in tourism-generating markets tions can be lessened by their orientation 334 Nevenka Cavlek

toward a larger number of foreign markets of ever, the product brand cannot be built on demand, and by the accommodation sector an image of price alone. The consequence of not leasing their capacities to only one tour all this will be a disproportionate increase in operator from a particular foreign market, or marketing, particularly with regard to pro- by the formation of strong hotel associations motional budgets, in comparison with the which would have better bargaining power growth of tourism traffic. But whatever the with tour operators. marketing strategy in the future, it will be The current trend in the development of fully client-oriented. Today, there has the tour operating business puts greater already been a change in the marketing strat- pressure on the marketing strategy of the egy of the leading world tour operators in tour operator, due to the strong competition their relationship toward the customer who at all levels and to the increasing individualis always put first, and care is taken to pro- ization of tourism travel. Simply stated, tour vide adequate personal service. A large operators and tourism destinations will, in number of tour operators have already future, not only have to develop their prod- become aware that a high quality service is ucts and services according to the wishes of the key to winning new customers and to their customers and according to new keeping old ones. Some studies commis- trends, but their success on the tourism mar- sioned by tour operators have already ket will increasingly depend on the more confirmed that the cost of keeping regular, intensive marketing of their supply which loyal customers represents only about 20% will have to be directed more precisely of the promotional budget needed for win- toward appropriate demand segments. In ning new customers. Therefore, it would be conditions of increased competition, the reasonable to expect that in future tour product brand will gain more significance, operators will put stronger emphasis on the and the battle for customers will be won by need to have high quality staff; in other those travel organizers that have a stronger words, high quality staff will become their brand (which, needless to say, does not main advantage over the competition. exclude the role of price in the battle!). How- 30 National Tourist Offices and the Language of Differentiation

Graham M.S. Dann

Introduction and his successors, differences became safe and controllable. The appeal to the British As we stand on the brink of the 21st century working class was successful to the extent there appear to be two opposing trends oper- that it democratized travel. It reduced ating in international tourism. Both claim to domestic differences predicated on social be increasing at the expense of the other. stratification and sought to regulate those Both have quite extensive traditions and differences overseas which had become the may be respectively termed ‘modernist’ and object of popular curiosity (Wang, 2000). ‘postmodernist’. Each attracts its own band The effects of exterior strangeness could be of academic followers and each constitutes a minimized by injecting large amounts of research trend in its own right. familiarity into foreign settings. Tour group The modernist trend derives from the sci- guides would look after their protégés by entific thinking of the Enlightenment and offering well-ordered home-from-home the rationalism associated with the maxi- experiences with occasional supervised mization of profit in an era of doses of alterity. Their charges, in turn, industrialization and capitalism. This would benefit educationally from mild and lengthy period was permeated by the ideolo- mediated exposure to otherness and morally gies of laissez-faire imperialism, from the solidarity provided by that in- nationalism and orientalism (Said, 1991), an group camaraderie nurtured in opposition age intolerant of nonconformity at home, to an out-group comprising destination peo- and one which externalized differences ple beyond the pale. abroad in order to subjugate them (Wang, As time wore on, with guidebooks such 2000). National identity and self-confidence as Baedeker reinforcing the norms and sanc- could thus be fostered by placing differences tions relating to limited contact with natives beyond the territorial boundaries of the cen- abroad, and domestic holiday camps pro- tre and by subsequently claiming dominion viding the necessary regimentation at home, over the periphery. Seen in this light, differ- mass tourism, as part of mass production in ences attributed to alien places and their general, gradually assumed the more con- peoples connoted weakness, simplicity, temporary form of the overseas package guile, danger and risk (Crick, 1994). tour, made possible by the advent of modern Into such an environment tourism was transportation, especially the jet aircraft. By born. Under its protagonist, Thomas Cook, now the effects of difference associated with © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 335 336 Graham M.S. Dann

distance had become even more reduced went in search of exotic, unfamiliar, unpre- and tourists could be placed in the environ- dictable and sometimes perilous situations, mental bubbles (Cohen, 1972) of hotels in order to return complete with their own belonging to airlines and tour operators. publishable tales of alterity and difference, These homogenized enclaves of home, boos- the oral and written means by which they ted by multinational chain operations and could impress their more sedentary peers. universal fast food outlets, were accompa- The emphasis was on the extraordinary and nied by a growth in placeless theme parks, unique of there, a counterpoint to the ordi- shopping malls and cruise ships. Holidays nariness and sameness of here. had become efﬁcient, calculable and con- In its later manifestations, the romantic trolled. McDonaldization and McDisney- exploits of the traveller were placed in ization reigned supreme. The only remain- opposition to the contrived modernistic ing differences were those of a McLaks in experiences manufactured by the tourist Norway, a McQuesos and McHuevos in Uru- industry, by emphasizing the former’s guay, a groenteburger in The Netherlands, authenticity which the latter tried to thwart and Chicken Tatsuta in Japan (Ritzer and (MacCannell, 1989). In contrast to the total- Liska, 1997, p. 100). Spain was simply home izing control of the package tour, the accent plus sunshine and India had become home was placed instead on independence and plus servants (Theroux, 1985, p. 133). freedom; above all a liberty to choose from a Those who study the majority trend of plurality of alternative offerings. There was the modern popularity of mass tourism are special interest tourism catering to partic- themselves currently in the minority, since ular needs: ecotourism, soft tourism, an analysis of the mundane hedonism of the responsible tourism, cultural tourism, dark proletariat is apparently considered too tourism, and reality tourism – all indeed uninteresting by most middle-class academ- carrying the appendage tourism, but each ics (Wheeller, 1993). Even so, there are nevertheless accompanied by a suitable epi- researchers, such as Selanniemi (1996) and thet so as to clearly distinguish and Hanefors and Larsson (1993), who prefer to dissociate it from a uniform mass tourism examine charter tourists. For the people (Hall and Weiler, 1992). they investigate, destinational differences The eclecticism on offer in this second are far less important than the undeniable trend responded very well to the condition pleasures that placeless holidays bring. of postmodernity, an ethos said to pervade Indeed, such standardized locales as the the western world from the 1960s onwards, playgrounds of Gran Canaria, Rhodes and and even spilling over into some developing Bodrum are simply referred to as the countries (Dann and Potter, 1994). Postmo- ‘South’. Although their beaches and resorts dern societies, it is claimed, are have few distinguishing characteristics, at characterized by an overriding quality of least they guarantee a good time with the dedifferentiation, a dissolution of group and well-proven formula of sea, sun, sand and grid, the weakening of traditional differen- sex (Chalmers, 1987, p. 45). Only those who ces based on class, race and gender (Lash, spend their time elsewhere trekking around 1990). The reasons for this post-Fordist heritage sites appear unhappy. The accentu- (Urry, 1990) situation are many, ranging ation of host cultural differences, it would from globalization (i.e. the erosion of seem, constitutes a recipe for holiday mis- national boundaries by transnational inter- ery. ests) to the two-way migration of peoples The second trend has its roots in the and the consequent emergence of exprimi- Romantic movement. Here otherness and tives (MacCannell, 1992). However, more difference were positively accentuated germane to the current argument is the reali- through accounts of faraway paradises zation that sameness at home is conducive inhabited by beautiful and noble savages to the search for difference elsewhere. (Wang, 2000). Travellers, encouraged no Whether this difference is real, out there and doubt by the art and literature of the period, true is more debatable, since the mediatiza- National Tourist Ofﬁces 337

tion of culture (another important feature of definition, desires continually newer and postmodernity) can provide an endless more novel experiences). In practice, the series of images and simulacra, along with a problem is tackled by a division of labour. multitude of computer generated post- While tour operators predominantly tourist (Urry, 1990) virtual reality displays address the modern mass consumer, most that may in fact be replacing objective real- national tourist offices (NTOs) direct their ity with something better – the playful attention to a postmodern target audience.1 pastiche of hyperreality (Eco, 1986). Yet, However, given that there have been sev- whatever the outcome of such a debate, one eral studies of brochures of the former (e.g. point is incontrovertible – difference, Uzzell, 1984; Dann, 1988; Selwyn, 1993), whether real or imaginary, is the very foun- the following account outlines how the lat- dation on which all postmodern forms of ter attempt is managed linguistically by tourism are constructed. investigating the promotional literature This second trend, although a minority recently disseminated by an adequate and situation, has nevertheless attracted a much representative sample of a number of NTOs. larger group of tourism researchers today. By content analysing the latest catalogues2 Beginning with Boorstin (1987) who empha- of 30 typical and relatively small countries sizes the pseudo events of the tourism exhibiting at the November 1998 World industry, the pursuit of difference is accen- Travel Market, and by adopting the general tuated by MacCannell (1989) under the working hypothesis that the smaller the ter- quest for the authentic, a line adopted by ritory the greater the perceived need to Graburn (1989) in his distinction between emphasize the diversity of a limited number everyday and extraordinary (liminal or of unique attractions, this study seeks to sacred) touristic experiences. Subsequently, explore three issues related to the second of Urry (1990) pinpoints the tourist gaze – that the identified trends: ocularcentrism which seeks difference in ludic attractions and distractions. ● the degree to which NTOs employ an Since there are two clearly opposed explicit discourse of differentiation; trends in contemporary tourism and its ● the way in which a more indirect rheto- researchers, such a dichotomy may pose a ric of differentiation is employed; and dilemma for many a destination seeking to ● the implications of promotional differ- promote itself. On the one hand, if it decides entiation. to cater to the majority mass market, it will have to be very careful in managing its rhetoric of difference. Too much emphasis may scare away potential customers and too little The Degree to which NTOs Employ could mean the simple surrender of its an Explicit Discourse of national identity to suppliers with scant Differentiation interest in the distinctiveness of a place. On the other hand, if a destination wishes to Destinations, particularly those offering appeal to the specific needs of a presumed similar fare, are, above all, competitors. postmodern clientele it may end up only Hence, in their promotional campaigns, attracting a minority with very little like- many sense the necessity to stress the man- lihood of repeaters (as this type of tourist, by ner and the degree to which they differ from

1 A third, or middle, way between these two positions is quite rare, although it is evident in a few advertisements of some mass market beach destinations which wish to show that they also have green interiors for alternative experiences. Spain is a good example of this trend in its publicity surrounding Mallorca. 2 Here reference is made to published material in a multi-page magazine type format. Unlike the tour operator’s brochure, it concentrates on the wider offerings of the country rather than on the speciﬁcs of resorts, hotels and prices. The catalogue also provides a much fuller treatment than an advertisement. 338 Graham M.S. Dann

their rivals. Here four basic options are First, difference and uniqueness (along available: with their respective variants) are more than four times more evident in the body copy Option 1: in-difference: differences are than in the headline. While this finding is to contained within the host society but are not be expected, given the far greater length of proclaimed to outsiders. the body copy in a catalogue, and hence the Option 2: out-difference, by explicit refer- opportunity to feature, it does not neces- encing to differentiation: the direct sarily follow that the probability of a given promulgation of difference to outsiders by outcome results in its realization. Rather it use of associated expressions. suggests that there may be a reluctance Option 3: out-difference, by implicit refer- among tourism promoters to display all their encing to differentiation: the indirect wares conspicuously. promulgation of difference to outsiders Second, adjectives and adverbs are over- through the use of comparison. all much more frequently employed than are Option 4: out-difference, by explicit and nouns and verbs. These descriptors com- implicit referencing to differentiation. prise 62.5% of the headlines, 86.1% of the body copy and 82.3% of both headlines and Of the 30 NTO catalogues examined, only body copy. By contrast, the respective per- one country (Luxembourg) chooses Option centages for nouns are only 37.5, 11.6 and 1, thereby highlighting an overriding trend 15.7%, while those for the lone verb are for the remaining 96.7% to select one of the merely 0.0, 2.3 and 2.0%. Thus descriptors three varieties of out-difference. Of these 29 in destination publicity appear to have NTOs: 18 select Option 2, 26 use Option 3, greater salience for promoters than active or and 14 Option 4. This section looks at instrumental words, a situation which could Option 2. The next explores Option 3. indicate the targeting of a predominantly Of the 18 explicit references to differ- female audience – the decision makers in ence: eight are contained in the headline, 16 destination choice (see Craik, 1997). in the body copy and six in both headline Third, when the referents of the descrip- and body copy. Alternatively stated, since tors are classified, the breakdown shown in only two countries (Bulgaria and Nigeria) Table 30.2 occurs. Here the destination itself employ explicit difference solely in their becomes the prime referent, while its attri- headlines and ten others solely in their body butes (pull factors – Dann, 1977) assume less copy, the evident promotional trend is the importance in terms of their cultural and tendency to be less ostentatious in differ- natural attractiveness. Interestingly, about entiating themselves as destinations. one-fifth of the focus is on the tourist and Turning to a more qualitative treatment, those experiences and activities which cor- Table 30.1 provides the linguistic expres- respond with motivational push (Dann, sions and various contexts through which 1977; Uzzell, 1984). the 18 NTOs explicitly differentiate themselves. From Table 30.1 it is possible to divide The Way in which a More Indirect the explicit expressions into two more or Rhetoric of Differentiation is less equally distributed major categories of Employed differentiation: difference and uniqueness. The former (with frequencies in parenth- Apart from destinations making direct refer- eses) comprises the words: ‘different’ (13), ences to their uniqueness and how different ‘diversity’ (4), ‘difference’ (3), ‘distinct’ (2), they are, there is another indirect way of ‘diversified’ (1), ‘distinguishes’ (1) and ‘vari- managing diversity – by means of compar- ety’ (1), constituting four of the headlines ison. Just as tourists themselves when on and 21 of the body copy expressions. Thus holiday often compare features of the place classified, three ancillary trends are dis- they are currently patronizing with those of cernible. destinations they have visited in the past National Tourist Offices 339

Table 30.1. Explicit differentiation in 18 out of 30 National Tourist Ofﬁce (NTO) catalogues.

Country Headline Body copy

Andorra These pages show us pictures and words – different, possible and peculiar – and what and how Andorra is (1) Bhutan A four day Bumthang trek will reveal hidden treasures of life that many visitors have never seen before (14) Bulgaria Culture Bulgaria. Just Unique. Corfu Corfu. Discover the Difference There is so much to see in Corfu that even the regular visitor always finds something new (9) The visitor will always return to these sights, while finding new attractions to please the eye (9) Estonia Estonia. The Baltic Country with a The influences of many different invaders upon Estonia’s ancient Difference culture and what makes this Baltic country so unique (3) Centuries old folk art tradition gives local leather-work, ceramics and glass a uniquely Estonian look (5) Estonian handicrafts are unique (10) Gambia An environment of total peace and tranquillity typical only of the Gambia (2) The Gambia is a decision to learn and experience different things: a different lifestyle, a different culture and, of course, meeting different people (2) Visitors have come for a different holiday (2) Haiti Haiti unique From the beginning Haiti dared to be different (1) We are eager to share our world with you and the magic that makes Haiti so unique ... uniquely unforgettable (4) Ireland Ireland. Live a different life History, myth and legend are interwoven to produce a unique cultural tapestry that is at once Ireland’s past and present (4) (lunar landscape of the Burren, Co.Clare) A truly different world of legend, romance and traditional music (14) Jordan Jordan is a unique and blessed land of the old and new Testaments and the early years of Islam (13) Nepal Nepal. A world of its own Because of the country’s topographical diversity, wide varieties of outdoor thrills are available only minutes from one another (3) Nigeria Nigeria. A land of cultural diversity Poland Poland continues to offer more and more interesting and diversified forms of rest to everyone (12) Scotland Scotland is such a distinctive destination. Nowhere else in Britain can you enjoy so many special experiences, all of them uniquely Scottish (2) Scotland – somewhere different (6) Many differences between the countries (England and Scotland) remain. Scotland’s history, traced in its castles, battlefields, ancient trading links with France, Flanders and Scandinavia is distinct (7) Gretna Green visitor centre right at the border is a reminder that Scotland is different (8) Syria The wide diversity of its culture (1) A strange and singular world with its special beauties (8) Trinidad and Learn about Trinidad and Tobago. The two and only (1) Tobago A different kind of Caribbean calendar (4) Tunisia Unique Tunisia Tunisia combines all the traditional qualities of a popular holiday destination, but then adds a few unique attractions of its own (1) Other Mediterranean countries have their street markets, but souks are a unique experience (2) Turkey After all, diversity is the most prized feature of favourite destinations (1) Wales There is something more to Wales. Something unique that distinguishes Wales and her people from all other countries in Britain (1)

Sources: respective countries’ NTOs in references. Body copy page references in parentheses. Italicized emphases all added.

340 Graham M.S. Dann

Table 30.2. Differentiation according to textual position and classiﬁed referents.

Textual position

Headline Body copy

Classiﬁed referent Different Unique Different Unique Totals

Place/country 2 3 7 8 20 Culture/lifestyle/people/artefacts 2 1 6 5 14 Experiences/activities – – 6 4 10 Sights/attractions/scenery – – 2 5 7 Totals 4 4 21 22 51

(‘reminds me of X’, ‘just like Y’), NTOs also 27 catalogues, an average of 5.6 per cata- employ a language of contrast when seeking logue. Eight countries are in excess of this to outdo their potential rivals. However, if mean. Scotland, in top place, employs instead of simply stating that they are better superlatives on as many as 28 separate occa- than a single competitor in a certain respect sions (some 19.3% of the total number of (the use of comparatives), NTOs claim that cases, and 16% more than could be expected their destination or one of its attributes is the by chance). The other destinations above the best (the use of superlatives), several rivals mean, along with their frequencies and per- can be eliminated at a stroke. In such a centages of the total, are: Tanzania 13 manner, appeals can be made to the sort of (9.0%), Wales 12 (8.3%), Slovenia 9 (6.9%), tourist who relishes the thought of visiting Poland 8 (5.5%), Uganda and Malaysia 7 the most excellent on offer and, on return, (4.8% each) and Syria 6 (4.1%). Taken relating the experience to other less fortu- together, these eight countries (27.6% of nate acquaintances. A century ago, Veblen those selecting Option 3) claim 62.7% of all (1899) described this type of person as being superlatives. One can only speculate as to driven by conspicuous consumption. More why these eight particular destinations are recently it has been referred to in the motiva- so much more in favour of superlatives than tional terms of ego-enhancement (Dann, the remaining 19. Perhaps in the cases of 1977) and the ‘quest for the best’ (Chalmers, Scotland and Wales it is that they regard 1987, p. 6). themselves as being in an extremely com- Turning again to the 30 NTO catalogues, petitive situation within the UK context, it can be seen that only one uses a super- thereby seeking to establish a separate iden- lative in its headline (Lithuania: Baltic tity from that assigned to them in their Hospitality at its Best), reﬂecting no doubt overall joint marketing by the British Tourist the previously noted tendency of reticence Authority. towards placing destinational offerings up However, before entertaining that or any front. In the body copy, however, all but other suggestion, it is important to contex- three of the countries (Haiti, Luxembourg, tualize the 145 superlatives. Here, three Trinidad and Tobago) unashamedly employ content analytical criteria inductively superlatives. As a matter of fact, there are emerge. First, it can be noted that while most 145 instances3 present among the remaining (84.1%) claims to fame are stated unambigu-

3 There are actually six more instances in the publicity of Nepal, Nigeria, Poland, Serbia, Slovenia and Uganda, which have to be deleted on account of their lack of meaningful referents. Thus, in the National Tourism Organization of Serbia’s (1998, p. 19) claim that ‘Sokobanja boasts of the waters with the highest radioactivity’, it is not clear whether the referent is the world, region, country or local area. National Tourist Ofﬁces 341

ously, a minority (15.9%) come with following distribution of the 145 cases is qualifiers attached. For example, whereas yielded: world 67 (46.2%), continent/ the Tanzania Tourist Board (n.d., p. 19) subcontinent/region 47 (32.4%) and describes Lake Tanganyika as the longest country/city/town/village 31 (21.4%). Inter- lake in the world, it concedes in the same estingly, when this new classification is breath that it is only ‘the second deepest’ cross-tabulated with the use/non-use of and contains only ‘one of the richest concen- qualifiers, it emerges that qualifiers are trations of fish found anywhere’ (emphases attached in 19.4% of world superlatives and added). Similarly, the Jordan Tourism Board in 19.2% of continent/subcontinent/region (1998, p. 9) states that ‘Jerash is considered superlatives, but in only 3.2% of country/ the best preserved and most complete city of city/town village cases (the overall mean the Decapolis’, and the Wales Tourist Board being 15.9%). Thus, although claims are (1998, p. 24) feels obliged to admit that Mer- enhanced by increasing their levels, there is thyr Tydfil was ‘once the iron capital of the clearly an accompanying note of caution world’ (emphases added). Other qualifiers, that many destinations introduce into their such as ‘arguably’, ‘reputedly’, ‘perhaps’, accounts for fear, perhaps, of outrageous ‘amongst’, ‘some of the’, ‘believed to be’ and allegations losing all credibility. Another ‘practically’ are in evidence too. Among danger, of course, is that in the individualis- these is discovered the following hypothet- tic, statistically driven societies in which ical assertion: ‘If there had been an Academy millions of potential tourists exist, it is Award for the best location, it would becoming easier for destinations to be found undoubtedly have gone to Scotland’ (Scot- out in the act of touristic discovery. With tish Tourist Board, 1998, p. 64). The Guinness Book of Records (GBR) possi- Secondly, the nature of a claim is clearly bly becoming the secular equivalent of The heightened as the context ascends from the Bible, many postmodern consumers now particular to the universal. Here readers are turn to the former’s pages for the moral drawn from the level of a specific town or authority they so lack in their dedifferen- village, e.g. the Olevista Church – ‘its green tiated lives. Indeed, one tourist authority spire is the tallest in Tallinn’ (Estonian (unfortunately excluded from this collec- Tourist Board, n.d., p. 13), to that of a coun- tion due to its regional nature), has even try, e.g. ‘Along Primorska’s Wine Roads you introduced the GBR4 as an arbiter to sub- will find the largest barrel in Slovenia, stantiate its claim that Seville’s Santa Maria which holds more than fifty thousand litres del Sede is the second largest Christian of wine’ (Slovenian Tourist Board, n.d., p. church after the Basilica in the Vatican (Tur- 15), of a region, e.g. ‘Plordiv. The biggest and ismo Andaluz 1998, p. 21).5 most beautiful of all towns in Thrace’ (Bul- With this important document to hand it garia, Ministry of Trade and Tourism, n.d., is thus possible to look again at various p. 5), of a continent, e.g. ‘Hamilton Mauso- destinational assertions in order to see leum noted for Europe’s longest echo – 15 whether perhaps even more qualifiers than seconds!’ (Scottish Tourist Board, 1998, p. had actually been used should have been 19), and eventually to the entire globe, e.g. employed. Although many of their claims (Abuko Nature Reserve) containing ‘the larg- are simply not featured in the good book, est and smallest kingfisher in the world’ one can nevertheless bring a bit more preci- (The Gambia, Ministry of Tourism and Cul- sion to some of the others. In this regard, the ture, 1995, p. 11). Korea National Tourism Organization’s Taking into account the various marginal (n.d., p. 2) claim that Korea has the oldest totals and collapsing the above levels, the typeset book in the world is doubly sub-

4 Interestingly, ‘Guinness’ is a registered trademark of ‘Guinness Superlatives Ltd’. 5 Unfortunately for Turismo Andaluz, The Guinness Book of Records explicitly rejects the Guinness inclusion of items with qualiﬁers attached (McFarlan, 1989, p. 3). 342 Graham M.S. Dann

Table 30.3. Distribution of superlatives in body copy of National Tourist Ofﬁce (NTO) catalogues.

Level

World Continent/region Country/town

Referent Unqual Qual Unqual Qual Unqual Qual Totals

Natural attractions 12 4 20 1 10 – 47 Architecture/buildings 81557–26 Flora and fauna 75521–20 Language/literature/culture 8 1 2 – 5 1 17 People/health/sport 8 – 4 1 1 – 14 Art/artefacts 6 – 1 – 2 – 9 Food and drink 3 – – – 4 – 7 Technology and transport 2 2 1 – – – 5 Totals 54 13 38 9 30 1 145

stantiated by the GBR (the Dharani scroll from one course to another’, before adding produced from wooden printed blocks in AD parenthetically: ‘This, like golfing yarns the 704 and discovered at Kyongju, as well as world over, may turn out to be a slight the circa AD 1160 28-page book of Tang exaggeration’. Dynasty poems held by Yonsei University) Finally, the 145 superlatives can be clas- (McFarlan, 1989, p. 150), but its claim to sified according to their referent. In this have the first ironclad warship is denied regard, a perusal of the data quickly reveals (that honour after all belonging to the HMS the categories of natural attractions (47 Warrior of Portsmouth, 1860) (McFarlan, instances), architecture/buildings (26), flora 1989, p. 104). The Syria Ministry of Tourism and fauna (20), language, literature and cul- (n.d., p. 4), too, is found to be correct in ture (17), people, health, sport (14), art and stating that it has the oldest alphabet (dis- artefacts (9), food and drink (7), technology covered at Ugarit in 1450 BC according to and transport (5). Thus, the lowest point on McFarlan, 1989, p. 147), but not so accurate earth, the tallest mountain and the longest in saying that Damascus is the world’s most cave seem to have greater promotional pull ancient city. Even the omitted epithet ‘capi- than the first-ever passenger railway (not tal’ (which would take it back to 2500 BC incidentally in Swansea as alleged, but in (McFarlan, 1989, p. 196)) may not suffice, as Whitstable). One reason why natural assets Sama’a in Yemen believes that it is the long- are favoured over manufactured attractions est continuously inhabited city on earth (see is that they may have greater appeal to the Hack, 1998). The claims and counterclaims romantic in the postmodern client. are endless and offer numerous opportun- Bringing the three sets of information ities for research into tourism promotion as together, Table 30.3 is yielded, from which a form of Trivial Pursuit. two other trends can be extracted. First, an Recognizing that such hyperbole can easily calculable comparison of column per- sometimes have a boomerang effect, one centages with total percentages shows that tourism authority (Bord Failte, 1998, p. 56) at the world level there is above average even tries to turn the situation to its advan- emphasis on flora and fauna, language/ tage by introducing humour. Speaking of literature/culture, people/health/sport, co-promoted Northern Ireland, it maintains: art/artefacts and technology/transport; at ‘There are so many golf clubs that you can the continent/region levels on natural traverse the country by driving a golf ball attractions, architecture/buildings, flora and National Tourist Offices 343

fauna; and at the country/town level on who will be right is difficult to say (Burns architecture/buildings, language/literature/ and Holden, 1995, p. 35). What is clear, culture, art/artefacts and food/drink. however, is that NTOs have made their Second, the tendency to qualify state- choice in backing one forecast in favour of ments does not simply vary by level (as the other. already noted), but also according to refer- Second, and perhaps by way of justifica- ent. Whereas the overall figure comes to tion for their choice, the stressing of 15.9%, in two contexts (art/artefacts and destinational uniqueness may be consid- food/drink) there are no qualifiers at all (i.e. ered as an idiosyncratic reaction against an there is a greater tendency to exaggerate). By overall trend of destinational blurring asso- contrast, in the cases of architecture/ ciated with top-down globalization. As buildings (23.1%), flora/fauna (35.0%), and Brown (1998, p. 19) so admirably puts it: technology/transport (40.0%), the mean ‘where states have reacted to the spread of percentage is exceeded and the language interdependence by making efforts to reas- becomes much more cautious. In these last sert their differences . . . tourism has the three domains it can be further calculated at potential to show people that the world is which level the use of qualifiers is at a max- not as undifferentiated as they thought’. imum. For architecture/buildings it reaches Seen in this light, a counter-trend of indige- a peak at the continent/subcontinent level nization may be viewed as providing the (50%) and for flora/fauna and technology/ necessary local component to an otherwise transport at the world level (41.7 and 50%, unidirectional dismantling of national respectively). boundaries by transnational interests. Third, and as a corollary to the above, the discourse of difference, through which The Implications of Promotional NTOs promote the countries they represent, Differentiation may be thought of as a reaction against the far greater tendency of external tour opera- From the foregoing analysis it can be seen tors to delocalize place for their mass from the two general trends that there is a markets. Hence, the NTO rhetoric of differ- current tendency for small countries to entiation can be understood as an act of assert their touristic identities through a lan- disidentification or counteridentification guage of differentiation in the publicity against Western ethnocentrism (Hollins- material of their NTOs and, in so doing, an head, 1993). associated attempt to appeal to the dediffer- Fourth, the promotion of difference is entiated condition of their predominantly something of a two-edged sword and may postmodern customers. Yet, it is not a sim- not always produce the intended result of ple act of evocation. It is one that is attracting an affluent clientele in search of moderated according to degree of direct- novelty. One of the characteristics of a post- ness, contextual level, textual positioning modern target market is that the quest for and type of referent. It is also an appeal difference cannot be adequately fulfilled by whose continuation carries a number of visiting the same destination more than implications. once. Instead, and as previously noted, there First, although some experts (e.g. Hall is a tendency towards travel for its own sake, and Weiler, 1992; Urry, 1995) maintain that for merely ticking off different places as niche marketing will expand to meet the items on a check list as a means to acquiring increased demands of special interest/ more and more novel experiences (Rojek, special destination tourism, equally there 1997). are others (e.g. Chalmers, 1987; Craik, 1997) Fifth, once the language of difference who believe that mass tourism will continue begins to approximate the language of adver- to grow for many years to come, particularly tising, it will tend to lose credibility. as a result of the merging of leading tour Although qualifiers are in evidence in the operators, airlines and hotel companies. Just material surveyed, they nevertheless con- 344 Graham M.S. Dann

stitute a textual minority. Even if their institutionalized mass variety – those who presence continues, NTOs may be attemp- seek an upgraded extension of home in a ted to abandon them with the realization foreign resort – so too are there experi- that such conditionalities may well reduce mental, experiential and existential tourists the appeal of their attractions. However, if who, more independently, look for novelty the verbal reservations are removed, there through an ever-growing quest for other- could be a consequent lapse into unsub- ness. stantiated claims and hyperbole, the very It is precisely this alterity which forms discourse that NTOs wish to avoid. Cliché, the theoretical framework for so-called after all, pervades the rhetoric of their rivals, ‘alternative tourism’, or alternative forms of the tour operators and their brochures (Krip- tourism, whose essential characteristic is pendorf, 1987). that they present another option to conven- Finally, there may be a growing aware- tional mass tourism based on the hedonism ness among destination people that NTO of the four S’s. The novelty that the former literature, in spite of its alleged indigenous attempt to portray resides at three levels: authorship, may not in fact be representing their true interests, or indeed their real life ● It offers experiences which are seem- situations. The tallest tower, the oldest ingly different from those of day-to-day department store, etc., may not be the best living in the tourism generating envi- way that their differences as inhabitants of a ronment; unique place are optimally portrayed. One ● It provides activities that are suppos- may therefore expect to hear a greater num- edly different from those of the ber of calls for more local participation in controlled ambience of the hotel, beach the preparation of NTO material. However, and swimming pool; and should that eventuality come to pass, it ● It supplies apparent difference through would not in itself guarantee an appeal to exposure to the lives of destination the market for the simple reason that their people. disadvantaged lives may not constitute a tourist attraction. Moreover, even if they Why, then, all the hesitation – the use of did, there would still be the uncomfortable moderated expressions, such as ‘seemingly realization that they may never become different’, ‘supposedly different’, and capable of matching such ephemeral draw- ‘apparent difference’? The answer to this ing power to equally volatile tourist question is to be found in the consequences motivation. of highlighting such difference. As we have seen, MacCannell (1989) argues that the authentic differences which tourists seek Conclusions are, in fact, denied them by the tourism industry. What is promoted in reality This brief account has identiﬁed two con- becomes demoted through the staging of dif- trary trends in contemporary tourism, each ference at the destination. Relatedly, of which has its counterpart in promotional Wheeller (1993) maintains that the actual strategy. One stresses the need for sameness quest for difference by more and more ‘alter- or familiarity, the other difference or native’ tourists in search of seclusion and strangeness in its potential clientele. The nature has quite the opposite effect since, by criterion for the marketing of destinations is virtue of paving the way for increasing num- thus none other than that employed by bers, it tends to degenerate into the mass Cohen (1972, 1979) in devising his typolo- tourism from which it had wished to escape. gies of tourists, a commentator who, in turn, Ecotourism and its many variants are hence derives his insights from the writings of just egotourism in another guise. Schutz (1944) and Simmel (1950) on strang- By corollary, and in relation to the cur- erhood. Just as there are recreational and rent focus of attention, what these two diversionary tourists corresponding to the observers are surely querying is the genuine- National Tourist Ofﬁces 345

ness of the rhetoric of difference. Are is infinite, it can be multiplied indefinitely. destinations truly as unique as claimed? Do The pessimist (and perhaps the realist) will they have the friendliest people, the most respond that, because difference is finite, exotic customs, the finest cuisine and so on? tourists will have to come to terms with the Do the differences that they verbally and well-known situational paradox ‘the more pictorially parade actually make a differ- things change, the more they remain the ence? In response to this crucial dilemma, same’. the optimist will reply that, since difference

31 Recreation Conﬂict Management

William E. Hammitt and Ingrid E. Schneider

Introduction goal interference attributed to another (Jacob and Schreyer, 1980); a threat to a person or Outdoor recreation is an important compo- their belongings (Keller, 1990); a strain on nent of leisure estimated to constitute the visitor’s coping resources (Schneider one-third of our daily time and lifespan. The and Hammitt, 1995) and a cumulative proc- outdoor activities that many people pursue ess rather than an immediate reaction during their leisure are often valued more (Owens, 1985). Other concepts similar to highly than their work activities. Because conflict and included as conflict by some recreation activities are such critical life ele- authors are disgust, nuisance and annoy- ments, it is no wonder that recreation ance associated with on-site recreation. conflicts occur. Conflict in outdoor recrea- There are also various levels and sources of tion, whether it is between the Wilderness recreational conflict that must be under- Society and a Federal agency, between stood before one can approach recreation recreation manager and visitor, or between conflict management and resolution. Con- different user groups, may be particularly flict types will be discussed in more detail prevalent given its unique setting and value. later in this chapter. In fact, recreation conflict is inevitable and Although recreation conflict appears the will increase as recreation importance and antithesis of both recreation managerial and demands increase. visitor goals, we must also realize its poten- Conflict in outdoor recreation is one of tial positive influence. Recreation conflict the most common and difficult problems can indicate when something within the with which recreation managers must concurrent system needs attention and, thus, tend (Hammitt, 1988). In the next century, conflict forces one to test the management conflict among users will continue to be one situation. In addition, recreation conflict of the most important issues among forest can lead to ideas and solutions of superior managers (Jakes et al., 1990). Subsequently, quality because of the multiple parties and the need for managers to acquire the vocabu- perspectives involved. Conflict also keeps lary of and expertise in conflict resolution is the organization at a higher level of stimula- omnipresent (Lan, 1997). tion and, at the very least, prevents Before one can approach recreation con- stagnation. A greater awareness of the possi- flict management and resolution, ble impacts of conflict, both positive and ascertaining exactly what denotes conflict is negative, assists managers in changing critical. Multiple recreation conflict defini- destructive conflicts to constructive efforts tions exist and include these components: (Lan, 1997). Fortunately, conflict resolution © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 347 348 William E. Hammitt and Ingrid E. Schneider

potential among recreation groups is high camping, hiking, and a bit later, water activ- compared to other entities (Floyd et al., ities. Simply stated, recreationists were seen 1996). as competing for physical and social space The history of recreation conflict man- during the same periods. The focus of agement has evolved during four recreation conflict management during this management eras since 1950; moving from era was on identifying conflict occurrence, the early period of conflict identification/ situational conditions of conflict occur- conditions, to determining behavioural/ rence, as well as activity incompatibility. perceptual factors of conflict, to the era of The major causes of conflict were seen as institutional/public involvement and end- over-use, activity and space incompatibil- ing with the current coping/resolution era. ity, and lack of resource-facility allocation. Following the eras of conflict management, Little was known about user behaviour and we speculate on the future need for and preferences, leading to management solu- means to developing enhanced ways to cope tions being expert or manager driven. with and resolve recreation conflicts. The Management’s response was to separate future trend in conflict management conflicting uses and to allocate resources involves a shift from the stimulus to the and activities in both space and time. For response side of the conflict equation, mean- example, separate tent and recreational ing more emphasis on coping with and vehicle campground loops, zoning of lake resolving conflict. and river uses, development of separate In summary, the focus of this chapter is: trails for ORVs, horses and hikers, and area (i) the evolution of definitions and levels of use permits, were common management recreation conflict; (ii) recreation conflict responses. management eras, possible causes and man- Research and management experience agement’s response; (iii) conflicts and during this era led to the realization that implications that focus on the need to recreation conflict was more than an activity understand better how people and institu- incompatibility or space allocation prob- tions cope with and resolve conflicts; and lem. Reported conflict occurrence among (iv) conclusions concerning recreation con- respondents was not high (about 30%), yet flict management trends. capable of being quite important to certain user segments. Space, or a lack thereof, was not the cause of conflict, for separated Trend Overview incompatible users were still in conflict. Environmental–situational conditions were Management eras often less important than psychological per- Since the 1950s, four eras in recreation conceptions as recreation conflict factors. These flict management can be identified: use findings ushered in the perception–cause activity–space allocation, perception– era of recreation conflict management. cause, institution–public involvement; and coping–resolution. These are not mutually Perception–cause era exclusive but represent an evolution of dif- If different activities and lack of ample space ferent strategies to understand and manage were the cause of conflict, then why did recreation conflict. A brief discussion of hikers hate horseback riders but not vice each era is offered, with a focus on the prom- versa? Also, why did separated users still inent management situations, causes, and find conflict with each other’s activity? responses to conflict during each. Psychological perceptions, individual differences and human behaviour in general User activity–space allocation era were at play in recreation conflict. Much of the 1950s and 1960s were domi- The 1970s included an emphasis on nated by conflicts resulting from rapidly understanding the behavioural aspects of increasing multi-activity use and competi- recreation conflict with a focus on motivation for recreation space, particularly in tions, user perceptions, preferences and Recreation Conflict Management 349

social carrying capacity. The causes of con- incorporated into management’s decision- flict were seen as motivational differences making process in such a way as to among and within different recreation users minimize the intensity and dysfunctions of (Stankey, 1973; Driver and Brown, 1978) conflict (Jacob, 1977, p. 5) and lifestyle diversity and recreation experience demands of users (Jacob, 1977; Jacob Institutional–public involvement era and Schreyer, 1980). Management’s Additional and formal incorporation of the response to conflict was the development of public’s perceptions in natural resource recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS) decisions was mandated in the 1970s and, strategies, social carrying capacity models by the 1980s, conflict management that and management techniques, and user edu- included public involvement was the norm. cation programmes to mitigate potential Institutionalized public involvement pro- conflict by modifying user behaviour. cesses practically required interested The work of Jacob and Schreyer (1980) recreation groups to organize and be provided the ‘goal interference attributed to involved in general management decisions, another’s behaviour’ definition to recreation including recreation conflict. The manage- conflict, as well as four factors and ten pro- ment focus was not on individual positions that identified its potential. The perceptions of goal interference, but rather four factors are defined below, while the on recreation resource values and organized reader is referred to Jacob and Schreyer’s interest groups. These value differences (1980) article for the ten propositions. were, and continue to be, the basis of many ● Activity style the personal meanings management conflicts in natural resources. attached to the set of behaviours con- The importance of public values as an input stituting a recreational activity (e.g. to resource management is emphasized by intensity of participation, status, defini- Creighton (1983), who also identifies value tion of quality experience). conflicts as the root of environmental dis- ● Resource specificity the significance putes. Understanding value conflicts re- attached to using a specific recreation quires communication and, in recreation resource for a given recreation experi- conflict management, communication occurs ence. most frequently through public involvement. ● Mode of experience the varying Management’s initial response to man- expectations of how the environment datory public involvement was obligatory will be perceived. and limited attempts were made to involve ● Tolerance for lifestyle diversity the the public. Conflict during the institutional– tendency to accept or reject lifestyles public involvement era was exacerbated by different from one’s own. a lack of government trust; part of a larger societal movement in which the public was These factors have been used extensively challenging ‘expert opinion’ and even by researchers to understand conflict per- asking for second opinions among long ception in recreation. established ‘expert’ professions, such as In failing to recognize the basic medicine and law. psychological causes of conflict, Conflict over the role of government stems inappropriate resolution techniques and from a combination of political value, management strategies are likely to be personal experience and understanding of adopted reality (Jacob and Schreyer, 1980, p. 378) (Lan, 1997, p. 5) For example, if lifestyle differences are to be Unfortunately, due to limited positive and recognized as a part of recreation behaviour, inclusive involvement during this time, then conflicts arising from perceptions of public understanding of resource manage- incompatibility cannot be eliminated from ment decision making reality may be recreation areas. At best they can be skewed. 350 William E. Hammitt and Ingrid E. Schneider

Involvement studies suggest that the pub- to conﬂict, managers still rely heavily on lic has been treated as an informant rather public involvement. Fortunately, public than an active partner (Blahna and Yonts- involvement is evolving toward collabora- Shepard, 1989). According to results from a tive planning procedures, where survey on planning and conﬂict, US Depart- management’s role is more of a coordinator ment of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service among groups, rather than an authority, and managers have not adopted public interac- the focus is on resolution. The dominant tion techniques commensurate with the Forest Service resource management para- reality of today’s ‘shared power world’ digm is decision making by experts but the (Cheng et al., 1993, p. 35). Blahna and emerging paradigm is consultative and par- Yonts-Shepard suggest that ticipatory (Brown and Harris, 1992).

despite the increased awareness of the value of public participation, there is still a Evolving Concepts in Recreation lack of understanding of how to integrate public involvement in the planning process Conflict Management (Blahna and Yonts-Shepard, 1989, p. 210) Broadening definitional complexity Citizen intervention in management is An obvious trend in recreation conflict man- occurring with increasing frequency, subse- agement is the broadening complexity of the quently requiring increased attention and conflict concept itself. The early conceptual- efforts toward resolution (McMullin and ization of outdoor recreation conflict as Nielsen, 1991). ‘competition between two different activity groups for the same resource’ has been rec- Coping–resolution era ognized as too simplistic, for it ignored Currently, recreation conflict is recognized many social and behavioural aspects of rec- as an inevitable part of outdoor recreation, reational experiences. Later, outdoor partitioned into several types, and the result recreation conflict was defined as ‘any phys- of varying perceptions and values among ical, social, or psychological obstruction those involved. Increased fragmentation of arising within or between participants and publics has accelerated the frequency of their recreation goals’ (Lindsay, 1980). The confrontations and conflicts in natural obstruction with recreational goals idea resource management (McMullin and Niel- evolved into the most commonly accepted sen, 1991). In response, research efforts are and traditional definition of recreation con- currently interested in the public’s response flict: ‘goal interference attributed to the to conflict and the processes involved in behaviour of another’ (Jacob and Schreyer, responding. Public responses to environ- 1980; Schreyer, 1990). mental decisions are complex because they Definitions of conflict as goal interference involve conflicts among scarce resources place great emphasis on the behaviour of and evoke strong emotions (Vining and others and stress that recreation goal inter- Schroeder, 1989). Subsequently, under- ference not attributed to others does not standing responses and resolving diverging necessarily equate with conflict. For goal responses are increasingly critical compo- interference to result in conflict, the inter- nents to conflict management. ference must be attributed to another’s At the individual level, recreation con- behaviour. For example, bad weather, the flict management has responded to this call fish not biting, or forgetting to pack appro- by attempting to understand how visitors priate equipment, may interfere with the cope with conflict. Efforts have focused on fulfilment of planned recreational goals, but identifying set responses to conflict (Ham- is not considered conflict by the traditional mitt and Patterson, 1991; Robertson and definition since it cannot be attributed to Regula, 1994) and moved toward develop- another’s behaviour – only your own (Jacob ing a hierarchy of responses (Kuentzel and and Schreyer, 1980). However, we contend Heberlein, 1992). To gauge group responses that outdoor recreation situations exist

Recreation Conﬂict Management 351

Fig. 31.1. Interaction model for various levels of recreation conﬂict. Source: Little and Noe (1984).

where no one else is directly or even indi- occur within outdoor recreation experien- rectly responsible for goal interference, yet ces are capable of being handled by feelings of frustration, failure, nuisance, individual and group coping strategies, annoyance and even dissatisfaction are still without the need for management’s resolu- just as prevalent as when the behaviour of tion. This latter relationship of coping to another is responsible. Thus, perhaps it is recreation conflict is developed later in this time to expand the conflict phenomenon to chapter. include related emotional and behavioural aspects of disgust, nuisance and annoyance, Varying levels and sources of conflict whether attributed to another’s behaviour or A second major trend in recreation conflict not. management has been the recognition that If the ultimate purpose of recreation man- conflict involves many sources, far beyond agement is to provide quality and satisfying the user to user activity–space problem. At experiences, then perhaps the goal least four sources of recreation conflict are interference/behaviour of others conflict typically recognized; including visitors, model is too restrictive. Perhaps the tradi- managers, local officials and residents, and tional definition of outdoor recreation government (Little and Noe, 1984; Schreyer, conflict has been driven too much by man- 1990). These sources interact in multidi- agement’s desire to solve the problem; mensional ways, leading to an interactive where conflict only occurs when attributed framework with nine levels of conflict and to another’s behaviour; behaviour which opportunities for conflict management (Fig. managers can influence. As Jacob (1977) 31.1). A brief example of the type of conflict suggests, management’s need to resolve all that may occur at each of the nine levels is conflict, and even the concept of conflict offered. resolution, may be a misconception. First, many conflicts confronting recreation Visitor to Visitor resource managers have little to do with Little explanation is needed here, for this is recreation itself. Second, in many cases the typical hiker versus ORV, canoe versus resource managers can only hope to mini- powerboat, skier versus snowmobile con- mize the negative impacts of conflict, not flict. However, power equipment does not resolve them. Third, many conflicts that have to be the source of this type of conflict. 352 William E. Hammitt and Ingrid E. Schneider

Trout fishers may be at odds with swimmers within the same agency have different over the proper use of a resource. In all values and beliefs regarding the manage- cases, the two groups do not share the same ment of resources. Management of fire and values regarding the ‘proper’ use of the insects in wilderness is an example, where recreation resource, and this value conflict some resource managers feel strongly that has been known to develop into more overt both fire and insects need to be managed on forms of conflict. an ecosystem basis, even in wilderness zones. Visitor to Management Visitors often cause impact and conflict Management to Community upon both management and the resource. Management of recreation resources and use An obvious example is that of resource deg- often conflicts with how local people from radation, such as camp site impacts, littering surrounding communities have tradition- and inappropriate use of scarce resources ally used these areas. Newly formed parks (endangered species). Visitors often do not that prohibit hunting, collection of ginseng, have the resource knowledge and ethics to picnicking on the roadside and the use of use resources wisely, and are therefore in shortcut roads are resented because local conflict with management. community residents have long considered these ‘territorial’ rights. In these situations, management is interfering with the recrea- Visitor to Community tional goals of local residents as they have Recreation, particularly in the form of tour- traditionally learned to use resource areas. ism, can become an ‘attractive nuisance’ for nearby communities. The very attractive- Community to Visitor ness of the Great Smoky Mountains National Many national parks, such as Great Smoky Park and the birth of gateway cities such as Mountains and Rocky Mountain, have gate- Gatlinburg, Tennessee, means that nearby way cities that detract from the wildland towns will suffer periodic problems with recreation experience of some visitors. The traffic flow, parking availability, littering highly developed tourist economies and and other functions of crowds. In more rural gaudy visual displays of these areas are in areas, the influx of ‘foreigners’ is in conflict conflict with the nonurban experience that with the traditional lifestyles of the ‘locals’. many visitors are seeking. Tourism operated helicopter and plane flights over wildland Management to Visitor areas are increasing conflicts for both visi- Visitors are not always the source of conflict; tors and management. management is often the originating source. Restrictions on use are a common example Community to Management here. Users may feel they have the right to Special interest groups, community officials use wilderness without obtaining a permit, and even influential community citizens or even if a given number of visitors are can place pressures upon management of already using the resource. Management is nearby resource areas that result in conflict. charged with resource protection and reg- Community interests may force manage- ulations, yet recreationists want ‘freedom of ment of nearby recreation areas to allow choice’ when recreating and therefore may community events considered inappropri- balk at the idea of not being allowed to use ate by management. Conflict resolution is all areas of a park or forest. often necessary to arrive at an agreeable solution concerning these demands upon Management to Management recreation management agencies. Just as different visitor groups may have different sets of values regarding the proper Community to Community use of the resource, so may management Business interests within communities and personnel from different agencies or even among adjacent communities may be at Recreation Conflict Management 353

odds in receiving concession contracts for for outdoor recreation research (Schneider recreational services. Competition among and Hammitt, 1995; Miller and McCool, outfitters can be fierce and lead to recrea- 1998). tional conflict, particularly when it comes to Focused on the individual’s subjective allocation allotment. interpretation of a transaction, the adapted Each of these sources and levels of con- model is based on Lazarus and Folkman’s flict have implications for recreation conflict (1984) model, which has five major compo- management. However, in this chapter we nents: (i) person and situation factors; (ii) are focusing primarily on visitor to visitor appraisals; (iii) stress; (iv) coping response; and visitor to park conflicts. and (v) short- and long-term adaptational outcomes (Fig. 31.2). The person and situation factors work in conjunction to influence Implications the cognitive appraisals. Cognitive appraisals determine if, why, and to what extent, a Recreation conflict, conceptually and mana- particular transaction is stressful. Situations gerially evolved substantially in the 20th appraised as stressful require coping and century. From simplistic approaches to reappraisals that lead to adaptational out- complex and dynamic understandings, con- comes. Coping manages both the stressful flict and conflict management are coming of encounter and the emotions it generates. age in recreation. Much of the emphasis in Coping processes emerge if the primary the past has been on the front end of the appraisal determines a situation is stressful recreation conflict equation; dealing with and the secondary appraisal identifies the situational and perceptual causes of con- acceptable coping mechanisms and proces- flict. While this is essential to understanding ses. Two basic coping processes are conflict, it tells us little about the other end recognized in coping research: problem of the recreation conflict equation; how to focused and emotion focused (Pearlin and cope with and resolve conflict. We suggest Schooler, 1978; Lazarus and Folkman, that understanding mechanisms of coping 1984). Problem-focused coping processes and conflict resolution are vital to the future improve the troubled person–environment of conflict management and detail them relationship by managing the problem while below, along with management implica- emotion-focused processes relieve the emotions. tional impact of the stress. Problem-focused processes are either directed at the environ- Visitor coping with conflict situations ment or toward the self. Emotion-focused Visitor responses to conflict have been asso- processes encompass a diversity of options ciated with crowding, the inception of such as distancing, selective attention or conflict (Owens, 1985) and extended to res- avoidance to draw attention either away ponses to stress (Schneider, 1995; Schneider from the stress or change its meaning. Rarely and Hammitt, 1995). Response to stress has is one strategy used exclusively, but rather a been suggested as particularly applicable in combination of strategies is employed (Pear- outdoor recreation conflict since conflict lin and Schooler, 1978; Pruitt and Rubin, and stress are intimately related, although 1986). Current research suggests recreation- not equated (Schneider and Hammitt, 1995). ists avoid and distance themselves from the The traditional definition of conflict in out- conflict and utilize social support mecha- door recreation conflict research implies nisms as available. obstruction or interference, therefore lead- Both short- and long-term outcomes ing to tension and/or stress. Previous result from the coping process. Short-term conceptual efforts suggest response to effects may include positive or negative feel- recreation conflict be framed within an ings, physiological effects or, in the case of adapted stress-coping response model outdoor recreation, diminished experien- (Schneider and Hammitt, 1995) and empiri- ces. Long-term effects might include social cal efforts suggest the framework is suitable functioning or morale. Long-term effects in 354 William E. Hammitt and Ingrid E. Schneider

Fig. 31.2. Model of recreation conﬂict appraisal and response. Source: based on Lazarus and Folkman (1984).

outdoor recreation might include opposi- is defined as a disruptive, stressful occur- tion to management decisions, negative rence in the visitors’ recreation experience publicity of an area, lack of public support involving a person–environment relation- and discontinued use of an area. While these ship which taxes a person’s psychological effects may seem extreme, the emotion gen- resources. How visitors cope with recreation erated in confrontations is much more conflict is of primary interest in future con- intense than choices in outdoor activities flict management. Research aimed at suggest (Knopp and Tyger, 1973). determining the relationships between sit- A conceptual foundation based upon the uational, psychological and managerial stress response coping literature paradigm conflict conditions and outdoor recreation of Lazarus and Folkman (1984) reveals many visitor stress-coping responses is essential similarities between an individual’s coping to conflict management. Once these rela- response to stress and likely response to tionships are understood, management outdoor recreation conflict. Integrating strategies and techniques can be developed research from the outdoor recreation and to better assist recreation visitors and man- stress literature, outdoor recreation conflict agers at coping with and resolving conflict. Recreation Conflict Management 355

However, research and management pro- parties with direct and face-to-face inter- grammes in the area of conflict stress-coping action to focus on the most contentious responses are currently scarce. The full issues. Within the confrontation phase, implications of coping mechanisms and res- major conflicts are defined, alternatives gen- ponses to conflict situations as a erated and solutions evaluated. The management tool will not be realized until emphasis in these situations is creating a research and management programmes are superordinate or overarching common goal developed. among the groups (Sherif, 1958). Finally, actual conflict resolution is possible. Reso- Conflict resolution lution transforms the conflict toward If conflict among individuals is not ade- self-supporting, self-correcting and sustain- quately coped with and diminished, it able relationships. As the resolution frequently accelerates to group level con- prevents further escalation, it works toward flict. At the group level, coping with conflict building sustainable relationships and may be framed as conflict resolution. Con- structures that allow for equal identity flict resolution demands public involve- among user groups. ment and therefore makes involvement a Group level conflict management in out- key component of conflict resolution. Con- door recreation, as indicated previously, has flict resolution involves three steps: (i) been approached through separation of analysis; (ii) confrontation; and (iii) resolu- users. Only recently have the values and tion. An important differentiation at this attitudes of these groups come to the atten- point is between conflict resolution and set- tion of researchers. However, the primary tlement. Although frequently used inter- issues of the conflicts still remain largely changeably, resolution and settlement are unknown or the best guesses of experts. dramatically different. Settlement implies Party confrontation and consultation is the suppressing differences through a power- next step toward group conflict resolution. bargaining context (Burton, 1990). In Current management practices indicate that contrast, resolution is an outcome that decision makers adopt a satisfying manage- develops from complete analysis and meets ment approach and settle for compromise the needs of all concerned parties (Fisher, rather than resolution (Dennis, 1988). 1994). Inherent in the conflict resolution Familiarization with and incorporation of process is clear and open communication, conflict resolution practices in recreation mutual respect, shared exploration, an ori- conflict management will enable managers entation to collaborative problem solving to address challenges with greater success. and a commitment to resolution. Active problem solving and high stakes ensure that although conflict exists, agreement is possi- Conclusions ble, rather than compromise or ‘smoothing it over’ (Blake et al., 1964). These character- Conflict in outdoor recreation is inevitable, istics exemplify cooperative, rather than is an ongoing component common to many competitive, processes. Conflict resolution recreational experiences; thus a need exists is characteristic of the emerging paradigm in to better understand and manage it. The resource management (Brown and Harris, complexity of recreation conflict manage- 1992). ment will also continue to broaden and The first stage of conflict resolution is expand beyond the concept of goal inter- analysis. During this stage, the conflict’s his- ference attributed to the behaviour of tory is explored and group positions on another. Conflict often involves values and major issues identified. In the analysis preference norms of individuals, and can phase, identifying the issues is the primary occur far removed from the recreation place goal, which provides the base of discussion and the behaviour of individuals. One for the second phase, confrontation. Con- important point to realize is that stress, at frontation involves further engaging the some intensity level, is usually associated 356 William E. Hammitt and Ingrid E. Schneider

with conflict. The challenge is to recognize must be realized that management can only recreation conflict as a situational-response hope to minimize the negative impacts of process that involves both an understanding conflict, not completely resolve them in of disruptive situations during recreation most situations. Indeed, conflict resolution experiences and visitor responses to them. management is a misconception if it simply We imply a greater need to emphasize the refers to management and government agen- response side of the conflict process, where cies intervening in conflict behaviour, while individual coping and group resolution ignoring the coping behaviour components strategies are better understood. of conflict mediation. This chapter’s focus New sources and levels of conflict will on process is critical as ‘the process is at continue to evolve, and to challenge the past least as important as result: i.e. one cannot training of field managers and the decision judge the value of a decision by looking at making of government agency policy the outcome alone’ (Knopp and Caldbeck, makers. Recreation managers must accept 1990, p. 18). new sources and levels of conflict as part of In summary, this chapter concludes that: the recreation management profession, real- (i) recreation conflict management is a ize that they are part of the conflict broadening and complex phenomenon that resolution equation, and seek appropriate will require new and innovative techniques; training. This training must go beyond the (ii) new sources and levels of conflict will resolution of user to user conflicts, for there continue to evolve and require new training is a shift toward more community to agency, of conflict resolution personnel; (iii) total and interest group to agency conflicts. Col- conflict resolution is not realistic, for most laborative planning and nominal group conflict situations cannot be completely resolution processes are essential future solved, but rather, only minimized to an conflict management tools. Managers will acceptable level; and (iv) many recreation need to ‘learn to anticipate the shape of the experience conflicts are capable of being future . . . and build the institutional capac- handled by individual and group coping ity to respond to’ recreation conflict strategies, without the need for direct man- (Shannon, 1992, p. 2). agement intervention. Emphasis in the While recreation conflict may be inevit- future must be on understanding the coping able, and management must continually mechanisms of recreationists while under increase its ability to respond to conflict, it stress in conflict situations. 32 Service Quality in Resort Settings: Trends in the Application of Information Technology

Richard R. Perdue

Introduction design, but also in the quality and personal- ization of service they receive from resort Quality is the most critical resort manage- employees (Kotler et al., 1999). ment challenge of the new millennium due Fourth, for a variety of reasons, resorts to four separate, but converging trends. First are finding it increasingly difficult to attract and most important, our society is experi- and retain quality employees (Ledgerwood encing a major transfer of wealth. As their et al., 1998). Yet, quality employees have parents die, the ‘baby boomers’ are inherit- historically been considered the raison ing vast amounts of money. The parental d’être of service quality in resort settings generation, which lived through the depres- (Spiselman, 1995). sion, had always been fiscally conservative, Facing these challenges, it is essential preferring savings and low-risk invest- that resorts identify ways of increasing ments. By contrast, the baby boomers have employee productivity, defined as increas- always been a spending generation, inclined ing the quality of service provided to resort to ‘live for the present’ and ‘conspicuous guests while, at the same time, reducing the consumption’. Many of these inheritances number of employees per guest room are being spent on resort real estate, fuelling (Quinn, 1995; Gee, 1996). Further, to be the ongoing boom in resort condominium competitive for employees, resorts must and time-share construction. As these resort identify ways of improving the quality of ‘guests’ become ‘owners’, service expecta- resort jobs; making resort jobs easier and tions and demands for quality are rising to more enjoyable (Ross, 1997). ever higher levels. Advances in the application of informa- Second, there is an increasing emphasis tion technology (IT) are viewed as the key on repeat visitation and relationship mar- means by which these divergent goals may keting throughout the tourism industry be attained (Poon, 1988, 1993; Van Hoff et (Oppermann, 1998). Service quality and al., 1995; Sheldon, 1997b). Between 1990 customer satisfaction are recognized as the and 1994, IT investment per employee by primary factors affecting both repeat visits the hotel and lodging sector grew from and word of mouth recommendations from US$367 to US$1058, a cumulative growth of previous guests (Rust and Oliver, 1994). 188% over just 4 years (Margherio, 1997). Third, resort guests expect higher and Most projections view this trend as continu- higher levels of quality, not only in resort ing and, potentially, accelerating over the © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 357 358 Richard R. Perdue

Fig. 32.1. The Gaps Model of Service Quality. Source: Parasuraman et al. (1985). next decade. There is a great deal of uncer- trends in the resort industry (Fig. 32.1). Con- tainty, however, in determining the sistent with the service quality literature, appropriate forms and level of information the Gaps Model conceptualizes quality as technology. As stated: the congruence between a customer’s service expectations and the perceived quality of No single factor looms with less certainty or service received (the service quality gap in greater complexity for hospitality investors Fig. 32.1). Four potential gaps or problem than how the industry can best invest in sources are identiﬁed. First (gap 1), in order technology to gain competitive advantage to design and provide quality services, man- (Cline, 1997) agement must understand customer expectations. Resorts serve an increasingly The purpose of this chapter is to explore diverse customer base. Resort managers trends and applications of IT to service qual- must understand customer expectations ity in resort settings. both overall and by a variety of market segments. Second, (gap 2) even if customer expectations are well understood, manage- Resort Service Quality: the Gaps ment must still design the products and Model services, which will satisfy those expectations. Third (gap 3), even if expectations are The Gaps Model of Service Quality (Para- well understood and appropriate products suraman et al., 1985) will be used to and services have been designed, providing organize the following discussion of IT those services effectively is still critical. Service Quality in Resort Settings 359

Fourth (gap 4), customer expectations are a merged with these existing databases. Sec- function not only of the customer’s back- ond, resorts tend to be very complicated ground and experience, but also of the organizations spread over a relatively large marketing communications provided by the geographical area. Getting the right data to resort. Marketing communications must the right managers requires a sophisticated promise those services and products which communication system. Key trends in this the resort can effectively deliver. Over the area include: past few years, new information technologies have been developed to address each of Trend 1: Development of electronic quality these gaps. In the following sections, IT measurement tools developments and trends relative to each Increasingly, data are being collected using gap are presented. hand-held, battery-driven computers. Either respondents or survey administrators enter Gap 1: Measuring and understanding the data into the computers. The data can customer expectations then be directly downloaded into a work- Over the past decade, much of the research station where it is merged with the existing in the services marketing area has focused databases, and automatically analysed for on developing measures of service quality important changes and problems. (Martin, 1986; Oliver, 1997; Taylor, 1997). While the debate certainly continues Trend 2: Email distribution of service (Brown et al., 1993), SERVQUAL has evolved quality survey results as the predominant measurement tool (Para- Once the data are analysed, customized suraman et al., 1993). Essentially, SERVQUAL measures and compares customer service reports are automatically prepared for each expectations and perceived service. Several area of the resort. These reports are dis- authors have adapted this instrument to the tributed by email communication systems. tourism industry (Knutson et al., 1990; Fick The combination of the above two trends and Ritchie, 1991; Martin, 1995; Stevens et makes it possible to collect data for a weekly al., 1995). Monday to Sunday period with the reports The challenge of the next decade is not to in managers’ offices by Monday afternoon of develop these measures further. Rather, it is the following week. to develop service quality information systems that integrate various quality measures Gap 2: Service product design and make the results easily and quickly Presuming that service managers under- available to resort managers (Martin, 1986; stand customer expectations, the next Berry and Parasuraman, 1997). Specifically, potential problem is effectively designing the evidence strongly supports the need to service innovations which fulfil those monitor continuously both customer expec- expectations (Tax and Stuart, 1997). IT is tations and perceived quality. If being used in three distinct ways: (i) it is expectations change or quality problems increasingly a means of monitoring and occur, it is extremely important for the benchmarking the competition; (ii) it is resort to identify these changes quickly and being used to blueprint and improve service respond with quality improvements or cor- processes; and (iii) it is the basis of new rections. Two factors further complicate this product and service offerings. The following process. First, presuming weekly or paragraphs further explore each of these biweekly measures of consumer expecta- applications. tions and perceived quality, changes are In additional to traditional market defined relative both to the previous meas- research methods such as focus groups and urement period and, because of the cyclical conjoint analysis, monitoring and copying nature of resort demand, to the same meas- the competition has historically been an urement period in the previous year. important means of new product develop- Consequently, the data need to be effectively ment by individual companies in the service 360 Richard R. Perdue

industries, including resorts. The general et al., 1996). Essentially, a process blueprint strategy has been to recognize a problem, maps a consumer’s service experience from research how other companies cope with beginning to end and then develops corre- that problem and copy what seems to work sponding maps of front-stage, backstage, best (Lovelock, 1996). Advances in technol- and management employee actions. The ogy have made this process much easier. output of a process blueprint is identifica- Over the past 5 years, virtually all major tion of failure points in the service delivery resorts in the US have developed Internet process. Qualitative critical incident sites for marketing purposes. Many of these research is then frequently used to assess Internet sites include a form to sign up for an these failure points further (Bitner et al., email list which is then used to provide 1996). Fishbone charts are frequently the periodic product and marketing informa- output of these critical incident analyses. tion. By monitoring Internet sites and Essentially, a fishbone chart looks like a fish signing up for email lists, resorts can very with six ribs. The process problem is the effectively monitor their direct competition head of the fish. The tail identifies customer and benchmark themselves relative to any and ‘other’ uncontrollable factors which variety of existing resorts and service com- contribute to the problem. The ribs identify panies. ‘Shopping the competition’ has internal causes of the problem as related to always been a key resort service quality (i) facilities, (ii) materials, (iii) processes, process; now it is dramatically easier (iv) front-stage employees, (v) backstage because of the shared information technolo- employees and (vi) equipment. Increas- gies created by the marketing communi- ingly, IT software packages are being used to cations function. blueprint resort services, to develop fish- Importantly, however, this process of bone charts, and to simulate and assess copying service innovations from other alternative processes improvements. resorts ultimately may lead to a commodifi- Finally, resorts are increasingly using IT cation of the resort product. Beyond their as the basis for new service products (Dab- unique natural resource endowments, vir- holkar, 1994). Three interesting examples tually all resorts will provide a very similar from Colorado resorts reflect this trend. For ‘product portfolio’, making it increasingly an additional fee, golfers at several resorts difficult for a resort to differentiate itself can rent carts with built-in GIS technology. competitively based on product offerings. Throughout the course, a monitor on the cart As this happens, ever greater quality pres- displays the exact distance to the next hole. sure will be put on the process of service Similarly, at some Colorado ski resorts this delivery. year, skiers can pay a fee, be given an elec- Process improvement teams are com- tronic sensor to wear throughout the day as monly used to examine specific internal and they ski, and at the end of the day be given a consumer service processes. These teams high-quality image of the mountain display- consist of a cross-section of resort employing all the ski runs which the individual ees who, conceptually, bring different skied that day. Finally, parents leaving chil- perspectives to examine and improve resort dren in resort daycare centres are given processes. However, influence-cost behav- pagers. In the event of any problems, parents iour, wherein employees focus more on can be quickly found and notified. improving their own jobs rather than improving resort productivity and profita- Trend 3: Electronic monitoring of the bility (McAfee and McMillian, 1997), is a competition major problem with these teams. Quantita- The use of the Internet and e-mail to monitor tive tools are needed to focus on service the service products offered by other resorts process improvements that truly benefit the will continue to grow. As it grows, however, customers. Process blueprinting and fish- it will put even greater pressure on service bone charts are the primary tools used by quality process support systems and tech- these teams (Kingman-Brundage, 1989; Rust nologies. Service Quality in Resort Settings 361

Trend 4: Service process software employees to answer guest questions. As applications examples, guest history and marketing/ Resorts are increasingly using IT software to membership club databases are increasingly blueprint service processes, to create fish- being used to reduce the amount of effort bone charts of service problems, and to needed to check customers into resorts. Sim- simulate service improvements. These soft- ilarly, technology is being used to reduce ware applications both enhance the quality checkout problems; guests can review their of process improvements and dramatically folios the night before checkout, notify the reduce the necessary time and effort. front desk of problems, have those problems corrected, and check out of the resort without ever going to the front desk. Information Trend 5: Information technology is technology has also greatly reduced the increasingly the basis for new resort complexity of night auditing of guest folios. products and services Finally, networked computers are increas- Resorts are constantly seeking supplemental ingly being used to provide question/answer products and services to offer to guests. databases to both employees and customers. Technological innovations frequently form These and a variety of other IT investments the basis of these new products. both improve process accuracy and reduce customer waiting time. At the same time, Gap 3: Service delivery these IT investments also greatly reduce The primary goal of ‘service delivery’ tech- customer–employee conflict, making the nology investments is to improve, facilitate, employees’ jobs dramatically less stressful and speed up the actual delivery of services. and more enjoyable. Tourists, virtually by definition, tend to be Second, information technology can also very difficult and demanding customers for reduce number-of-employee needs, partic- a variety of reasons. They are unfamiliar ularly for services which have highly with the resort environment. They generally cyclical demand. For example, the guest do not know where, how, or even when to checkout process, discussed above, has participate in various resort activities. They greatly reduced guest waiting time. It has tend to have invested a large amount of also allowed the resort to level out the num- money in a relatively short resort holiday. ber of employees needed at the front desk. They want/attempt to participate in a large Further, IT along with customer member- number of different experiences over just a ship cards is being used in some cases to few days. And they are very impatient with greatly reduce customer needs for some ser- service delivery delays and errors. Provid- vices. As an example, ski resorts are ing guest service is, consequently, both increasingly using membership cards to physically and emotionally difficult. replace traditional lift tickets. Customers go Employee burnout is a serious problem directly to the lift, have their cards scanned, impacting service quality both directly and are directly charged to their credit cards through discourteous employees and indi- for that day’s skiing. Skiers benefit with rectly through employee turnover quicker access to lifts. The resort benefits by (Loveman, 1998). Given the extreme diffi- needing fewer lift ticket sales personnel. culty of recruiting and retaining a quality Importantly, both the customer and the workforce in many rural resort locations, resort should benefit from these IT invest- employee satisfaction is virtually as impor- ments. The customer benefits through tant as guest satisfaction (Ledgerwood et al., reduced processing time and process accu- 1998). racy improvements. The resort benefits Three major applications of technology through reducing the number of employees exist in this area. First, and by far most needed to support service processes. important, many resorts are significantly Third, information technology is also investing in technology to improve both being used to enhance the integration of resort processes and the ability of resort resort services across different vendors (Tax 362 Richard R. Perdue

and Stuart, 1997). Most resort holidays are to achieve a ‘seamless experience’ for its actually purchased from a variety of vendors guests. and intermediaries, including travel agency, transportation, lodging, food and beverage, Gap 4: Marketing communications recreation and entertainment, and shopping Much of the excitement surrounding infor- businesses. Much of the service quality mation technology in resort settings focuses movement focuses on the concept of ‘seam- on e-commerce using the Internet, and with less’ experiences, wherein the customer is good reason. In 1996, Internet users booked treated with an integrated system of services US$276 million worth of travel on-line. For to fulfil their needs regardless of service 1997, on-line travel sales are estimated at ownership (Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996). As US$816 million. By the year 2000, these resorts increasingly form partnerships with sales could reach US$5 billion. Among US air and ground transportation firms and con- adults, 38% said they would use the Internet cessionaire agreements with shopping, food for their travel plans in 1998 (Margherio, and beverage, and entertainment vendors, 1997). Resorts are very rapidly adopting the information technology is being used to sim- Internet as a marketing communications plify both the purchase and on-site tool. Five distinct levels of Internet technol- experience of customers. For example, IT is ogy are being adopted. First, the Internet is being used to support ‘one-stop shopping’ increasingly being used as an advertising for resort holidays either by phone or Inter- fulfilment mechanism to which potential net and to allow customers to charge guests are directed by including web addres- products and services from a variety of ven- ses in traditional advertising media. dors to their room folios. Additionally, many resort web sites have fulfilment requests forms through which Trend 6: Resort process improvement customers can request traditional holiday through information technology information packages. Second, many resort IT is being used to: (i) reduce customer wait- web sites now include an email club enrol- ing time; (ii) improve process accuracy; and ment form, including a short interests and (iii) reduce customer information needs. demographic questionnaire. These e-mail Beyond guest satisfaction, enhanced addresses are increasingly being used along employee satisfaction is a key benefit of with sophisticated data-based marketing for these technologies. direct email promotional campaigns, particularly for sales promotions and yield Trend 7: Information technology may management purposes. The resort can reduce the number of employees required decide on Wednesday evening to offer spe- In selected applications, IT may reduce the cial products and discounts for the weekend number of employees required, but must, at and effectively promote them by email the the same time, enhance service quality and next morning. Third, as security strength- customer satisfaction. Generally, technol- ens, many resorts are including on-line sales ogy investments have been successful in and reservations services. Fourth, many levelling out the cyclical demand for resorts are creating e-commerce catalogue employees. Efforts to actually reduce the sites where consumers can purchase resort number of employees are successful to the clothing, equipment and souvenirs. Fifth, extent that the process also enhances guest some resorts are creating on-line chat rooms satisfaction. where past guests can describe their resort experiences, including both positive and Trend 8: Information technology is being negative qualities. used to integrate customer experiences As with any marketing communication, with multiple vendors the key service quality issue is effectively Information technology can both reduce the delivering on the promotional promises need for guests to provide the same informa- (Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996). IT can be used tion to multiple vendors and allow the resort to manage service promises effectively, Service Quality in Resort Settings 363

including not only making realistic prom- (Quinn, 1995). Technology investments do ises, but also keeping customers and travel not necessarily result in improved short- agents informed of service availability and term financial performance. Hence, the changes in schedules and offerings. For concept of a ‘balanced scorecard’ in assess- example, Colorado ski resorts include infor- ing the impacts of technology on resort mation not only on service offerings, but service quality (Kaplan and Norton, 1992). also on such issues as weather, travel and IT investments enhance resort performance snow conditions. in at least three ways, beyond financial return. First, IT investments may be neces- Trend 9: Resorts are increasingly using sary to remain competitive and maintain Internet and email technology as key market share. Failure to keep up with the marketing communications tools competition may result in significant losses. Initially, most resort Internet sites were Second, IT is necessary to support an essentially ‘on-line brochures’. Increasingly increasingly complex service environment. resorts are improving their web sites to Resorts need to be adaptable and flexible to become more interactive and more enjoy- an increasingly diverse customer base. able to potential guests. Third, and perhaps most importantly, IT can Information technology is also being be used to improve the resort work environ- used to educate guests. Many times, a qual- ment. Consequently, a balanced scorecard ity resort holiday is a function not only of needs to include: (i) both long- and short- what happens on the resort site, but also of term financial performance data; (ii) guest preparation and equipment. Resort consumer data including resort occupancy, Internet sites frequently include ‘what to yield, cycle times and customer bring’ lists, equipment recommendations perceptions/satisfaction; (iii) employee data and special preparations. For example, high such as recruitment, training, retention and altitude sickness is a common and poten- job satisfaction; and (iv) measures of innova- tially fatal problem at Colorado resorts. Most tion including both improvements in resort web sites, consequently, try to edu- performance of traditional processes and the cate the guest both on how to avoid development and implementation of new becoming sick and on identifying and treat- processes. In each of these areas, most ing the illness. resorts have multiple technologies and corresponding databases. The challenge of the future is integration of these various data- Trend 10: Resort Internet sites are bases. Being able to understand effectively increasingly being used to provide guest the performance implications of improve- education ments in service quality is critical. As Many of the problems which guests experi- experienced by the Ritz Carlton Hotel group, ence at resorts are avoidable through proper it is possible to win a Malcolm Baldrige equipment and preparation. Information National Quality Award for service quality technology can greatly improve guest educa- and, at the same time, suffer significant per- tion efforts resulting in less problems both formance losses (Hirsch, 1994), particularly for the guest and for the resort. in the short-term. As noted earlier, resort service quality programmes focused initially on developing Implications and Conclusions quality measures. Over the past few years, the emphasis has shifted to addressing spe- As noted earlier, IT investments by lodging cific quality problems and process businesses grew by 188% between 1990 and improvement. Technology has primarily 1994. Unfortunately, the correlation been used to tackle individual problems. between these investments and lodging sec- The trends reported in the preceding sector profitability is unclear, leading many tions highlight this approach. Very often experts to proclaim a productivity paradox different technologies are used by different 364 Richard R. Perdue

parts of the resort. Signiﬁcant coordination will create information technology depart- and integration problems are the norm. Over ments with the goal of better management of the next few years, more and more resorts their technology investments. 33 Partnerships and the Changing World of Park Management

Will F. LaPage

We serve best through partnership, rather than patriarchy . . . Autocratic governance withers the spirit (Peter Block)

Foreword lature to provide matching funds! ‘Northwoods Meadows–Pioneer State Park’ In the autumn of 1991, after a quarter cen- and the Friends of Odiorne Point are just tury of no growth throughout its state parks, two of the thousands of similar park partner- the State of New Hampshire acquired a large ship success stories from all across America tract of undeveloped land within a that have helped to restore our tired public 90-minute drive of hundreds of thousands of park systems, stretch scarce tax dollars and potential visitors. With no prospect of meet- build community pride. ing the costs of developing and operating A 1994 survey of America’s state park new parks for at least another decade, sev- systems (LaPage, 1994a) found all states to eral hundred acres of badly needed be experiencing similar waves of volunteer- recreation opportunities seemed to be ing and partnering. In 1996, the Northeast headed for a dismal future of locked gates, Region of the National Park Service reported illegal use and vandalism. having more than 5000 partnering organiza- Yet, less than 4 years later, the park was tions supporting its programmes across the open, contributing to the local economy and 13-state region (US National Park Service, producing satisfied visitors. This miracle of Northeast Field Area, 1996). The park part- bureaucratic efficiency happened as a result nership movement is international as well: of a creative partnership with the Telephone Canadian Park Partnerships, in 1974, repor- Pioneers of America, the nation’s largest ted 44 member associations representing corporate-based volunteer group. Just 30 every province and 40 national parks, more miles down the road, at Odiorne Point State than 10,000 individual members, more than Park on New Hampshire’s coast, a new 54,000 h of volunteer service, and financial friends’ group was successfully completing assistance of more than US$6 million. As a fund-raising effort of more than US$1 mil- reported at the fourth International Outdoor lion to build an educational centre for their Recreation Trends Symposium (Selin and park, after having challenged the state legis- Darrow, 1995), the definition of park part- © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 365 366 Will F. LaPage

nerships is growing to include a rich array of reduced hours of operation, an invitation formal and informal organizational arrange- from park officials to get involved (or some- ments – designer partnerships for every times a rebuff from the same source), a situation. media exposé of park conditions, or a socially conscious corporate adoption of parklands. Park closures for lack of an oper- Where Did All the Partners Come ating budget or just the threat of a closure, From, and Why Now? have resulted in the birth of many friends’ groups. The visible effect of years of The widespread incidence of late 20th cen- deferred maintenance in nearly all park sys- tury volunteerism in America’s public parks tems helps to highlight the need for action. did not just happen. Although countless acts When the badly deteriorated, Civilian Con- of individual and corporate generosity are servation Corps vintage, facilities at the heritage of every public park system, it is Cardigan State Park in northwestern New only in recent years that volunteerism has Hampshire were removed in the early 1990s, emerged as an organized force. From Yel- a friends’ group materialized overnight to lowstone to Central Park, advocates are no design, donate and build replacement longer simply speaking out for bigger budg- facilities. ets, but are pitching in to fill the staffing The phenomenon of volunteer armies of voids. The President’s Commission on activists coming to the rescue has been Americans Outdoors (PCAO) recognized linked by many observers to a declining this emerging trend and recommended a ability of government to address park needs partnering ethic to guarantee the future of and a concurrent rise in citizens’ abilities to diverse and satisfying recreation experien- fill the void (Selin and Darrow, 1995). The ces for visitors to our public lands (PCAO, Government’s impending failure to preserve 1987a). Undoubtedly contributing to what its parks adequately has been foreseen for appears to be a spontaneous emergence of decades, and responded to by many blue- park helpers are the successful models that ribbon commissions at every level of have resulted from years of park profession- government. That failure is the inevitable als’ frustration with the paradox of result of: short-term budgets and the need for long- term resource protection (LaPage, 1995). As ● the expansion of public lands without Uhlik (1995) points out in his step-by-step commensurate increases in operating model of partnership development, those budgets; frustrations are echoed by the public’s tac- ● the unabated growth in demand for tical shift from park advocacy to park access to those lands, often in the face of activism. sharply declining real budgets and staff- Volunteerism is a form of activism and, ing; and like other expressions of social and environ- ● a widespread obsolescence of park mental activism, it is triggered by a infrastructure at a time when public combination of dissatisfaction with the sta- parklands have fallen to the bottom of tus quo and a citizenry that is willing and government priorities. able to get involved. When the source of dissatisfaction is a highly publicized The extent of this failure to fund public decline in the condition of public lands, park systems adequately can be appreciated trails and historic sites, and when there is a by realizing that volunteering and partner- legacy of pride in those public assets, the ing are but two of several management ingredients for volunteer activism are nearly strategies now being used to close the in place. All that is needed is the spark to budget gap. Other strategies include clo- ignite the prairie fire and coalesce the con- sures, sharply reduced services, increased cerned citizens. That spark may be struck in user fees, privatizing, leasing, management many ways: a park closure, drastically contracts and the appointment of more blue- Partnerships and the Changing World of Park Management 367

ribbon study commissions (who are ular, represent Americans’ most intimate volunteers themselves and, hopefully, park relationship with their government. Most of advocates). Necessity has clearly spawned a these lands were set aside because they growing collection of new ways to conduct embody pride in heritage, while offering the business of park management. Many opportunities for inspiration, renewal and new ways are proving superior to those that refreshment. We insist that these values and they have displaced, and are probably per- these opportunities must continue to be manent, despite future funding levels. available to our children. The recent trends Partnerships, particularly those based on in volunteering and partnering provide clear volunteerism, are in that category because evidence that when these resources and they are a proactive and democratic solu- these opportunities are threatened, Amer- tion. icans will take direct action. That action is Despite their enormous successes, the not simply an expression of a wider cyni- viability of partnerships as a new manage- cism about government in general, it is ment paradigm is likely to remain heavily personal, focused and insistent. dependent upon a continuation of those eco- Parks have the opportunity for becoming nomic and social forces that dominated its more than a nursery for reinventing govern- gestation period. Most obvious among these ment, they are an adventure in rediscovering are limited public funding combined with democracy. The realization that steward- low rates of inflation, increased discretion- ship of our public lands is ultimately a ary time, a desire for meaningful societal, not a professional, responsibility involvement, early retirements, flexibility in drastically changes organizational strate- workplaces and hours, relative residential gies, from delegation to collaboration, and stability and strong local pride. Until the from regulation to education. The notion idea becomes widely adopted by park pro- that an organization’s mission can be ach- fessionals and fully integrated within the ieved faster, more effectively, and with more parks bureaucracy, showing up in the budg- permanence by expanding the army and giv- eting process, in development planning, in ing it a sense of ownership, makes the idea of annual reporting, and the performance daily repetitive maintenance obsolete. Park evaluations of managers, the possibility of agencies can pick up visitors’ rubbish, or reverting to old styles will slow the process visitors can become partners in maintaining of building partnerships. However, it cannot the beauty of their own lands. Agencies can derail the partnership movement, because spend astronomical sums trying to protect the probability for full funding to protect, their borders from development by buying manage, maintain and interpret America’s up buffer zones or they can partner with vast public parks estate without partner- local communities to create limited devel- ships is zero! The demands being placed on opment zones. Parks can become police our public lands have vastly outgrown the states in an attempt to protect their assets capabilities of traditional management and artefacts from theft and destruction, or models. they can achieve full protection by alerting and empowering their publics. Parks can fund their own limited programmes of pro- So, Where Will the Trend End? motion, education and information about parks, or they can allow corporations to Just as the financial crisis in parks did not underwrite these programmes. And, agen- happen in a vacuum, the new look in park cies can plan in a vacuum, operate organization charts will largely be shaped by independently – and die; or they can broader trends in government and new ways become full-fledged members of the commu- of conducting the public’s business. How- nity – and survive. The obstacles to ever, parks have a unique opportunity to achieving these higher levels of perform- become leaders in that movement because ance are almost entirely imaginary. There public lands in general, and parks in partic- may be an occasional legal constraint, but 368 Will F. LaPage

more often the resistance is rooted in the potential conflicts of interest. insecurity of ‘turf!’. The major difference in style is that of the The essential ingredient for change is a open door – the constant invitation to volun- shift in focus away from the organization teer, to be a part of the team, to share in the and its almost sanctified procedures and work and the rewards of healthy parks. toward its clients and results. Partnering for Opening the door is relatively easy. Jointly parks may have begun as a shadow trend, an defining roles is much more difficult. Leas- expedient for coping with inescapable ing, concessions and cooperative agree- social and governmental forces, but its suc- ments have been used by park agencies for cesses are rapidly moving it toward a generations to define public–private rela- mega-trend status of its own. And, in doing tionships in parks. In nearly all park so, it spins off new styles of management, agencies, these tools have experienced vari- new emphases on constituency building able success, sometimes becoming political and consensus building, new approaches to footballs because of a failure to insist on stewardship of park resources through stew- shared visions and to work as partners to ardship of human resources, and real achieve those visions. But, park partnering measures of performance and accountabil- for the 21st century means something other ity. In short, the trend is unlikely to end than legally binding agreements and super- until the mandate for park protection is ful- vising performance contracts. filled and real accountability is in place. Many of today’s partners are not interested in formal agreements, or in being New management styles supervised. Corporations, friend’s groups, Administrative resistance to partnerships is nonprofits, individual volunteers, schools often rooted in concerns for authority and and other agencies are seeing parks as a ethics, or, ‘where is my authorization to vehicle for building a sense of community, work with partners, and under what condi- of pride, of belonging and of giving some- tions is it appropriate to solicit help?’ In a thing back. Volunteering is a movement that representative democracy, the people dele- often does not lend itself to traditional styles gate authority to elected representatives of coordination, organization and regimen- who, in turn, delegate the functions of gov- tation. If parks are going to capitalize on this ernment to professional administrators. potential fully, they will need to look While there is no provision for a further beyond the handbook, the policy manual delegation of responsibility back to the elec- and the chain of command for guidance. As torate or to some portion thereof, there is Selin and Darrow (1995) summarized the also no direct prohibition against expanding problems of partnerships, the red tape, the the management team as long as it does not lack of communication, professional fears, exceed the budget. When that expansion and the heavy-handed approach of many improves the team, while reducing the bureaucracies, result in a less than ideal budget, it epitomizes public administra- partnership nursery. Nurturing friends’ tion’s principle of efficiency. To be partners groups and sustaining volunteerism are in the enterprise of government does not more like tending a garden than they are like mean an equal sharing of accountability, it is steering a ship. simply a sharing in getting the job done. That sharing is accomplished by opening Consensus and constituency wide the doors of government and identify- The goal of partnering is to achieve the ing the roles of each partner. Those doors parks’ missions of protection and public have already been legislatively opened by service fully. However, an inevitable spin- many mandates for the public’s involve- off of any partnership is an expanded ment in park planning and impact constituency for parks. Expanding the tradi- assessment. It is an obvious step to share the tional constituency to include, for example, implementation of those plans. Yet, it can be corporate America, brings not just large a big step in terms of legal liability and donations to the cause, it brings talent, Partnerships and the Changing World of Park Management 369

labour, advocacy, image and awareness. The chical organization. Two solutions become corporation obviously benefits from the immediately obvious: limit the number of park’s image, but the park likewise benefits park partners or expand the number of from the corporation’s recognition of it as administrators working with the partners; worthy of support. That recognition transfor example, the addition of a deputy admin- lates to a message that is both direct and istrator to manage the traditional indirect. Indirectly, the message encourages organization, thereby freeing up the admin- others, such as corporate employees, busi- istrator to work exclusively with partners. ness associates, politicians and opinion The latter effectively creates two organiza- leaders, to increase their levels of support tions and even greater complexity. for park goals. The indirect kinds of benefits, Arbitrarily reducing the number of partner- like advocacy, that result from most corpo- ships for purely administrative convenience rate partnerships can vastly exceed the is impossible to defend. The answer is to direct assistance provided. For other kinds recognize and celebrate the diversity of the of partnerships, the direct benefits are likely partnership resource through organizational to be more of a bonus, for example, partner- stewardship. Just as the problems increase, ships with universities (for research), with so do the successes. Park partners may be other agencies (for shared staffing and pro- more effective than park professionals in grammes), with other tourism enterprises communicating a new land ethic (Roggen- (for joint promotion), and with friend’s buck et al., 1992). groups (for management assistance). In every case, the partnership helps to assure Stewardship success, and the success helps to assure con- Partnerships, like dollars, staff, infrastruc- tinuation and expansion of the partnership ture, land and water, are park assets. base. In fact, growth of the partnership base Maintaining partnerships is not what most alone may be a better indicator of a park’s park managers were trained in: it is not cur- success in achieving its goals than are some rently an available course of study in of the more traditional measures such as undergraduate training for park profession- park visits and cost : income ratios. als. And yet, it is probably the most Growth of the partnership base carries important resource management skill for with it a geometrical increase in the diffi- park professionals to acquire. Fortunately, culty of achieving a consensus. Partners do training for stewardship of human resources not appreciate being surprised by unilateral is available in many other ways, but it must policy changes in such matters as user fees, be sought. capital development, information pro- As Peter Block reminds us, choosing grammes, seasons, hours and emergency stewardship as an alternative to leadership closures. They do expect to be consulted is a conscious decision (Block, 1993). It (after all, their image is now at stake too), requires the enlightened view that care tak- and they do assume that their advice will be ing is the antithesis of stewardship. The used. Having two partners more than dou- ‘care and feeding’ approach to partnerships bles the concerns because there is now a is a guaranteed formula for failure. Equals three-way network. Adding just one more do not need to provide incentives and partner potentially results in a ten-way com- rewards to each other for doing their jobs. munication network and a commensurate Being treated as an equal and valued partner increase in the opportunities for miscom- is sufficient. Stewardship of park partner- munication and conflicting desires among ships means: (i) providing opportunities, an partners. Many park organizations today are open door, for collaboration on a meaningful working with dozens of park partners. Ach- level; (ii) creating the conditions to make ieving a consensus now becomes the that collaboration successful; and (iii) shar- manager’s full-time occupation, and ing the rewards. requires a considerably different set of skills Opportunities for partnership should than was necessary in the traditional hierar- include an array of responsible and reward- 370 Will F. LaPage

ing roles that span all park operations. There Accountability cannot be a division of responsibilities that While legal accountability for park assets is based on ‘appropriate’ roles for nonprofes- must remain with park administration, the sionals: ‘you sell the hot dogs, we do the level of that accountability, under a partner- nature programmes’. Some of the most chal- ship model, can only be enhanced. True lenging roles for park partners are those accountability for park assets is more than professional tasks not presently being done fiscal detail; it requires an aggressive because of inadequate budgets and staffing. response to the mandate to ‘preserve and Monitoring of biological diversity, of visitor protect for future generations’. With spon- satisfaction, and of the effectiveness of inter- sorships and partnerships, many parks will pretive programmes are essential to the find it possible for the first time in their business of park management and are the history to begin to monitor conditions pho- kinds of real contributions for which many tographically, to take counts of species prospective volunteers and sponsors are composition and density systematically, looking. All parks have urgent needs, but the and to sample the social and experiential open door to partnerships is more than shar- impacts of park programmes representa- ing the list; it requires listening and tively. Over time, it will become possible to developing a role that will be mutually measure trends and establish an early warn- rewarding. ing system for management to address In addition to challenging tasks, the con- changing conditions before the crisis stage. ditions for successful partnering include Partners can be responsible for programmes such obvious concerns as legal liability cov- without being accountable for them, but erage, workers’ compensation, training, and partners will want to see better account- the informational tools to do the job. The ability measures emerge as a result of their single most important condition is an orga- efforts. Partnerships provide both the impe- nizational ethic toward partnering; a tus, and the means to make realities of welcoming attitude by all that partners and today’s euphemisms about ‘park steward- volunteers are an affirmation of the impor- ship’, and ‘park accountability’. Concepts of tance of their own jobs, not a threat to them. continuous inventory of park conditions In mature public agencies, with employees and performance, candid assessments of the jaded by a history of budget and personnel trends, published reports to the ‘stockhold- cutbacks, such an attitude may be slow in ers’, and full accountability for results, are developing. essential principles for viable partnerships. Sharing the rewards of the partnership Without these principles, partnerships seems obvious, and yet the risk of taking become just another screen to obscure fail- partners for granted is a very real one. Part- ure and to diffuse responsibility and nering results in an extended family that has accountability. all the attributes of any extended family Those park organizations that have with very busy members. The credits for a already moved into the 21st century style of job well done need to be enthusiastically, stewardship through partnership, such as not perfunctorily, extended to all. And national parks of the northeast, are finding finally, stewardship, to be successful, must that ‘steering more and rowing less’ is pro- step out of the straightjacket that has histor- viding substance for accountability reports ically bound accountability to control. (US National Park Service, 1994). Con- Control of a far-flung, multiplayer team, versely, those park administrations that see made up of independent entities and crea- partnering as just another programme for the tive thinkers, is a dream at best. A paradigm bureaucracy to cope with, with layers of of monitoring and mid-course corrections formal approvals, sanctions and signatures, may be more appropriate for 21st century have the form of accountability but are park management. really delaying the remarkable benefits of conservation by participation. Partnerships and the Changing World of Park Management 371

The Future – A New Wave of that would herald! Operations and manage- Conservation Action for Parks? ment, once they have rejected the control model, might logically become the ‘partner- The performance of park partnerships, dur- ship office’ and focus on guiding complex ing the closing years of the 20th century, institutions rather than trying to run a hier- combined with their promise of guarantee- archy. The information office might add to ing the future flow of park benefits and its public contact function the essential net- protection of park assets, means that part- working between and among partners, while nering is not a fad, it is a movement. It might also assuming the role of organizational con- more accurately be called a new wave of science and commitment builder, by conservation – conservation by participa- becoming the park ‘development’ office. tion, a logical, and necessary, evolution ‘This is political reform within the organiza- from the earlier waves of conservation tion’ (Block, 1993), and it is infinitely more through designation of public lands, desirable than arbitrarily imposed change through acquisition, and through profes- from the outside. sional management. Partnerships can be a less comfortable The very practical two-step planning world in which to work, taking enormous process, of recognizing the inevitable and time and energy (Selin and Darrow, 1995). then finding a way to take advantage of it, The complexities are great, but the rewards suggests that park organizations should con- are greater. Partnerships can make the differ- sider restructuring, and rethinking their ence between success and failure (LaPage, strategies in ways that will facilitate the 1994b). The partnership world is a lot less growing demand for participation and part- lonely because it is an affirmation of the nering. An accountability report to the importance of the mission and a helping public, showing where gaps exist between hand to restore stewardship to its rightful their mandate and their current perform- place in the profession. It is the profession’s ance levels, might be a useful – if painful – best chance to avoid the legacy of a multi- first step in pinpointing where change – and billion dollar deferred maintenance bill on help – is needed. these irreplaceable national assets. Recognizing that form follows function, partnerships can provide the spark for a Partnerships are not necessarily easy; they meaningful reorganization of the bureauc- require thick skins, forgiveness, clear racy’s chairs. The misnamed ‘business communications, trust, shared visions, and management office’ might emerge as the back-up systems in case of failure . . . they may seem much messier than traditional, ‘accountability office’ and be staffed with clear-cut, boundary-driven, land programme auditors rather than purely fis- management. But, when they succeed, the cal watchdogs. The obsession for tracking sense of public ownership, inclusion, cost- dollars without equal attention to goal effectiveness, and community attainment has, all too often, created inter- empowerment are well worth it nal adversarial settings where natural (US National Park Service, 1994) partnerships could have flourished. The regulations-bound personnel office, in rec- The park’s office deserves to be a place ognizing that the employees are the where the vision that created our diverse organizations’ ‘first partners’, might recon- systems of public parklands, historic sites, stitute itself as the ‘professional trails and natural areas, is matched by a development’ office, a place where coopera- similarly dynamic organizational culture. tion and collaboration are taught and Any new definition of parkland protection practiced. The maintenance office might has to include the lands outside the bound- better be viewed as the ‘stewardship office’, aries. The ultimate protection within those thereby encouraging partnerships and pro- boundaries requires an appreciation of the viding a show window on the state of our fact that people deserve to live and work in parks. What a change in pride and morale park-like settings. That is a goal requiring 372 Will F. LaPage

endless partnering, and one that frees the bility, a temporary fix until the money parks professional from park boundaries supply catches up. They are a powerful con- and from traditional definitions of park stituency that will challenge the way we protection. define and achieve the goals of parks in the The late 20th century emergence of part- 21st century. They contain the seeds of a nerships all across the landscape of new wave of environmental conservation America’s public parks, combined with the that can match all those earlier waves, a phenomenal successes of many of those ven- wave of protection through popular partici- tures, can be viewed as a harbinger of both a pation. And, as the social equivalent of the rejuvenated public park ethic and a new symbiotic relationships in nature that parks management paradigm. The implications seek to preserve, they enhance our ability to for achieving park goals and the potential deal with complexity. Partnerships have impacts on park management, and on the already altered park management styles at park profession, are likely to be extensive. every level of government. Their potential Partnerships are not just the newest buzz- for improved stewardship, accountability, word for doing the public’s business. They consensus building and organizational are not a creative blowout patch for systems structure of public parks is just beginning to that have outgrown their management capa- be realized. 34 Tourism and Sustainability: a Positive Trend

John J. Pigram

Sustainability and Change 29). Taken to the extreme, this viewpoint could be seen to seek the retention of exist- Few terms have been subject to such close ing social, economic and political structures scrutiny and dissection of meaning as sus- and the continuation of present conditions tainability and sustainable development. In and life systems. However, Dahl acknowl- simple terms, the concept of sustainability edges the certainty of change and the need to expresses the notion that people must live incorporate the dynamic elements of pro- within the capacity of their environment to ductive systems and social structures into a support them. A sustainable world is an new, higher, and, presumably, preferred environmentally bounded one (Jacobs, condition of sustainable equilibrium. 1995), developing within sustainability con- For such a state of ‘ultimate balance’ to be straints of maintenance of human achieved and sustained, the processes con- resource-creating potential, waste manage- tributing to renewal must compensate for ment capabilities, environmental services, the failures, losses and sources of disequilib- and compatible sociocultural values and rium. On this basis, Dahl (1996) warns that structures. some supposedly ‘developed’ economies In the context of human existence, sus- are operating in a demonstrably unsustain- tainability implies a fresh approach to able mode, founded on unrealistic planning for the future and a renewed com- projections and assumptions concerning mitment to use resources in a way that industrial potential, technology and social sustains such use. Yet, some would argue transitions. that sustainability has little to do with plan- Sustainability is multifaceted and any ning, and equate the concept with radical tendency to view sustainability as an uni- conservatism and an argument against dimensional state ignores the several change. Such a perspective confuses sus- dimensions of the concept as it applies to tainability with change avoidance and human activity and development. Possibly, resistance to change. most concern has been expressed over eco- Others see sustainability as a question of logical sustainability and the pressure of the maintenance of balance or equilibrium population growth and resource consump- over time (Dahl, 1996), with the focus more tion on life support processes. These on nonsustainability and the forces tending concerns are of particular relevance to tour- to disturb equilibrium. Thus ‘sustainability ism, where sustainability of environmental can only be achieved when all forces upset- attributes under threat from the intrusion of ting the balance are removed’ (Dahl, 1996, p. masses of visitors may foolishly be traded © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 373 374 John J. Pigram

off against the prospect of more immediate grounds against such a desirable, if some- economic returns. However, the multidi- what fuzzy, objective. However, the concept mensional nature of sustainability demands takes on more meaning and practical rele- that it also be demonstrated with reference vance when supplemented by specific to social and cultural considerations, legal guiding principles. In the context of tour- structures, societal values, and economic ism, these have been articulated by any and financial concerns. Economic realities number of national and international agen- cannot be ignored in favour of ecological cies and organizations, and typically sustainability. Putting it bluntly, mainte- embrace components of: nance of a pristine environment to avoid resource degradation or social disharmony ● conservation and enhancement of eco- is of little relevance to the sustainability of a logical processes contributing to tourist enterprise if the loss of revenue, or biological diversity and the mainte- the increase in operating costs as a con- nance of ecological integrity; sequence, is such as to threaten the ● intergenerational and intragenerational long-term economic viability of the opera- equity; tion. ● anticipatory environmental policy incorporating the precautionary principle; The Trend Toward Sustainable ● community participation and endorse- Development ment; and ● legislative support. The search for a more compatible relationship between humans and their If all of this sounds familiar, it should not environment is not new. The potential con- be surprising. Indeed, the concept of sus- sequences of unrestrained expansion of tainable development has been challenged resource exploitation coupled with popula- as merely a reworking of long-standing phi- tion growth were highlighted in the report, losophies about conservation and Limits to Growth (Meadows and Meadows, stewardship of resources for the future. 1972). Subsequently, the publication in What is new are its widespread endorse- 1980 of the World Conservation Strategy by ment and the incorporation of a proactive the International Union for the Conservation environmental dimension into corporate of Nature prompted many countries to for- strategic planning and business manage- mulate their own national strategies. ment. In Canada, Murphy (1994, p. 276) Increasingly, sustainable management of referring to the tourism industry, reports resources became accepted as the preferred that: way to match the needs of conservation and The majority of corporations have development. This view, formalized in Our established systems and programmes to Common Future, the report of the World comply with the new (environmental) Commission on Environment and Develop- regulations, but a further minority has ment (1987, p. 4), defined sustainable moved ‘beyond compliance’ into a development as ‘ . . . development that meets proactive mode of management. In the needs of the present without compro- Australia, the precautionary principal, mising the ability of future generations to intergenerational equity, conservation of meet their own needs’. Since then, the trend biodiversity and ecological integrity, and toward sustainable development has gath- improved valuation and pricing of environmental resources, are embodied in ered strength and been applied in a wide federal and state legislation. At the same range of human contexts including the tour- time, considerable advances are being made ism sector, in an attempt to address in the implementation of best practice simultaneously both developmental and environmental management, especially by environmental imperatives. the larger scale industrial, commercial and It is difficult to argue on conceptual tourism enterprises. Tourism and Sustainability 375

Despite the endorsement of sustainable is, or should be, a fundamental considera- development as the catch-phrase of the tion for tourism since its viability is 1990s, the concept has been questioned as a dependent upon the maintenance of the contradiction of terms. The suggestion is environmental qualities which underpin its one of conflict between ‘sustainable’, imply- development and growth. Tourism is, to a ing ‘ . . . a state which can be maintained, is large degree, a resource-based activity. Sus- ongoing, perhaps even unchanging’ (Wall, tainable development of these resources 1997, p. 43), and ‘development’, which demands that they be managed in keeping implies change. This view can be chal- with ecological imperatives, but in a way lenged. Given that development is that meets the economic needs of the indus- concerned with the manipulation of the try and satisfies the experiential aspirations environment to achieve desired goals, sus- of tourists, while maintaining the social and tainability demands interference in the cultural integrity of hosts and guests. process in the interests of sustainable Global concern for the environment was growth and development. given renewed impetus following the Sustainability is not about maintenance United Nations Conference on Environment of the status quo, be that the capitalist sys- and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. tem of much of the western industrialized The Earth Summit as it was called, and world, or the continued suppression of the Agenda 21 that followed, led to a commit- aspirations of the developing world. Moreo- ment to make travel and tourism a model ver, sustainability does not exclude change industry for environmental improvement. or elevation to a preferred state of develop- Since then, government agencies and tour- ment in terms of human betterment and ism organizations in several countries have enhanced life opportunities. To see this as a undertaken a number of policy initiatives to contradiction is to confuse product and promote the sustainability message. process, outcomes with pathways, ends and Yet, imprecision and confusion continue means. The focus is on process, and the to bedevil the concept of sustainable devel- identification of sustainable processes of opment as it applies to tourism. Butler development, not on any fixed, predictable (1993) stresses the importance of identifying product of that process. The emphasis is on those aspects of tourism that it may be getting the process right (sustainable) as appropriate to encourage, based on the prin- each level of development leads to (changes) ciples of sustainable development. He the next. Shortcomings in the process will makes a distinction between ‘sustainable either make the preferred stage of develop- tourism’ and ‘sustainable development in ment unattainable, or mean that it is the context of tourism’. According to Butler distinctly short-lived. Thus, sustainability (1993, p. 29), sustainable tourism is ‘ . . . and development are not opposites but com- tourism which is a form which can maintain plementary. If the process underpinning its viability in an area for an indefinite development is not sustainable, develop- period of time’. ment will be compromised and will The limitations of such a definition are ultimately stall. immediately obvious when the conditions which might have to be met in maintaining that viability, and the costs which might be From Sustainable Development to entailed by other claimants to the common Sustainable Tourism – a Logical resource base, are considered. No activity Trend can be sustained in a vacuum without reference to broader interests and other resource Although the publication of the report, Our uses. Butler offers an alternative definition Common Future, makes no reference to tour- of sustainable tourism that places it within ism, it did help usher in a new era of this broader context: environmental concern of immediate relevance to the tourism sector. Sustainability . . . tourism which is developed and

376 John J. Pigram

maintained in an area (community, that tourism is an inherently unsustainable environment) in such a manner and at such human activity. Some observers remain con- a scale that it remains viable over an vinced that ‘ . . . in the long run tourism, like indefinite period and does not degrade or any other industry, contributes to environ- alter the environment (human and mental destruction’ (Cohen, 1978, p. 220), or physical) in which it exists to such a degree that it prohibits the successful development conserves only the things that are of poten- and wellbeing of other activities and tial or actual tourist interest. processes It is not difficult to substantiate claims of (Butler, 1993, p. 29) resource degradation arising from the preda- tory effects of seasonal migrations of visitors Issue might still be taken with some of the and resulting disturbance to, or destruction terms used in this definition (e.g. the vague- of, natural features. Erosion of the resource ness of ‘viable’, ‘successful’, and base is a serious consequence for the envi- ‘wellbeing’, and the specificity of ‘prohi- ronment. This can range from incidental bits’). However, it acknowledges that tourism wear and tear of vegetation and soil, to van- must compete with other activities and dalism and deliberate destruction or resource users and the achievement of sus- removal of attributes that contribute toward tainability cannot be at the expense of those the appeal of a setting. Incremental deteri- competing interests. In other words, sustain- oration is accelerated on occasion by the ability at all costs, is not an option, nor is it adoption of ill-advised remedies or com- realistic. Tradeoffs between sectors may be pensatory actions intended to mitigate the necessary and must be anticipated in the depredations of tourism, e.g. the introduc- interests of the greater good (Wall, 1997). tion of the invasive bitou bush to stabilize Wall goes on to pose a number of ‘intract- dune erosion along the Australian coast. able questions’ about the goals, objectives Pollution, both direct and indirect, is and time horizons of sustainable develop- another conspicuous manifestation of the ment in the context of tourism. However, detrimental effects of tourism. these can be addressed in a multidimen- The built environment in urbanized tour- sional construct of sustainability, ist zones may also be impaired by using comprising ecological, economic and socio- incongruous technological innovations or cultural concerns. A holistic appreciation of inferior design and inappropriate architec- sustainability acknowledges the interrelat- tural style of tourist facilities. The social edness of these components, and the process fabric of resident communities, in turn, can of sustainable tourism development must be disrupted by conflict and dissention with simultaneously accommodate the nexus visitors, and by congestion and overtaxing of between them (Wahab and Pigram, 1997). the infrastructure and basic services. This can be a particular problem in developing Unsustainable Tourism Development – countries where the contrast between the Against the Trend lifestyle and living standards of tourists and that of host communities is more marked. Given the differences in perception of sus- Indeed, the pursuit of the elusive goal of tainable tourism and the multidimensional ‘development’ through the introduction of nature of the concept, it is perhaps easier to tourism holds particular dangers for coun- identify forms of tourism which are unsus- tries of the Third World. Whereas the tainable than to specify those which satisfy biophysical environment might show the preferred characteristics of sustainability. most immediate and obvious effects, it is the Whereas tourism can have beneficial con- traditional culture and way of life that are sequences for the environment, most most under threat. prominence appears to be given to negative The important point, however, is that it impacts. It is these undesirable effects on the does not have to be like that. The environ- natural and built environment and on host ment of the Cook Islands in the mid-Pacific communities that lend credence to the view Ocean offers a useful illustration. The Tourism and Sustainability 377

emphasis in the island tourism structures is these perspectives should not be seen as on native materials and style with the height mutually exclusive. Current trends suggest ‘no higher than the coconut palms’. Govern- that it should be possible to ensure that ment policy on indigenous tourism in the tourism-related development contributes Cook Islands goes on to state that: coincidentally to environmental enhancement. Tourism should not be the means for us to As noted earlier, tourism is primarily a change our way of life but an incentive to resource-based activity: tourism and nature make us more aware of what we are in conservation are not merely interrelated, terms of our culture, customs and they are interdependent. Thus, tourism traditions. This should not be interpreted should stimulate measures to protect and negatively to mean that all changes that affect our way of life must be avoided. conserve nature, thereby leading to the Change is inevitable. Instead, a positive rate maintenance, or even substantial enhance- and direction of change and how we ment of natural areas, with subsequent manage that change and its conflicts are increases in visitor satisfaction. Sustainable more important . . . The guiding principle tourism development must be environmen- should be: preserve that which is good, tally sensitive and consistent with long-term modify or destroy the bad, and adopt the nature conservation. It can also contribute to new to strike a balance a wider appreciation of nature by promot- (Okotai, 1980, p. 173) ing, and making more accessible, interesting sites and aspects of the natural world. Some 20 years later, the Cook Islands In the built environment, the design of remain a quiet haven offering a special kind contemporary tourist complexes also of tourist experience in a delightful, authen- appears to be benefiting from the demands tic island environment and cultural of a more discerning tourist population. atmosphere. Development has taken place, Whereas there remain many examples of but compatibly with that environment. The unfortunate additions to the tourist land- emphasis is on the process by which tour- scape, modification of the environment for ism evolves to a different, but still today’s tourist is marked increasingly by sustainable, level and mode of develop- quality architecture, design and engineer- ment. ing. Higher standards of safety, sanitation and maintenance, and upgrading of infrastructure and services, represent a Toward Sustainable Tourism significant improvement to the environment Development of the host community, as well as helping to ensure that tourism development proceeds The Cook Islands experience demonstrates sustainably. Increased awareness of the how satisfying and sustainable tourism set- existence value of historic sites and antiq- tings grow out of complementary natural uities, too, has been stimulated through features and compatible social processes. cultural tourism which, in turn, has promp- There is growing evidence that large sec- ted the need for sensitive planning and tions of the tourism industry are committed management of heritage resources in the to the principles of sustainable development interests of sustainability. and see merit in the adoption of sustainable The implications for closer government– practices in the interests of maintenance of industry linkages are clear. The key to environmental quality and commercial via- achieving environmentally compatible bility (Pigram and Wahab, 1997). forms of tourism and, ultimately, a sustain- Unfortunately, the tourism–environment able tourist industry rests on recognition by relationship is very often expressed in terms the public sector of the need for environ- of opposing alternatives – either protecting mentally sensitive policies and planning, the environment for tourism or protecting and a positive response by private sector the environment from tourism. However, interests to the sustainability imperative. 378 John J. Pigram

Increasing environmental awareness glob- reported to the Globe 92 International Con- ally has contributed to progress toward ference on Business and the environment environmentally compatible tourism. At (Hawkes and Williams, 1993). The tourism different levels the tourism industry has industry appears to be accepting that future reacted by entering into partnership with prosperity relies heavily on the mainte- environmental groups, and has consulted nance of the environmental qualities on effectively with host communities and which it depends. Moreover, in a more resource management agencies to support environmentally aware world, green tour- conservation objectives. Strategies and ism not only offers new experiences and activities range in size, as do the mecha- opportunities, but makes good economic nisms utilized. sense in terms of reduced waste and lower In some instances, sustainable tourism operating costs (Pigram, 1996). At the same objectives are being integrated into develop- time, the trend toward more sustainable ment plans and proposals and promoted by modes of operation has serious implications national and international tourism organiza- for those elements in the tourism industry, tions. One example, at the international which are slow to respond to the expecta- scale, is the Green Globe Scheme sponsored tions of a ‘greener’ clientele or to satisfy a by the World Travel and Tourism Council as more demanding regulatory regime. a vehicle to convince tourist firms to ‘green’ their operations (Turner, 1995). The scheme emphasizes the link between good environ- The Greening of Australian Tourism mental practice and good business and offers advice on tailoring corporate practice In common with other parts of the indus- to environmental considerations. trialized world, concern has been expressed A comparable undertaking at the global about environmental problems associated level is the International Hotels Environ- with tourism in Australia, and pressure is mental Initiative. Launched in 1992, the aim growing to ensure sustainable forms of tour- is to increase environmental awareness and ism development (Ding and Pigram, 1995). to encourage greater environmental sensi- Australian tourism developers and opera- tivity among hotel management and staff. tors are demonstrating increased The group comprises leading world hotel understanding of environmental concerns chains and has produced a joint operations and the Tourism Council of Australia has manual, Environmental Management for drawn up an Environmental Code of Prac- Hotels: The Industry Guide to Best Practice tice in consultation with conservation (International Hotels Environmental Initia- groups, industry bodies and planning tive, 1992). The manual is intended as a authorities (Tourism Council of Australia, voluntary code of conduct and offers a use- 1998). The Code represents strong endorse- ful reference and guide for upgrading ment of sustainable forms of development environmental procedures in areas such as by the Australian tourism industry. waste management, energy consumption, Further evidence of the trend toward sup- noise and congestion, purchasing policy port for sustainable tourism development in and staff training. Large hotel corporations the Australian coastal zone is given by the in Asia and the Pacific have endorsed the Federal Government publication, Coastal initiative and several have produced in- Tourism: A Manual for Sustainable Devel- house Codes of Practice. Elsewhere, other opment (Department of Industry, Science tourism companies and groups such as Brit- and Tourism, 1997). The manual reiterates ish Airways and Canadian Pacific Hotels the interdependent dimensions of sustain- and Resorts have undertaken the develop- ability – economic, environmental and ment of comparable environmental social – and the relevance to sustainable programmes. tourism development (noted earlier) of the These moves reflect the beginnings of a linkages between them. global trend toward the ‘greening’ of tourism The manual offers a useful checklist for Tourism and Sustainability 379

sustainable tourism identifying the follow- prises. When linked to environmental ing features: performance, best practice environmental management represents the most effective ● Use of nonrenewable resources at a rate means of achieving sustainable growth in a in keeping with the availability of competitive world (Pigram, 1996). renewable substitutes; Among the perceived benefits to be ● Use of renewable resources in keeping gained from the application of best practice with replenishment rates; to environmental management are: ● Minimization of energy, water and other inputs; ● Cost savings through greater reliance on ● Release of pollutants at a rate in keeping recycled materials, elimination of with the capacity of the biosphere to wasteful procedures, and avoidance or process them; minimization of legal liabilities for brea- ● Avoidance of irreversible impact on bio- ches of regulations. diversity and ecosystems and ecological ● Enhancement of the public image processes; resulting from improved environmental ● Maintenance of a diverse range of recre- performance and demonstrated sound ational and cultural opportunities for corporate citizenship. present and future generations; ● Increased environmental awareness ● Ensuring benefit to local and regional within and beyond the workplace. communities socially and economic- ● Introduction of innovations and contin- ally; uous improvement in operational ● Demonstration of economic viability standards and environmental manage- without affecting the capacity of other ment. sectors of the economy to achieve sus- (Adapted from Cornwall and Burns, tainability. 1992.) (Adapted from Department of Industry, Science and Tourism, 1997, p. 4.) The implication is that progress toward sustainability is mutually beneficial – both The switch to sustainable modes of for the tourist enterprise and the tourist. operation in tourism in Australia and else- Overall, environmental excellence, fostered where appears to be gaining momentum, by enlightened management practices especially at the larger scale corporate levels marked by new, cleaner, technologies and of the tourism industry, and with it, an emphasis on resource conservation, recy- increased preparedness to apply the princi- cling and reuse, presents a cleaner, greener ples of best practice environmental image, to a more discerning market, with management to tourism development. clear potential for enhanced economic viability. Key elements in a successful move Best Practice Environmental toward best practice environmental man- Management and Tourism – An agement are a proactive strategy or action Emerging Trend plan which recognizes the link between environmental excellence and competitive- There is no clearly established pathway to ness, and adoption of an environmentally sustainable tourism but the concept of best inclusive system of organization incorporat- practice environmental management offers ing environmental indicators and audit a meaningful framework within which to processes. achieve environmental excellence in the Public sector measures representing industry. Put simply, best practice denotes essential steps toward achieving this objec- the preferred approach to managing an tive include: organization or business relative to accepted levels of achievement in comparable enter- ● Survey of the tourism industry at vary- 380 John J. Pigram

ing scales of operation to establish expense and long-term commitment of present levels of awareness of the roles resources involved in lifting environmental of environmental management, and to performance inevitably mean that the adop- document measures currently in place. tion of best practice environmental ● Consultation with the tourism sector – management can be ‘ . . . a minority activity, operators, agency professionals and confined, in the main, to a few large firms’ tourists – to identify recognized features (Goodall, 1995, p. 34). The implication is of best practice environmental manage- that the nature and structure of the industry ment, the most promising areas of act as barriers to the adoption of best man- opportunity, and the benefits to be agement practices. derived from their adoption. Foremost among these barriers is the ● Agreement on effective courses of wide diversity in the scale of operations and action most likely to contribute to the prevalence of small independent com- increasing environmental awareness, ponents. Goodall describes the tourism and to preparedness to apply enhanced industry as: ‘a fragmented, competitive, environmental management in tourist high-risk industry, dominated in tourist des- operations. tinations by many, small, family-operated ● Identification of barriers and constraints firms’ (Goodall, 1995, p. 35). The challenge to adoption of best practice environ- is to offset these impediments and achieve mental management in the tourism something of a ‘trickle down’ effect in the sector, including personal, sociocul- spread of environmental best practice to all tural, economic and structural levels of tourism activity (Pigram, 1996). impediments. Collaboration between the various sec- ● Identification of change agents impor- tors of the tourism industry in a more tant in facilitating the adoption process, relaxed regulatory regime is the preferred including peer pressure, supplier pres- option in pursuing higher environmental sure, industry organizations, incentives standards. Under such a regime, a more fea- and awards, regulations and sanctions, sible, practical, and effective alternative to education and communication, and best practice environmental management, is market forces emerging through guest an approach which seeks to eliminate worst preference for superior environmental practice (Pigram, 1996). Removing manage- performance. ment practices that are not environmentally ● Nomination of benchmark tourist enter- acceptable would make an immediate prises and practices and benchmarking contribution to improved industry mechanisms to compare environmental performance. In the short term, such a move performance. would be likely to receive more ready accep- ● Establishment of targets in space and tance and endorsement as the ‘best time and priorities for implementation practicable environmental option’ (Goodall, of best practice environmental manage- 1995, p. 36). By implication, tourist devel- ment. opers and operators not prepared to adopt a ● Development of monitoring and feed- more enlightened approach to tourism– back mechanisms and the application of environment interaction are likely to be performance indicators to audit prog- forced to conform by combined pressure ress toward achievement of targets. from industry organizations, market forces, regulatory agencies and, ultimately, puni- The expectation that tourism establish- tive tax measures. ments will be developed and managed at the highest standards of environmental excellence needs to be tempered by knowledge Trends and Implications that significant impediments stand in the way of rapid and widespread enhancement A trend toward sustainable development of of environmental standards. The expertise, the Earth’s resources has been gathering Tourism and Sustainability 381

strength in recent decades, reflecting grow- practice of environmentally sustainable ing concern for maintenance of modes of operation reach all levels and environmental quality. Such concern is of scales of tourism activity. Progress toward direct relevance to tourism where protection sustainable tourism development has been and enhancement of the resource base, and most marked among larger firms and orga- an enriched social and cultural environ- nized hotel and accommodation groups. ment, are fundamental considerations. The challenge is to raise the levels of con- Evidence is emerging in the tourism indus- cern for the environment, and for try of heightened awareness of the need for environmental best practice, among the more sustainable modes of operation, and a smaller more numerous tourism establish- commitment to practice environmental ments, and the service and ancillary management. components of the industry. What is The trend toward sustainable tourism required is a partnership between industry development, while variable and frag- and government so that barriers to progress mented, can be seen as sequential and can be identified, and offset or removed. incremental. As the initial focus in the Change agents in the form of sanctions and 1970s on ecologically sustainable develop- awards for recognition of enhanced environment broadened to include sociocultural mental performance may be effective, when and economic considerations, the relevance coupled with benchmarking and perform- to tourism gained increasing acceptance. ance indicators, as forms of peer pressure to Recognition by significant elements in the achieve. Sanctions, such as denial of accred- tourism industry of an obligation for itation with industry organizations, and improved environmental performance withdrawal of supplies and services for non- ensued, in response to the expectations of a compliance, can help convince even small more discerning community and clientele, operators to lift their environmental per- and clear endorsement by public agencies of formance. the sustainability imperative. The implication for the tourist market is Although the strength and continuity of that a more environmentally aware clientele commitment by the tourism industry to can be expected to be more discerning and environmental sustainability have been critical in the selection of accommodation questioned, the need to maintain and rein- and tourist facilities based on demonstrated force the trend toward sustainable forms of sound environmental credentials. Already, development is undeniable. This, in turn, tourist brochures are displaying symbols has implications for all facets of tourism – denoting levels of environmental excellence policy makers, the industry itself, tourists and sustainable management. Signage and and affected communities, and tourism advertising literature also reflect an aware- globally. ness of the growing importance and The implication for policy makers is for influence of the ‘green’ market in promoting even more explicit support, from all levels the use of environmentally friendly prod- of government, for sustainable tourism and ucts and materials. Tourists also have an for the environmental management proces- important role to play in demonstrating ses which contribute to it. Agreement on awareness of the environmental implica- standards and environmental codes of prac- tions of their own activities, as well as in tice, encouragement of environmental demanding high environmental standards audits, and education and awareness pro- from facilities and operations, and in coop- grammes, are all part of the role of the public erating as compatible partners in the sector in striking a balance between regula- interests of sustainable tourism develop- tion and self-regulation to reinforce the ment. trend toward sustainable tourism develop- The implication for tourist destinations ment. is that residential communities exposed to The implication for the tourism industry the seasonal influx of visitors can be expec- is for action to ensure that the message and ted to be more demanding in their insistence 382 John J. Pigram

on observation of acceptable environmental be instrumental in ensuring support for sus- criteria in the type, location, design and tainable tourism development worldwide. operation of tourism developments. This implies, in turn, a stricter approval regime, Conclusion and the possibility of withholding or delay- Tourism is assuming an increasingly promi- ing approval where the prospect of nent place in the global economy, and with long-term sustainability and compatibility this comes the expectation that tourism with community norms are in doubt. Ulti- establishments will be developed and man- mately, people are the key to sustainable aged at the highest standards of tourism development. Through the political environmental excellence. No longer should process, most communities can demand tourism be seen as a threat to the environ- higher standards of tourism development ment, but as an instrument of positive and operation, and by working with the environmental change. The pursuit of sus- tourism sector, can help ensure that stan- tainable forms of tourism can serve as a dards are maintained. At the same time, the powerful incentive toward protection and attitude of local residents to tourism and enhancement of the biophysical resource tourists may need to change from indiffer- base of tourism regions, along with an enri- ence or intolerance, to one of welcoming ched social environment and more effective visitors to share the environment they, as care and concern for culture and heritage. stewards, value and enjoy. As with welcom- Harnessing the potential for environmental ing house guests, the attitude should be betterment in this way presents an opportu- ‘Ours to Share’. nity to view sustainable tourism Globally, the trend in the industrialized development from a different perspective. world toward increased concern for sustain- The goal of sustainability implies the provi- able forms of tourism, has implications for sion of harmonious, compatible, and tourism projects in developing regions. satisfying settings for today’s tourists, while Tourism development in the Third World ensuring at least the same quality experi- can expect to be asked to conform to higher ences for the tourists of tomorrow. In a (than current) environmental standards, and rapidly changing world, this represents a to satisfy specific expectations regarding significant challenge and calls for a holistic economic benefits and social and cultural approach with a commitment from all stake- compatibility. Moreover, as globalization holders – the public and private sector, the gathers pace, transnational linkages across tourists, and the communities concerned. the tourism industry, along with interna- Such a commitment will do much to offset tional bodies such as the World Trade the scepticism regarding the prospect of ach- Organization and Green Globe, are likely to ieving tourism development sustainably. 35 Citizen Participation Trends and their Educational Implications for Natural Resource Professionals

Dennis B. Propst, J. Douglas Wellman, Henry Campa III and Maureen H. McDonough

Background and Purpose 1993, p. 341). Several authors have outlined a new role for natural resource adminis- Participation and volunteerism have long trators and other professionals as characterized American culture (deToque- implementers of fair and responsive deci- ville, 1945; Langton, 1978). Recent trends in sion making (Shannon, 1987; Wellman and various institutions reflect these character- Tipple, 1989). This role redefinition expli- istics, especially the desire of citizens to citly acknowledges that public admini- participate in important decisions that affect strators play an important role in the process them. For example, the medical profession of citizen participation. They bridge the gap has witnessed the movement from a between the organization(s) involved and physician-centred to an integrated patient– various publics (King et al., 1998). Further- doctor system of health care where more, Fischer (1993) claims that for ‘wicked’ individuals share in the responsibility for problems, such as the siting of toxic waste their own health (Ferguson, 1987; Smith, dumps, collaborative citizen–expert inquiry 1996; Cleary and Edgman-Levitan, 1997). is necessary to finding solutions. Another illustration of the trend toward A major barrier to public participation is citizen participation in decision making is a administrators’ lack of confidence regarding redefinition of the role of public administra- the competence and decision making ability tion to one of enhancing representation of groups of laypersons (Doble and Richard- (Wamsley, 1990). This new role envisions ‘a son, 1992). This lack of confidence has been public service that remains subordinate to referred to as the ‘assumption of lack of other actors (the President, Congress and the competence’ (Kaplan, 1995, p. 64) and the judiciary) in the governance process, but ‘cult of expertise’ (Brunson, 1992, p. 293). acts on behalf of the citizenry in a vigorous, Despite this scepticism of some adminis- autonomous way’ by focusing on the agency trators, there is evidence that individuals as a ‘special citizen’ standing in the place of who lack knowledge of technical scientific other citizens, acting for them ‘but always issues: consciously responsible to them and acting by their authority’ (Wellman and Tipple, ● can quickly learn about their critical © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 383 384 Dennis B. Propst et al.

features and choose policy options sim- Nature and Extent of the Trend in ilar to those chosen by scientists Citizen Participation (Ferguson, 1987; Doble and Richardson, 1992); Participation has become a buzzword in ● are likely to ask the right questions and many fields, yet there is no agreement on find novel solutions (Kaplan and what behaviours or activities are meant by Kaplan, 1982); and the term. For example, McDonough and ● are healthier and more satisfied than Wheeler state that definitions of participa- their counterparts in purely top-down tion in international development projects situations (Kaplan et al., 1996). vary along a spectrum anchored at one end In addition, Fortmann’s (1990) study of a by provision of labor for project community protest regarding a timber har- implementation and at the other by projects vesting plan in California concluded that where local communities control all project local protestors, contrary to agency percep- features from objectives to outcomes (McDonough and Wheeler, 1998) tions, were well informed about the specifics of the issue. The key questions we address are: What Along with definitions, the goals of par- should natural resources educators do with ticipation also vary. Participation can be the knowledge that the role of public admin- either a means to achieve governmental or istration is changing toward fostering institutional goals or an end in itself (Nagel, collaborative decision making and that cit- 1992; Dudley, 1993; Lane, 1995). If partici- izens can learn technical information and pation entails a method of accomplishing make effective and novel decisions? How externally determined goals (e.g. labour as a can the learning environment in higher edu- cost-saving strategy), then it is a means cation be altered to demonstrate the value of rather than an end (McDonough and citizen participation while simultaneously Wheeler, 1998). giving current and future natural resource When empowerment and capacity build- professionals the knowledge and skills they ing are explicit project goals, participation is will need to embrace increasing societal an end (Setty 1994; Lane 1995). Participa- demands for more voice? Our purpose is to tion also can be viewed as a ‘hybrid reality’, challenge those outdoor recreation and nat- that often includes both means and ends no ural resource educators who have not matter what the original intent (Nagel, already done so, to change the learning envi- 1992). The intent may be that communities ronment so that participatory processes and or individuals will simply provide labour diverse natural resource values become part for projects. Along the way, however, facili- of the mindset of future professionals. Our tators may find that communities or objectives in this chapter are: individuals, once consulted, insist on expressing their views (Nagel, 1992). Con- versely, those who aim for community ● to document the nature and extent of the empowerment may find that participation trend toward more citizen participation has some practical benefits in accomplish- in outdoor recreation and other natural ing projects efficiently. resource management and planning Another way to define participation is activities; according to specific behaviours that reflect ● to present recommendations for chang- the degree of citizen power over decision ing the traditional educational making (Wandersman, 1979; Wandersman paradigm to accommodate the trend. et al., 1987). These behaviours can be arrayed along a spectrum according to the extent of citizen power over decision making about natural resources. The spectrum ranges from participation in outdoor recrea- Citizen Participation Trends 385

tion activities at one end (low power) to Independent of increases in various policy making in planning and management forms of outdoor recreation is the growth in at the other (high power). In between are participatory democracy. Participation of such behaviours as volunteerism, provision the governed in their government is, in the- of unsolicited feedback, provision of soli- ory, the cornerstone of democracy – a cited feedback and a host of other revered idea that is vigorously applauded by behaviours. At any point along this spec- virtually everyone (Arnstein, 1977). This trum, the goal of participation could be implies more than just voting on election either a means or an end. day. Public participation may serve human- Outdoor recreation is broadly defined as itarian purposes, such as assisting in Red the voluntary use, understanding, and/or Cross functions or helping to raise money appreciation of natural resources during dis- for books for local schools. Participation cretionary time (Ford and Blanchard, 1985). may also involve acts of self-interest, such as As such, it includes a wide range of active the protest activities of NIMBY (‘Not In My (e.g. cross-country skiing, gardening, golf- Backyard’) groups (Kraft and Clary, 1991). ing) and passive (e.g. a quiet walk, sitting by The term ‘participatory democracy’ is a pond, viewing birds out of one’s window) broad and goes by different names in various behaviours. Voluntary participation in natu- fields and disciplines. In the natural resour- ral resource management and planning ces field, terms like ‘local level activities includes tasks in which individ- management’, ‘participatory management’, uals freely and willingly volunteer their and ‘co-management’ are used to reflect the time to provide skills and labour, under the trend toward greater user participation in direction of others (e.g. picking up litter, natural resource management (McCay and interpretation, trail maintenance). Solicited Jentoft, 1996). Whatever the terminology, feedback is the type of public input that the underlying premise is that, more and natural resource agencies obtain most fre- more, people expect to be able to have a say quently, most often in the form of public in governmental decisions that affect them. hearings or requests for written comments People want experts to perform certain roles on draft plans. Feedback solicited in this and functions but not necessarily be the manner may or may not have any direct ones to prescribe a certain path or regimen. influence on decision making. Unsolicited Instead citizens, often acting in their own feedback may appear in a variety of oral or self-interest (Perloff, 1987), want the experts written communication forms and requires to provide choices and knowledge of the voluntary effort by the individual. A highly consequences of those choices, but to leave committed level of unsolicited feedback is the actual choice up to the client or partici- civil disobedience (Kimmins, 1992; Fischer, pant. If experts and clients disagree, 1993). Policy making authority involves the negotiation and resolution of differences are highest level of power and might involve necessary. Once the choice is made, individ- such activities as serving on a formal board, uals then rely on the experts to do what commission or task force. experts do best – apply their technical skills Empirical evidence of trends in various and knowledge to help groups and individ- participatory behaviours across the power uals attain their chosen outcomes (Propst spectrum is weak. The exception is outdoor and McDonough, 1999). In the natural recreation participation, which has been resources professions, this translates into fairly well documented. For example, one increasing demands to participate in natural nationwide survey found that nearly 95% of resource decision making processes that tra- all Americans reported engaging in some ditionally were considered the exclusive form of outdoor recreation and that overall realm of the experts: planning and manage- growth in outdoor recreation participation ment activities. Examples of the trend away (13.4%) exceeded the rate of population from authoritarian natural resource manage- expansion between 1982 and 1994 (Cordell ment models include: grassroots environ- et al., 1995). mentalism (Freudenberg and Steinsapir, 386 Dennis B. Propst et al.

1992) and ecosystem management (Maser, participation in the natural resources field is 1994; McDonough et al., 1997). the aversion to the type of government per- Another example of the trend is ‘cooper- ceived to be distant from the populace it ative resource management’, which is serves. One result of this aversion is a cit- exemplified by such activities as: izenry, with diminished trust in government, which in turn is demanding ● governance of a US national park by a more accountability from public officials board of trustees composed primarily of (Parr and Gates, 1989). Another result is the private citizens (Lins, 1991); changing role of public administration ● joint management of communal wildlife (Wondolleck, 1988; Wellman and Tipple, areas in Zimbabwe (Saunier and Meg- 1989; Feeny et al., 1990; Fischer, 1993; anck, 1995); and Wellman and Tipple, 1993; Roberts, 1997; ● co-management boards consisting of King et al., 1998). The trend toward decentr- government officials and aboriginal alization, deregulation, greater local people regarding the allocation of fish- participation in resource management, ing and hunting rights in Canada ‘co-management’, and ‘participatory man- (Peterson and Johnson, 1995). agement’ reflects dissatisfaction with purely top-down, autocratic and bureaucratic mod- A number of additional international els of natural resource management (McCay examples have been documented (West and and Jentoft, 1996). Brechin, 1991; McNeely, 1995; Furze et al., 1996; McCay and Jentoft, 1996), but not all would be considered cooperative resource Educational Implications of the management in the sense that participants Citizen Participation Trend do not always have decision making authority. The first part of this chapter was devoted to The evidence and examples of the trend documenting the trend toward more toward more citizen participation in govern- demand by citizens to have an active role in ance and management point to one decision making in natural resources, out- conclusion: the traditional role of the door recreation and related areas. In this resource manager as an omniscient, auto- part of the chapter, the discussion revolves cratic expert is being challenged in around trying to answer the question, ‘so conjunction with challenges to authority- what?’ What are the educational and pro- based leadership models across society fessional development implications of the (Heifitz and Sinder, 1988; Sirmon, 1993). trend in citizen participation? The major There are at least two fundamental reasons implication is the need to change the learn- for these challenges. ing environment for future outdoor First, the ability to participate in deci- recreation and other natural resources pro- sions that affect one’s life – to exercise fessionals. choice based on the knowledge of the con- How well are we preparing our students sequences of various alternatives – is critical (undergraduates, professionally oriented to human psychological health and func- graduate students and working professionals tioning (Rodin, 1986; Litt, 1988; seeking continuing education) to work with Zimmerman and Rappaport, 1988). This members of the public in planning and man- fundamental human need for a sense of con- aging our outdoor recreation estate? We trol and the ability to participate can be seen believe there is ample room for improvement. at the macro level in the worldwide move- Students leave our programmes reasonably ment toward more democratic forms of well versed in such things as soils, vegeta- governance and at the micro level in such tion, recreation programming and facilities aspects of human behaviour as outdoor management but less well prepared for the recreation (Propst and Kurtz, 1989). ‘wicked’ problems inherent in working with The second reason for increases in public the public (Allen and Gould, 1986). Citizen Participation Trends 387

Many things could be done to prepare our This conceptualization responds to the graduates better for working with citizens in reality of a changing and knowledge- the management of natural resources and intensive society. But it also draws directly outdoor recreation areas, and faculties on those traditions of excellence the academy has long described as ‘liberal around the country are experimenting with learning,’ ways of approaching knowledge creative approaches. For example, one of the that expand imaginative horizons, develop coauthors uses ‘structured controversy’ intellectual powers and judgment, and based on realistic natural resource scenarios instill in students the capacity and resolve (Campa et al., 1996). Before having her stu- to exercise leadership and responsibility in dents try to determine the best ways to work multiple spheres of life, both societal and with private woodlot owners, another of the vocational. This conceptualization further coauthors takes her communications class includes new ways of talking about the to retirement homes and primary schools to content of a liberal education and new talk with senior citizens and children about approaches for teaching and learning (Schneider and Shoenberg, 1998, p. 7) how they value trees. Increasingly, teaching which involves students in working directly From their survey of the myriad reform with the various publics or which simulates initiatives in the US and around the world, participatory democracy is being reported in Schneider and Shoenberg distil the follow- natural resource journals and presented at ing pattern of learning goals: meetings such as the Biennial Conference on University Education in Natural Resources ● Acquiring intellectual skills or capaci- (Heister, 1998). ties such as communications skills, Most basic, however, is to reconsider the quantitative skills, applied ethics and student learning outcomes we are seeking, conﬂict resolution; not only within natural resources recreation ● Understanding multiple modes of programmes but also in the totality of the inquiry and approaches to knowledge, student’s educational experience. To pre- effectively supplanting the traditional pare students to respond constructively to distribution requirements with guided the growing public demands for involve- practice in diverse epistemologies; ment in planning and management, we need ● Developing societal, civic and global to ﬁnd ways to complement professional knowledge, with the goal of augmenting training with liberal education. the perspective derived from traditional A recent publication from the American history and ‘Western Civilization’ cour- Association of Colleges and Universities ses with the study of cultures removed provides a compact and useful statement on from the dominant culture by geography ‘liberal learning’ (Schneider and Shoenberg, or differential power; 1998). From the ‘culture wars’ involving the ● Gaining self-knowledge and grounded academy and outside critics, from advances values, an explicit effort to assist stu- in instructional technology, from taxpayer dents to understand the sources of their protests based on the stereotype of the pro- own identity and values as a prelude to fessor as someone interested only in understanding others in our increas- research, lazy about teaching and indifferent ingly diverse population; to students, and from many other sources, a ● Concentration and integration of learn- wealth of new programmes and practices in ing, which seeks to weave together higher education has emerged. According to students’ departmental requirements Schneider and Shoenberg, these innova- and the general education require- tions are beginning to coalesce into a new ments, as a way of adding meaning and conceptual framework that is both contem- value to both. porary and traditional, and this conceptual framework is linked with new approaches to As new learning goals are emerging, so teaching. are new ways of teaching. The traditional ‘presentational approach’ to instruction – 388 Dennis B. Propst et al.

the lecture and the instructor-led discussion others whose experiences and assumptions – features the knowledge and personality of may be very different. Faculties are the professor. In the new pedagogies, the therefore beginning to pay increased learner is the centre of attention, and the role attention to the ‘civic arts’ that lead to an understanding of diversity and to skill in of the instructor shifts towards creating an negotiating difficult differences and environment in which students are moti- building communities that respect and vated and guided in their learning (Barr and acknowledge difference. They are more Tagg, 1995). Among the student-centred insistently involving students in an forms of pedagogy are cooperative/ engagement with diversity and equity collaborative learning, experiential issues both at home and abroad and in learning, service learning, research or learning experiences that help students inquiry-based learning and integrative develop those capacities and learning (e.g. high level, synthesis courses). understandings in morally honest and In all these forms of teaching, students are dialogical ways (Schneider and Shoenberg, 1998, p. 12) actively engaged in constructing their own knowledge, and that process usually This new conception of curriculum and involves working with peers or with indi- pedagogy fits well with the emerging chal- viduals and groups outside the college or lenges of participatory democracy. While university. content mastery will always be important We are not advocating total abandonment for natural resource professionals, it must be of the lecture. Lecturing, done well, can be balanced with the kinds of liberal learning inspirational, can help stretch student spelled out by Schneider and Shoenberg, if understanding beyond the reach of even the our graduates are to work successfully with most productive group process, and can diverse publics. As a price for that liberal help to ensure that all students are starting learning, we must be willing to accept some from the same base of knowledge. Problems reduction in content coverage. However, arise with an over-reliance on lecturing. Not given the rapid obsolescence of much tech- only do passive students learn less well than nical knowledge, we must prepare our active students, but we must recognize that students for a lifetime of learning, anyway. the way we conduct our classes may provide The notion that we can ‘train’ people for powerful models of behaviour. If we present lifetime careers in 4 or 5 years of under- ourselves to our students as omniscient graduate study is a delusion. What we can authorities, expecting passive acceptance of do is help them acquire a command of basic our wisdom, future resource management principles and the capacity to be lifetime professionals will, understandably, treat the learners. These, combined with the under- public in the same way. We know from hard standing of themselves in relation to others experience that this simply will not work; that is implied in liberal education, will the era of ‘Trust us, we’re the experts’ is serve our students well. over. Schneider and Shoenberg (1998) characterize the new conception of curriculum and Toward Revising Natural Resource pedagogy as ‘relational learning’. According Education to this conceptualization, a liberally educated person is one who is able to deal In the first chapter of their book, Campbell responsibly with the growing social plural- and Smith (1997) reproduce the keynote ism of what philosopher Maxine Greene address given by Parker J. Palmer to the 1997 (1988) has called ‘a world lived in common faculty development conference of The Col- with others’: laboration for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning in Bloomington, Minnesota. In Thus colleges and universities must his address, Palmer speaks of educate not in terms of mind alone but also in terms of a life lived in relationships with a movement that is happening all across the Citizen Participation Trends 389

country – a movement toward the renewal To Palmer, learning communities or com- of teaching and learning, a movement that munal learning does not mean assigning cares about students, that cares about the group projects, for such assignments are world, a movement that cares about all the merely technique: they do not get us closer connections that this word ‘community’ to understanding how people learn. He suggests to us (Palmer, 1997, p. 2) argues that students need to know more than today’s information. They need to know Palmer wants the type of community that how to generate new information, check it, allows one’s sense of identity to evolve via critique it, analyse it, draw conclusions and education versus stifling that identity by use it to make better decisions. These are the saying: ‘here’s what you are; here’s what you elements of ‘learning to learn’ that profes- should believe; here’s what you should sionals use daily in their careers. To know, think if you want to be like us’. He argues learn and teach these elements, he proposes that the educational system of Nazi Ger- a mini-model of community development in many failed (i.e. the killers were the higher education, which he illustrates with educated elites of the Third Reich, not illit- the medical school model of McMaster Uni- erate misfits or rabble) because of the versity in Canada. As part of their absence of ‘community, diversity and social curriculum, medical students at McMaster accountability’. Both identity and commu- interact with living patients, rather than nity are essential for natural resources skeletons, trying to understand what is professionals who must engage diverse pub- wrong with the patient by talking to the lics over time. The old ‘training’ paradigm of patient, to each other and to a mentor. They natural resource education, to the extent do other traditional things, too (lectures, lab- that it focuses on indoctrination, stifles both oratory work, etc.), but they always come identity and community. back to the core, the reason they are there – It is our contention that if we can build to be doctors and help people. Despite the connectedness and communities of learning critics, who deplored the loss of content in the classroom, current and future natural coverage, objective test scores at McMaster resource professionals will be inclined to have risen since the new curriculum was build communities of interest (Sirmon, implemented (Palmer, 1997, p. 11). 1993; Sirmon et al., 1993) regarding the Palmer and others who espouse the management of the nation’s natural resour- values of learning communities are talking ces. Such communities are critical to the about much more than isolated assignments success of many outdoor recreation and nat- in individual courses. They are talking ural resource management projects. For about connecting students with technical example, those who are trying to define and content, with each other and with the reality advocate ecosystem management (Maser, in which they will be asked to apply what 1994; Freemuth, 1996; Yaffee, 1996; Grum- they know. A lesson learned at McMaster bine, 1997; Brussard et al., 1998; Clark et al., and at other institutions is that community 1999) make it clear that human communities (not a top-down approach) in higher educa- must be part of the equation and that power tion makes people smarter faster. sharing with communities should be a major Palmer argues that the learning commu- role of natural resource agencies. Grumbine nity approach makes people smarter faster is clear on this point: for two reasons. First, reality is communal. In physics, in the Gaia hypothesis, in eco- Potential partners never come to the table system thinking, we are now being told that equal in power. The trick is to make power everything is connected and in service to a imbalances explicit and to facilitate equitable power sharing as much as larger whole. Secondly, new insights into possible. Because professionals are not epistemology indicate that humans know often trained to either of these tasks, not by distance, or by separating the student partnership work is challenging from the subject, but by a complicated inter- (Grumbine, 1997, p. 44) play between the subjective and the 390 Dennis B. Propst et al.

objective, perception and reality. Thus, it is ican undergraduates are in pre-professional not pedagogy per se that is critical but programmes, this disconnectedness is of understanding the dynamics and the under- great consequence. As Ernest Boyer wrote in pinnings of knowing and learning. The Undergraduate Experience in America Connectedness can be achieved by using (1987): many different methods. Therefore, natural resources profession- In many fields, skills have become ends. als must be asked not to reduce citizens to Scholars are busy sorting, counting, and decoding. We are turning out technicians. their own preconceived, structured, objec- But the crisis of our time relates not to tive ways of thinking and stereotypes, but to technical competence, but to a loss of social interact with and look at them in a new light. and historical perspective, to the disastrous Two potential barriers to connectedness are divorce of competence from conscience . . . fear and inexperience. Students may be And the values professionals bring to their afraid to get deeply connected with their work are every bit as crucial as the subjects (Palmer, 1997, p. 17). They may particularities of the work itself lack experience in communicating with (quoted in Schneider and Shoenberg, 1998, members of the public because of their fears. p. 15) Conversely, they may lack experience because of their fears or because of not being Seek to connect the major subjects to asked to interact directly with potential cli- general education ents. Whatever the case, educators have the Simply adding courses in philosophy, his- job of getting students to face their fears and tory, psychology, sociology and political build their experiences with their subjects. science to natural resources curriculum is In the light of these thoughts about gen- not always feasible. Even if it were feasible, eral education and pedagogy, what can we these additions alone may be meaningless. do to prepare our students better for working Instead, we must try to find ways of making with the public in natural resource and out- the general education requirements contrib- door recreation planning and management? ute meaningfully to our students’ We offer the following suggestions in hopes professional education. Some of this can be of provoking a productive conversation. done relatively easily, by simply guiding our They are not in any particular order. How- students’ thinking in their specialist subject ever, they do reflect the theme of courses. In our assignments, tests and class connectedness and community. discussions, we should seek to reinforce the new learning goals – the multiple ways of Seek connectedness with other disciplines knowing – presented above. We can also Throughout the academy, scholars are work- provide better advice on the choice of gen- ing with others from different disciplines in eral education options. Beyond these steps, their research, but there is little such con- we should consider linked courses, learning nection in the teaching and learning communities (Palmer, 1997) and other enterprise. Historian John Higham offers approaches to making explicit connections this metaphor to describe the situation: between the general education requirements and the majors. Many schools have already the contemporary academy is like a house begun this work through writing across the in which the inhabitants are looking out of curriculum programmes (Bishop and the many open windows gaily chatting with Fulwiler, 1997), so the model of interweav- the neighbors, while the doors between the ing and reinforcing general education rooms stay closed courses in the specialist subject courses is (quoted in Schneider and Shoenberg, 1998, not entirely new. p. 14)

The message this disconnectedness sends Seek connections within the major students is that all they need is in their As Lee Shulman of the Carnegie Foundation degree course. Since two-thirds of all Amer- for the Advancement of Teaching has Citizen Participation Trends 391

argued, we need to begin to make teaching community of learning’ by connecting with ‘community property’. All too often, teach- students and helping students connect with ing is one of the most solitary activities in a their own education. The point is to use professor’s life. Yet, what happens in one whatever teaching technique helps facilitate course in the major subject, including both these connections and gives students oppor- the content and the pedagogy, influences tunities to apply what they learn. A given and is influenced by other courses in the technique is less important than forming major subject. For example, a faculty seek- connections (Campbell and Smith, 1997, p. ing to elicit higher-order thinking from their xii) and making applications. students will have an uphill battle if most of their colleagues are teaching for facts and recognition, and a faculty wishing to move Conclusion toward collaborative learning will struggle to gain student acceptance if everyone else Natural resources affect everything humans in the department is lecturing. do and everything humans do affects natural resources. The problem is that individuals Seek a more integrated curricular are often unaware of human–natural architecture resource interactions and impacts (Kellert and Wilson, 1993; Kellert, 1996). In addi- We need to move away from the distinction tion, as the population urbanizes, between general education and the major, suburbanizes and exurbanizes, people’s atti- from the sort of thinking that the first two tudes toward natural resources become years of college are for liberal education more diverse. While there is little knowl- (breadth) while the last two years are for the edge difference between rural and urban major specialization (depth). Such a model residents in relation to natural resources, robs general education of its meaning for the particularly wildlife, there are significant two-thirds of American college students in differences in how people believe these preprofessional programmes, including resources should be used (Kellert, 1996). most in natural resources and outdoor The challenge for resource managers of the recreation. At the same time, it steals the future is to recognize, acknowledge and bal- richness and human depth of general educa- ance these conflicting values. One of the tion away from the majors. Instead, we coauthors is reminded of his neighbour, an should seek continuously to bring general intelligent, caring man, who spends enor- education goals before students in their mous energy and money reconstructing the major courses. One way to set the stage for a immediate environment surrounding his more integrated curriculum is to begin with ‘cabin’ in the woods to make it look like a first-year seminars. In small classes, stu- manicured, city park rather than something dents can be encouraged to think broadly else – a wildlife sanctuary, or even a pastoral about significant issues to help them dis- landscape. The same coauthor wonders cover how things are connected in the real what his other neighbour, the dairy farmer world and how all the courses in their pro- whose family has farmed the same 600 acres gramme of study, including both the major for several generations, thinks when he sees courses and the general education courses, how the exurbanites have transformed the are valuable to them as professionals. land (the same land that provides him and his family with income) into neat and tidy 5- Avoid becoming slaves to pedagogy and 10-acre rural retreats. How can we pre- Palmer (1997) eloquently presents a mes- pare students to deal with these differences sage that we wish to highlight: The within a context of increased demand for techniques of teaching are necessary but citizen participation? insufficient. We do not advocate becoming One thing that we can expect as educa- so obsessed with pedagogy that teachers for- tors is that students are unfamiliar both with get what is really important: ‘forming a the everyday environment of the natural

392 Dennis B. Propst et al.

resource management professional and also we ask for solutions to these messy prob- with people who live in circumstances with lems from students who themselves may dependencies on natural resources far dif- have only a limited range of experiences ferent from their own. Most of our students with natural resources and diverse citizen are adept at learning the differences between values. We assume that natural resources Quercus rubrum and Q. alba, black ducks and people and democracy can benefit from and mallards, county parks and national active citizen participation in management parks, but they remain insulated from the and planning activities, but, for this assump- realities of such problems as environmental tion to become internalized into the natural degradation, social and environmental resource organizational culture, we have to injustice, competing demands for natural help students build a knowledge base in and resources, and politics (Wellman, 1995). As out of the classroom, a knowledge base that students become immersed in their natural permits discourse and debate that are not resources education, they become even fur- superficial or contrived, but based upon real ther removed from the everyday lives of experiences. In addition, we must give them ordinary Americans where ‘nature’ plays a ‘guided practice’ in the art of democratic significant role but not in ways ordinarily governance. recognized by traditional resource manage- How can educators expect future natural ment (Kaplan, 1995). Trees are central to resource professionals to facilitate ‘direct residential satisfaction in cities (Kaplan and democracy’ (Wellman and Tipple, 1990) or Kaplan, 1989), private gardens are a wide- consider the values and views of various spread and critical component of urban publics if students do not begin to learn how greenspace (Lippard, 1997), and everyday before entering the workforce? One way is experiences with nature, including garden- through the adoption of learning as our pri- ing, birdwatching and strolling through the mary emphasis in teaching versus woods, decrease the stress of cancer patients conveying lots of information (Barr and (Cimprich, 1992). When professors ask for Tagg, 1995; Campbell and Smith, 1997). We reports, term projects and answers to exam have tried to provide concrete examples of questions about some of these tricky, real other ways to answer this question as well. issues and experiences, they often get cau- However, we see these recommendations as tious or naïve answers aimed at pleasing the only the beginning of a conversation that professor and an audience of classmates, needs to take place across the outdoor many of whom share the same points of recreation and natural resources educa- view or have the same misconceptions. tional community. So there are two concurrent trends: an increase in the diversity of priorities for natural resources and a subpopulation of future Acknowledgements natural resource professionals insulated from the really messy issues they will face We wish to thank Nancy Knap and Steven after graduation, one of which happens to be Bentley, graduate students at Michigan State figuring out how to incorporate diverse cit- University, who helped compile and sum- izen values into natural resource marize the literature on citizen participation management and planning activities. Then, in the first section of this chapter. 36 Trends in the Development of Recreation Services for Youth at Risk

Peter A. Witt and John L. Crompton

Introduction 12–17 age groups. While not all children engage in behaviours that put them at risk, The problems created by young people considerable numbers do.1 dropping out of school, using drugs or alco- In 1996, 10% of white, non-Hispanic hol, joining gangs, becoming teenage children lived in poverty, compared with parents, and/or being involved in antisocial 40% of black children and 40% of Hispanic and delinquent acts are widely recognized. children. While not all of the precursors to These behaviours put children ‘at risk’ of undertaking at risk behaviour are under- not growing up to be fully functioning stood, poverty seems to be related to adults, able to earn a living wage and other- increasing the probability of children being wise achieve a fully functioning adulthood. at risk. Children who live in families that are Many agencies – educational, social service, poor are more likely than children in other law enforcement, health, recreational, and families to have difﬁculty in school, to other youth development agencies – are res- become teenage parents and, as adults, to ponding to these issues through targeted earn less and be unemployed more. prevention and intervention strategies. With Children under 17 represent a large seg- the problems created by at-risk youth emerg- ment of the poor population (40%), and ing as a central concern in many children under the age of 6 living in female- communities, there were increasing pres- householder families are particularly at risk sures on the political system to respond of living in poverty. For example, in 1996, throughout the 1990s. Recreation service 59% of these children were living below the providers have been called upon to be part poverty line, compared with only 12% of of the solution. children under 6 years old living in married- couple families. A quarter (24%) of all Youth Issues in the US children lived with only their mothers, 4% lived with their fathers and 4% lived with In 1997, there were 69.5 million children in neither parent. Among the factors contribut- the US below the age of 18, with approx- ing to the increase in children living with imately equal numbers in the 0–5, 6–11 and just one parent is the sharp rise in the per- 1 The statistics in this section are taken from: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics (1998), America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well-being. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Ofﬁce. © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 393 394 Peter A. Witt and John L. Crompton

centage of all births that were to unmarried increase in efforts to reduce these behav- mothers. Between 1980 and 1994, the birth iours through programmes and services rate for unmarried women increased from 29 offered by schools and other public and pri- to 47 per thousand. Although the rate has vate youth serving agencies, including park fallen between 1994 and 1996, it is still at 45 and recreation departments (PARDs). Con- births per thousand. For unmarried women certed efforts by PARDs began in the late between 15 and 17 years old, the rate was 1980s. In a 1993 survey of PARDs, only 28% approximately 32 per thousand, up from 21 of agencies that offered these programmes in 1980. launched them before 1989 (Espericuerta- Smoking cigarettes, and use of alcohol Schultz et al., 1995). Another 31% of and illicit drugs among teenagers have all agencies initiated these programmes increased in the 1990s. These three behav- between 1989 and 1991, while the remain- iours put teenagers at considerable risk. For ing 41% started targeted programmes after example, smoking cigarettes can cause later 1991. The recent expansion in programmes health problems; the use of alcohol is asso- that target at-risk youth has been stimulated ciated with motor vehicle accidents, by several factors, one of which is an injuries, deaths and with problems in school increase in gang membership and the prob- and in the workplace, fighting and crime; lems caused by gangs. For example, the and illicit drugs use has both long-term number of gangs in Fort Worth, Texas, health and social consequences. The per- increased from 77 to 211 between 1987 and centage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders who 1992, while gang membership rose from reported that they smoked cigarettes daily 1316 to 3448. In a national survey, 57% of increased between 1992 and 1997. In 1997, agencies which targeted programmes for at- the percentage of 8th, 10th and 12th graders risk youth indicated that gangs were reporting smoking daily during the previous perceived to be a problem by residents in 30 days was 9, 18 and 25%, respectively. In their jurisdictions. 1997, almost one in three 12th graders, one Besides gangs, many factors contributed in four 10th graders, and more than one in to the emergence of these programmes, but ten 8th graders reported heavy drinking (i.e. four major stimuli seem responsible for the having at least five drinks in a row in the trend toward greater involvement of PARDs previous 2 weeks). The percentage of stu- in providing services seem particularly dents in each of these three grade levels prominent: (i) changed demographics; (ii) reporting illicit drug use increased substan- emergence of negative youth behaviours in tially between 1992 and 1996 – from 14 to smaller communities; (iii) growth in the 26% for 12th graders; from 11 to 23% for number of latchkey children; and (iv) 10th graders; and from 7 to 15% for 8th increased high visibility violent incidents. graders. While the rate at which adolescents are Changing demographics victims of violent crimes was actually less in The demographics of many major cities sig- 1996 than in 1980 (33 versus 38 per 1000), nificantly changed during the 1980s in the young people aged 12–17 are nearly three US. The proportion of African Americans, times more likely than adults to be victims Hispanics and, in some cities, immigrants, of serious violent crimes. In 1996, 25% of increased. In many instances, the age dis- crimes against juveniles involved a juvenile tribution of recent migrants to the inner offender. cities was younger than that of the general population. Typically, inner cities have had high rates of unemployment and a larger Trends Leading to Increases in percentage of families living below the pov- Problematic Youth Behaviours erty line. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, many cities reported substantial Attempts to decrease negative behaviours increases in drug use among young people undertaken by young people has led to an and violent crime committed by and on Trends in the Development of Recreation Services 395

youngsters; school dropout rates acceler- A 1993 NBC Dateline segment about ated, not only among high school students, latchkey children featured a Tucson, Ari- but also among middle school students; and zona, single mother who was forced to leave rates of teenage pregnancy increased. These her children home alone while she worked factors galvanized local residents and polit- at a minimum wage job. Along with con- ical forces to demand solutions to these cerns about gang activity and youth spiralling societal problems. violence, the story spurred the expansion of after-school and summer programme efforts Emergence of negative youth behaviours in which had been initiated in 1989. smaller communities Increased high visibility violent incidents Thought previously to be confined to ‘big The late 1980s witnessed unprecedented cities’, many of these same factors began to levels of violence involving young people, appear in suburban and smaller commu- due in part to increased gang activity and the nities in the late 1980s and early 1990s. highly competitive illegal narcotics market. In both Boulder, Colorado, and Colum- In many communities dramatic events such bus, Mississippi, growing concerns about as drive-by shootings moved the community high poverty levels and unemployment, to implement targeted intervention and pre- high drug use and gang activity, and lack of vention strategies. meaningful activities for Housing Authority Although Cincinnati, Ohio, had already residents led to the development of recrea- established a comprehensive city-wide pro- tion and drug education programmes at gramme to address youth at-risk problems, these sites in 1991. A federal programme in 1993 the city expanded programme sponsored by HUD was initiated that year efforts in the Winton Hills community as a which made the development of these types result of a Federal Bureau of Investigation of programmes possible.2 In Scottsdale, Ari- (FBI) drug raid and a shooting in the neigh- zona, there was a 44% increase in juvenile bourhood. crime between 1989 and 1994. In Fort Worth, Texas, a 1991 drive-by shooting after a Sunday church service led Growth in the number of latchkey children to the mobilization of at-risk youth and gang Problems associated with a lack of adult intervention efforts. Actions had to be more supervision at home were prevalent in com- than putting additional police officers on the munities of all sizes, due to the growing street, because, as the Fort Worth Police number of two-wage-earner families and the Chief stated, ‘We can’t arrest our way out of number of single-parent households. Many social problems’. The mayor of Fort Worth localities have developed after-school and offered a trenchant analogy: ‘I compare it to summer camp programmes in response to smoking and the progress we’ve made with the need for affordable, supervised non- lung cancer. We didn’t get there because we school programmes for children, with some perfected surgery. We got there because we communities also beginning to develop pro- educated people into prevention’ (Witt and grammes for middle and high school Crompton, 1996b). students as well. The case studies of park and recreation Kelso and Longview, Washington, initi- programmes across the US included in Witt ated after-school programmes in 1992 in and Crompton (1996b) indicate that, in most response to concerns about the high number instances, that ‘something’ was the estab- of distress calls received by the police from lishment of a task force whose typical charge children who were ‘home alone’ after was to solicit broad community input to school. enable the identification of all dimensions of

2 Many of the examples in this and the following sections are taken from the case studies presented in Witt and Crompton (1996b). 396 Peter A. Witt and John L. Crompton

the problem and its magnitude, recommend gramme organized by Seattle PARD. It is actions to alleviate the problem, and coor- intended to inspire at-risk youth to take dinate and mobilize community resources an interest in business and entrepre- so these actions could be undertaken efﬁ- neurial self-direction. ciently and effectively. The 1993 national ● Seattle includes speciﬁcations in their survey indicated that 71% of agencies that concession contracts which require targeted at-risk youth had established a concessionaires to hire and train at-risk community-wide task force (Espericuerta- youth. Schultz et al., 1995). ● TEEN TEAMWORKS is a summer Task force action plans usually embraced employment programme for 200 at-risk prevention, designed to lower the number of young people which has been operated children and adolescents engaging in unde- by the Minneapolis (Minnesota) Parks sirable behaviours in the future, and and Recreation Board since 1986. Its intervention, intended to change the atti- mission is to offer a positive park main- tudes, behaviour and ‘life course’ of the tenance work experience, recreational individuals causing problems. For example, opportunities and educational sessions in 1991, the mayor of Cincinnati, Ohio, to unemployed youngsters aged 14–18. formed a Youth Steering Committee, con- ● Midnight basketball in Kansas City, sisting of the directors of a number of Missouri, includes a required educa- municipal departments including the tional component in which participants Recreation Commission, to deal with youth are exposed to opportunities for perso- problems stemming from ‘historical disen- nal development, motivational training, franchisement, poverty, discrimination, entrepreneurial skills, job interviewing inadequate education and skill levels, dam- skills, antidrug and other health pro- aged self-esteem and thwarted aspirations’. grammes. The development of a comprehensive approach to youth services, ‘Back on the The types of services now being offered Block’, was the result (Witt and Crompton, are in some ways reminiscent of those 1996b). which were prominent in the 1950s and 1960s. Jim Colley, Director of the Phoenix (Arizona) Parks, Recreation, and Libraries Implications for the Parks and Department reminds us that during that Recreation Field period

Returning to the roots of the parks and We did mobile recreation centers, school campus lunch time programs, after-school recreation movement programs, teen councils, gang outreach In general, park and recreation agencies are programs and so on, but we then we got beginning to move beyond a ‘fun and games’ away from this type of approach to services philosophy to one in which recreation pro- (Witt and Crompton, 1996b) grammes serve as vehicles for an agency’s objectives for serving at-risk youth (National The Witt and Crompton (1996b) case Recreation and Park Association, 1994; studies also indicate that many agencies are Crompton and Witt, 1997). Thus, Seattle returning to the mission and objectives that (Washington) PARD’s at-risk youth staff do spurred the launching of the public recrea- not talk about recreation. Rather they talk of tion movement in the late 1800s and early the ‘re-creation’ of human lives. In addition, 1900s. Public recreation services emerged in the deﬁnition of what constitutes a recrea- response to negative social conditions in tion programme has been broadened major cities. There was a humanistic con- considerably. cern for the welfare of those who found themselves with few resources, places to ● YO! Hott Shotts is a job training pro- recreate, and/or skills to undertake recrea- Trends in the Development of Recreation Services 397

tional activities. Comments made by Jane people who are already undertaking them. Addams in 1893 are reminiscent of those Presently, PARDs have virtually no role to made by commentators today: play in serving young people who are incarcerated. The social organism has broken down PARD prevention efforts have two com- through large districts of our great cities. ponents: (i) occupying young people in Many of the people living there are very activities such that time and opportunity are poor, the majority of them without leisure not available to undertake risk behaviours, or energy for anything but the gain of and (ii) using the occupied time to involve subsistence. They move often from one youth in constructive activities that can wretched lodging to another. They live for teach the skills necessary to avoid risk the moment side by side, many of them behaviours when not in the PARD setting. without knowledge of each other, without fellowship, without local tradition or The potential for the use and abuse of free- public spirit, without social organization of time during the after-school, evening, any kind. Practically nothing is done to weekend and school holidays has led to remedy this. The people who might do it, increased efforts to find safe and secure who have the social tact and training, the environments for children during these large houses, and the traditions and custom ‘risky periods’. At the same time, there is of hospitality, live in other parts of the city. increased interest in using the occupied The club-houses, libraries, galleries, and time in a planned purposeful manner to semi-public conveniences for social life are decrease the odds that adolescents will also blocks away become involved in risk related behaviours, (Addams, 1893, reprinted 1960, p. 4) or even decrease the amount of risk behaviours they are already undertaking. In response to this situation, Addams established Hull House, a settlement house Incorporating youth development and in Chicago, Illinois, which was in many protective factors perspectives respects the precursor of the modern recrea- Most youth serving agencies are beginning tion centre. Facilities such as the Columbia to take a youth development approach in Neighborhood Center developed in Sunny- their efforts to serve better the needs of vale, California, are reminiscent of Addams’ youth. These approaches include helping philosophy and a reaffirmation of the impor- young people develop the inner resources tance of a holistic approach to serving at-risk and skills they need to cope with pressures youth. that might lead them into unhealthy and antisocial behaviours. Thus, the goal is to Increasing the quantity of services promote and prevent, not to treat or remedi- Recognition of the magnitude of the chal- ate. Prevention of undesirable behaviours is lenge presented by at-risk youth has sparked one outcome of healthy youth development, a renaissance of interest among some PARDs but there are others: the production of self- in providing services for at-risk youth. The reliant, self-confident adults who can take prospect for the immediate future is that an their place as responsible members of soci- increasing number of park and recreation ety (Carnegie Council on Adolescent agencies will be involved in developing ser- Development, 1992). The youth develop- vices in this area, and those already ment emphasizes the positive aspects of involved will increase their efforts. Three how youth serving agencies can work with types of approaches are usually taken to deal young people to contribute to these goals. with youth issues: prevention, intervention Thus, youth development programmes or incarceration. PARDs are probably best apply accepted theory and empirical evi- positioned to provide services that can help dence (indicating that such programmes are prevent risk behaviours from occurring in essential to the healthy development of the first place or to a lesser degree inter- young adolescents) through interventions vening to lessen risk behaviours for young designed to help youth build personal resil- 398 Peter A. Witt and John L. Crompton

ience. A resilient individual has several biological and psychosocial risk factors and/ attributes: social competence; problem- or stressful life events (Public/Private solving skills; autonomy (sense of Ventures, 1994). Protective factors and resil- self-identity and an ability to act independ- ience help at-risk children and adolescents ently and to exert control over his or her avoid behaviours that compromise health environment); and a sense of purpose and of and normal growth, and help them achieve a future. According to the Carnegie Council economic self-sufficiency, positive and on Adolescent Development (1992), pro- responsible family and social relationships, grammes work on three levels: (i) helping and good citizenship (Masten and Garmezy, individual young people build the above 1985; Jessor, 1991). The protective factors four characteristics; (ii) ensuring that there approach shifts attention from identifying is at least one caring, consistent adult in the risks to which children are exposed, to each young person’s life; and (iii) develop- focusing on the protective mechanisms and ing a sense of security in the lives of all processes of negotiating risk situations (Rut- young people. ter, 1990). Conceptualization of protective and Table 36.1 provides a simplified view of resiliency factors have been important to Jessor’s framework for understanding ado- providing an underpinning for youth devel- lescent risk behaviour. Column A delineates opment work. A large literature has focused some of the risk conditions to which young attention on identifying protective factors people may be exposed through their biolog- that can ‘modify, ameliorate, or alter a per- ical background, social environment, son’s response to some environmental personality and behaviour. Through expo- hazard that predisposes them to a malad- sure to these risk factors, the individual is ‘at aptive outcome’ (Rutter, 1985, p. 600). It is risk of’ undertaking one or more risk behav- hoped that these protective factors will help iours (Column C), which in turn can lead to children develop resilience, which has been some of the health or life compromising defined as the ‘capacity for successful adap- outcomes listed in Column D. tation, positive functioning or competence Column B displays the role of protective (Masten et al., 1990; Garmezy, 1993), factors in mediating, insulating and buffer- despite high-risk status, chronic stress or ing against the risk factors (Rutter, 1985, p. following severe trauma’ (Egeland et al., 600). Protective factors include such ele- 1993, p. 517). This approach changes the ments as the youngster knowing there is at paradigm from one that focuses on risks to least one adult who supports their positive which children are exposed, to the mecha- development; the existence of places for nisms that ‘protect’ and enable them to be youth to spend free time in a positive, pro- resilient in the presence of risk, and how to ductive environment; opportunities for teach youth the processes of negotiating risk adolescents to learn how to work together in situations (Rutter, 1990). a group and how to resolve conflicts con- Since a number of young people manage structively; and the opportunity to be to avoid the deviant behaviours exhibited by around other young people who are demon- peers who grew up in the same environ- strating positive conventional behaviour. ment, there has been growing interest in the Developing protective factors is central to ‘protective factors’ that are operative in the promoting positive youth development in lives of ‘resilient’ youth, which enable them risk environments. PARDs clearly have the to avoid the negative consequences of multi- potential to structure and design pro- ple risk environments. Protective factors are grammes to facilitate many of these those facets which impinge on an individ- protective factors as outcomes. A recent ual’s life space that moderate and/or study by Gambone and Arbreton (1997) mitigate the impact of risk on subsequent identified seven programme elements that behaviour and development (Jessor, 1991). PARDs and other youth serving agencies Resiliency has been defined as a pattern of should use as part of a youth development successful adaptation following exposure to approach which focuses on enhancing the Trends in the Development of Recreation Services 399

Table 36.1. The relationship between risk factors, risk behaviour and health/life compromising outcomes.

(D) Health/life (A) (B) (C) compromising Risk factors ☞ Protective factors ☞ Risk behaviours ☞ outcomes

Poverty Interested and caring adults Illicit drug use School failure Illegitimate Neighbourhood resources Drunk driving Legal trouble Opportunity models for deviant School and club Tobacco use Low work skills behaviour involvement Delinquency Unemployability Low perceived life chance High control against Truancy Disease/illness Low self-esteem deviant behaviour Unprotected sex Early childbearing Risk-taking propensity Models for conventional Social isolation Poor school work behaviour Depression/suicide Latchkey situations (due to single- Positive attitudes toward the Lack of motivation parent families or two-wage- future earner families) Value on achievement Ability to work with others Ability to work out conﬂicts Sense of acceptance Church attendance Quality schools Cohesive family

Adapted from the Adolescent Risk Behaviour Model (Jessor, 1991).

resilience of young people. These elements evaluation of a number of evaluation studies were: opportunities that enable young peo- of recreation programmes for at-risk youth. ple to develop a sense of safety; challenging For example, Witt and his students (see and interesting activities; settings and Witt, 1997; Witt and Baker, 1999) have con- experiences that help youngsters develop a ducted evaluations of a number of sense of belonging; social support from programmes for the Austin (Texas) PARD. adults; opportunities for youth input and Using a Protective Factors Scale developed decision making; opportunities for young by Witt et al. (1996), programmes have been people to develop leadership skills; and shown to increase various protective factors opportunities for youngsters to undertake as a result of youngsters participating in volunteer and community service activ- programmes that have used the protective ities. factors model to develop programming ele- Most youth serving agencies are increas- ments. ingly defining their mission in terms of the Although programmes are being devel- potential of their programmes for increasing oped, it is not always clear what future role protective factors. Federal juvenile justice PARDs seek to play in dealing with young programmes are also defining outcomes of people in our communities, including at- their efforts in terms of the ability of pro- risk youth. Most departments appear to grammes to supply the structural elements operate without an underlying theory that necessary to develop these protective fac- would link youth needs with the goals and tors, as well as by the extent to which they objectives of specific programmes. What decrease such risk behaviours as dropping appears to be missing is an understanding of out of school or using drugs. the underlying dynamics of child and ado- The protective factors approach has been lescent development and what park successfully used in the development and recreation services have to contribute to 400 Peter A. Witt and John L. Crompton

these processes. While the benefits move- is a real danger of PARDs being left out of ment spearheaded by the National some of the better financed, politically via- Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) ble, and more highly visible after-school has tried to define a list of potential impacts programme efforts. of PARD programmes, as yet there is no great commitment at the local park and recreation Increasing PARDs understanding of department level to move beyond rhetoric to programming impacts create a theory of practice and action neces- Even if the goals that PARDs are trying to sary for programmatic efforts. achieve are stated, not enough is known about the connection between participation Integrating PARDs and other youth in particular programmes and specific out- development agencies comes. While some information is available PARDs are also having to redefine how they documenting specific programme outcomes fit within the overall system of youth devel- (e.g. Scott et al., 1996), we still do not know opment services provided by other youth enough about the programme elements that serving agencies (e.g. boys’ clubs, girls’ bring about these outcomes. Consequently, clubs, YMCAs, YWCAs). In a similar man- many programmes are planned without ner, in areas such as after-school much evidence that they really work or that programmes, park and recreation agencies the elements that make up a programme are need to become proactive in working out applicable to achieving the desired out- schemes with schools in terms of their comes. respective roles and responsibilities. PARDs are very comfortable with the idea of providing safe and secure environments for Finding additional funding children and youth during the afternoon and Future resources for at-risk youth pro- early evening. However, beyond keeping grammes may come from three sources: kids safe, there is often no clear articulation redirecting resources from other recrea- of the role on the part of PARDs. The con- tional programmes, additional sequence of this lack of role definition is that appropriations from legislative bodies, or nationally and in many communities additional reliance on external partners. PARDs are being left out of the debate, and The first option is, of course, likely to be in many cases the processes that are plan- resisted by the users of programmes from ning service systems to meet the needs of which funds are reallocated, and perhaps children and young people. Many of the also by staff who may perceive a loss of other agencies involved in these processes personal power. Lowering service standards do not recognize PARDs as key players in for existing client groups frequently leads to prevention and intervention efforts. In some political protest. Opposition from staff to cases, such as the movement to increase changes in emphases may occur since the available after-school services, communities changes may threaten an individual’s status, have been trying to link several goals area of expertise or self-confidence. Thus, together, e.g. by using the after-school hours reallocation of resources is likely to occur as an additional period for increasing aca- only when a programme’s life cycle nears its demic performance through the end and when turnover of staff occurs. This involvement of students in enrichment is likely to be a gradual process. activities and tutoring. In addition, in some Reluctance to raise tax rates means that if cases, efforts are being made to use models any additional appropriations are made, developed in the after-school hours as one they are likely to be small. On the other element in an overall plan for school reform. hand, the critical nature of the at-risk youth Whether the goal is increasing academic issues means that some cities have become performance or school reform, in many increasingly willing to earmark additional cases, schools and PARDs do not see these funds for programmes to serve this portion goals as central to their mission. Thus, there of the population.

Trends in the Development of Recreation Services 401

Providing evidence of programme impacts of prosecuting and incarcerating guilty indi- In order to justify tax increases for at-risk viduals associated with them) and youth services to their constituents, legis- document the amount of money saved by lators have to be provided with evidence any drop in crime rates which appear to be that these programmes are effective, hence related to the programme. the current interest in developing evaluation measures which provide this Educating future professionals evidence. Evaluating whether programmes Colleges and university programmes, along have reached their goals is crucial to con- with in-service and continuing education tinued funding. Systematic evaluation efforts sponsored by PARDs must supply procedures, unfortunately, have not been current and future professionals with a instituted by most agencies. greater understanding of youth develop- In a follow-up to the national survey of ment principles and benefits management 120 agencies offering at-risk youth pro- programming techniques (Allen et al., grammes, approximately 30% of the sample 1998a). Professionals who seek to work in indicated that they undertook no evaluation this field need an understanding of their role of their programmes (Witt et al., 1995). The beyond the ‘fun and games’ mentality pres- remaining respondents were categorized ent in many current park and recreation along a continuum of data sophistication. programmes. They need to know when and Thirteen percent of the agencies used how to create partnerships with other youth mainly participation data, the least sophisti- serving agencies, how to undertake mean- cated form of evaluation; approximately ingful programme evaluations, and how to 14% undertook some effort to collect testi- raise funds to support programmes beyond monials or case studies; 19% used surveys the amounts supplied by city governments. to obtain participant, parent or other stake- In essence, park and recreation profession- holders’ input about programme quality or als must be helped to see their outcome; 20% used or planned to use crime responsibilities differently and to have the statistics as an indicator of programme necessary tools to deal with changing job impact; and only 4% had undertaken any responsibilities. form of evaluation utilizing a pre-post study of changes in such indicators as school grades, test scores, leisure related attitudes or behaviour. Concluding Comments These data suggest that increased efforts are needed by recreation and park agencies The human services view of recreation and to build evaluation procedures into their parks as practiced in many urban programme development efforts. Several communities places the recreation and park movement at a crossroads. One path travels examples of this process have been utilized down the narrow road of traditionally with some success. For example, representa- defined, segmented activities based on tives of eight universities and 12 cities have economic values; the other path leads to a joined together to undertake evaluations of multi-disciplinary community services selected programmes for at-risk youth (Witt approach that places recreation, parks and and Crompton, 1996a). In addition, Allen et amenities in the center of the urban policy al. (1998b) have worked with selected cities debate to apply Benefits-Based Management (BBM) (Foley and Pick, 1995, p. 70) principles to programmes for at-risk youth and evaluate the impact of these pro- Many recreation and park agencies are grammes. Both projects have received returning to the roots of the profession by funding from the National Recreation and investing more resources in providing pro- Park Association and the National Recrea- grammes for at-risk children and tion Foundation. Yet to occur are analyses adolescents. The service priorities of that place a cost on each crime (and the costs responsive recreation and park agencies are 402 Peter A. Witt and John L. Crompton

shaped by external forces which they cannot ‘wasteful social spending’ and ‘politically control, but to which they must adapt. In the motivated, nonpriority spending’, recrea- late 1970s and throughout the 1980s, the tion programmes have been embraced as one external political forces directed that an means to address problems associated with agency’s primary concern should be to high-risk youth. Smith (1991) noted the cost increase efficiency or to ‘do more with less’. benefits in her report to the Carnegie Coun- This was accomplished by reducing an cil on Adolescent Development. agency’s tax subsidy, while maintaining or expanding its range of offerings. This resul- The provision of community recreation ted in focusing on target markets with the services is a good investment. Participation ability and willingness to pay prices high in organized recreation provides for the enough to cover most service costs, and constructive use of free time and develops skills for the management of discretionary reducing resources invested in high subsidy time and thereby reduces the need for, and programmes. the costs of, providing other governmental Since the late 1980s, political forces have and social services that deal with the continued to stress reducing tax subsidies, management of anti-social behaviors after but with a priority emphasis ‘to do some- they occur thing about’ juvenile crime and (Smith, 1991, p. ii–iii) delinquency. Explosive, high-profile incidents involving young people have grown Repositioning, however, takes time. exponentially in recent years, and each hor- Agencies that have focused for a decade or rific event directs more political attention to more on middle-class target markets, cannot this issue. Recreation programmes have immediately reorient staff and resources to been viewed by some as a means through serving at-risk young people. Unfortunately which these problems may be addressed. today’s youth, and indeed society, cannot Despite being labelled by some critics as wait. 37 So What? Implications of Trends for Management, Public Policy, Marketing and Planning

William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

This final chapter has three sections. The the majority of the new work force being first consists of 72 trends taken from the women and minority groups. chapters in this book, organized according ● The dominant influence in market sys- to the six topical sections (Parts I–VI). The tem ideology coupled with changing second section discusses the meaning and personal value systems has led to implications of the trends. The third section democratization of travel consumption concludes this chapter, and the book, by (mass tourism). listing 79 of the important trend implica- ● The rise in the number of recreation tions according to the categories of policy, services and programmes for at-risk planning, management and operations. youth has been brought on by: the growth in the number of latchkey children, emergence of negative youth Major Trends Concerning Leisure, behaviour in smaller communities, and Recreation and Tourism the increased visibility of violent incidents involving young people. Society ● Women will continue to form a growing ● A new definition of family continues to population in recreation, which will emerge, brought on by: men and women mean challenges for managers striving delaying age of first marriage, greater for equality and inclusiveness. percentage of children born to unmar- ● Issues addressed in outdoor recreation ried women, and smaller percentage of research continue to evolve to meet divorced women and men remarrying. societal interests and needs. The ‘traditional family’ is becoming less ● Planning is becoming more inclusive of of a model for recreation and tourism the values incorporated into the plan- programming. ning process. ● There is more variety in work situations ● Planning has moved away from simplis- brought on by: the narrowing education tic, carrying-capacity-based paradigms gap between women and men, an to those more focused on management increase in telecommuting options, an of desired social and biophysical con- increasing average working week, and ditions. © CAB International 2000. Trends in Outdoor Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (eds W.C. Gartner and D.W. Lime) 403

404 William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

● Retirees will demand a much richer ● Hunting remains the most popular range of social activities and learning activity pursued on private lands. opportunities than previous senior cit- ● There is increased participation in izens have. technology-driven, adventure activities ● There is increased citizen demand for such as snow skiing/snowboarding, government accountability and for per- canoeing/kayaking, cycling. sonal input into decisions affecting ● There is moderate growth in family- them and their communities. oriented activities such as camping and swimming. Resources ● There is slowing growth resulting in ● Most federal, state and local land agen- decreased participation (compared to cies have recently experienced flat to population growth) in hunting, horse slightly decreasing current dollar budg- riding, and fishing. ets for recreation acquisition and ● Travellers are going in search of exotic, management. unfamiliar, and unpredictable situa- ● Federal land agencies are experiencing tions and destinations. reductions in professional staffing for ● There is an increased legal presence of recreation. casinos in various parts of the world. ● Federal land agencies are increasingly During the last half on the 1990s the relying on volunteers to carry out day- legalization of new casinos has dramat- to-day site maintenance and customer ically slowed down but there has been a interface activities. continuing expansion of other forms of ● Federal land agencies are rapidly casino-style gaming (e.g. slot machines expanding the application of various fee in bars, taverns and arcades). structures. ● There is an increase in positive public ● Federal land having inadequate access attitudes regarding casino gaming as a (due to increased restrictions by adja- legitimate form of entertainment. cent private landowners) will increase. ● The growth trend of number, size and ● Local growth has been focused toward diversity of festivals will continue well athletic fields, ball courts, passive into the 21st century. recreation spaces and parks versus ● Travellers are becoming more interested recreation centres and water sites. in improving themselves intellectually, ● The private sector is expanding its role emotionally and physically, than they as a supplier of outdoor recreation are in goals such as making money, get- goods, services, travel and sites in the ting promoted at work, or acquiring US. clothes, houses and cars. ● Overall, developed recreation oppor- ● There will be continued growth in cul- tunities on public land are increasing. tural tourism demand, stimulated by ● There is an increased move toward higher levels of education and a thirst urban casino development. for knowledge. ● There is an explosion in supply of cul- ● A blurring of the distinction between high tural attractions, which is rapidly and popular culture, and between culture outpacing the growth in demand. and economy, has been fuelling the growing supply of attractions and events. Participation ● Even though individual activity partici- Evaluation and valuation pation levels may not be growing, ● There will be increased biophysical expenditures for these activities may impacts due to recreation (e.g. impacted show substantial increases. trees, damaged vegetation and bare ● Four of the fastest growing activities are ground, exposed and compacted soils, dis- birdwatching, hiking, backpacking and turbed wildlife and contaminated primitive camping. waters). So What? Implications of Trends 405

● Researchers and practitioners are kets has greatly increased the mobility searching for situation-specific tourist of capital allowing tourism develop- typologies to serve specific marketing ment projects to appear throughout the objectives. It is believed that an infinite developing world. number of tourist typologies exist rather ● In effect, the world has become a than one universal mould. smaller place where the line between ● There is an increased demand for tour- domestic and international tourism and ism economic impact information. services becomes blurred. ● Recreation research has evolved from ● There will be new rural tourism market primarily empirically based studies of opportunities caused by a swing away visitor characteristics and use patterns from resort destinations. to more theoretically based studies of ● Travellers are looking for destinations visitor behaviour and the underlying which provide a better balance between meanings of outdoor recreation. humans and nature. ● The research-based literature in outdoor ● More attention has been given to collabo- recreation has been synthesized to rative tourism planning, development develop a number of conceptual frame- and promotion in general, as well as to works that are useful for integrating tourism planning integrated within a multiple studies, and ultimately guid- community or regional planning proc- ing further research and management. ess. ● The synergistic effects of an accumulat- ● Private enterprises are becoming more ing body of research have developed a involved with tourism in developing strong theoretical understanding of a countries. number of important issues in outdoor recreation. Management and operations ● There is increased use of the following ● There is, especially in Europe, substan- economic valuation methods: revealed tial evidence of consolidation occurring preference or actual behaviour meth- among tour operators. ods, contingent valuation, contingent ● Information technology has been used behaviour, combining revealed and to: reduce customer waiting time, meet stated preference methods. customer information needs and ● The empirical estimate of the economic improve accuracy of operations. value of camping, picnicking, motor- ● As methods for gathering public input boating and hiking have increased over and analysing this input improve, a bet- time. ter understanding of the relationship ● Analysis of quantitative impacts tends between visitors, communities and the to take precedence over analysis of qual- resource will emerge. itative impacts. ● There is an increased use of improved ● Since measurement and analyses of monitoring frameworks (LAC, VERP) social impacts is complex, case studies and protocols by resource managers. predominate and theory development This is occurring at a slow rate. has been slow to emerge. ● There will be an increase in the quality ● Social impacts studies tend to adopt a and quantity of low-impact visitor edu- reductionist and linear model, ignoring cation programmes. complex interactions among entities ● Partnerships between public land agen- involved in a development project. cies and private organizations are increasing. Development ● State land agencies are moving toward ● There is an increase in the number of more year-round operation. Lodges on foreign nationals working in recreation/ state land have rapidly increased. tourism enterprises in many countries. ● Destination differences are becoming ● Globalization of world financial mar- far less important than the undeniable 406 William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

pleasures that placeless holidays bring. ● Social impact research tends to focus on Exterior strangeness and differences internal aspects of a system under have been minimized by injecting large study, and often ignores the boundary- amounts of familiarity into foreign set- spanning nature of impacts. tings. ● There are an increasing number of pro- ● The types of planning settings confronted grammes and services offered by public by recreation, tourism and protected area and private agencies for at-risk youth. planners have moved from tame problems to wicked problems and messes. The above trends and their correspond- ● There is a growing linkage between ing implications can be examined from a recreation, tourism and protected area variety of perspectives. Some trends indi- planning and broader social policy cate a decreasing supply of the ‘right’ goals (e.g. preserving our cultural and resources expected to increase in demand. natural heritage, enhancing economic Supply solutions are mixed but presently do opportunity, increasing family cohe- not include much expansion of the public siveness, reduced crime and greater resource base. As will be discussed, the pri- educational opportunity). vate sector will increasingly be expected to ● There is more integration of tourism satisfy unmet demand, in a variety of ways. considerations in national park plan- In the middle section of this chapter we try ning and vice versa. to discuss the various implications of the ● Planning is moving away from trends presented in this book from demand/ standards-based decisions and cookie supply, market fragmentation, information cutter solutions to needs-based resolu- technology, human resources, private sector tions tailored to the needs of individual ascendancy and knowledge acquisition situations. perspectives. ● Information technology is increasingly the basis for new resort products and Demand and supply service. Demand for recreation and tourism experi- ● Information technology may reduce the ences is expected to increase in the coming necessary number of employees. years. In Chapter 1 we discussed projections ● Information technology is being used to for global tourism arrivals. It would not be integrate customer experiences with unexpected to realize annual percentage multiple vendors. increases in the range of 4–5%. Similarly ● Resort Internet sites are increasingly many of the authors in this book project being used to provide guest education. increasing levels of recreationists for the ● Recreation resource management the- foreseeable future. What will these increases ory is moving away from management mean for people who are on the front lines of inputs and outputs toward identify- and expected to deal with the increases? ing, measuring, and managing First we cannot expect the demand to be beneﬁcial outcomes (beneﬁt-based evenly distributed according to the propor- management). tional breakdowns we see today. Tourist ● There is widespread endorsement and arrivals are expected to shift more toward the incorporation of a proactive envi- developing countries except for North ronmental dimension into corporate American destinations, which are expected strategic planning and business man- to gain market shares. As Teigland points agement that is being termed out, travel in Europe by Europeans may sustainable development. already be at a maximum as the number of ● There is a growing commercialization of leisure days available to the general public cultural tourism, through the creation of is not expected to increase. Given the his- commercial cultural tourism products toric importance of holidays to the and the provision, distribution and sale Europeans, the roof may have already been of information on cultural products. reached. Richards also sounds a cautionary So What? Implications of Trends 407

note about the continued focus on heritage/ access is diminishing (Cordell). Public land cultural attractions that are a major part of surrounded by private land is becoming the attraction package for Europe. If, as increasingly harder to access as more private Richards indicates, heritage/cultural attrac- land is posted (a legal statement printed on tions may have reached market saturation, signs ‘No Trespassing’) each year. On avail- additional supply increases will only serve able public land and adjacent service to spread the market thinner and increase communities conflict between user groups competition between destinations heavily and, user groups and management continue invested in this market. to increase. With more people using public Examples of what might be in store for lands, biophysical resources will continue Europe are found in other places in the to decline in quality (Cole). Similarly, com- world. According to Eadington, the 1990s munities in demand by tourists and has seen more casino development, world- recreationists will also experience increas- wide, than at any other time in history. ing levels of conflict between local residents Similar supply increases are recorded for and guests (Van der Stoep). Although not a the festival/event market (Getz). What this- complete response to immediate problems, means for destinations relying on attractions the monitoring of users, resource conditions that may have reached, or be close to reach- and management actions is seen as one way ing, market saturation is that their effective to address problems as they arise (McCool market area will shrink and at some point and Patterson, Anderson et al., Stokowski, will primarily serve only a local market. Hammit and Schneider). Those destinations that retain or gain competitive advantage will invest heavily in Market fragmentation attraction development and rejuvenation. It is clear from the authors that leisure, By doing so a large market area (e.g. in the recreation and tourist markets are becoming case of Las Vegas, the world) will be main- increasingly fragmented. Nickerson and tained but at a substantial investment in Black discuss the importance of women in attraction development with accompanying the labour force and how this may impact infrastructure. This is a high-risk develop- the types of leisure activities demanded by ment strategy which only a few destinations this emerging market power. Henderson will be able to adopt. Other destinations will details some of the changes brought on by have to explore product diversity strategies decades-old policy in the US that made a to increase market area. variety of sports and recreation pursuits As discussed in Chapter 1, shifts in tour- increasingly available to women. Experien- ist arrivals are expected to favour ces gained while growing up should developing countries more than developed. translate into more market power and Keller points to the low input factor costs demands for different experiences. Pollock (e.g. labour, land) in developing countries as and Williams discuss a specific type of one indication of a comparative advantage recreation/tourism activity, health and well- for the developing world. However, input ness, and they emphasize the need to factor costs alone will not be responsible for develop more specialized programmes for any market shift. Developing countries have those seeking this type of experience. extensive problems providing an adequate As the population ages, health services infrastructure for tourism to flourish. Wahab tied to recreation and travel will assume even points out the need for more focused tour- greater importance. Even with mature recrea- ism policy by developing countries if they tion pursuits, such as hunting, market are to capture any of the demand building awareness will be the key to success. Brown for the type of experiences they offer. et al. point out that the numbers of hunters in The supply of land available for recrea- the US has held relatively stable for quite a tional activity has been increasing since the few years. However, though overall numbers 1960s (this is particularly evident in the US, may not be increasing, the same cannot be for example, due to its large land base) but said for the amount of money spent on the 408 William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

activity. Expenditures have gone up substan- examines the consolidation efforts during tially in the last decade as new equipment, the last decade in the European tour market. using new materials, is constantly being Through vertical integration tour companies introduced and marketed by manufacturers. are more able to control product and/or The investment in research to develop these exert pressure on product suppliers in desti- new products is substantially underscoring nation areas. Owning or controlling means again, how difficult it is becoming to com- of transport and destination accommoda- pete for available consumers even when tions should serve to reduce or eliminate long-term projections show rather significant any communication technology that the increases in the market base. Internet brings to the marketplace. However, An increasingly fragmented market also given the increased market fragmentation is underscored by the contribution from that exists, small- or medium-size firms Hutchison. He points out that although the should still be able to cater to a select share US is undergoing a period of substantial of the overall market. diversification in ethnic affiliation, the The demand for individual travel and majority of leisure research continues to recreation products for the discerning cus- focus on the dominant white, majority pop- tomer should increase (Buhalis, Teigland). ulation. Even studies that include different Dann also addresses this issue in a some- ethnic groups usually relegate ethnicity to a what different vein. He argues that the more long list of explanatory variables in a advertising promotes place difference to demand equation, often citing discredited appeal to a certain market, the more it loses theories as the basis for any ensuing discus- its appeal as others copy successful promo- sion of research findings. tional campaigns. On the supply side, research is also expected to assume greater importance. Information technology Mention was made above of the decreasing Advances in information and communica- supply of land available for recreation. tion technology have important Assuming more land will be added to the implications for how products are packaged available supply, the question then becomes and sold. In addition to those mentioned what type of land? Land, unlike money, is above, customer service is expected to not fungible. As we increasingly recognize become much more specialized. Firms that that leisure and tourism markets are becom- adopt technology-driven customer service ing more fragmented, or that we are now programmes are expected to reap the dual able to identify more fragmentation in the outcomes of increasing visitor satisfaction market, the ‘right’ type of land will be more by providing the right products at the right important than simply more land. Under- time while reducing labour requirements for standing the benefits sought by leisure providing the products (Perdue). One of the publics (Anderson et al., Peterson) or tour- major challenges facing the private sector is ists’ preferences (Dolnicar and Mazanec) how to integrate all the various databases should raise the status and importance of available to a leisure provider so the service research and facilitate management and pol- component of the business does not get stal- icy making. led by information overload. Consultants or Market fragmentation is seen as an firms with a proclivity for performing this advantage for small scale businesses that do challenging task should prosper most. not have the capital to reach out to mass markets. Buhalis underscores this as he Human resources argues that small or medium size businesses Many of the trend implications noted above will have the opportunity to compete with translate into a need for better trained per- their larger competitors through the Inter- sonnel. The human resource component net. Communication technology is expected will not be replaced by using communica- to level the playing field for all firms. Yet tion technology but instead be transformed Cavlek sounds a cautionary note as she by it. Employees will have to have computer So What? Implications of Trends 409

savvy and especially in some areas (e.g. services to many different aspects of the travel agencies) reduce emphasis on selling recreation, leisure and tourism markets as product and increase their skills for selling the new millennium dawns. A number of information services. A greater awareness of authors underscore this implication in a customer needs combined with an ability to variety of ways. Cordell and Betz question utilize rapidly changing communication whether the recent rise in user fees for technology will be a requirement for success entrance to public areas will exclude lower in the marketplace. income socioeconomic classes. LaPage sug- Change in the human resource require- gests partnerships as a means to help with ments will not only affect how touristic funding, infrastructure development and products are sold but will affect all levels of educational programming. He suggests that management for the provision of leisure ser- the potential for public/private partnerships vices. Propst et al. and Siehl discuss the to ‘improve stewardship, accountability, trend toward greater citizen participation in consensus building, and the organizational management decisions affecting recreation structure for public land management agen- and natural areas. New teaching methods in cies is just beginning to be realized’. Long university courses, including modelling of and Lane suggest more partnerships to help real life situations, are needed if managers rural areas develop their tourism potential. are going to be able to stay on top of this Pigram suggests that one way to achieve trend. Lifelong learning courses also will be sustainable tourism development is through in demand as managers increasingly rely on the use of partnerships. ‘Green’ policies researchers for data needed for informed should be worked out in collaboration decisions and they must be able to commu- between public policy makers and private nicate the research findings in a way that can sector providers in a more relaxed regula- be absorbed by an ever more vigilant and tory regime. Fletcher and Wanhill suggest discerning public (Hammitt and Schneider). that a worldwide movement to adopt Lifelong learning is a given as society comes market-based systems puts more control to terms with rapidly changing technology, into the hands of private providers with less diversity of user groups in the marketplace policy control being exerted by the public and new types of conflict, some brought on sector. Yet Wahab suggests that the public by the use of new toys that have yet to be sector, in developing countries, must ele- invented. vate tourism policy to a higher level. Keller echoes this sentiment when he argues that Society destinations must become more sophisti- Societal issues will turn more to recreation cated if they are to continue to prosper. and leisure providers for some of the The ascendancy of the private sector as answers. Witt and Crompton, for example, evidenced by more market-based policies focus on one specific area, youth at risk, and (e.g. fee increases and new fees) and a discuss ways in which some of the problems greater role, via partnerships, in the provi- associated with a changing society can be sion of what historically has been under dealt with through targeted leisure program- public sector control (e.g. park products and ming. Nickerson and Black, and also services) has so far been viewed as a good Henderson, deal with societal change and thing. Yet a note of caution needs to be suggest that all aspects of society will need interjected. As previously discussed, con- to recognize the changes taking place and flicts among different user groups, and initiate new ways of dealing with a much between citizens and managers, over deci- more complex, integrated social mix in the sions is expected to increase. Who will recreation/leisure field. decide the outcome of these disagreements? Will it be a public agency empowered to Private sector ascendancy represent all citizens or it will be a private The private sector appears to be the big win- sector-dominated public agency that is more ner for the provision of products and concerned over the bottom line and less over 410 William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

the provision of services to all? Will national mature field. It is not surprising then that so tourism organizations (NTOs) abandon their many authors suggested more research is mandate to deal with environmental and needed to solve some identified problems. sociocultural issues instead focusing their In fact this was the one implication that entire effort on marketing and economic seemed to be almost universal. However, concerns? There have been questions raised new research methods and lines of inquiry about the ‘good’ NTOs do for local people will have to take on even greater importance when what they are promoting may not be if many of the implications discussed in this authentic to local conditions or the desires book are going to be dealt with in an of destination citizens (Dann). Will these informed, professional manner. concerns be addressed by an NTO that considers its mandate one of increasing economic impact to support its private sec- Implications for Management, Public tor partners? These questions and more will Policy, Planning and Marketing be increasingly raised as the private sector assumes more control over the provision of The above discussion addresses some of the all aspects of recreation, leisure and tourism concerns regarding the implications of lei- services in the coming years. sure, recreation, and tourism trends identified by the authors in this book. This Knowledge acquisition last section concludes with a litany of the A number of authors focused on recent various implications found in the book. advances in the acquisition of knowledge. Some have been addressed above, some are As mentioned, Manning argues that recrea- new to the discussion. The following impli- tion research is coming of age as it gains cations are presented randomly in bullet respect and credibility through advances in form with no formal discussion, apart from methods and establishment of theoretical which appears in the preceding section, as base. The same can be said of tourism to what they might mean. As the reader research. In the area of economic impacts, reviews the list, we are confident they will Smith and Erkkila discuss impact method- begin to form in their minds an idea of how ology. Erkkila argues that the ease of desktop many of us will live and play in the next computing and the use of more sophisti- century. If considered in conjunction with cated models makes economic impact the mega-trends discussed in the opening modelling more user friendly for input into chapter (e.g. population growth, increasing the policy and planning process. Smith dis- urbanization, environmental pressure) it cusses recent advances in developing should become clear that we are in for a methods (i.e. satellite accounts) that enable profound change in how we deal with the planners to put tourism economic impact recreation and tourism of tomorrow. estimates on a par with traditional industry sectors. These advances, focusing on eco- Management nomic impact, reinforce the earlier ● Management will have to remain cogni- discussion that the private sector is assum- zant of the benefits visitors attain and do ing more power in the leisure, recreation not attain. and tourism areas. Indeed Van der Stoep ● Management objectives should consider laments the relative absence of sophisti- multiple variables that can be used to cated models for measuring sociocultural identify which leisure opportunities impacts. might have the greatest likelihood of According to Manning, recreation and by aiding visitors in attaining their desired inference tourism research (see also Dolni- beneficial outcomes. car and Mazanec), has come of age. New ● Increased training is needed for employ- conceptually grounded methods, the estab- ees dealing with advanced technology. lishment of a sound theoretical base, and ● As the world population increases, bio- respect for findings are indications of a physical impacts from leisure, So What? Implications of Trends 411

recreation and tourism will grow, neces- ference the more they are employed in sitating a high level of ‘management advertising. professionalism’. ● Growing awareness that NTO literature ● Monitoring of biophysical and social may not be authentic to local people. impacts concerning recreation, leisure ● Number of casinos may shrink market and tourism will have to become a high area, losing their tourism importance. priority. ● Because it will be difficult to elevate an ● Because of shifting leisure use patterns event to an international level (due to and the trend toward increased bio- competition) most will be local or physical and social impact, regional. It will be necessary to cultivate management strategies will have to con- a mix of events for destinations and fine, contain and concentrate use. adopt a diversification strategy. Consid- ● Pressure on the leisure infrastructure eration to spreading events across and for places to recreate will increase. geography and season should be ● There will be more and new types of undertaken. conflicts as interest groups diversify and ● Global communication systems make compete for access rights to participate price transparency common. in activities and experiences incompat- ● Destinations must become more sophis- ible with other recreation groups. ticated with all units in the destinations ● Resource management will become working together. more difficult due to the number and ● Marketing will become more effective diversity of recreational users. and sophisticated. ● Management issues such as equitable ● An implication of the time and mone- access, fees, reservation systems and tary constraints on single working information distribution will be a chal- parents, particularly women in family lenge and will need attention. situations where the father is absent, is ● Domestic and international tourism to that children will have fewer opportun- natural areas will grow, bringing with it ities to participate in outdoor increased management and visitor pres- recreation. sure, but also economic opportunity. ● Due to an increase in women going to ● Greater citizen participation in manage- college and having careers rather than ment of recreation and natural areas children, there will be large increases in means major changes for education of the number of women pursuing outdoor outdoor recreation and other natural recreation and travel opportunities. resource professionals. ● Creation of departments devoted to information technology and guest/ Marketing employee satisfaction should be ● Small to medium-sized businesses can considered. compete on a more equitable level with ● There will be a move away from a focus larger concerns. on inputs and outputs to an emphasis ● More market fragmentation as consu- on beneficial outcomes. mers choose travel experiences they ● Health tourism opens new opportun- want. ities for development as health focus ● More knowledgeable consumers means has generally been ignored in North opportunities for specialized busines- America. ses. ● Globalization will reduce available lei- ● Increasing consolidation means new sure time in Europe. entrants will have a tough time. ● Businesses will have to become more Planning focused on which customers they are ● Certain parts of the distribution system attracting. will change (i.e. travel agency/ ● Promotional differences lose their dif- transform to service). 412 William C. Gartner and David W. Lime

● New methods allow for even more com- ● Mega-trends and short-term processes plex market segmentation analysis. may converge to provide specific place ● Holiday style segmentation can identify instability. Managers need to be flex- segments by motives and combine this ible. with expenditure/length of stay data. ● Globalization will affect the rich versus ● Apart from Las Vegas, which has estab- poor schism, leading to a small group lished itself as a unique world choosing expensive destinations and a attraction, most other casino develop- larger one looking for more value. ments can no longer use tourism ● More packaging of goods and services is development as a major reason for essential to meeting the needs of an legalization. increasingly fragmented market. ● New information technology advances ● Communities will have to integrate and provide for more input in the policy and work well together in the development planning process. and identification of their resources. ● To avoid negative visitor responses, They will also have to work in concert research ‘ . . . determining the relation- with outside interests to create an indus- ships between situational, psychological, try that respects the needs and goals of and managerial conflict conditions and the involved community, as well as those outdoor recreation visitor stress-coping of the external stakeholders. responses is essential to conflict man- ● There needs to be more research and agement’. evaluation directed at programme plan- ● More integrated tourism planning nee- ning and outcomes in order to reach ded, especially in developed countries. specific programme goals. ● The market will grow for rural tourism products. ● New ways of planning for the future and Policy problem management will have to con- ● Urbanization will erode support for tinue to evolve as collaborative some traditional outdoor pursuits such management ‘take precedence over model as hunting. building and scientific analysis . . . ’. ● Vertical integration means consolida- ● Linking planning for recreation, protection in the destinations as well. ted areas, and tourism will require ● Better trained and higher quality staff consideration of the goals, purposes and will be needed to keep the recreation/ functions of these three units to achieve leisure and tourism sectors growing. benefits for all. ● Because budgets across the board for ● Tourism will have to take on more holis- public lands remain flat or shrinking, tic attitudes rather than purely focusing and demand for outdoor recreation is on a narrow functional promotional rising, managing organizations are look- emphasis. ing for ways to increase their financial ● Integration of ideas and methods of sup- resource base. One way for this to be plying goods and services will be an accomplished is through the use of fee important, but difficult, job for plan- programmes. The implication of this is ners. that access may become an issue, partic- ● While dealing with planning methods, ularly for lower economic classes. The agencies will have to move away from major implications, in fact, of all out- simple cookie cutter methods and use door recreation supply as defined by more dynamic paradigms. available lands, be they federal, state, ● New economic estimation and monitor- local or private, is one of decreasing ing methods allow the measurement of a access. variety of impacts including the com- ● NTOs may be promoting difference as a parison of tourism activity to regular counterpoint to tour operators who business cycle. promote sameness. It is in the best inter- So What? Implications of Trends 413

est of some operators to de-emphasize ness to staying well, which may conflict difference as they can then play destina- with the medical services market. tions off against each other. ● There will be an increasing need for ● More private sector control of all aspects quality control in provision of health of the recreation/leisure and tourism tourism services. market will occur. ● New learning goals and ways of teach- ● Developed countries are at a disadvan- ing, such as actual interaction with the tage in terms of labour costs and public and active course work model- recruitment of workers. ling real-life situations, rather than ● Traditional tourism countries are losing passive lectures, are emerging to meet market share and find themselves at a the needs of a profession increasingly disadvantage on price. involved with public participation. ● Future research must be expanded to ● More supply than demand, population consider the activities of other (white more educated and interested, blurring and non-white) ethnic subgroups. lines between high and popular culture, ● Parks are moving toward partnering make developing cultural tourism pol- with other groups to help with funding, icy very difficult. infrastructure, and education, among ● Interest groups build awareness of other things. To respond to this, parks issues that translate into policy actions, ‘should consider restructuring, and forcing public agencies to constantly rethinking their strategies in ways that adjust. will facilitate the growing demand for ● Rapid change is inevitable but policy participation and partnering’. over the years has consistently built up ● More national and provincial/regional the recreation resource. If it is enough or rural tourism policies will be formu- how we treat it and protect it are highly lated. volatile and debatable issues. ● Recreation research will continue to ● Tourism Satellite Accounts (TSAs) rep- grow in importance, acceptance, credi- resent a revolution in how governments bility and status. track and view tourism – most signifi- ● Marketing of recreation will have to cant statistical change to affect how account for a growing number of spe- tourism is viewed. cific demographic subgroups that have ● Need more of a longitudinal focus as specific ideas about recreation. well as broader contextual detail when ● Closer collaboration between researchers designing recreation/tourism research and management and more continuing studies. education of managers is needed to meet ● Social impact assessment models need tomorrow’s fragmented demand for to assess secondary or indirect impacts recreation/tourism products. and cumulative effects over time and ● Closer government–industry linkages space. will take on greater importance for the ● As tourism development increases in provision of services. the developing world there is a need for ● Collaboration between the various sectors inter-ministerial bodies with a full time of the tourism industry in a more relaxed secretariat. regulatory regime is one option in pursu- ● Park and Recreation Departments and ing higher environmental standards. schools need to get together and agree ● More explicit support, from all levels of upon goals, or the Park and Recreation government, for sustainable tourism Departments will be left out of some of and for the environmental management the better . . . after-school programmes. processes which contribute to it. Yet, ● There needs to be more research and governments are getting looser with pri- evaluation directed at programme plan- vate sector control. ning and outcomes in order to reach ● There will be a shift from treating sick- specific programme goals.

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Activities based management (ABM) 198, Blacks 64, 65, 66–68, 71, 127–129, 138, 199–200 393 African American 22, 30, 31, 63, 65, see also African American 67–68, 69, 70, 151, 394 Boating 85, 128 see also Blacks motor 135, 136, 137, 138, 222, 405 American Indian see Native American see also Canoeing; Kayaking; Sailing Americans with Disabilities Act 100 Bureau of Indian Affairs 78 Army Corps of Engineers see US Army Bureau of Land Management (BLM) 10, 76, Corps of Engineers 92, 138, 139, 199, 202, 203, 205, Asian American 63, 65, 71 262, 340, 77, 80, 85, 97, 209 At-risk youth, 393–402, 403, 406 Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (BOR) 93, see also Youth at risk 98 Bureau of Reclamation (BoR) 78, 85, 138, 139 Baby boomers 6, 167, 168, 172, 176, 357 Backpacking 128, 134, 135, 136, 137, 404 Benefits economic 12, 200, 201, 202, 207, 209, Camping 67, 81, 83, 84, 87, 128, 134, 135, 210, 236, 243 138, 207, 222, 259–260, 263, 348, environmental 12, 200, 202, 207, 209, 404, 405 210 developed 85, 135, 136, 137, 207 personal 12, 200, 202–203, 204, 207, primitive 84, 135, 136, 137, 207 208–209, 210, 321 Canoeing 135, 136, 137, 404 social or societal 12, 200, 202, 203, see also Boating 204 Carrying capacity 2, 103, 115–116, Benefits based management (BBM) 197– 124–126, 130, 178, 223, 267, 198, 199–203, 204, 205–208, 269–270, 349 210–211, 219–220, 223, 401, 406 Casinos 155–163, 404, 406, 411 see also Benefits see also Gambling; Gaming Biking see Cycling; Mountain biking Caving 84 Biophysical impacts 12, 115, 257–264, Citizen participation 208, 383–392, 408, 404, 410 411 Birdwatching 84, 135, 136, 137, 392, 237, see also Public input; Public 404 involvement; Public participation see also Wildlife observation Communication technology 8, 10, 11, 408

455 456 Index

Community tourism development 270, catch rates 223 283, 303, 309–321 fresh water 17, 20 Conflict management 12, 310, 41, 347–356 skills development in 22 Contingent valuation method (CVM) 220, sport-fishing 221 221 rights 386 Corps of Engineers see US Army Corps of Forest Service see USDA Forest Service Engineers Crowding 121, 122, 126–127, 130, 198, 262, 269, 353 Gambling 300, 306 Cultural tourism 252, 319, 336, 377, 404, see also Casinos; Gaming 406, 413 Gaming 11, 306, 404 cultural attractions 252 see also Casinos; Gambling definition of 187–188 Gender inclusion 17–27 development of 188–190 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade European tourists 190–193 (GATT) 108, 289, 329 supply of attractions 193 Global Distribution Systems (GDS) 50, 55 Cycling 135, 136, 137, 404 Globalization 6, 46, 47, 106–108, 189–190, equipment 302 193, 273, 279–281, 285, 287–297, trails 81 329, 333, 336, 343, 382, 405, 411, see also Mountain biking 412 Golf and golfing 138, 169, 342, 360, 385 minority participation 67–68 Democratization 39–43, 37, 38, 45, Golf courses 81, 82, 146, 162, 307 188–189, 403 Department of Defense (DOD) 78 Destination Integrated Computerized Health tourism 11, 165–173, 411, 413 Information Reservation Hiking 35, 67, 76, 83, 128, 134, 135, 136, Management System (DICIRM) 59 137, 138, 207, 222, 249, 348, 404, Displacement 127, 309, 311, 313 405 trails 81, 207 Ecofeminism 22 Hispanic 30, 31, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, Economic Research Service (ERS) 301 127–128, 151, 393, 394 Ecotourism 4, 143, 257, 259, 263, 271, 283, Horseback riding 135, 136, 137, 207, 404 336, 344 Hunting 11, 21–22, 35, 67, 80, 83, 84, 86, Endangered Species Act 4, 97, 100, 217 128, 135, 136, 137, 145–154, 222, Experience-based management 352, 386, 404, 407, 412 (EBM) 198–200, 201–202, 203

IMPLAN 238–239, 242, 244 Federal Land Policy and Management Act Information technology 277, 405, 406, 408, (FLPMA) 97 411 Fees 81, 83, 86, 87–88, 89, 113, 130, application of 357–364 139–140, 142, 219, 267, 316, 360, in tourism 47–61 404, 409, 411 entrance 94, 99, 140, 158, 252 programmes 9–10, 79–80, 99, 412 Kayaking 135, 136, 137, 404 see also User fees see also Boating Festivals 11, 79, 175–185, 189, 192, 237, 404 see also Special events Land and Water Conservation Fund Fishing 35, 67, 80, 83, 84, 86, 135, 136, (LWCF) 76, 93, 94, 95, 98, 99 137, 146, 227, 404 Leave-No-Trace (LNT) 262 Index 457

Less developed countries (LDC) 278, Parks Canada 310 279–280, 290 Partnerships 7, 9, 12, 49, 56, 58, 79–80, 81, Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) 116, 86, 99, 158, 168, 183, 197, 305–306, 130, 260, 405 315–317, 332–333, 362, 365–371, 401, 405, 409 Market fragmentation 406, 407–408, 411 Picnicking 134, 135–136, 198, 207, 222, Market ideology 37, 43–44 260, 352, 405 Mountain biking 129, 130 Post-materialism 37, 45 see also Cycling President’s Commission on Americans Outdoors (PCAO) 79, 93, 98, 99–100, 134, 366 National Environmental Policy Act Public input, 36, 99, 117, 118, 211, 268, (NEPA) 96, 100, 265 385, 405 National Forest Management Act see also Citizen participation; Public (NFMA) 97 involvement; Public participation National Outdoor Leadership School Public involvement 9, 96–97, 116–117, (NOLS) 261, 262 141, 206–207, 316, 350, 355 National Outdoor Recreation Supply institution-public involvement 348, Information System (NORSIS) 76– 349–350 77 see also Citizen participation; Public National Park Service (NPS) 10, 78, 85, 92, input; Public participation 97, 114, 116, 123, 124, 138, 139, Public Land Law Review Commission 199, 261, 262, 268, 304, 365 (PLLRC) 97 National Park System 75, 93–94 Public participation 13, 94–95, 96–97, National Private Land Owners Survey 111–112, 119, 197, 211, 268–269, (NPLOS) 77, 83–84 319, 350, 383, 385–386, 413 National Recreation and Park Association see also Citizen participation; Public (NRPA) 205, 400, 401 input; Public involvement National Tourism Administration (NTA) 104, 106, 107, 108 National Tourism Organization Recreation Advisory Council (RAC) 93, 96 (NTO) 105–106, 340, 341, 378, 409 Recreation Opportunity Spectrum National Tourist Ofﬁce (NTO) 335–345, (ROS) 126, 130, 349 409, 411, 412 Resource based recreation and National Trails System Act (NTSA) 93, 95 tourism 265, 266–267, 271–272, Native American 63, 67, 71, 145, 187, 268, 273–274 306 impact studies in 269–270 North American Industry Classiﬁcation social-impact assessment of 267–268 System (NAICS) 227, 236 Resources Planning Act (RPA) 75, 76, 77, 81, 97, 133, 134, 222 Organization for Economic Cooperation Rock climbing 84 and Development (OECD) 229, 242, Running and jogging 134 290, 302, 303, 306 Rural tourism development 299–308 Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission (ORRRC) 76, 77, 86, Sailing 135, 136, 137, 138 89, 92–93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98–99, see also Boating 100, 122, 123, 124, 127, 128, 129, Scenic Byway programme 79–80, 99, 305 133–134 Scenic byways 266 Self-organizing Map (SOM) 253–254 Park and Recreation Department Sightseeing 128, 135, 136, 142, 143 (PARD) 394, 396, 397, 398, excursions-and-sightseeing type 249, 399–400, 401, 413 250, 251, 252, 253 458 Index

Skiing (snow) 38, 91, 128, 135, 136, 138, US Army Corps of Engineers 78, 85, 138, 222, 248, 290, 404 139, 238 alpine or downhill 84, 134, 135, 137, US Department of Agriculture Forest 222, 249, 404 Service 10, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 83, cross-country 81, 82, 134, 136, 137, 85, 92, 94, 97, 98, 116, 123, 130, 222, 249, 385 133, 138, 139, 199, 202, 205, 222, Small-to-medium-sized enterprises 238, 243, 262, 270, 304, 350 (SME) 287, 291, 292, 293, 295, 297 US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) 10, Smaller and medium-sized tourism 77, 78, 98, 138, 139, 146–147, 148, enterprises (SMTE) 57, 58, 59, 60, 262 287, 291, 292, 293 User fees 9–10, 129, 366, 369, 409 Snowboarding 135, 249, 404 see also Fees Snowmobiling 81, 112, 136, 137, 207 Social accounting matrices (SAM) 239, 242 Social carrying capacity see Carrying Visitor Experience and Resource Protection capacity (VERP) 116, 125, 260, 405 Special events 43, 175, 178 Visitor Impact Management (VIM) 116, see also Festivals 125 Sustainable tourism 282, 373–382, 409, 413 policy 307–308 Walking 35, 133, 134, 135–136, 143, 249, Swimming 133, 134, 135, 142, 290, 404 259, 306 in natural waters 135, 136–137 equipment 302 outdoors in pools 136, 137 tours 188 Watchable Wildlife programme 78–80 Wild and Scenic Rivers Act 95 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) 78, 138 Wilderness Act 94, 95, 96, 210 Tennis 138 Wildlife observation 84, 385 Tennis courts 81 see also Birdwatching Theory of Ethnicity 128 Willingness to pay (WTP) 219, 220, 221 Theory of Induced Innovation 3, 4 World Health Organization (WHO) 165 Theory of Marginality 128 World Trade Organization 289, 382 Tour operators 325–334, 405, 412 World Tourism Organization (WTO) 10, Tourism Economic Impact Model 231, 232 43, 50, 53, 107, 187, 225, 229, 242, Tourism Satellite Account (TSA) 12, 226, 291, 301, 325 228, 229–234, 236, 242, 243, 413 Tourist types, typologies 245–255 Travel Economic Impact Model Youth at risk 393, 409 (TEIM) 236 see also At-risk youth